WELDING METALLURGY

AND
WELDABILITY OF METALS

EFREN B. IBAÑEZ
BECHTEL CONSTRUCTION
SENIOR WELDING ENGINEER
• IT IS ESTIMATED THAT THERE ARE MORE THAN
40,000 METALLIC ALLOYS CURRENTLY
IN USE.

• THIS LARGE NUMBER OF METALLIC ALLOYS

OFTEN MAKE IT DIFFICULT:

- TO IDENTIFY THE PARTICULAR TYPE ON HAND,

AND,

- TO IDENTIFY THE WELDING TASKS THAT ARE

“FIT FOR PURPOSE” IN ALL KINDS OF SERVICE.
CRITERIA IN INITIAL SCREENING OF METALLIC
ALLOYS AND THEIR WELDABILITY:

• PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS:

- WHAT IS IT?
- WHAT DOES IT DO?
- HOW DOES IT DO IT?

• WELDABILITY REQUIREMENTS

• RELIABILITY REQUIREMENTS

• RESISTANCE TO SERVICE CONDITIONS

 GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF METALLIC
ALLOYS:

• FERROUS – IRON-BASED

• NON-FERROUS – NON-IRON-BASED
 FERROUS METALLIC ALLOYS:

• STEELS – ACCOUNT FOR OVER 60%

OF THE METALLIC ALLOYS USED
IN THE INDUSTRY

• CAST IRONS
 NON-FERROUS METALLIC ALLOYS FOR
MAJOR INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS:

• NICKEL ALLOYS

• TITANIUM ALLOYS

• COPPER ALLOYS

• ALUMINUM ALLOYS
3 BASIC TYPES OF PLAIN CARBON STEELS:

• LOW-CARBON STEELS ( MILD STEELS ) –

< 0.2% C

• MEDIUM-CARBON STEELS –
~ 0.5% C

• HIGH-CARBON STEELS –
~ 0.8% C
 PREPARING A
METALLOGRAPHIC SPECIMEN
FOR MICROSTRUCTURE ANALYSIS

• CUT A SECTION OF THE METALLIC ALLOYS FOR

MICROSTRUCTURE ANALYSIS.

• GRIND THE SPECIMEN IN SUCCESSIVELY FINER

SILICON CARBIDE ABRASIVE GRITS OF 120 / 320 /
600 / 1200.

• POLISH THE FINELY GROUND SPECIMEN ON

NAPPED POLISHING CLOTHS IN, FIRST,
COLLOIDAL CHROMIUM OXIDE SUSPENSION,
THEN, IN COLLOIDAL ALUMINUM OXIDE
SUSPENSION.

• DIP THE BUFFED SPECIMEN IN A 3% NITRIC

ACID SOLUTION.

• THE SPECIMEN IS NOW READY TO BE VIEWED

UNDER A METALLOGRAPHIC MICROSCOPE.
 THE ETCHED SPECIMEN CAN NOW BE VIEWED
UNDER AN OPTICAL METALLOGRAPHIC MICROSCOPE
CAPABLE OF UP TO 1000X MAGNIFICATION.
 A MORE SOPHISTICATED
SCANNING ELECTRON METALLOGRAPHIC MICROSCOPE
CAPABLE OF UP TO 10,000X MAGNIFICATION.
A TYPICAL MICROSTRUCTURE OF A LOW-PLAIN-CARBON
STEEL SHOWING GRANULAR FERRITES ( α ).
BECAUSE OF THE VERY LOW CARBON CONTENT, ALL THE
CARBON IS DISSOLVED AND FINELY DISPERSED IN THE
IRON MATRIX.
THE GRANULAR FERRITES STRUCTURES ARE
VERY SOFT, LOW-STRENGTH AND DUCTILE.
THE GRANULAR FERRITES IN A LOW-PLAIN-CARBON
STEEL DO NOT TRANSFORM TO A DIFFERENT STRUCTURE
EVEN AFTER CYCLIC HEATING AND COOLING -
TRANSLATING TO VERY GOOD WELDABILITY OF THE LOW-
PLAIN-CARBON STEEL STRUCTURE
 IMPACT STRESSES

TENSILE /
COMPRESSIVE
STRESSES

IMPACT STRESSES

THE GRANULAR FERRITES, WHEN SUBJECTED

TO IMPACT STRESSES, JUST FLATTEN,
AND WHEN SUBJECTED TO TENSILE AND
COMPRESSIVE STRESSES, JUST ELONGATE.
THE FERRITE GRAINS ACT AS SLIP PLANES, GIVING THE
MICROSTRUCTURE A CERTAIN AMOUNT OF DUCTILITY.
ANY EXCESS CARBON IN A MEDIUM-PLAIN-CARBON STEEL,
WHICH CAN NOT BE DISSOLVED IN THE IRON MATRIX,
COMBINES WITH IRON TO FORM HARD AND BRITTLE IRON
CARBIDES ( CEMENTITES ) WHICH APPEAR AS PEARLITES.
THE MICROSTRUCTURE CONTAINS FREE GRANULAR
FERRITES AND LAMELLAR PEARLITES.
PEARLITES CONTAIN PARALLEL LAYERS OF FERRITE
GRAINS AND CEMENTITE. THE PARALLEL LAYERS ACT AS
SLIP PLANES, GIVING THESE METALLIC ALLOYS A CERTAIN
AMOUNT OF DUCTILITY.
ON THE OTHER HAND, THESE METALLIC ALLOYS START
BECOMING HARD AND BRITTLE BECAUSE CARBIDES
BEGIN TO FORM.
 THE PLAIN-HIGH-CARBON STEEL CONSISTS OF
FULLY PEARLITE MICROSTRUCTURES.
THE MICROSTRUCTURE IS CALLED “PEARLITE”
BECAUSE IT LOOKS LIKE “MOTHER OF PEARLS”
AS SEEN UNDER THE MICROSCOPE.
PEARLITES ARE LAMELLAR OR LAYERED ALTERNATE
PLATELETS STRUCTURES OF FERRITE ( WHITE STREAKS )
AND CEMENTITE ( DARK STREAKS )
THE PLATELETS STRUCTURES ACT AS SLIP PLANES,
INDUCING A CERTAIN AMOUNT OF DUCTILITY. THE
PRESENCE OF CARBIDES, OF AROUND 35% IN THE OVER-
ALL STRUCTURE, PROMOTES HARDENABILITY, STRENGTH
AND RIGIDITY.
 IN ORDER TO FULLY APPRECIATE THE EFFECTS OF
WELDING HEAT TO PLAIN CARBON STEELS,
WE WILL ATTEMPT TO EXPLAIN THE BASICS OF
HEAT TREATMENT.
HEAT TREATMENT IS THE CONTROLLED HEATING AND
COOLING OF METALS TO ALTER THEIR PROPERTIES –
SUCH AS HARDNESS AND STRENGTH – WITHOUT
CHANGING THE PRODUCT SHAPE.
WHEN A HIGH-PLAIN-CARBON STEEL IS HEATED TO
AROUND 1,000°C, ALL THE STRUCTURES – FERRITES,
CEMENTITES, PEARLITES –
TRANSFORM TO THE AUSTENITE PHASE ( γ ).
IT IS IN THE DIFFERENT COOLING RATES, FROM THE
AUSTENITE PHASE, THAT THE HIGH-PLAIN-CARBON STEEL
WILL TRANSFORM BACK TO DIFFERENT STRUCTURES TO
ROOM TEMPERATURE, AND ALTER ITS PROPERTIES.
THE DIFFERENT COOLING RATES ARE AS FOLLOWS:
FULL ANNEALING ( FURNACE-COOLING ) – SOFTENING
VERY SLOW-COOLING RATES, ALLOWING ALL THE
CARBON TO GET DISSOLVED AND FINELY DIFFUSED IN
THE IRON MATRIX. A FULLY FERRITIC MICROSTRUCTURE
IS FORMED, WHICH IS VERY SOFT, LOW-STRENGTH AND
DUCTILE.
NORMALIZING ( AIR-COOLING ) – TOUGHENING
QUICKER COOLING RATES THAN ANNEALING, FREE
FERRITES AND PEARLITES ARE FORMED. START OF
HARDENING OF THE MICROSTRUCTURE DUE TO
FORMATION OF CARBIDES, BUT SOME DUCTILITY IS
RETAINED DUE TO THE FREE FERRITES AND THE
PLATELET STRUCTURES OF PEARLITE.
OIL QUENCHING ( RAPID-COOLING ) – HARDENING
MICROSTRUCTURE BECOMES VERY HARD AND BRITTLE
THROUGH THE FORMATION OF MARTENSITES.
WATER QUENCIHING ( DRASTIC RAPID COOLING ) –
HARDENING
COARSE, JAGGED, ROUGH AND DISORIENTED
MARTENSITES ARE FORMED, WHICH ARE EXTREMELY
HARDER AND MORE BRITTLE, COMPARED TO
MARTENSITES FORMED BY OIL QUENCHING.
 MARTENSITES ARE FORMED BY RAPID COOLING,
WHICH TRAPS THE CARBON ATOMS THAT DO NOT
HAVE TIME TO DIFFUSE OUT OF THE IRON MATRIX,
AND CHEMICALLY COMBINE WITH THE IRON
TO FORM IRON CARBIDES. A TYPICAL
MICROSTRUCTURE OF MARTENSITES HAS
ACICULAR, SHARP, NEEDLE-LIKE APPEARANCE.
MARTENSITES ARE VERY HARD AND BRITTLE
AND ARE USUALLY NOT WELDABLE.
 UNTEMPERED MARTENSITES, WHILE VERY HARD
AND STRONG, ARE TOO BRITTLE TO BE USEFUL
FOR MOST INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS.
AFTER WATER OR OIL QUENCING, THE STEELS
ARE TEMPERED, TO AROUND150°C ~ 550°C, TO IMPART
TOUGNESS.
AT THESE TEMPERATURES, THERE IS NO CHANGE
IN THE MICROSTRUCTURES OF THE STEELS. WHAT
HAPPENS IS THAT THE MARTENSITES ARE REFINED AND
RE-ORIENTED.
AFTER WELDING, THE TERMS USED FOR
THIS HEAT TREATMENT PROCESS ARE
STRESS-RELIEVING, OR PWHT.
IN WELDING, THE EFFECT OF HEAT TREATMENT
IS SOMETIMES INADVERTENTLY DONE.
THE WELDING HEAT INPUT MAY RAISE THE
TEMPERATURE OF THE PLAIN CARBON STEELS
IN EXCESS OF 800°C.
THE HIGHER THE CARBON CONTENT,
AND, THE FASTER THE COOLING RATE,
RESULT IN THE FORMATION OF
MORE CARBIDES. THIS WILL MAKE
THE PLAIN CARBON STEELS
MORE SUSCEPTIBLE TO CRACKING
DURING WELDING.
IN WELDING, NECESSARY PRECAUTIONS
SHOULD ALREADY BE TAKEN TO AVOID THESE
FORMATION OF CARBIDES IN MEDIUM-
AND HIGH-PLAIN-CARBON STEELS .
FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF WELDING, CARBIDES IN PLAIN-
CARBON-STEELS ARE HARMFUL, BECAUSE OF THEIR
CRACKING TENDENCIES.
HOWEVER, THERE ARE ATTRIBUTES OF THESE CARBIDES
WHICH ARE VERY BENEFICIAL TO MANY INDUSTRIAL
APPLICATIONS.
LONG-SPAN BEAMS, SUPPORTING HEAVY LOADS ALONG
THEIR AXIS, MUST HAVE RIGIDITY, OTHERWISE THE
BEAMS WILL SAG.
CARBIDES IN PLAIN-CARBON STEELS GIVE
RIGIDITY TO THE BEAMS.
MANY INDUSTRIAL PARTS ARE MANUFACTURED
FROM HEAT-TREATED, HIGH-HARDNESS STEELS
FOR METAL-TO-METAL WEAR RESISTANCE.
 REALIZING THE STRONG INFLUENCE OF CARBON
ON THE HARDNESS AND STRENGTH OF
PLAIN-CARBON STEELS, AND THE CONSEQUENT
BENEFICIAL EFFECTS, THE TENDENCY IS TO ADD
MORE CARBON TO THE PLAIN-CARBON STEELS.
HOWEVER, THERE IS A MAXIMUM LIMIT
ON THE SOLUBILITY OF CARBON IN STEELS,
BEYOND WHICH ANOTHER DIFFERENT
MICROSTRUCTURES WILL BE FORMED –
WHICH ARE CAST IRONS,
TO INDUCE THE SAME EFFECT AS CARBON,
ALLOYING ELEMENTS ARE ADDED INSTEAD, WITH EACH
HAVING THEIR INDIVIDUAL CARBON EQUIVALENT.
THESE ALLOYED CARBON STEELS – LOW-ALLOYED
OR HIGH-ALLOYED OR TOOL STEELS –
VARY IN TERMS OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS,
STRENGTH AND DURABILITY.
THE CARBON EQUIVALENT SCALES THE CONCENTRATION
OF EACH ALLOYING ELEMENT BY ITS ABILITY TO
PROMOTE CARBIDE FORMATION.

C.E. = %C + %Mn + %Ni + %Cr + %Cu + %Mo

6 15 5 13 4
THE ALLOYING ELEMENTS INTERACT WITH
CARBON TO PRODUCE DESIRED COMBINATIONS
OF HARDENABILITY, STRENGTH AND TOUGHNESS
CARBON – STRONG CARBIDE FORMERS.
CHROMIUM – NEXT TO CARBON AS STRONG CARBIDE
FORMERS.
MANGANESE / NICKEL / MOLYBDENUM / VANADIUM –
MILD CARBIDE FORMERS; IMPROVES TOUGHNESS AND
STRENGTH.
STAINLESS STEELS – THE BASE METAL COMPOSITIONS
ARE TYPICALLY THAT OF CARBON STEELS, WITH THE
ADDITION OF AT LEAST 11% CHROMIUM. THIS IS THE
MINIMUM AMOUNT OF CHROMIUM NECESSARY TO
FORM A STABLE, PASSIVE CHROMIUM OXIDE FILM. IT
IS THIS FILM THAT IS THE BASIS FOR THE CORROSION
RESISTANCE OF ALL STAINLESS STEELS, THAT GIVES
STAINLESS STEELS THAT UNIQUE STAINLESS STEEL
LUSTER.
THE BASIC CLASSIFICATIONS OF STAINLESS STEELS ARE:
AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS ( 300 SERIES ) – WITH A
MINIMUM OF 11% CHROMIUM AND 8% NICKEL, THE HIGH
CHROMIUM AND NICKEL FREEZE THE AUSTENITE PHASE
DOWN TO ROOM TEMPERATURE. THE NICKEL FURTHER
ACTS AS AUSTENITE STABILIZER DURING THERMAL
CYCLIC CONDITIONS.
THERMAL CYCLE CAUSED BY WELDING HAVE LITTLE
INFLUENCE ON MECHANICAL PROPERTIES. THE
ADJACENT BASE MATERIAL TEMPERATURE, THOUGH,
HAS TO BE CONTROLLED DOWN TO A MAXIMUNM OF
250°C TO PREVENT CARBIDE PRECIPITATION ALONG
THE GRAIN BOUNDARIES.
PRE-HEAT AND PWHT ARE SELDOM REQUIRED.
AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS ARE TOUGH AND NON-
MAGNETIC.
THE TWO TYPES OF AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS
MOST COMMONLY USED ARE:
304 – FOR GENERAL CORROSION RESISTANCE.
316 – WITH THE ADDITION OF A MINIMUM OF 2.5%
MOLYBDENUM; FOR SEVERE CORROSION RESISTANCE.
 A TYPICAL MICROSTRUCTURE OF AN AUSTENITIC
STAINLESS STEEL APPEARING AS AUSTENITE GRAINS, (
γ ) WHICH ARE SOFT, HIGHLY-DUCTILE, TOUGH
AND NON-MAGNETIC.
THREE KINDS OF CRYSTAL STRUCTURE IN STEELS –
GRANULAR FERRITES ARE BODY-CENTERED CUBIC.
GRANULAR AUSTENITES ARE FACE-CENTERED CUBIC,
BEING MORE “COMPACT”, ARE TOUGHER.
CEMENTITES AND MARTENSITES ARE HEXAGONAL
CLOSE-PACKED, THOUGH MORE COMPACT, ARE LESS
STABLE.
DURING WELDING AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS, WHEN
THE TEMPERATURE REACHES 500°C ON THE BASE
METAL, CHROMIUM CARBIDES PRECIPITATE
PREFERENTIALLY ALONG THE GRAIN BOUNDARIES
OF THE AUSTENITE MICROCTRUCTURES, ALSO CALLED
“SENSITIZATION”. THIS DETERIORATION MAKES THE
AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS MORE SUSCEPTIBLE TO
CORROSION ATTACKS, AND IS THE MOST COMMON
REASON IN WELD FAILURES OF AUSTENITIC STAINLESS
STEELS
 THE HEAT-TINT VISUAL APPEARANCE OF THE
WELD AREA IS DUE TO CARBIDES PRECIPITATION,
OR SENSITIZATION.
THE 400 SERIES STAINLESS STEELS – THESE ARE THE
STRAIGHT-CHROMIUM, WITHOUT THE ADDITION OF A
MINIMUM OF 8% NICKEL.
THE TWO TYPES OF 400-SERIES STAINLESS STEELS
ARE:
FERRITIC GRADES STAINLESS STEELS – THESE
STAINLESS STEELS ARE FERRITIC AT ALL TEMPERATURES,
WITH THE ADDITION TO BASIC 400-SERIES STAINLESS
STEELS OF FERRITE STABILIZERS – HIGHER CHROMIUM,
SILICON, MOLYBDENUM, COBALT, TITANIUM.
FERRITIC STAINLESS STEELS ARE SOFT, DUCTILE AND
HIGHLY MAGNETIC.
A TYPICAL APPLICATION FOR FERRITIC STAINLESS
STEELS ARE IN MAGNETIC TRAPS IN PIPELINES, WHICH
FACILITATE TRAMP METAL SEPARATION FROM CORROSIVE
FLUIDS.
MAGNETIC TRAPS MADE FROM WIRE MESH
OF FERRITIC STAINLESS STEELS FACILTATE
TRAMP METAL SEPARATION FROM
CORROSIVE LIQUIDS.
MARTENSITIC GRADES STAINLESS STEELS – THESE ARE
ESSENTIALLY 400-SERIES STAINLESS STEEL ALLOYS OF
A HIGHER CHROMIUM AND CARBON CONTENTS THAT
POSSESS A FULLY MARTENSITIC MICROSTRUCTURE IN
THE HARDENED CONDITION.
THE MARTENSITIC GRADES STAINLESS STEELS ARE
HIGHLY MAGNETIC AND ARE HARDENABLE BY HEAT
TREATMENTS.
A TYPICAL APPLICATION OF MARTENSITIC GRADES
STAINLESS STEELS ARE INDUSTRIAL KNIFE BLADES. THE
MARTENSITE MICROSTRUCTURES AND EXCESS
CARBIDES MAINTAIN CUTTING EDGES AND CORROSION
RESISTANCE.
KNIFE BLADES USED IN THE FOOD INDUSTRY
ARE SOME OF THE TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
FOR MARTENSITIC GRADE STAINLESS STEELS
REQUIRING HARDNESS ON CUTTING EDGES
BE MAINTAINED AND SUPERIOR
CORROSION RESISTANCE IN SERVICE.
DUPLEX GRADES STAINLESS STEELS – THEY GET
THEIR NAME BECAUSE THEY CONTAIN BOTH FERRITIC
AND AUSTENITIC MICROSTRUCTURE IN EQUAL AMOUNT.
IN FULLY AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS REQUIRING
EXTENSIVE AND HEAVY WELDING, PRECIPITATED
CARBIDES FORM ALONG THE GRAIN BOUNDARIES OF THE
AUSTENITE MICROSTRUCTURES, THESE PRECIPITATED
CARBIDES ARE VERY PRONE TO CORROSIVE ATTACK,
WHICH MAY RENDER THE PART IMPRACTICAL, SPECIALLY
IN APPLICATIONS REQUIRING RESISTANCE TO VERY
AGGRESSIVE MEDIA.
DUPLEX GRADES STAINLESS STEELS WERE FORMULATED
FOR FABRICATIONS OF STAINLESS STEELS REQUIRING
EXTENSIVE AND HEAVY WELDING WORK. THE FERRITIC
STRUCTURES IN THE MATRIX REDUCE CARBIDES
PRECIPITATION.
TYPICAL USES OF DUPLEX GRADES STAINLESS STEELS
ARE FOR HEAT EXCHANGERS, CHEMICAL TANKS,
REFINERIES, PRESURE VESSELS AND OFFSHORE
APPLICATIONS.
 TYPICAL MICROSTRUCTURES OF DUPLEX GRADES
STAINLESS STEELS, WHICH ARE A MIX OF 50 / 50
FERRITES AND AUSTENITES MICROSTRUCTURES.
THE DARK AREAS ARE FERRITE MICROSTRUCTURES
AND THE WHITE AREAS ARE AUSTENITES
MICROSTRUCTURES.
FABRICATION OF A FRACTIONATION TOWER OF DUPLEX
GRADES STAINLESS STEELS. EVEN IN VERY EXTENSIVE
AND HEAVY WELDING, THE PART IS NOT PRONE TO
CARBIDES PRECIPITATION BECAUSE OF THE PRESENCE
OF THE FERRITIC MICROSTRUCTURES IN THE MATRIX.
BECAUSE OF THE HEAT INPUT DURING WELDING OF
DUPLEX GRADES STAINLESS STEELS, THE
BALANCE OF THE FERRITES AND AUSTENITES
MICROSTRUCTURES MAY BE ALTERED.
IF THE FERRITES ARE TOO LOW BECAUSE OF
TRANSFORMATION, CARBIDES PRECIPITATION
MAY TAKE PLACE.
ALTERNATIVELY, IF THE FERRITES BECOME HIGH,
THE STAINLESS STEELS ARE PRONE TO CORROSION
BECAUSE OF THE DEPLETION OF THE AUSTENITIC
MICROSTRUCTURES.
THE FERRITE DETECTOR IS USED TO DETERMINE
THE FERRITE NUMBER ( FN ) OF DUPLEX GRADES
STAINLESS STEELS. THE VOLUME PERCENTAGE
OF FERRITES CAN BE ESTIMATED AS ABOUT 70%
OF THE FN.
 THE FERRITE DETECTOR IS A NON-DESTRUCTIVE
INSPECTION INSTRUMENT BASED ON THE MUTUAL
ATTRACTION OF A PERMANENT BAR MAGNET TO A KNOWN
STANDARD AND AN UNKNOWN MATERIAL.
IRON-IRON CARBIDE
PHASE DIAGRAM
THE IRON-IRON CARBIDE PHASE DIAGRAM IS
ESSENTIALLY A MAP OF THE PHASES THAT EXIST
IN IRON AT VARIOUS CARBON CONTENTS AND
TEMPERATURES UNDER EQUILIBRIUM CONDITIONS.
AUSTENITIC MANGANESE STEELS – THESE TYPICALLY
CONTAIN 1.2% C AND A MINIMUM OF 12% MANGANESE.
A UNIQUE COMBINATION OF PROPERTIES IS ACHIEVED
IN THAT IT IMPARTS HIGH TOUGHNESS AND DUCTILITY
WITH HIGH WORK-HARDENING CAPACITY AND, GOOD
RESISTANCE TO WEAR.
TOOL STEELS MAY HAVE HIGH-WEAR AND ABRASION
RESISTANCE, BUT IN SOME INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS,
MAY NOT BE ABLE TO WITHSTAND THE HIGH-IMPACT
LOADS BECAUSE OF THEIR CRACKING TENDENCIES.
AUSTENITIC MANGANESE STEELS ARE PRIMARILY USED
IN EARTHMOVING, MINING, CEMENT PLANTS, QUARRYING,
OIL WEL DRILLING, RAILROADING, DREDGING.
IN THE AS-CAST CONDITION, AUSTENITIC MANGANESE
STEELS ARE RELATIVELY SOFT. THEY CAN BE MACHINED
TO SHAPES IN THIS CONDITION. ONCE THESE ARE USED
AND SUBJECTED TO CONSTANT IMPACT LOADS, THEY
WORK-HARDENED ( OR, COLD-HARDENED ), ACHIEVING
HIGH-HARDNESS TOGETHER WITH THEIR HIGH-IMPACT
PROPERTIES.
 THE RAIL WHEELS AND THE RAIL TRACKS
ARE MANUFACTURED FROM AUSTENITIC
MANGANESE STEELS, REQUIRING METAL-TO-METAL WEAR
RESISTANCE AND HIGH-IMPACT LOADS..
 AUSTENITIC MANGANESE STEELS ARE USED
EXTENSIVELY IN EARTH-MOVING EQUIPMENT – FOR
BUCKETS, SHOVELS, TEETH, WHERE
VERY SEVERE WEAR AND IMPACT LOADS
ARE ENCOUNTERED.
 IN ROCK-CRUSHING MACHINERIES FOR MINING AND
CEMENT PLANTS, AUSTENITIC MANGANESE STEELS ARE
EXTENSIVELY USED FOR HANDLING AND PROCESSING
EARTHEN MATERIALS SUCH AS CRUSHERS, GRINDING
MILLS. MANGANESE STEELS PROVIDE TOUGH, RUGGED,
HIGH-WEAR RESISTANCE AND HARSH IMPACT
PROPERTIES FOR THE RUGGED APPLICATIONS.
THERMIT RAILROAD WELDING – THIS IS A PROCESS OF
IGNITING A FORMULATED PYROTECHNIC POWDER MIX OF
EXOTHERMIC, HIGH-ENERGY ALUMINO-THERMIC METAL
ALLOYS, PRODUCING A SUPER-HEATED LIQUID METAL
THAT IS POURED BETWEEN THE RAILTRACKS END-JOINTS,
TO FORM A WELDED JOINT.
THE CHEMICAL REACTION IS AS FOLLOWS:
8Al + 3Fe3O4 + FeMn ( Mn Alloys ) + Mg ( IGNITER )
= 9Fe + 4Al2O3 + HEAT
TYPICALLY THE ENDS OF THE RAILS ARE CLEANED,
ALIGNED FLAT, AND SPACED APART, AROUND 2 INCHES. A
GRAPHITE MOLD IS CLAMPED AROUND THE RAIL ENDS.
THE RAILS ENDS ARE PREHEATED TO AROUND 500°C.
THE POWDER MIX IS IGNITED IN THE REFRACTORY
CRUCIBLE AND ALLOWED TO REACT TO COMPLETION.
THE REACTION CRUCIBLE IS THEN TAPPED AT THE
BOTTOM ( LEAVING THE ALUMINUM OXIDE IN THE
CRUCIBLE ), THE MOLTEN STEEL FLOWS INTO THE MOLD,
FUSING WITH THE RAIL ENDS, AND FORMING THE WELD.
AFTER COOLING, THE MOLD IS REMOVED AND THE WELD
IS CLEANED AND GRINDED TO PRODUCE A SMOOTH
JOINT.
THERMIT RAIL WELDING CRUCIBLE AND MOLD.
A GRAPHITE MOLD IS CLAMPED AROUND THE RAIL ENDS.
THE RAILS ENDS ARE PREHEATED TO AROUND 500°C.
 THE POWDER MIX IS IGNITED IN THE REFRACTORY
CRUCIBLE AND ALLOWED TO REACT TO COMPLETION. THE
REACTION CRUCIBLE IS THEN TAPPED AT THE BOTTOM (
LEAVING THE ALUMINUM OXIDE IN THE CRUCIBLE ), THE
MOLTEN STEEL FLOWS INTO THE MOLD, FUSING WITH THE
RAIL ENDS, AND FORMING THE WELD.
 IN WELDING MANGANESE STEELS, THE BASE METAL
SHOULD NOT REACH MORE THAN 250°C. TO DO THIS,
SKIP / INTERMITTENT WELDING IS DONE. THE WELD
AREA ITSELF IS SHOWERED WITH WATER AFTER PAUSING
EVERY AFTER LAYER.
 IN HARDFACING STEELS, BUFFER LAYERS
SHOULD NOT BE MORE THAN 45RC. THE 45RC
HARDFACING ELECTRODES CAN BE WELDED
MULTI-PASS. THE 60RC HARDFACING ELECTRODES
CAN BE WELDED ONLY AT SINGLE-PASS LAYER.
WELDING THE 60RC HARDFACING ELECTRODE MULTI-
PASS WILL CAUSE CRACKING AND / OR SPALLING OF THE
WELDS.
IN HARDFACING STEEL PARTS SUBJECTED TO METAL-TO-
METAL CONTACT WEAR, ONE PART
SHOULD HAVE A 10RC LOWER HARDNESS THAN
THE OTHER PART.
IN THE TRANSITION FROM STEELS TO CAST IRONS,
AT AROUND 2% CARBON, WHITE CAST IRONS
ARE FORMED, IN WHICH THE CARBON IS PRESENT
FULLY AS CARBIDES, OR CEMENTITES.
THE WHITE CAST IRONS MICROSTRUCTURES
ARE VERY HARD, SUITABLE FOR APPLICATIONS
REQUIRING METAL-TO-METAL CONTACT
HIGH-WEAR, RESISTANCE. THEY CAN ONLY
BE CASTED, THEY CAN NOT BE MACHINED,
WROUGHT ( FORGED, ROLLED, EXTRUDED ),
HEAT-TREATED NOR SUBJECTED TO IMPACT.
THEY ARE USED IN SERVICE FROM THEIR
AS-CAST CONDITION AS THEY CAN NOT BE
SUBJECTED TO ANY FURTHER PROCESSING
WHITE CAST IRONS ARE NAMED AFTER
THEIR WHITE FRACTURED SURFACE DUE
TO THE CARBIDES.
WHITE CAST IRONS MICROSTRUCTURES SHOWING
NEARLY COMPLETE CARBON SOLUTION IN A MATRIX
OF MASSIVE, ACICULAR, NEEDLE-LIKE CEMENTITES,
WHICH ARE VERY HARD AND BRITTLE..
A TYPICAL EXAMPLE OF THE INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION
OF WHITE CAST IRON IS IN THE MIXER BLADES
OF SAND MULLERS.
GRAY CAST IRONS – AT 3.0-4.0% CARBON CONTENTS, THE
CARBON REACHES A SUPERSATURATED CONDITION
WHERE THE EXCESS CARBON CAN NO LONGER DIFFUSE
INTO THE IRON MATRIX, NOR COMBINE WITH THE IRON.
THE SUPERSATURATED EXCESS CARBON WILL JUST
FLOAT AS FREE CARBON, IN THE FORM OF GRAPHITE
FLAKES IN A MATRIX OF FERRITES AND PEARLITES.
THE GRAPHITE FLAKES ACT AS STRESS RAISERS
WHICH MAY INITIATE FRACTURE WHEN THE
GRAY CAST IRONS ARE SUBJECTED TO MODERATE
IMPACT. WHEN SLIGHTLY HEATED, DURING
EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION, THE
GRAPHITE FLAKES ACT AS CRACK-PROPAGATORS.
WITHOUT THE GRAPHITE FLAKES, THE MATRIX IS
JUST LIKE PLAIN-CARBON STEELS, WHICH CAN HAVE
A TENSILE STRENGTH OF UP TO 70,000 PSI. THE
GRAPHITE FLAKES IN GRAY CAST IRONS FORM VOIDS AND
ARE POROUS, REDUCING THE STRENGTH
DOWN TO AROUND 25,000 PSI.
 MOST COMMERCIAL GRADES OF GRAY CAST IRONS
CONTAIN 3.0-4.0% CARBON. THE SUPERSATURATED
CARBON WHICH CAN NOT DIFFUSE NOR REACT WITH
THE IRON ANYMORE, APPEARS AS “FREE” GRAPHITES
IN A TYPICALLY STEEL MATRIX OF FERRITES AND
PEARLITES.
 IN MANY ENGINEERING MATERIALS, WITH
INTRICATE DESIGNS OF COMPLICATED SHAPES AND
SIZES OF THICK AND THIN SECTIONS, WHERE THE
TENSILE STRENGTH OF 25,000 PSI IS SUFFICIENT
ENOUGH FOR THE APPLICATION,
GRAY CAST IRONS ARE HIGHLY BENEFICIAL.
THE MICROSTRUCTURE OF GRAY CAST IRONS
ALLOW MASSIVE CASTINGS TO BE FORMED, FOR
EXAMPLE A 10-TON OPEN GEAR.
THE GRAPHITE FLAKES ACTS AS “CHIP BREAKERS”,
MAKING THE GRAY CAST IRONS HIGHLY MACHINABLE.
THEY TEND TO “DAMPEN” MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS,
HELPING THE MACHINERIES RUN SMOOTHLY.
GRAY CAST IRONS ALSO HAVE
GOOD CORROSION RESISTANCE.
TYPICAL EXAMPLES OF PARTS MANUFACTURED
FROM CAST IRONS ARE CYLINDER BLOCKS, HEADS
AND GEARBOXES.
GRAY CAST IRONS ARE NAMED AFTER THEIR GRAY
FRACTURED SURFACE DUE TO THE GRAPHITE FLAKES.
A SPIRAL MOLD TESTS THE MEASURE OF FLUIDITY OF A
MELT. THE HIGH CARBON CONTENT OF GRAY CAST IRON
MAKES THE MELT HIGHLY FLUID TO FORM INTRICATE
THICK AND THIN SECTIONS.
PLAIN-CARBON STEELS EASILY SOLIDIFY IN THE
SPIRAL PASSAGE. HENCE, CAST STEELS ARE LIMITED
TO MASSIVE, SIMPLE, UNCORED DESIGNS.
THE CYLINDER BLOCKS, HEADS, ETC., OF GENERATOR
SETS ARE MADE OF GRAY CAST IRONS
TURBINE HOUSINGS ARE MADE OF GRAY CAST IRONS.
 THE CYLINDER BLOCKS, HEADS,
TRANSMISSION HOUSINGS, GEARBOX CASES,
EXHAUST MANIFOLDS, ETC., OF MOTOR ENGINES
ARE MADE OF GRAY CAST IRONS.
IN WELDING GRAY CAST IRONS, THERE IS A TEARING
EFFECT ON THE BASE METAL AS IT EXPANDS AND
CONTRACTS, SINCE THE STRENGTH OF THE BASE
METAL IS LOWER THAN THE WELD METAL. THIS CAN
BE COUNTER-ACTED BY “PEENING” THE BASE METAL,
TO PUSH BACK THE TEARING FORCE.
 WHEN WELDING GRAY CAST IRONS, THE HEAT
GENERATES GASES FROM THE MOISTURE, OILS,
CHEMICALS ABSORBED BY THE GRAPHITE FLAKES.
THE GRAPHITE FLAKES THEMSELVES OXIDIZE TO
FORM GASES. THESE GASES RISE AND FLOAT AT THE
SURFACE, FORMING A GAS FILM WHICH CAN NOT BE
PENETRATED BY THE WELDING ARC.
THE SURFACE IS “SEARED” BY RUNNING AN
OXY-ACETYLENE FLAME AT THE SURFACE
AND BRUSHING THE CARBON SOOT FORMED
BY THE GAS FILM.
 IF THE GRAPHITE FLAKES IN GRAY CAST IRONS WERE
“ROUNDED” INSTEAD FLAKE-LIKE SHAPES, THEY ACT AS
“CRACK-STOPPERS” AND INCREASE THE STRENGTH
SIMILAR TO CARBON STEELS OF 70,000 PSI.
“ROUNDED” EXCESS CARBON IS PRODUCED EITHER
BY MALLEABILIZING HEAT TREATMENTS OR
INOCULATION OF THE WHITE CAST IRON MELT
WITH EITHER MAGNESIUM OR CESIUM,
 MALLEABLE CAST IRONS ARE MADE BY HIGH-
TEMPERATURE HEAT TREAMENTS OF WHITE
CAST IRON CASTINGS. AT THE MALLEABILZING
TEMPERATURE OF 950°C, THE CEMENTITES
DECOMPOSE AND THE CARBON LIBERATED
FORMS “ROUNDED” GRAPHITES.
 THE INOCULANTS MAGNESIUM OR CESIUM ARE HIGHLY
VOLATILE. THEY GO FROM SOLID TO GAS IN CONTACT
WITH THE MELT. THIS PHENOMENA “NODULARIZES” THE
EXCESS CARBON, FORMING NODULAR, OR SPHEROIDAL,
OR DUCTILE CAST IRONS.
 A TYPICAL MICROSTRUCTURE OF MALLEABLE
CAST IRONS – FORMED BY MALLEABILIZING HEAT
TREATMENTS OF WHITE CAST IRONS – OR
DUCTILE CAST IRONS ( ALSO CALLED NODULAR
OR SPHEROIDAL CAST IRONS ) – FORMED BY
INOCULATION OF GRAY CAT IRONS WITH
MAGNESIUM OR CESIUM. THE EXCESS CARBON
IS ROUNDED, INCREASUING THE STRENGTH UP
TO 70,000 PSI AND IMPROVING WELDABILITY OF
THE MICROSTRUCTURE.
PIPE FITTINGS ARE MADE OF MALLEABLE CAST IRONS.
CRANKSHAFTS ARE MADE OF DUCTILE CAST IRONS.
THERMAL SPRAY WELDING – IS WIDELY USED, WHERE
MELTED MATERIALS ARE SPRAYED ONTO THE SURFACE
OF PARTS, THE COATINGS PROVIDING WEAR, IMPACT,
TEMPERATURE OR CORROSION RESISTANCE.
THERMAL SPRAYING CAN PROVIDE
THIN ( AROUND I MM ) TO THICK EVEN COATINGS
( OF SEVERAL MM ), OVER LARGE AREAS AT HIGH
DEPOSITION RATES.
 REBUILDING THE WORN-OUT SURFACE OF A NOZZLE
SEGMENT COMBUSTOR COMPONENT IN A GAS TURBINE
USING THE HOT METAL SRAY FUSION PROCESS WITH
COBALT-BASED VACUUM-BRAZED METAL ALLOYS.
SPRAYING MAGNESIUM-ZIRCONATE THERMAL BARRIER
COATING ON THE INSIDE SURFACE OF A TRANSITION
PIECE COMBUSTOR COMPONENT IN A GAS TURBINE
USING THE POWDER FLAME SPRAY PROCESS.
 REBUILDING THE WORN-OUT SHAFTING OF THE
HELICAL PINION GEAR OF THE ROLLING MILLS
GEAR BOX USING THE COLD EXOTHERMIC METAL SPRAY
PROCESS WITH NICKEL-CHROMIUM NICKEL ALLOYS.
REBUILDING THE SHAFTING BUSHING SURFACE
OF THE SCREW CONVEYOR USING THE COLD
EXOTHERMIC METAL SPRAY PROCESS WITH
ALUMINUM-BRONZE METAL ALLOYS.
COATING A SINK ROLL USED IN A STEEL MILL PLANT WITH
ZIRCONIA OR TUNGSTEN CARBIDE POWDERS
ON A HIGH-VELOCITY-OXYGEN-FUEL SPRAY GUN.
 SPRAY COATING FOR EROSION AND CORROSION
PROTECTION OF BOILER TUBES IN POWER GENERATION
PLANTS.
HIGH-VELOCITY-AIR-FUEL SPRAY COATING PROCESS
ON A TURBINE BLADE.
 WE HAVE A HYPOTHETICAL SITUATION –
JOINING 2MM PLATES OF ALUMINUM ALLOYS
AND STAINLESS STEEL.
ARE THESE WELDABLE ?
YES – USING THE FRICTION STIR WELDING TECHNIQUE.
 WE HAVE A HYPOTHETICAL SITUATION –
CLAD-WELDING BOTH SURFACES OF TWO DIFFERENT
PLATES THICKNESSES OF ALUMINUM ALLOYS
AND STAINLESS STEEL.
ARE THESE WELDABLE ?
YES – USING THE EXPLOSION WELDING TECHNIQUE.
 EXPLOSION WELDING USES THE ENERGY
OF A CONTROLLED EXPLOSIVE DETONATION
TO CREATE A METALLURGICAL WELD
BETWEEN METALS.
EXPLOSION WELDING PROCESS IS USED FOR THE
METALLURGICAL JOINING OF DISSIMILAR METALS.
THIS PROCESS IS USED MOST COMMONLY TO CLAD
A THICKER PLATE ( “BACKER” ) WITH A THINNER
LAYER OF CORROSION RESISTANT MATERIAL
( “ALLOY CLADDER” – STAINLESS STEEL,
NICKEL ALLOY, TITANIUM OR ZIRCONIUM ).
 IN PREPARATION, THE “BACKER” AND THE
“ALLOY CLADDER” MATING SURFACES ARE GROUND.
 THE PREPARED “BACKER” AND THE “ALLOY CLADDER”
ARE THEN FIXTURED PARALLEL AT A PRECISE SPACING.
A MEASURED QUANTITY OF A SPECIFICALLY
FORMULATED EXPLOSIVE IS PLACED ON THE
CLADDING METAL SURFACE.
 THE EXPLOSIVE IS THEN DETONATED AND THE
DETONATION FRONT TRAVELS UNIFORMLY ACROSS
THE SURFACE FROM INITIATION. THE CLADDING METAL
BENEATH THE DETONATING EXPLOSIVE IS PROPELLED TO
COLLIDE WITH THE BASE METAL AT A SPECIFIC IMPACT
VELOCITY AND ANGLE. THE MATING SURFACES COLLIDE
UNDER PRESSURE. THE EXTREME PRESSURE
PRODUCES A CONTINUOUS METALLURGICAL WELD.
ALTHOUGH THE EXPLOSION CLADDING GENERATES
INTENSE HEAT, THERE IS INSUFFICIENT TIME FOR
THE HEAT TO CONDUCT INTO THE METALS AND
NO BULK HEATING OCCURS.
THE EXPLOSION WELDING CLADDED-PLATES
ARE THEN FLATTENED AND CUT.
TESTING AND INSPECTION
• ULTRASONIC
• EXAMINATION OF BOND
• PHISICAL MEASUREMENT
• CERTIFICATIONS
 A TYPICAL MICROSTRUCTURE OF THE ZONE
OF AN EXPLOSION WELDED JOINT BETWEEN
PLAIN-LOW-CARBON STEEL AND STAINLESS STEEL.
AS-EXPLOSION CLAD FLAT PLATE CONSISTING
OF 20MM THICK STAINLESS STELL CLAD ON
200MM THICK CARBON STEEL.
 EXPLOSION-CLAD 6MM THICK TITANIUM PLATE
TO 45MM THICK CARBON STEEL PLATE
FOR BOILER TUBE SHEET BLANKS,
AFTER POST EXPLOSION WELDING FLATTENING.
FINISHED VESSEL FABRICATED FROM
EXPLOSION CLAD PLATE.
 A 5 METER DIAMETER DOME OF 5MM THICK TYPE 410
STAINLESS STEEL ON 80MM THICK TYPE A387 STAINLESS
STEEL FORMED FROM EXPLOSION CLAD PLATE.
 GALVANIC CORROSION SERIES
CORRODED END (ANODIC OR LEAST NOBLE)
MAGNESIUM
MAGNESIUM ALLOYS
ZINC ALUMINUM
ALUMINUM 28
CADMIUM ALUMINUM 17ST
STEEL OR IRON
CAST IRON
CHROMIUM-IRON (ACTIVE STAINLESS TYPE 410)
NICKEL-RESIST CAST IRON
18-8 CHROMIUM-NICKEL IRON (ACTIVE STAINLESS TYPE 304)
18-8-3 CHROMIUM-NICKEL-MOLYBDENUM IRON (ACTIVE STAINLESS TYPE 316)
LEAD-TIN SOLDERS
LEAD
TIN
NICKEL (ACTIVE)
INCONEL-NICKEL-CHROMIUM ALLOY (ACTIVE)
HASTELLOY ALLOY C (ACTIVE)
BRASSES
COPPER
BRONZES
COPPER-NICKEL ALLOYS
MONEL-COPPER ALLOYS
SILVER SOLDERS
NICKEL (PASSIVE)
INCONEL-NICKEL-CHROMIUM ALLOYS (PASSIVE)
CHROMIUM-IRON (PASSIVE STAINLESS TYPE 410)
TITANIUM
18-8 CHROMIUM-NICKEL-IRON (PASSIVE STAINLESS TYPE 304)
18-8 CHROMIUM-NICKEL-MOLYBDENUM-IRON (PASSIVE STAINLESS TYPE 316)
HASTELLOY C (PASSIVE)
SILVER
GRAPHITE
GOLD PLATINUM
PROTECTED END (CATHODIC OR MOST NOBLE)
 GALVANIC CORROSION – AN ELECTRICAL POTENTIAL,
OR VOLTAGE, DIFFERENCE WILL EXIST BETWEEN
TWO DIFFERENT METALS THAT ARE IN ELECTRICAL
CONTACT AND IMMERSED IN A CORROSIVE SOLUTION.
THIS POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE CAUSES CURRENT TO
FLOW AND THE LESS NOBLE, OR MORE ANODIC. METAL
SUFFERS INCREASED CORROSION RATE. THE SEVERITY
OF ATTACK DEPENDS UPON THE RELATIVE VOLTAGE
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE METALS, THE RELATIVE
EXPOSED AREAS OF EACH, AND THE PARTICULAR
CORROSIVE ENVIRONMENT.
IN WELDING, THE SELECTION OF THE DISSIMILAR
METALS TO BE JOINED, AND THE FILLER METALS
TO BE USED, MUST TAKE INTO CONSIDERATION
THE PHENOMENA OF GALVANIC CORROSION.
A CLEAR EXAMPLE WHERE GALVANIC CORROSION
FINDS USEFUL APPLICATION IS IN CATHODIC
PROTECTION. A SACRIFICIAL METAL IS ATTACHED
TO THE METAL TO BE PROTECTED.
CATHODIC PROTECTION SYSTEMS ARE MOST COMMONLY
USED TO PROTECT STEEL, FUEL PIPELINES, OFFSHORE
OIL PLATFORMS AND ONSHORE OIL WELL CASINGS.
THE SACRIFICIAL ALUMINUM ANODE IS USED
TO PROTECT THE STEEL STRUCTURE AT AN
OFFSHORE OIL PLATFORM.
 THE CHEAPEST, MOST ECONOMICAL, FASTEST,
RELIABLE AND NON-DESTRUCTIVE METAL IDENTIFICATION
IS BY CHEMICAL REAGENT REACTION TEST,
WHICH ARE SHOWN ON THE FOLLOWING DIAGRAMS.
 THE ATOMIC ABSORPTION SPECTROMETER TECHNIQUE
TYPICALLY USES A FLAME TO ATOMIZE THE METAL
SAMPLE. A BEAM OF LIGHT PASSES THROUGH THIS
FLAME, ABSORBING A SET OF QUANTITY OF ENERGY
( LIGHT OF A GIVEN WAVELENGTH ). EACH WAVELENGTH
IN THE SERIES IS SPECIFIC TO ONLY ONE
PARTICULAR ELEMENT.
A PORTABLE NON-DESTRUCTIVE FIELD
ATOMIC ABSORPTION SPECTROMETER.
POSITIVE MATERIAL IDENTIFICATION USING A HAND-HELD
ENERGY DISPERSIVE X-RAY FLUORESCENCE ANALYZER
TO VERIFY ALLOYS OF COMPONENT PARTS
NICKEL AND ITS ALLOYS – THESE ARE NON-FERROUS
METALS WITH HIGH-STRENGTH AND TOUGHNESS,
EXCELLENT CORROSION RESISTANCE, AND SUPERIOR
ELEVATED TEMPERATURE PROPERTIES.
NICKEL ALLOYS ARE USED FOR A WIDE VARIETY OF
APPLICATIONS, THE MAJORITY OF WHICH INVOLVE
CORROSION RESISTANCE AND / OR HEAT RESISTANCE:
- AIRCRAFT GAS TURBINES
- STEAM TURBINE POWER GENERATION PLANTS
- NUCLEAR POWER SYSTEMS
- CHEMICAL AND PETROCHEMICAL INDUSTRIES
AMONG THE MOST COMMON NICKEL ALLOYS USED IN THE
HEAVY INDUSTRIES ARE:
- INCOLLOY
- INCONEL
- HASTELOY
- HAYNES
- NIMONIC
- MONEL
NICKEL ALLOYS ARE HIGHLY WELDABLE AND NO SPECIAL
PRECAUTION IS REQUIRED.
NICKEL ALLOYS ARE PRIMARILY USED IN
TURBINE POWER GENERATION PLANTS.
 TITANIUM AND ITS ALLOYS – THE COMBINATION OF
HIGH STRENGTH-TO-WEIGHT RATIO, EXCELLENT
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES,AND CORROSION
RESISTANCE MAKES TITANIUM AND ITS ALLOYS
THE BEST MATERIAL CHOICE FOR MANY CRITICAL
APPLICATIONS SUCH AS STATIC AND ROTATING
GAS TURBINE ENGINE COMPONENTS, AIRPLANES,
MISSILES AND ROCKET.
TITANIUM AND ITS ALLOYS ARE HIGHLY OXIDIZABLE WHEN
WELDED. CARE MUST BE TAKEN TO CONTROL THE HEAT
OF THE BASE METAL DOWN TO 250°C. OTHERWISE,
TARNISHING WILL DEVELOP.
 MAIN ENGINE LE7A

TITANIUM AND ITS ALLOYS ARE

USED VERY EXTENSIVELY IN
THE AEROSPACE INDUSTRY.

H2A ROCKET
COPPER AND ITS ALLOYS – THERE ARE AS MANY
AS 400 DIFFERENT COPPER AND COPPER-ALLOY
COMPOSITIONS. THE FOLLOWING ARE THE PRINCIPAL
ALLOYING ELEMENTS OF THE MORE COMMON TYPES:
• PURE COPPER – FOR ELECTRICAL APPLICATION
• BRASS – ZINC
• PHOSPHOR BRONZES – TIN
• ALUMINUM BRONZES – ALUMINUM
• SILICON BRONZES – SILICON
• COPPER NICKEL, NICKEL SILVERS – NICKEL
COPPER AND ITS ALLOYS HAVE VERY FAST HEAT
DISSIPATION RATE. THE WELD AREA REMAINS
ALWAYS COLD DURING WELDING, MAKING
EXCESSIVE PREHEAT NECESSARY.
 ELECTRICAL ENERGY IS WASTED IN ANY SYSTEM
BECAUSE A PORTION OF THE ELECTRICITY FLOWING
THROUGH THE CONDUCTOR IS CONVERTED TO HEAT
RATHER THAN BEING DELIVERED AS USABLE ELECTRICAL
ENERGY.
ELECTROLYTIC COPPER ( PURE COPPER ) EXHIBITS
HIGH ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY AND HIGH HEAT
DISSPATION RATE, MAKING IT VERY IDEAL FOR
ELECTRICAL COMPONENT PARTS, LIKE BUS BARS.
BECAUSE OF THEIR UNIQUE LUBRICITY PROPERTIES,
ESPECIALLY WHERE HIGH TEMPERATURES ARE
INVOLVED, IN REDUCING FRICTION AND PROLONGING
SERVICE LIFE, COPPER ALLOYS FIND VERY GOOD
APPLICATION IN BUSHINGS, BEARINGS AND SLEEVES.
THEY FIND EXTENSIVE USES IN OFFSHORE, STEEL MILL
AND CONSTRUCTION EQUUIPMENT.
AN ECCENTRIC BUSHING MADE OF COPPER ALLOYS USED
IN STEEL MILLS.
ALUMINUM AND ITS ALLOYS – THEY HAVE A STRONG
RESISTANCE TO CORROSION, AND IS RATHER
MALLEABLE. THEY ARE RELATIVELY LIGHT METAL.
THEY ARE EASILY MACHINABLEAND CAN HAVE A WIDE
VARIETY OF SURFACE FINISHES. THEY ALSO HAVE GOOD
ELECTRICAL AND THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES AND IS
HIGHLY REFLECTIVE TO HEAT AND LIGHT.
PURE ALUMINUM HAS VERY LOW STRENGTH. HOWEVER,
WHEN ALLOYED, MAINLY, WITH SILICON, CAN ATTAIN
STRENGTH COMPARABLE TO CARBON STEELS, WHICH
GIVE THE ALUMINUM ALLOYS A VERY WIDE APPLICATION,
ESPECIALLY IN THE AUTOMOTIVE INDUSTRY.
ALUMINUM AND ITS ALLOYS ARE HIGHLY HYGROSCOPIC.
THEY ABSORB MOISTURE VERY RAPIDLY. AS A RESULT,
THEIR SURFACES ARE OXIDIZED, FORMING ALUMINUM
OXIDES. ALUMINUM OXIDES ARE VERY HARD AND HAVE A
VERY HIGH MELTING POINT. THIS CAUSES WELDABILITY
PROBLEMS. THE BEST REMEDY IS TO GRIND THE OXIDE
SKIN BEFORE ATTEMPTING TO WELD ALUMINUM AND ITS
ALLOYS.
THE H.M.S. LAURIER LAPIERRE IS THE WORLD’S FIRST
ALUMINUM WARSHIP. THE CONCEPT OF AN ALUMINUM
WARSHIP IS ECONOMICALLY SOUND. THEY WILL ONLY
WEIGH 1/12 OF TRADITIONAL IRON AND STEEL WARSHIPS.
THE COST OF FUEL IS ONLY 1/4 OF THE TRADITIONAL
STEEL-HULLED SHIPS. THE LIGHTER ALUMINUM
WARSHIPS WILL TRAVEL FASTER AND WITH GREAT
MANEUVERABILITY, MAKING THEM LESS SUSCEPTIBLE TO
TARGET AND CAN EASILY INTERCEPT ENEMY VESSELS.
ALUMINUM WHEELS GIVE THE AUTOMOBILES
A SPORTY DESIGN. ALUMNUM WHEELS ALSO
IMPROVE AUTOMOBILE PERFORMANCE
BECAUSE OF THEIR LIGHTWEIGHT AND
VERY GOOD HEAT DISSIPATION.
TYPICAL APPLICATIONS OF ALUMINUM ALLOYS
IN THE AUTOMOTIVE INDUSTRY.
TYPICAL APPLICATIONS OF ALUMINUM ALLOYS
IN THE AUTOMOTIVE INDUSTRY.
That’s All Folks