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General Awareness
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SSC GENERAL AWARENESS
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General Awareness
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Indian Economy
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An Introduction to Indian Economy
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India has emerged as the fastest growing major economy in the world as per
the Central Statistics Organisation (CSO) and International Monetary Fund
(IMF). The Government of India has forecasted that the Indian economy will
grow by 7.1 per cent in FY 2016-17. As per the Economic Survey 2016-17, the
Indian economy should grow between 6.75 and 7.5 per cent in FY 2017-18.
India's gross domestic product (GDP) grew by 7 per cent year-on-year in

October-December 2016 quarter, which is the strongest among G-20
countries, as per Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD) Economic Survey of India, 2017. According to IMF World Economic
Outlook Update (January 2017), Indian economy is expected to grow at 7.2
per cent during FY 2016-17 and further accelerate to 7.7 per cent during FY
2017-18..Main characteristics and various aspects of Indian Economy are
being given below:
Agrarian Economy — Even after 60 years of independence, 52.1% of the
work force of India is still agriculturist and its contribution to Gross Domestic
Product is approximately 17%.
Mixed Economy — Indian Economy is a unique combination of public and
private sector, i.e. a mixed economy. After liberalization, Indian Economy is
going ahead as a capitalist economy or market economy.
Developing Economy — The following facts show that Indian Economy is a
developing economy:
 National income of India is very low on international standards and per
capita income is much low in India as compared with other developed

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countries. India’s per capita income is approximately 1/75 of the U.S. level
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of per capita income. 26.1% population is still living Below Poverty Line.
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 Level of unemployment is very high. Unemployment in India is mainly
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structural in nature because the productive capacity is inadequate to create
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sufficient number of jobs. There is an acute problem of disguised
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unemployment in the rural areas. A person is considered employed if
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he/she works for 273 days of a year for eight hours every day.
 Savings are low in India due to low national income and high consumption
expenditure. The low savings results in shortage of capital formation.
Capital is an important factor of production. There is lack of capital and
resources although during the recent years, the rate of domestic savings
has remained at 26%.
 India is the second most populated country of the world. With the high
growth rate of population about 1.7 crore new persons are being added to
Indian population every year. According to 2011 census, the total Indian
population stands at a high level of 1.21billion which is 16.7% of the
world’s total population. To maintain 16.7% of world population India
holds only 2.42% of total land area of the world.
 India lacks in large industrialisation based on modern and advanced
technology which fails to accelerate the pace of development in the
economy.
Important facts relating to characteristics of Indian Economy
 The contribution of agriculture sector in the national income is 17%.
 The contribution of public sector in the gross production is less than 20%.
 Primary sector of Indian Economy is agriculture and the related sectors.
 Secondary sector of Indian Economy is related to industry, manufacturing,
electricity etc. Its contribution to GDP is approximately 28%.
 Tertiary sector of Indian Economy is related to business, transport,
communication and services. Its contribution in GDP is highest
(approximately 58%).
 The best indicator of economic development of any country is per capita
income.
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The following factors are important in Economic Development of a
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developing country:
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1. Natural resources
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2. Capital gain
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3. Skilled labour force
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4. Surplus sale of agri- product
5. Justified social organization
6. Political freedom
7. Freedom from corruption
8. Technological knowledge and general education

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National Income
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National income is the measurement of flow of services and goods in
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economic system. The national wealth is the measurement of present assets
available on a given time while the National income is the measurement of
the production power of economic system in a given time period. The figures
of National income are based on the financial year (i.e. from 1st April to 31st
March). The base of one year is taken for calculating National income which is
called base year, as all the seasons come in a year. The data of estimation of
India’s National income are issued by Central Statistical Organisation (CSO).
CONCEPTS OF NATIONAL INCOME
The important concepts of national income are:
1. Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
2. Gross National Product (GNP)
3. Net National Product (NNP) at Market Prices
4. Net National Product (NNP) at Factor Cost or National Income
5. Personal Income
6. Disposable Income
Let us explain these concepts of National Income in detail.
1. Gross Domestic Product (GDP): Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is the
total market value of all final goods and services currently produced within
the domestic territory of a country in a year.Four things must be noted
regarding this definition.
First, it measures the market value of annual output of goods and services
currently produced. This implies that GDP is a monetary measure.
Secondly, for calculating GDP accurately, all goods and services produced in
any given year must be counted only once so as to avoid double counting.
So, GDP should include the value of only final goods and services and
ignores the transactions involving intermediate goods.

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Thirdly, GDP includes only currently produced goods and services in a year.
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Market transactions involving goods produced in the previous periods such
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as old houses, old cars, factories built earlier are not included in GDP of the
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current year.
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Lastly, GDP refers to the value of goods and services produced within the
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domestic territory of a country by nationals or non-nationals.
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2. Gross National Product (GNP): Gross National Product is the total market
value of all final goods and services produced in a year. GNP includes net
factor income from abroad whereas GDP does not. Therefore,
GNP = GDP + Net factor income from abroad.
Net factor income from abroad = factor income received by Indian
nationals from abroad – factor income paid to foreign nationals working
in India.
Parameter GDP GNP
Stands for Gross Domestic Product Gross National Product
Definition An estimated value of the GDP (+) total capital

total worth of a country’s gains from overseas
production and services, investment (-) income
calculated over the course on earned by foreign
one year nationals domestically
Layman Total value of products & Total value of Goods and

Usage Services produced within the Services produced by all
territorial boundary of a nationals of a country
country (whether within or
outside the country)
Formula for GDP = consumption + GNP = GDP + NR (Net

Calculation investment + (government income from assets
spending) + (exports abroad (Net Income
− imports) Receipts))

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Parameter GDP GNP
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Uses Business, Economic Forecasti Business, Economic Fore
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3. Net National Product (NNP) at Market Price: NNP is the market value of
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all final goods and services after providing for depreciation. That is, when
charges for depreciation are deducted from the GNP we get NNP at market
price. Therefore’
NNP = GNP – Depreciation
Depreciation is the consumption of fixed capital or fall in the value of fixed
capital due to wear and tear.
4. Net National Product (NNP) at Factor Cost (National Income): NNP at

factor cost or National Income is the sum of wages, rent, interest and
profits paid to factors for their contribution to the production of goods and
services in a year. It may be noted that:
NNP at Factor Cost = NNP at Market Price – Indirect Taxes + Subsidies.
Factor Cost: Factor cost is the sum total of amount paid to four main factors
of production viz; land (rent), labour, capital and entrepreneurship (profit).
It is exclusive of taxes or subsidies.
National Income at current prices: If goods and services are valued at
current prices i.e. prices prevailing in the market in the particular year, we
get the National Income at current prices.
National Income at constant prices: When National Income is calculated at
constant prices i.e., prices prevailing in a particular year, called the ‘Base
Year’, we get National Income at constant prices. This method offsets the
impact of inflationary tendency, in price level on economic growth and
reflects the real National Income. In India the base year for constant prices
is presently taken as 2004-05.
Per Capita Income: This is derived by dividing the total National Income of
a country by its total population. Therefore, an increase in National Income
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in real terms does not necessarily mean an increase in the per capita
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income, as it is inversely proportional to the rate of growth of population.
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5. Personal Income: Personal income is the sum of all incomes actually
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received by all individuals or households during a given year. In National
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Income there are some income, which is earned but not actually received
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by households such as Social Security contributions, corporate income
taxes and undistributed profits. On the other hand there are income
(transfer payment), which is received but not currently earned such as old
age pensions, unemployment doles, relief payments, etc. Thus, in moving
from national income to personal income we must subtract the incomes
earned but not received and add incomes received but not currently
earned. Therefore,
Personal Income = National Income – Social Security contributions –
corporate income taxes – undistributed corporate profits + transfer
payments.
Disposable Income: From personal income if we deduct personal taxes
like income taxes, personal property taxes etc. what remains is called
disposable income. Thus,
Disposable Income = Personal income – personal taxes.; Disposable
Income can either be consumed or saved. Therefore,Disposable Income =
consumption + saving.
MEASUREMENT OF NATIONAL INCOME

Production generate incomes which are again spent on goods and services
produced. Therefore, national income can be measured by three methods:
1. Output or Production method
2. Income method, and

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3. Expenditure method.
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Let us discuss these methods in detail.
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1. Output or Production Method: This method is also called the value-added
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method. This method approaches national income from the output side.
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Under this method, the economy is divided into different sectors such as
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agriculture, fishing, mining, construction, manufacturing, trade and
commerce, transport, communication and other services. Then, the gross
product is found out by adding up the net values of all the production that
has taken place in these sectors during a given year.
In order to arrive at the net value of production of a given industry,
intermediate goods purchases by the producers of this industry are
deducted from the gross value of production of that industry. The
aggregate or net values of production of all the industry and sectors of the
economy plus the net factor income from abroad will give us the GNP. If we
deduct depreciation from the GNP we get NNP at market price. NNP at
market price – indirect taxes + subsidies will give us NNP at factor cost or
National Income.
The output method can be used where there exists a census of production
for the year. The advantage of this method is that it reveals the
contributions and relative importance and of the different sectors of the
economy.
2. Income Method: This method approaches national income from the
distribution side. According to this method, national income is obtained by
summing up of the incomes of all individuals in the country. Thus, national
income is calculated by adding up the rent of land, wages and salaries of
employees, interest on capital, profits of entrepreneurs and income of self-
employed people.This method of estimating national income has the great

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advantage of indicating the distribution of national income among different
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income groups such as landlords, capitalists, workers, etc.
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3. Expenditure Method: This method arrives at national income by adding
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up all the expenditure made on goods and services during a year. Thus, the
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national income is found by adding up the following types of expenditure
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by households, private business enterprises and the government: -
(a) Expenditure on consumer goods and services by individuals and
households denoted by C. This is called personal consumption
expenditure denoted by C.
(b) Expenditure by private business enterprises on capital goods and on
making additions to inventories or stocks in a year. This is called gross
domestic private investment denoted by I.
(c) Government’s expenditure on goods and services i.e. government
purchases denoted by G.
(d) Expenditure made by foreigners on goods and services of the national
economy over and above what this economy spends on the output of
the foreign countries i.e. exports – imports denoted by
(X – M). Thus,GDP = C + I + G + (X – M)

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Agriculture
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Introduction
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Indian agriculture is at crossroads and one of the major challenges is to
reverse deceleration in agricultural growth. Main reason for deceleration in
agricultural growth is declining investment particularly public investment in
agriculture research and development and irrigation, combined with
inefficiency of institutions providing inputs and services including rural
credit and extension. Other factors such as land fragmentation, out-dated
tenancy laws, lack of modern market and rural infrastructure, inappropriate
input pricing policies, etc. are also responsible for agrarian and ecological
crisis in the country. The crisis of stagnation in agriculture needs urgent
attention.
Salient features of Indian Agriculture

 Agriculture is the mainstay of the Indian Economy.
 Agriculture and allied sectors contribute nearly 17% of Gross Domestic
Product (GDP of India), while about 55% of the population is dependent on
agriculture for their livelihood.
 The agricultural output, however, depends on monsoon as nearly 60% of
area sown in is dependent on rainfall.
 Land utilisation data is available for 92.9% of total geographical area of
3,287.3 lakh hectares.
 Agriculture accounts for about 14.7% of the total export earnings and
provides raw material to a large number of industries. Agriculture includes
agriculture, forestry and fishies
 The Value of agricultural exports to total exports of the country has been
ranging between 15% and 20%. Besides, goods made with the raw material
of agriculture sector also contribute about 20% in Indian exports.

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 Agriculture and its related goods contribute about 38% in total exports of
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the country.
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 Commercial crops are those crops which are produced for trade purpose
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and not for self consumption by the farmers. It includes - Oilseeds crops,
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Sugar crops, Fibre crops, Narcotic crops, Beverage crops.
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 The importance of agriculture in the industrial sector is not only for supply
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of raw material, but it provides food grains for the people working in that
sector and market for industrial products.
 Total geographical area of India is about 328.7 million hectares. For
providing facilities relating to storage of agriculture products, “National Co-
operative Development and Warehousing Board” was established in 1956
and “Central Warehousing Corporation” was established in 1957.
Thereafter in states also the State Warehousing Corporation were
established.
Dual Price Policy

In order to stop distress sale during the harvest season, the government fixes
a Minimum Support Price (MSP). But if the prices of a particular agricultural
produce goes above the MSP then the farmers should be paid a higher price
by the government (similar to the one offered by private players) which is
called procurement price.
Minimum Support Price (MSP)

Minimum Support Price (MSP) announced by the government is that price at
which government is ready to purchase the crop from the farmers directly, if
crop price falls below the MSP.
To encourage the agricultural products, the government announces to
minimum support price for important agricultural crops.
The function of Agriculture Cost and Price Commission (ACPC) is to decide
the minimum support prices on behalf of the government.

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STATUTORY MINIMUM PRICE (SMP)
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The Central Government announces Statutory Minimum Price (SMP) for
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Sugarcane every year
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Food stocks are maintained by the central government for 3 purposes:
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 Maintaining prescribed buffer stock norms for food security,
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 Monthly supply through Public Distribution System (PDS),
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 Market intervention to stabilise open market prices.
Public Distribution System (PDS)

Public Distribution System in India is a food security system. Established by
the Government of India under Ministry of Consumer Affairs,Food and Public
Distribution and managed jointly with State Government. It distributes
subsidised food and non-food items to Indian poor. Major commodities
distributed include staple food grains, such as wheat, rice, sugar and
kerosene, through a network of PDS shop Food Corporation of India, issue
food grains to the state..Distribution of food grains to poor people throughout
the country is managed by state governments.List of major agricultural
revolutions in India.
Revolution Production
Black Revolution Petroleum Production
Blue Revolution Fish Production
Brown Revolution Leather/non-conventional(India)/Cocoa
production
Golden Fibre Revolution Jute Production
Golden Revolution Overall Horticulture development/Honey
Production
Green Revolution Food grain (Cereals, Wheat &Leguminous
plant) production
Grey Revolution Fertilizer Revolution
Pink Revolution Onion production/Pharmaceutical
(India)/Prawn production
Red Revolution Meat & Tomato Production
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Round Revolution Potato Revolution
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Silver Fiber Revolution Cotton Revolution
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Silver Revolution Egg/Poultry Production
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White Revolution Milk/Dairy production (In India - Operation
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Flood)
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Yellow Revolution Oil Seeds production
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Evergreen Revolution Overall development of Agriculture
Green Revolution
Due to horrible famine during 1965-66 and 1966-67, the government
implemented the new agriculture policy of high yielding seeds so as to
increase agriculture production.
The credit of green revolution in India is given to the Agriculture Scientist Dr.
Norman Borlaug. However, the contribution of Dr. M.S. Swaminathan is not
less. But, its termed name is the contribution of American scientific Dr.
William Gande.
White Revolution
 Speedy increase in the field of milk production is called White Revolution.
 To increase the pace of White Revolution, the Operation Flood was started.
The Father of Operation Flood was Dr. Verghese Kurien. He is given full
credit for successful implementation of this plan.
 The Operation Flood was the largest integrated dairy development
programme of the world. It was started by National Dairy Development
Board in 1970.
 India is the largest milk producing country in the world.
 In milk production of the country the share of Buffalo, Cow and Goat is
50%, 46% and 45% respectively.
 Per capita milk consumption in Punjab, it is 800 gm (maximum in India)
and in Haryana, it is 640 gm.
Yellow Revolution:The increase in oil seeds production was due to “Yellow
Revolution”.
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Blue Revolution: The progress in increase of fish production was called
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“Blue Revolution”. India is the sixth largest fish producer in the world. India is
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on second position in inland fish production in the world.
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India is the largest producer and consumer of tea in the world accounts for
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around 27% of world production and 13% of world trade. Assam is the
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biggest tea producer in the country.
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India ranks sixth in world coffee production and contributes only 4% of
world coffee production. Karnataka is the largest producer of coffee in the
country and it accounts for 56.5% of total coffee production in India.
Cuba is known as the Sugar Bowl of the world. Here, sugar is made of
Beetroot.
India holds first position in the world in the production of sugar-cane and
sugar.
Agricultural Production
 Indian agricultures till depends upon monsoon.
 Agricultural production can be divided into two parts — Food grains and
Non-food grains, in which the share of food grains is two-third and non-
food grains is one-third.
Largest producers of various crops :
Crops States % Share (All India)
Rice West Bengal 19.81
Wheat Uttar Pradesh 36.27
Pulses Madhya Pradesh 19.84
Groundnut Gujarat 25.00
Soyabean Madhya Pradesh 56.58
Sunflower Karnataka 45.05
Sugarcane Uttar Pradesh 41.31
Cotton Maharashtra 29.82
Jute West Bengal 75.40
Total Foodgrain Uttar Pradesh 20.84
Total Oilseeds Madhya Pradesh 19.92

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 Cashew nuts assume an important place in the Indian Economy. India
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produces 45% of the global production of Cashew.
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 India is the largest producer, processor, consumer and exporter of Cashew
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in the world.
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 India contributes about 13% to the world vegetable production and
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occupies first rank in the production of cauliflower, second in onion and
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third in cabbage in the world.
 India’s share in the world production of mango is about 54%
 India occupies the first rank in banana production of 1.16 million tonnes.
 Agriculture accounts for about 14.7% of the total export earnings and
provides raw material to a large number of industries.
 During the first decade of planning (1951-61) when the First and Second
Five Year Plans were implemented, the annual rate of growth in agriculture
was 3.3%.
 During the next two decades of planning in 1961-81, despite spectacular
progress achieved under the new agricultural strategy and IADP and HYVT
the overall progress in agriculture was dismal; the annual average rate of
growth declined to 2.2% and 1.7% respectively, mainly because of bad
weather and poor monsoon conditions.
 The growth rate in the 1980’s was highly respectable (3.9%).
 The Tenth Plan has fixed a target rate of growth of 4% in agriculture to
achieve 8% rate of growth in GDP.
 The production of wheat which stood at 11 million tonnes in 1960-61 rose
to 76 million tonnes in 1999-2000 (but declined to 72 million tonnes in
2003-04).
 Even now the production of pulses fluctuates between 13 and 15 million
tonnes per year.

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 Neither did green revolution cover barley, ragi and minor-millets.
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 Thus, the green revolution was confined only to High Yielding Varieties
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(HYV) cereals mainly rice, wheat, maize and jowar.
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 National Agriculture Insurance Scheme was implemented in October 1999.
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 On 28 July 2000, the Central government fixed target for rate of growth in
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agriculture sector at more than 4% by 2005 under the National Agriculture
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Policy.
Land Reforms Programs in India include

 Elimination of intermediaries
 Tenancy Reforms
 Determination of ceiling of holdings per family
 Distribution of surplus land among landless people
 Consolidation of holdings (Chakbandi)
 By the end of first five year plan middlemen had been removed (except
small areas).
The following measures were made effective for the betterment of farmers
 Regulation of tax
 Security for the rights of farmers
 Right of land ownership for the farmers
For the reorganisation of agriculture land holding mainly two measures
were taken — (i) Land ceiling and (ii) Chakbandi.
Land ceiling determines the maximum land which can be held by a farmer.
Holding more than that area will be illegal.
Chakbandi of land means to aggregate the divided and broken land.
 The land within area less than 1 hectare, is called marginal land holding, 1
to 4 hectare area is called small land holding and the land within area more
than 4 hectare, is called large land holding.
 Chakbandi was implemented first time in India in the year 1920 in Baroda.
 The irrigation potential in India in 2000-01 was 9.47 crore hectare.
 Green Revolution was started in the Third Five Year Plan.

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 The most positive effect of Green Revolution was on wheat. There was
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500% increase in crop production.
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 Unorganised sources of agriculture finance are money-lenders, money-
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dealers, relatives, businessmen, landlords and commission agents.
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 Organised sources of agriculture finance are Co-operative Committees, Co-
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operative Banks, Commercial Banks, Regional Rural Banks, the
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Government etc.
 Co-operative Credit Organisation started first time in 1904.
 Primary Co-operative Committees provide credit for short period.
 State Co-operative Agriculture and Rural Development Banks provide
credit for long period.
 Land Development Bank provides long-term loans.
 Land Development Bank was established in the year 1919 in the form of
Land Mortgage Bank.
 National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) is the
apex institution of Rural Credit. It was established on 12th July, 1982 by the
merger of Agriculture Credit department and reconstruction of Agriculture
and Development Corporation of the Reserve Bank of India. Its
establishment is based on the recommendation of Shivraman Committee.
 Authorised share capital of NABARD was Rupees 500 crore. However, after
an amendment its authorized share increased upto 5000 crore with effect
from 1st February, 2001.
Two major crops of India:

Kharif Crops - Sown in July and harvested in October. They include Rice,
Jowar, Bajra, Maize, Cotton, Sugarcane, Soyabean, Groundnut.
Rabi Crops - Sown in October and harvested in March! April. They include
Wheat, Barley, Gram, Tur, Rapeseed, Mustard.
Zayad Crops - Sown during March to June. It include Watermelons,
Vegetables, Moong etc.

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INDUSTRIES
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India has been successful in achieving autonomy in producing different basic
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and capital products since independence. Since independence to 1980 there
was restrictive growth of private sector and government's permission was
required to set up any private enterprise in India. Other factors such as
poverty and famine lowered India's economic growth rate during this
period. Post 1980s India saw liberalization and achieved further impetus in
Mid-1991.
The Industrial Policy Resolution of 1948 marked the beginning of the
evolution of the Indian Industrial Policy. In the Industrial Policy of 1948, the
importance of both public sector and private sector was accepted. However,
the responsibility of development of basic industries was handed over to
Public Sector.
The Industrial Policy Resolution of 1956 gave the public sector strategic role
in the economy. It categorised industries which would be the exclusive
responsibility of the State or would progressively come under state control
and others. Earmarking the pre-eminent position of the public sector, it
envisaged private sector co-existing with the state and thus attempted to give
the policy framework flexibility.
The main objective of the Industrial Policy of 1956 was to develop public
sector, co-operative sector and control on private monopoly. There were four
categories of industries in the Industrial Policy of 1948 which was reduced to
three in the Industrial Policy of 1956.
In 1973, Joint Sector was constituted on the recomendations of Dutta
Committee. The Industrial Policy of 1980 was influenced by the concept of
federalism and the policy of giving concession to agriculture based industries
was implemented through in it. Various liberlised steps to be taken were
declared at comprehensive level, in the Industrial Policy declared on 24th
July, 1991.
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New Economic Policy
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New Economic Policy is related to economic reforms. Its aim is to bring about
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reforms in production pattern, to obtain new technology and to use full
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capacity expeditiously and in Toto.
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The New Economic Policy was devised and implemented, for the first time in
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the year 1985 during the period of Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi. The second
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wave of new economic reforms came in the year 1991 during the period of
P.V. Narsimha Rao government.
The main reason to start new economic policy (1991) was Gulf-War and
problem of balance of payment in India.
Three main objectives of new economic policy were — Privatisation,
Liberalisation and Globalisation.
Main sectors of new economic reform policy, 1991 were — Fiscal Policy,
Monetary Policy, Value Fixation Policy Foreign Policy, Industrial Policy,
Foreign Investment Policy, Business Policy and Public Sector Policy.
The following four main steps were taken under the Fiscal Policy, 1991:
 To control public expenditure strictly
 To expand Tax Net
 To observe discipline in management of funds of Central and State
governments.
 To curtail grants (subsidy)
 Under the Monetary Policy, steps were taken to control inflation.
 Measures implemented under the Industrial Reforms Policy, 1991 were:
 Delicencing of industries except the list of 18 industries.
 M.R.T.P. norms were relaxed for disinvestment.
 The areas reserved for public sector were opened to private sector.
The objectives fixed for reforms in the Foreign Investment Policy, 1991
were:
 Direct foreign investment upto 50% was given automatic approval, in
many industries.
 Foreign companies, involved in export activities were allowed to invest
upto 51% capital.

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 The government gave automatic approval for Technology Agreement in the
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industries of high priorities.
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 Under the Trade Policy 1991, steps were taken to abolish the excessive
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protection given to many industries, for the promotion of international
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integration of economy.
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The measures implemented to bring efficiency and market discipline under
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the Public Sector Policy 1991 were as under:
 Number of reserved industries decreased to 8. Presently these are only
four.
 The work of rehabilitation of sick industries handed over to Board of
Industrial Financial Reconstruction.
 Industries were made powerful with the help of Memorandum of.
Understandings (MoU)
 Voluntary Retirement Schemes started to cut down the size of work force.
Economic Reforms
Economic Reforms were introduced in 1991 in India. First Generation
Reforms were aimed at stabilisation of Indian economy and were macro
level in nature. It includes liberalisation & deregulation of industry,
financial sector reforms, taxation reforms etc. Second Generation Reforms
aimed at structural changes and are micro level in nature. It will include
labour reforms, land reforms, capital market reforms, expenditure reforms
and power sector reforms etc.
Since economic reform, poverty has been declining from 36% in 1993 to
26% by the end of 10th plan. But as far as inequality is concerned it has
increased. A World Bank Report 1999-2000 confirms this rise in inequality.
100% foreign investment has been approved 100% export originated units.
The limit of foreign investment in some industries and Industrial sectors
were as under:

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Limit of
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Banking sector 49% Private Sector Banking 74%
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Insurance Sector 26% Building of harbour 100%
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Electricity and Energy 100% Tourism 100%
Telecommunication 74% Small Industry Sector 24%
Petroleum 100% Gold Silver Jewellary 50%
Medicine Industry 51% Civil Aviation 49%
Non Banking Financial 51%
Disinvestment means to decrease the share of government in the industries.
In 1996, Disinvestment Commission was constituted to review, give
suggestions and make regulations on the issue of disinvestment.
Shri G.V. Ramkrishna was the first Chairman of Disinvestment Commission.
In the year 1992, National Renewal Fund was constituted for rehabilitation of
displaced labourers of sick industrial units affected due to industrial
modernization, technological development etc.

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“Navratna” is a company which is rising at world level. To encourage these
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companies, the government has given them complete autonomy. 11 such
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companies have been identified.
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In the second phase of economic reforms programme, the main aim is to
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eradicate poverty from the country and development at the rate of 7 to 8%.
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Some Important Terminology Relating to the New Economic Reforms Policy:
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Privatisation — To increase participation of private sector in the public
sector companies by capital investment or by management or both or to hand
over a public sector unit to a private company is called Privatisation.
Liberalisation — Liberalisation is the process by which government control
is relaxed or abolished. In this process privatisation is also included.
Globalisation — The process of amalgamation of an economy with world-
economy is called Globalisation. It is signified by lower duties on import &
export. By doing so, that sector will also get private capital and foreign
technology.
Disinvestment — To reduce the govt. share in the public sector is called
disinvestment.
Public Sector
In terms of ownership public sector enterprise (PSE) comprises all
undertakings that are owned by the government, or the public, whereas
private sector comprises enterprises that are owned by private persons.
In case of private sector the main objective is maximization of profits whereas
PSE’s mainly aim for fulfillment of public, or social interest.
The main Objectives of Public Sector are:
 To promote rapid economic development through creation and expansion
of infrastructure;
 To generate financial resources for development;
 To promote redistribution of income and wealth;
 To create employment opportunities;
 To encourage the development of small scale and ancillary industries;
 To promote exports on the new side and import substitution on the other;
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 To promote balanced regional development.
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Navratna Maharatna & Mini Ratna
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Navratna was the title given originally to nine Public Sector Enterprises
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(PSEs), identified by the Government of India in 1997 as its most
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prestigious, which allowed them greater autonomy to compete in the global
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market. The number of PSEs having Navratna status has been raised to 16,
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the most recent addition being Oil India Limited.
PSU companies are divided into three categories:
 Maharatna
 Navratna
 Miniratna CPSEs: Category I&Category I
In 2009, the government established the Maharatna status, which raises a
company's investment ceiling from Rs. 1,000 crore to Rs. 5,000 crore. The
Maharatna firms would now be free to decide on investments up to 15 per
cent of their net worth in a project.Earlier, the Navaratna companies could
invest up to Rs 1,000 crore without government approvals.
Criteria:
In order to qualify as a Maharatna, the process is bottoms up. This means the
lowest employee should be proud of his/her company and contribute to the
same according to the global standards. The 6 point criteria for eligibility as
Maharatna are:
Having Navratna status

 Having Navaratna Status
 Listed on Indian stock exchange with minimum prescribed public
shareholding under SEBI regulations.
 An average annual turnover of more than Rs. 20,000.crore during the last 3
years. Earlier it was Rs 25,000 Crore.

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 An average annual net worth of more than Rs. 10,000 crore during the last
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3 years. Earlier it was Rs. 15,000 crore.
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 An average annual net profit after tax of more than Rs. 2500 crore during
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the last 3 years. Earlier it was Rs. 5000 crore.
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 Should have significant global presence/international operations.
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List of Maharatna
 Coal India Limited
 Indian Oil Corporation Limited
 National Thermal Power Corporation
 Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited
 Steel Authority of India Limited
 Baharat Heavy Electricals Limited
 Gas Authority of India Limited
Navratna status
Navratna was the title given originally to nine Public Sector Enterprises
(PSEs), identified by the Government of India in 1997 as its most prestigious,
which allowed them greater autonomy to compete in the global market. The
number of PSEs having Navratna status has been raised to 16, the most recent
addition being Neyveli Lignite Ltd .
List of Navratna CPSEs

 Bharat Electronics Limited
 Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited
 Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited
 GAIL (India) Limited
 Hindustan Aeronautics Limited
 Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited
 Mahanagar Telephone Nigam Limited
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National Aluminium Company Limited
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 National Mineral Development Corporation Limited
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 Neyveli Lignite Corporation Limited
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 Oil India Limited
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 Power Finance Corporation Limited
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 Power Grid Corporation of India Limited
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 Rashtriya Ispat Nigam Limited (Vizag Steel)
 Rural Electrification Corporation Limited
 Shipping Corporation of India Limited
Miniratna Status
In addition, the government created another category called Miniratna.
Miniratnas can also enter into joint ventures, set subsidiary companies and
overseas offices but with certain conditions. In 2002, there were 61
government enterprises that were awarded Miniratna status. However, at
present, there are 63 government enterprises that were awarded Miniratna
status.
Category IThis designation applies to PSEs that have made profits
continuously for the last three years or earned a net profit of Rs. 30 crore or
more in one of the three years. These miniratnas granted certain autonomy
like incurring capital expenditure without government approval up to Rs. 500
crore or equal to their net worth, whichever is lower.
Category IIThis category include those PSEs which have made profits for the
last three years continuously and should have a positive net worth. Category
II miniratnas have autonomy to incurring the capital expenditure without
government approval up to Rs. 250 crore or up to 50% of their net worth
whichever is lower.
Small Scale Industries Small scale and cottage industries have an important
role to play in a labour surplus developing economy like India. Their
importance can be explained as:

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 Employment Generation—Large scale industries are generally capital
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intensive. Small-scale industries, on the other hand, are generally labour
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intensive and have a substantially higher employment potential.
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 Equitable Distribution—The ownership of SSIs is more wide spread inter
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of both individuals as well as areas. Thus, these ensure equitable
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distribution of income individually and regionally.
 Mobilisation of Small Savings—S.S.Is can be run with the help of small
capital. Thus, they facilitate mobilisation of small savings.
 Export Contribution—The share of small industries in the total export has
increased over the years. It contributes 35% of total exports.
 Environment Friendly—As these are dispersed far away from urban
centres they do not pollute urban environment.
However, Small Scale Industries are suffering from a number of problems
like (i) Lack of timely, adequate and easy finance,
(ii) Lack of availability of raw material,
(iii) Lack of sound marketing system,
(iv) Competition with large scale sector.
Sick Industries A sick unit is one which is in existence for at least five years
and had found at the end of accounting year that it had fully eroded its net
worth. 30,000 units fall sick every year. A weak unit is one which erode 15%
or more of its net worth.
 Cloth Industry is the largest industry in the country. The share of Cloth
Industry in total industrial production is about 20%. It also contributes
38% in total exports of the country. This industry provide& employment to
about 200 lath people in the country.
 At present there are 112 cotton mills in Gujarat. In Ahmedabad alone, there
are 66 mills. It is known as Bostan of East. In Maharastra there are 104

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mills out of which 54 alone are in Mumbai. Mumbai is called cottonopolis.
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In Kanpur there are 10 cotton mills and this city is called Manchester of
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North India.
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 The first cycle making factory of India was established in Calcutta in 1932.
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India holds second place in the field of cycles production in the world.
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About 90 lath cycles are produced annually in India.
 The share of small and cottage industries in total Industrial exports of India
is 35%.
 Small and Cottage Industries were given high priority in the Industrial
Policy of 1977.
 District Industry Centres were established in 1977. Presently there are 422
District Industry Centres in the country.
 With the aim to provide finance, SIDBI i.e. Small Industries Development
Bank of India was established in 1990.
 Abid Husain Committee is related to reforms in small industries.
 The industries in which maximum Rs.1 crore is invested are called Small
Industries.
 The maximum limit of investment in Cottage Industry is rupees 25 laths.
 Industrial Financial Corporation of India (IFCI) was established on 1st July,
1948 by a special Act of Parliament.
 The main aim of IFCI was to make available long-term and middle-term
credit to the Industries of Private and Public Sectors.
 Industrial Credit and Investment Corporation of India (ICICI) was
established in 1955 under the Indian Companies Act.
 The function of ICICI is to support the establishment, development and
modernization of industries in the private sector.

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 Industrial Development Bank of India is an apex institution in the field of
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industrial finance.
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 Industrial Development Bank of India (IDBI) was established on 1st July,
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1964.
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 Industrial Reconstruction Board of India (IRBI) was established in 1971
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with the aim to reconstruct the sick industrial units.
 Unit Trust of India was established in 1964.
 Unit Trust of India (UTI) collects small savings of people through sale of
units and invests them into sureties.
 Life Insurance Company now Life Insurance Corporation of India or (LIC)
was established in September 1956.
 The head office of Life Insurance Corporation of India is in Mumbai.
Presently, it has 7 zonal offices and 100 regional offices.
 General Insurance Company of India (GIC) was established in 1972.
 Indian Industrial Investment Bank Limited was established on 17th March,
1997 by the government, under Companies Act 1956. Presently, its
authorized capital is 1000 crore rupees and its head office is in Kolkata.
Small Enterprises Sector

 The employment provided by the sector is estimated to be over 280 lakh
persons at present.
 In recognition of this role, the SE sector has been assigned targets of 12%
annual growth in production and creation of 44 lakh additional
employment opportunities in the Tenth Five-Year Plan.
 Micro, Small and Medium Enterprise Development Act, 2006

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 Small and Medium Enterprised Development Bill 2005 (which was
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introduced in the Parliament on May 12, 2005) has been approved by the
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President and thus became an Act.
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 This new Act, named as ‘Small and Medium Enterprise Development Act,
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2006’ has become effective from October 2, 2006.
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 This Act makes a different category for medium level enterprises.
 This Act provides the first-ever legal frame work for recognition of the
concept of ‘enterprise’ (comprising both manufacturing and services) and
integrating the three tiers of these enterprises, viz., micro, small and
medium.
Brief Introduction of Indian Industry
First time in India, the textile industries came into being. First Factory of
Cotton Textile in India was established in 1818 at Ghughari near Kolkata,
which failed. The second Factory of Cotton Textile was established by a
businessman Kawas Ji Nana Bhai in Mumbai in 1853.
In 1855, first Jute Factory was established in Rishara (West Bengal).
In 1853, after the establishment of railway in India industrial development
got momentum here. Rapid expansion of Indian industries started due to
development of the means of communication.
Jamshedji Tata established first Steel Factory in Jamshedpur in 1907.
Steel
 Iron and steel Industry took birth in India in the year 1870 when Bengal
Iron Woks Company established its plant at Kulti, West Bengal.
 Large scale iron and steel production was started in 1907 by TISCO,
established at Jamshedpur (Jharkhand).
 As per the data from International Iron and Steel Institute (TISI) India is
the 7th largest producer of steel in the world.

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 At present India is the 9th largest Crude Steel producing country in the
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world.
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 Today, India is the largest producer of sponge iron in the world.
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Automobile Industry
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 Automobile Industry was delicensed in July 1991 with the announcement
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of the New Industrial Policy.
 The passenger car was however delicensed in 1993.
 At present 100% Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) is permissible under
automatic route in this sector including passenger car segment.
 The industry also offers substantial scope of employment with 4.5 lakh
direct employment and about one crore indirect employment.

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Chapter
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Poverty & Unemployment
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Poverty
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According to The Planning Commission the person not getting 2400 & 2100
cal intake per day residing in rural & urban areas respectively will be
considered as poor. Recently the P.C. declared that anyone spending more
than Rs 965 per month in urban India and Rs 781 in rural India will be
deemed not to be poor. Updating the poverty line cut-off figures, the
commission said those spending in excess of Rs 32 a day in urban areas or Rs
26 a day in villages will no longer be eligible to draw benefits of central
And state government welfare schemes meant for those living below the
poverty line. According to the lastest data 26.1 % of the Indian population is
B.P.L.
Unemployment
In common parlance anybody who is not gainfully employed in any
productive activity is called unemployed. However, it can be of two kinds
(i) voluntary unemployed and (ii) involuntary unemployed. Here we are
concerned with the second category of unemployed persons.
Hence unemployment can be defined as a situation when persons able and
willing to work are seeking jobs at the prevailing wage level but they are
unable to get the same.
In India unemployment is structural in nature due to lack of productive
capacity and resource.
The main reasons for unemployment in India are slow economic
development, population explosion, outdated technique, improper
education system and limited effect of government planning.
Types of Unemployment
Cyclical unemployment: It is the result of depression in an economy.

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Frictional unemployment: This kind of unemployment is temporary. It is
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the result of a situation when new industries drive out old ones and
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workers change over to better jobs.
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Open unemployment: It refers to those who have no work to do even
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though they are able and willing to do work.
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Seasonal unemployment: This occurs at certain period of the work when
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work load is comparatively less, and hence people are rendered jobless. For
example, in the period between past harvest and next sowing, agricultural
laborers are unemployed. It means the unemployment of the farmers and
farm labourers during non-crop seasons.
Educated unemployed: This is mainly found in urban areas. Those
educated persons who are unable to get work come under this category.
Underemployment: It results when a person contributes to production
less than what he or she is capable of, for example, an engineer working as
a clerk is underemployed.
The Planning Commission collects data of unemployment on the basis of
‘Lakadawala Formula’ effective from 11th March, 1997 and prior to this the
process to collect data was on the basis of surveys of National Sample
Survey Organisation (NASO).
Compulsory unemployment means the labour power which is ready to
work on the current rate but does not get the work.
In India, the data relating to unemployment are collected by National
Sample Survey Organisation (NASO). This Organisation has the following
concepts with regard to unemployment:
General status of unemployment — In this category generally, those
unemployed for more than one year’ are included. As such it is a long-term
unemployment.
Weekly-unemployment — The persons who have not got work for even
one hour in a week are included in this category.
Daily unemployment -. It is considered the best concept of unemployment.

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DEVELOPMENT AND EMPLOYMENT PROGRAMMES AT A GLANCE
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S.N Programme/Plan/Institu Year Objective/ Description
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1. Community Development 1952 Overall development of
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Programme (CDP) rural areas with people’s
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participation.
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2. Intensive Agriculture 1960-61 To provide loan, seeds,
Development fertilizer tools to the
Programme(IADP) farmers.
3. Intensive Agriculture Area 164-65 To develop the special
Programme (IAAP) harvests
4. Credit Authorisation November A Scheme of Qualitative
Scheme (CAS) 1965 credit control of Reserve
Bank
5. High Yielding Variety 1966-67 To increase productivity
Programme (HYVP) of food grains by adopting
latest varieties of inputs
for crops
6. Indian Tourism October To arrange for the
Development 1966 construction of Hotels
Corporation (ITDC) and Guest houses a
various of inputs for
crops
7. Green Revolution 1966-67 To increase the food
grains, specially wheat
production
8. Nationalisation of 14 Banks July 1969 To provide loans for
agriculture, rural
development and other
priority sectors
9. Rural Electrification July 1969 Electrification in rural

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tion
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Corporation areas
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10. Housing and Urban April 1970 Loans for the
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Development development of housing
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Corporation and provision of
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resources for technical
assistance
11. Scheme of Discriminatory April 1972 To provide loan to the
Interest Rate weaker sections of the
society at a concessional
interest rate of 4%
12. Employment Guarantee 1972-73 To assist the
Scheme of Maharashtra economically weaker
sections of the rural
society
13. Accelerated Rural Water 1972-73 For providing drinking
Supply Programme water in the villages
(ARWSP)*
14. Deought-Prone Area 1973 To try an expedient for
Programme (DPAP) protection from drought
by a achieving
environmental balance
and by developing the
ground water
15. Crash Scheme for Rural 1972-73 For rural employment
Employment (CSRE)
16. Marginal Farmer and 1973-74 For technical and
Agriculture Labour Agency financial assistance to
(MFALA) marginal and small
farmers and agricultural
labour
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tion
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17. Small Farmer Development 1974-75 For technical and
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Agency (SFDA) financial assistance to
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small farmer
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18. Command Area 1974-75 To ensure better and
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Development Programme rapid utilization of
(CADP) irrigation capacities of
medium and large
projects
19. Twenty Point Programme 1975 Poverty eradication and
(TPP) raising the standard of
living
20. National Institution of 1977 Training, investigation
Rural Development and advisory
organization for rural
development
21. Desert Development 1977-78 For controlling the desert
Programme (DDP) expansion and
maintaining
environmental balance
22. Food for Work Programme 1977-78 Providing food grains o
labour for the work of
development
23. Antyodaya Yojana 1977-78 To make the poorest
families of the village
economically
independent (only in
Rajasthan State)
24. Training Rural Youth for August 15, Programme of training
Self-Employment 1979 rural youth for self-
(TRYSEM) employment
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tion
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25. Integrated Rural October 2, All-round development of
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Development 1980 the rural poor through a
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Programme (IRDP) programme of asset
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endowment for self-
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employment
26. National Rural Employment 1980 To provide profitable
Programme (NREP) employment
opportunities to the rural
poor
27. Development of Women September To provide suitable
and Children in Rural Areas 1982 opportunities of self-
(DWCRA) employment to the
women belonging to the
rural families who are
living below the poverty
line
28. Rural Landless August 15, For providing
Employment Guarantee 1983 employment to landless
Programme (RLEGP) and labourers
29. Self-Employment to the 1983-84 To provide financial and
Educated Unemployed technical assistance for
Youth (SEEUY) self-employment
30. Farmer Agriculture Service 1983-84 To popularize the use of
Centre’s (FASC’s) improved agricultural
instruments and tool kits
31. National Fund for Rural February To grant 100% tax rebate
Development (NFRD) 1984 to donors and also to
provide financial
assistance for rural
development projects
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S.N Programme/Plan/Instituti Year Objective/
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on Description
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32. Industrial Reconstruction March 1985 To provide financial
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Bank of India assistance to sick and
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closed industrial units
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for their reconstruction
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33. Comprehensive Crop April 1, 1985 For insurance of
Insurance Scheme agricultural crops
34. Council for Advancement of September 1, To provide assistance
People’s Action and Rural 1986 for rural prosperity
Technology (CAPART)
35. Self-Employment September To provide self-
Programme for the Urban 1986 employment to urban
Poor (SEPUP) poor through provision
of subsidy and bank
credit
36. Service Area Account (SAA) February A new credit policy for
1988 rural areas
37. Formation of Securities and April 1988 To safeguard the
Exchange Board of India interest of investors in
(SEBI) capital market and to
regulate share market
38. Tourism Finance 1989 To arrange the finance
Corporation of India for the schemes related
(TFCI) to tourism
39. Jawahar Rozgar Yojana April 1989 For providing
employment to rural
unemployed
40. Nehru Rozgar Yojana October For providing
1989 employment to urban
unemployed
41. Agriculture and Rural Debt 1990 To exempt bank loans
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Relief Scheme (ARDRS) up to Rs. 10,000 of
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rural artisans and
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weavers
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42. Scheme of Urban Micro 1990 To assist the urban
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Enterprises (SUME) poor people for small
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enterprise
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43. Scheme of urban Wage 1990 To provide wages
Employment (SUWE) employment after
arranging the basic
facilities for poor
people in the urban
areas where population
is less than one lakh
44. Scheme of Housing and 1990 To provide
Shelter up-gradation employment by the
(SHASU) means of shelter up-
gradation in the urban
areas where population
is between 1 to 20
lakhs
45. National Housing and Bank 1991 To utilize black money
Voluntary Deposit Scheme for constructing low
cost housing for the
poor
46. National Renewal Fund February To protect the interest
(NRF) 1992 of the employees of
Public Sector
47. Supply of Improved Toolkits July 1992 To supply modern
to Rural Artisans toolkits to the rural
craftsmen except the
weavers, tailors,
embroiders and

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tobacco labourers who
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are living below the
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poverty line
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48. Employment Assurance October 2, To provide
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Scheme (EAS) 1993 employment of at least
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100 days in a year in
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villages
49. Members of Parliament December To sanction Rs. 1 crore
Local Area Development 23, 1993 per year to every
Scheme (MPLADS) Member of Parliament
for various
development works in
their respective areas
through DM of the
district
50. Scheme of Infrastructural 1993-94 To provide capital
Development in Mega Cities through special
(SIDMC) institutions for water
supply, sewage,
drainge, urban
transportation, land
development and
improvement of slum
projects undertaken in
Mumbai, Kolkata,
Bangalore, Chennai and
Hyderabad
51. Scheme of Integrated Sixth Five To provide resources
Development of Small and Year Plan and create employment
Medium Towns in small and medium
towns for prohibiting
the migration of

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population from rural
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areas to big cities
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52. District Rural Development 1993 To provide financial
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Agency (DRDA) assistance for rural
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development
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53. Mahila Samridhi Yojana 2 October, To encourage the rural
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1993 women to deposit in
Post Office Saving
Account
54. Child Labour Eradication August 15, To shift child labour
Scheme 1994 from hazardous
industries to schools
55. Prime Minister’s Integrated November To attack urban
Urban Poverty Eradication 18, 1995 poverty in an
Programme (PMIUPEP) integrated manner in
345 town having
population between
50,000 to 1 lakh
56. Group Life Insurance 1995-96 To provide insurance
Scheme in Rural Areas facilities to rural
people on low
premium
57. National Social Assistance 1995 To assist people living
Programme below the poverty line
58. Ganga Kalyan Yojana 1997-98 To provide financial
assistance to farmers
for exploring and
developing ground and
surface water
resources
59. Kasturba Gandhi Education August 15, To establish girls
Scheme 1997 schools in districts
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having low female
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literacy rate
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60. Swarna Jayanti Shahari December, To provide gainful
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Rozgar Yojana (SJSRY) 1997 employment to urban
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unemployed and under
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employed poor through
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self-employment or
wage employment
61. Bhagya Shree Bal Kalyan Oct. 19, 1998 To uplift the girls
Policy conditions
62. Rajrajeshwari Mahila Kalyan Oct. 19, 1998 To provide insurance
Yojana protection to women
63. Annapurna Yojana March, 1999 To provide 10 kg. food
grains to senior
citizens (who did not
get pension)
64. Swarna Jayanti Gram April 1999 For eliminating rural
Swarozgar Yojana (SJGSY) poverty and
unemployment and
promoting self-
employment
65. Samagra Awas Yojana 1999-2000 For providing shelter
sanitation and drinking
water
66. Jawahar Gram Samridhi April 1999 Creation of demand
Yojana (JGSY) driven community
village infrastructure
67. Jan Shree Bima Yojana Aug. 10, Providing Insurance
2000 Security to people
living poverty line
68. Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya 2000 To fulfill basic
Yojana requirements in rural
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69. Antyodaya Anna Yojana Dec. 25, To provide food
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2000 security to poor
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70. Ashraya Bima Yojana June 2001 To provide
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compensation to
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labourers who have
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lost their employment
71. Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Dec. 25, To link all villages with
Yojana (PMGSY) 2000 Pacca Road
72. Khetihar Mazdoor Bima 2001-02 Insurance of Landless
Yojana Agricultural workers
73. Shiksha Sahyog Yojana 2001-02 Education of Children
Below Poverty Line
74. Sampurna Gramin Rozgar Sept. 25, Providing employment
Yojana 2001 and food security
76. Valmiki Ambedkar Awas Dec. 2, 2001 Constructing Slum
Yojana (VAMBAY) houses in urban areas.
77. National Slum Development Aug. 1996 Development of Urban
Programme Slums
78. Social Security Pilot Scheme Jan. 23, 2004 Scheme for labours of
unorganized sector for
providing family
pension, insurance and
medical
79. Vande Materam Scheme Feb. 9, 2004 Major initiative in
public-private
partnership during
pregnancy check-up
80. National Food for Work Nov. 14, Programme to intensify
Programme 2004 the generation of
supplementary wage
employment.
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81. Janani Suraksha Yojana April 12,
Providing care to
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2005 expectant mothers.
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82. Bharat Nirman Yojana Dec. 16,Development of Rural
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2005 Infrastructure
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including six
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components :
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Irrigation, Water
Supply, Housing, Road,
Telephone and
Electricity
83. National Rural Employment Feb.2, 2006 To provide at least 100
Guarantee Scheme days wage employment
in rural areas.
84. Swawlamban Sep. 26, New Pension Scheme
2010 for unrecognised sector
85. Swabhiman February 10, Financial Inclusion
2011.
86. Pradhan Mantri Jhan Ghan 15 August Financial Inclusion
Yojana 2014
87. Pradhan Mantri Adrash 2009-10 Village Development
Gram Yojana Scheme
88. Digital India Programme 2014 Transform the Indian
Economy into a
digitally empowered
knowledge economy
89. Swacch Bharat Abhiyaan 02 October Goal of clean India in
2014 next five years
90. Atal Pension Yojana May 09,2015 Social Sector Scheme
pertaining to Pension
Sector
91. Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Gram 2015 It is a Government of
Jyoti Yojana India program aimed at
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providing 24x7
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uninterrupted power
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supply to all homes in
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Rural India
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92. Pradhan Mantri Suraksha May 9,2015 Accidental Insurance
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Bima Yojana with a premium of Rs.
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12 per year.
93. Pradhan Mantri Jeevan Jyoti May 9,2015 Life insurance of Rs. 2
Bima Yojana lakh with a premium of
Rs. 330 per year.
94. HRIDAY – Heritage City Jan 2015 The scheme seeks to
Development and preserve and
Augmentation Yojana rejuvenate the rich
cultural heritage of the
country.
95. Sukanya Samridhi Yojana Jan 22 2015 The scheme primarily
(Girl Child Prosperity ensures equitable
Scheme) share to a girl child in
resources and savings
of a family in which she
is generally
discriminated as
against a male child.
96. AMRUT June 25, To enable better living
2015 and drive economic
growth stressing on the
need for people centric
urban planning and
development.
97. Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana June 25, To enable better living
2015 and drive economic
growth stressing on the

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need for people centric
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urban planning and
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development.
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98. Pradhan Mantri Kaushal July 15, 2015 Seeks to provide the
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Vikas Yojana institutional capacity to
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train a minimum 40
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crore skilled people by
2022
99. Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala May 1,2016 Launched to provide
Yojana free LPG connections to
women from below
poverty line families
100 UDAN Scheme Jan 2017 UDAN - Ude Desh ka
. Aam Nagrik.
This scheme seeks to
provide connectivity to
un-served and under-
served airports of the
country through
revival of existing air-
strips and airports.
101 Digi Dhan Vyapar Yojana Dec,2016 This scheme is for the
. merchants across the
country. Under it,
merchants doing
business using POS are
eligible to win
Rs.50000 per week. 3
Mega Prizes for
merchants will be of Rs
50 lakhs, 25 lakh, 12
lakh for digital

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transactions between 8
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November 2016 to 13
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April 2017. It will be
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announced on 14 April
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2017
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*Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme (ARWSP) was renamed Rajiv
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Gandhi National Drinking Water mission (RGNDWM) in 1991.
BHARAT NIRMAN YOJANA

 The Union Government launched a new comprehensive scheme, named
‘Bharat Nirman Yojana’ on December 16, 2005.
 This scheme aims at developing rural infrastructure.
 The duration of implementing this scheme has been fixed for four years
with an expected expenditure of Rs. 174000 crore.
The major six sectors and their targets for next four years are:
 Irrigation—To ensure irrigation for additional one crore hectare of land by
2009.
 Roads—To link all villages of 1000 population with main roads and also to
link all ST and hilly villages upto 500 population with roads.
 Housing—Construction of 60 lakh additional houses for the poor.
 Water supply—To ensure drinking water to all remaining 74000 villages.
 Electrification—To supply electricity to all remaining 1,25,000 villages and
to provide electricity connections to 2.3 crore houses.
 Rural Communication—To provide telephone facility to all remaining
66,822 villages.

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MAHATMA GANDHI NATIONAL RURAL EMPLOYMENT GUARANTEE ACT
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(MNREGA), 2005
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 The National Rural Employment Guarantee Bill was passed by Parliament
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on September 7, 2005. It secured Presidential assent later in 2005 itself
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and became an Act.
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 The Act provides for at least 100 days of employment to one able bodied
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person in every rural household every year.
 The wages admissible are around Rs. 100 per day.
 The Act (NREGA) came into force from Feb. 2, 2006. Initially 200 districts
have been selected for the enforcement of the scheme.
 The Government has extended the NREGA to all 604 districts of the
country, with a total budget outlay of Rs. 16,000 crore for the extended
scheme for 2008-09 (April 1, 2008).
 The Govt. of India, October 2, 2009 renamed the NREGA as the Mahatma
Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MNREGA).
EMPLOYMENT GUARANTEE ACT, 2005

 The Government, on the advice of the National Advisory Council, has
passed the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act. The main features of
the proposed Act are:
 Every household in rural India will have a right to at least 100 days of
guaranteed employment every year for at least one adult member. The
employment will be in the form of casual manual labour at the statutory
minimum wage, and the wages shall be paid within 7 days of the week
during which work was done.
 Work should be provided within 15 days of demanding it, and the work
should be located within 5 kilometer distance.
 If work is not provided to anybody within the given time, he / she will be
paid a daily unemployment allowance, which will be at least one- third of
the minimum wages.
 Workers employed on public works will be entitled to medical treatment
and hospitalization in case of injury at work, along with a daily allowance
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of not less than half of the statutory minimum wage. In case of death or
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disability of a worker, an ex-gratia payment shall be made to his legal heirs
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as per provisions of the Workmen Compensation Act.
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 5 % of wages may be deducted as contribution to welfare schemes like
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health insurance, accident insurance, survivor benefits, maternity benefits
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and social security schemes.
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 For non-compliance with rules, strict penalties have been laid down.
 For transparency and accountability, all accounts and records of the
programme will be made available for public scrutiny.
 The District Collector/Chief Executive Officer will be responsible for the
programme at the district level.
 The Gram Sabha will monitor the work of the Gram Panchayat by way of
social audit.
Some Important Development & Employment Programmes

 During the Seventh Five-Year Plan, a scheme called ‘Jawahar Rozgar
Yojana’ was introduced from April 1989 to solve the problem of
unemployment in the rural sector. The former ongoing two main rural
employment programmes National Rural Employment Programme (NREP)
and Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP) were
merged with Jawahar Rozgar Yojana.
 The total expenditure on Jawahar Rozgar Yojana was shared by the Centre
and the State Government in the ratio of 80 : 20.
 Under the Jawahar Rozgar Yojana, 30% employment opportunities was
reserved for women.
 Under the Jawahar Rozgar Yojana, it was made compulsory to spend 60%
of the total expenditure on labour used in the works completed under the
scheme.
 A sub-plan of Jawahar Rozgar Yojana— ‘Indira Awas Yojana’ was made an
independent scheme in itself on January 1, 1996.
 The Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS) was introduced on October 2,
1993, in selective rural areas. The aim of this scheme is to provide work in

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the form of unskilled physical labour to all the employment seeking men
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and women (of ages between 18 years to 60 years) in rural areas. The
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expenditure on this scheme is shared by the Centre and the States in the
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ratio of 80:20. From maximum of 2 members from one family can be
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benefitted under this scheme. Since January 1, 1996, the Integrated
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Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (IJRY) has been merged with Employment
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Assurance Scheme (EAS).
 The Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) was started on an
experimental basis in 1978-79. This programme was launched in the whole
country on October 2, 1980. The basic aim of IRDP was to provide
assistance to rural poor families living below the poverty line.
 The Integrated Rural Development Programme is financially assisted by
the Centre and States in the ratio of 50 : 50.
 Under the Integrated Rural Development Programme, targeted group
includes atleast 50% families belonging to schedule caste and schedule
tribe. Apart from this, among the beneficiaries, 50% were females and 3%
physically handicapped persons.
 Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA) and
Training Rural Youth for Self-Employment (TRYSEM) were the sub- plans
of Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP).
 The objective of TRYSEM was to provide training to those rural youth (ages
18-35 years) who belong to the families living below the poverty line. This
programme was started on August 15, 1979.
 Development of Women and Children in Rural Area Programme (DWCRA)
was started in September 1982. Under this programme, a group of 10-15
women was taken, who belong to the families living below the poverty line
and they were given training for starting any economic activity. Every
group was given the economic assistance of Rs. 25,000.
 Swarna Jayanti Gram SwarozgarYojana (SGSY): The Government has
introduced Swarna Jayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana on April 1, 1999 and
the previous six ongoing schemes have been merged with this scheme, they
are—1. IRDP 2. TRYSEM 3. DWCRA 4. MWS 5. SITRA 6. Ganga Kalyan
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Yojana. The SGSY is a holistic programme covering all the aspects of self
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employment. The scheme is funded on 75 : 25 basis by the centre and
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states.
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 The Drought-prone Area Programme was started in 1973 with the
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objective of developing the drought-prone area and also re-establishing the
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environmental balance. This programme is financially assisted by the
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Centre and the concerned State Governments in the ratio of 50 : 50.
 The Desert Development Programme was started in 1977-78 to end the ill-
effects of drought in desert areas and also to stop the process of desert
expansion. This programme is implemented on the basis of cent- per-cent
financial assistance rendered by the Central Government.
 The Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP) began on
August15, 1993 and National Rural Employment Programme (NREP) on
October 2, 1980. During Seventh Five-Year Plan, these programmes were
merged with Jawahar Rozgar Yojana.
 Council for Advancement of Peoples Action and Rural Technology
(CAPART) is an independent section of the Rural Development Department
of the Government of India; which was established on September 1, 1986.
For rural development works, ‘CAPART’ provides grants to voluntary
organisations. The head office of CAPART is at New Delhi.
 Following programmes .are being implemented by the Ministry of the
Urban Development to eradicate Urban Poverty—(i) Nehru Rozgar Yojana.
(ii) Urban Basic Services for the Poor. (iii) Programme of Environment
Improvement of Urban Slums.
 The Nehru Rozgar Yojana began on October 1989 which was revised in
March 1990. Under this Yojana following scheme were included—(i)
Scheme of Urban Micro Enterprises—SUME. (ii) Scheme of Urban Wage
Employment—SUWE. (iii) Scheme of Housing and Shelter Upgradation—
SHASU.

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 The Prime Minister’s Rozgar Yojana (PMRY) was started for October 2,
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1993 for the educated unemployed youth and initially was in operation in
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urban areas. From April 1, 1994 onwards the scheme is being implemented
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throughout the country. Its objective was to give employment to 10 lakhs
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educated unemployed urban youth by establishing 7 lakh micro
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enterprises during the Eighth Five Year Plan. During 1993-94, this yojana
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was implemented in urban areas only but since April 1, 1994 it was
extended to the whole country.
 SHGs (Self-Help Groups) are considered eligible for financing under the
PMRY, effective from December 8, 2003 (terms modified on July 30, 2004)
provided all members individually satisfy the eligibility criteria laid down
and total membership does not exceed twenty (20). There is also a ceiling
on the loan amount. During 2004-05 banks sanctioned loans amouting to
Rs. 1479 crore in 2.36 lakh accounts, while disbursements amounted to Rs.
851 crore in 1.42 lakh accounts (data provisional).
Swarn Jayanti Shahari Rozgar Yojana

 The Urban Self-employment Programme and Urban Wage-Employment
Programmes of the Swaran Jayanti Shahari Yojana, which substituted in
December 1997 various programmes operated earlier for poverty
alleviation.
 SJSRY is funded on 75:25 basis between the Centre and the States.
 During the 3-year period (1997-98 and 1999-2000), a total of Rs. 353
crores were spent of SJSRY generating 21.8 million mandays of
employment

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Chapter INDIAN FINANCIAL
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SYSTEM
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Indian Financial System is a system in which People, Financial Institutions,
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Banks, Industrial Companies and the Government demand for fund and the
same is supplied to them. There are two parts of Indian Financial System—
first demand side and second supply side. The representative of demand side
can be Individual investor, Industrial and Business Companies, Government
etc. and the representative of supply side will be Banks, Insurance
Companies, Mutual Fund and other Financial Institutions.
The Indian financial system, which refers to the borrowing and lending of
funds or to the demand for and supply of funds, consists of two parts, viz., the
Indian money market and the Indian capital market.
The Indian money market is the market in which short-term funds are
borrowed and lent. The capital market in India, on the other hand, is the
market for medium-term and long-term funds.
Usually, we classify the Indian money market into organised sector and the
unorganised sector. The unorganised sector consists of indigenous bankers
including the non-banking financial companies (NBFCs). Besides, these two,
there are many sub-markets in the Indian money market.
The organised banking system in India can be broadly divided into three
categories, viz., the central bank of the country known as the Reserve Bank of
India, the commercial banks and the co-operative banks which includes
private sector and public sector banks and also foreign banks.
The highest financial institution in organized sector is Reserve Bank of India
and in addition to this Banks of Public Sector, Banks of Private Sector, Foreign
Banks and other financial institutions is also part of organized sector.

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The Reserve Bank of India
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The RBI was established under the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934 on 1st
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April, 1935 with a capital of Rs. 5 crore. It was nationalised on 1st January,
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1949; on the recommendation of Parliamentary Committee 1948. It is the
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Central Bank of India. Its financial year is 1st July to 30th June.
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Structure
RBI is governed by a central board (headed by a governor) appointed by the
central government of India. The general superintendence and direction of
the bank is entrusted to central board of directors of 20 members, the
Governor and four deputy Governors, one Governmental official from the
ministry of Finance, ten nominated directors by the government to give
representation to important elements in the economic life of the country, and
the four nominated director by the Central Government to represent the four
local boards with the headquarters at Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai and New
Delhi. Local Board consists of five members each central government
appointed for a term of four years. RBI has 22 regional offices across India.
Role & Function

The RBI Act 1934 was commenced on April 1, 1935. The Act, 1934 provides
the statutory basis of the functioning of the bank. The bank was constituted
for the need of following:
- To regulate the issues of banknotes.
- To maintain reserves with a view to securing monetary stability
- To operate the credit and currency system of the country to its advantage.
Functions of RBI as a central bank of India are explained briefly as follows:
Bank of Issue: The RBI formulates, implements, and monitors the monitory
policy. Its main objective is maintaining price stability and ensuring adequate
flow of credit to productive sector.
Regulator-Supervisor of the financial system: RBI prescribes broad
parameters of banking operations within which the country’s banking and
financial system functions. Their main objective is to maintain public

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confidence in the system, protect depositor’s interest and provide cost
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effective banking services to the public.
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Manager of exchange control: The manager of exchange control
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department manages the foreign exchange, according to the foreign exchange
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management act, 1999. The manager’s main objective is to facilitate external
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trade and payment and promote orderly development and maintenance of
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foreign exchange market in India.
Issuer of currency: A person who works as an issuer, issues and exchanges
or destroys the currency and coins that are not fit for circulation. His main
objective is to give the public adequate quantity of supplies of currency notes
and coins and in good quality. The Finance Ministry issues Currency Notes
and Coins of rupee one, all other Currency Notes are issued by the Reserve
Bank of India.
Developmental role: The RBI performs the wide range of promotional
functions to support national objectives such as contests, coupons
maintaining good public relations and many more.
Related functions: There are also some of the related functions to the above
mentioned main functions. They are such as; banker to the government,
banker to banks etc….
Banker to government performs merchant banking function for the central
and the state governments; also acts as their banker.
Banker to banks maintains banking accounts to all scheduled banks.
Controller of Credit: RBI performs the following tasks:
 It holds the cash reserves of all the scheduled banks.
 It controls the credit operations of banks through quantitative and
qualitative controls.
 It controls the banking system through the system of licensing, inspection
and calling for information.
 It acts as the lender of the last resort by providing rediscount facilities to
scheduled banks.
Supervisory Functions: In addition to its traditional central banking
functions, the Reserve Bank performs certain non-monetary functions of
the nature of supervision of banks and promotion of sound banking in
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India. The Reserve Bank Act 1934 and the banking regulation act 1949
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have given the RBI wide powers of supervision and control over
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commercial and co-operative banks, relating to licensing and
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establishments, branch expansion, liquidity of their assets, management
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and methods of working, amalgamation, reconstruction and liquidation.
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Promotional Functions: With economic growth assuming a new urgency
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since independence, the range of the Reserve Bank’s functions has steadily
widened. The bank now performs a variety of developmental and
promotional functions, which, at one time, were regarded as outside the
normal scope of central banking. The Reserve bank was asked to promote
banking habit, extend banking facilities to rural and semi-urban areas, and
establish and promote new specialized financing agencies.
Monetary Policy - Monetary policy is govern by RBI to control the amount
of liquidity and avability of credit in economy through following
instrument
Cash reserve Ratio - CRR is the amount of funds that the banks have to
keep with the RBI. If the central bank decides to increase the CRR, the
available amount with the banks comes down. The RBI uses the CRR to
drain out excessive money from the system. Commercial banks are
required to maintain with the RBI an average cash balance, the amount of
which shall not be less than 3% of the total of the Net Demand and Time
Liabilities (NDTL), on a fortnightly basis and the RBI is empowered to
increase the rate of CRR to such higher rate not exceeding 20% of the
NDTL.
Repo rate - The rate at which the RBI lends money to commercial banks is
called repo rate. It is an instrument of monetary policy. Whenever banks
have any shortage of funds they can borrow from the RBI.
A reduction in the repo rate helps banks get money at a cheaper rate and
vice versa. The repo rate in India is similar to the discount rate in the US.
Reverse Repo Rate - It is the rate at which the RBI borrows money from
commercial banks. Banks are always happy to lend money to the RBI since
their money are in safe hands with a good interest.

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An increase in reverse repo rate can prompt banks to park more funds with
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the RBI to earn higher returns on idle cash. It is also a tool which can be
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used by the RBI to drain excess money out of the banking system.
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Bank Rate - Bank rate is also called as the discount rate. It is the rate of
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interest which a central bank charges on the loans and advances provided
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to commercial banks.In other word Bank rate is a rate at which RBI lends
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money to the Commercial banks. Bank rate serves as a basic parameter to
the commercial banks to fix interest on long term loan to the individuals
and coporates.
Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR) - Every bank is required to maintain at
the close of business every day, a minimum proportion of their Net
Demand and Time Liabilities as liquid assets in the form of cash, gold and
un-encumbered approved securities. The ratio of liquid assets to demand
and time liabilities is known as Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR). RBI is
empowered to increase this ratio up to 40%. An increase in SLR also
restricts the bank’s leverage position to pump more money into the
economy.
Marginal Standing Facility Rate - RBI announced that MSF scheme has
become effective from 09th May, 2011. Under this scheme, Banks will be
able to borrow up to 1% of their respective Net Demand and Time
Liabilities. The rate of interest on the amount accessed from this facility
will be 100(i.e. 1%) basis point above the repo rate. This scheme is likely to
reducevolatility in the over night rates and improve monetary transmission
Overnight.
Banking in India
 The first bank of limited liability managed by Indians was Oudh
Commercial Bank founded in 1881. Subsequently, Punjab National Bank
was established in 1894.
 Swadeshi movement; which began in 1906, encouraged the formation of a
number of commercial banks.
 The Banking Companies Act was passed in February 1949, which was
subsequently amended to read as Banking Regulation Act, 1949.
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 Commercial banks mobilise savings in urban areas and make them
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available to large and small industrial and trading units mainly for working
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capital requirements.
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 Commercial Banking System in India consisted of 298 scheduled
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commercial banks (including foreign banks).
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 Of the scheduled commercial banks, 224 are in public sector of which 196
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are regional rural banks (RRBs) and these account for about 77.9% of the
deposits of all scheduled commercial banks.
 Commercial banks are broadly classified into nationalised or public sector
banks and private sector banks, with a few foreign banks. The public sector
banks account for more than 92% of the entire banking business in India-
occupying a dominant position in the commercial banking. The State Bank
of India and its 7 associate banks along with another 20 banks are the
public sector banks.
 Oudh Commercial Bank was the first complete Commercial Bank of India.
 The Imperial Bank was established in the year 1921 by merging three main
Presidency Banks.
 The largest bank-Imperial Bank was nationalised in 1955 on
recommendation of Gorewala Committee and rechristened as State Bank of
India.
 In 1959, 7 regional banks were nationalised and given the status of
Associate Banks of State Bank of India.
 On 19th July, 1969, 14 big commercial banks with deposits worth Rs. 50
crores or more and on 15th April, 1980, six other scheduled banks were
nationalised, bringing total number of nationalised banks to 27 (19 + SBI +
7 SBI Associates).
 Before the merger of New Bank of India in Punjab National Bank (in 1993)
the total number of nationalised banks was 28(8 SBI & Associates + 14 + 6).
Lead Bank Scheme

 After the nationalisation of 14 banks the Lead Bank Scheme of the RBI was
adopted in 1969 for branch expansion programme of banks.

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 Under the scheme, all the nationalised banks and private banks were
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allotted specific distracts where they were asked to take the lead in
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surveying the scope of banking development particularly expansion of
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credit facilities.
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Banking Reforms
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 On the recommendation of Narsimhan Committtee, a number of steps
taken to improve functioning of banking sector. SLR and CRR were
reduced.
 Banks were given freedom to open new branches. Rapid computerisation
of banks was undertaken.
 Banking “Ombudsmen Scheme” started functioning to expedite inexpensive
resolution of customer’s complaints.
Scheduled and Non-scheduled Banks

 The scheduled banks are those which are entered in the second schedule of
the RBI Act, 1934. These banks have a paid-up capital and reserves of an
aggregate value of not less than Rs. 5 lakhs and satisfy the RBI that their
affairs are carried out in the interest of their depositors.
 All commercial banks (Indian and foreign), regional rural banks and state
co-operative banks are scheduled banks. Non scheduled banks are those
which are not included in the second schedule of the RBI Act 1934. At
present there is only one such bank in the country.
Regional Rural Banks

 The Regional Rural Banks (RRBs), the newest form of banks, have come
into existence since middle of 1970s (sponsored by individual nationalised
commercial banks) with the objective of developing rural economy by
providing credit and deposit facilities for agriculture and other productive
activities of all kinds in rural areas.

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 The emphasis is on providing such facilities to small and marginal farmers,
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agricultural labourers, rural artisans and other small enterpreneurs in
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rural areas.
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Co-operative Banks
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 Co-operative banks are so called because they are organised under the
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provisions of the Co-operative Credit Societies law of the states. The major
beneficiary of the Co-operative Banking is the agricultural sector in
particular and the rural sector in general. The first such bank was
established in 1904.
 The Co-operative credit institutions operating in the country are mainly of
two kinds: agricultural (dominant) and non-agricultural.
 At the apex is the State Co-operative Bank (SCB) (co-operation being a state
subject in India), at the intermediate (district) level are the Central Co-
operative Banks (CCBs), and at the village level are Primary Agricultural
Credit Societies (PACs); Long-term agricultural credit is provided by the
Land Development Banks.
 Approximately 91% of total credit of banks is controlled by the banks of
public sectors.
 In public sector banks, the State Bank of India group is the biggest, which
controls 29% of total credit.
 First Regional Rural Bank was established on 2’ October, 1975.
 In the year 1991, Narsimhan Committee was constituted to advice on the
issue of reconstruction of banking system.
Development Banks
 Industrial Development Bank of India (IDBI), established in 1964. Main
functions : Providing finance to large and medium scale industrial units.
 Industrial Finance Corporation of India (IFCI), established in 1948. Main
functions : (a) Project finance (b) Promotional services.
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 Industrial Credit and Investment Corporation of India Limited (ICICI),
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 Main functions : Providing term loans in Indian and foreign currencies;
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Underwriting of issues of shares and debentures.
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 Small Industries Development Bank of India (SIDBI), established in 1989.
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Main functions : Providing assistance to small scale industries through
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state finance corporations, state industrial development corporations,
commercial banks etc.
 Export-Import Bank of India (Exim. Bank) was established in 1982. Main
functions : Coordinating the working of institutions engaged in financing
export and import trade, Financing exports and imports.
 National Housing Bank (NHB) started operations in 1988.
 Main functions : Development of housing finance in the country. ‘- NABARD
was established in 1982.
 Main functions : to serve as an apex refinancing agency for institutions
engaged in providing agricultural finance to develop credit delivery system
to coordinate rural financing activities.
Insurance
 The basic concept of insurance is of spreading the loss of a few over many.
Insurance industry includes two sectors-Life Insurance and General
Insurance. Life Insurance in India was introduced by Britishers. A British
firm in 1818 established the Oriental Life Insurance Company at Calcutta
now Kolkata.
 Life Insurance Corporation (LIC) was established in September 1956.
General Insurance Corporation (GIC) was established in November 1972.
 Indian Insurance sector has low penetration particularly in rural areas. It
also has low turnover and profitability despite high premium rate. The

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committee on Insurance Sector Reforms was set-up in 1993 under the
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chairmanship of R.N. Malhotra which submitted its report in 1994.
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 Malhotra Committee recommended entry of the private sector in insurance
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sector. It also suggested entry of foreign insurance companies on selective
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basis. All the four associate companies of GIC should be granted permission
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to perform their business independently. Insurance Regultory Authority
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(IRA) should be established on the lines of SEBI and IRA should be granted
complete functional autonomy.
Capital Market
The Capital Market in India includes following institutions (i) Commercial
Banks (ii) Insurance companies (iii) Development Banks or specialised
financial institutions like IFCI, IDBI, ICICI, EXIM, NHB, NABARD, UTI etc.
(iv) Merchant banking agencies.
Individuals who invest directly on their own in securities are also supplier
of fund to capital market. The trend in the capital market is basically
affected by two important factors (i) operations of the institutional
investors in the market and (ii) the excellent results flowing in from the
corporate sector.
Capital market is divided in to two part (i) Primary Capital Market (ii)
Secondary Market. If shares or debentures of private corporations, primary
sureties of government companies or new sureties and issue of bonds of
public sector are sold or purchased in the capital market, then the market
is called Primary Capital Market. Secondary Market includes transactions in
the stock-exchange and guilt aged market.
The sources of capital in the Indian Capital market are — Share capital,
acceptance letter etc. Merchant Bank, Mutual Fund, Leasing Companies,
Risk Capital Companies etc. collect and invest public money into the capital
market.

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Stock Exchange
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The stock exchange is the market for buying and selling of stocks, shares,
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securities, bonds & debentures etc. It increases the market ability of existing
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securities by providing simple method for public & others to buy and sell
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securities.
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Some Important Share Price Index of India
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BSE SENSEX — This is the most sensitive share index of the Mumbai Stock
Exchange. This is the representative index of 30 main shares. Its base year
is 1978-79. BSE is the oldest stock exchange of India, founded in 1875.
BSE 200 — This represents 200 shares of Mumbai Stock Exchange. Its base
year is 1989-90.
DOLLEX — Index of 200 BSE Dollar Value Index is called DOLLEX. Its base
year is 1989-90.
NSE-50 — From 28th July, 1998, its name is S & P CNX Nifty. National Stock
Exchange has launched a new share Price Index, NSE-50 in place of NSE-
100 in April 1996. NSE-50 includes 50 companies shares. This stock
exchange was founded on Ferwani Committee’s recommendation in 1994.
CRISIL 500 — is the new share Price Index introduced by Credit Rating
Agency CRISIL on January 18, 1996. It has 1994 as the base year.
The National Stock Exchange (NSE) has launched a new version of its
online trading software called ‘National Exchange for Automatic Trading’
(NEAT).
Types of Shares
A company may have many different types of shares that come with different
conditions and rights.
Equity shares: These shares are also known as ordinary shares. They have
the potential to give the highest financial gains, but also have the highest
risk. Ordinary shareholders are the last to be paid if the company is wound
up. They are the shares which do not enjoy any preference regarding
payment of dividend and repayment of capital. They are given dividend at a
fluctuating rate. The dividend on equity shares depends on the profits
made by a company. Higher the profits, higher will be the dividend, where
as lower the profits, lower will be the dividend.
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Preference shares: These shares are those shares which are given
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preference as regards to payment of dividend and repayment of capital.
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Shares in this category receive a fixed dividend, which means that a
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shareholder would not benefit from an increase in the business' profits.
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They do not enjoy normal voting rights. Preference shareholders have
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some preference over the equity shareholders, as in the case of winding up
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of the company, they are paid their capital first. They can vote only on the
matters affecting their own interest. These shares are best suited to
investors who want to have security of fixed rate of dividend and refund of
capital in case of winding up of the company.
Deferred shares: These shares are those shares which are held by the
founders or pioneer or beginners of the company. They are also called
as Founder shares or Management shares.In deferred shares, the right to
share profits of the company is deferred, i.e. postponed till all the other
shareholders receive their normal dividends. Being the last claimants of the
profits, they have a considerable element of speculation or uncertainty and
they have to bear the greatest risk of loss. The market price of such shares
shows a very wide fluctuation on account of wide dividend fluctuations.
Deferred shares have disproportionate voting rights. These shares have a
small denomination or face value.
Cumulative preference shares give holders the right that, if a dividend
cannot be paid one year, it will be carried forward to successive years.
Dividends on cumulative preference shares must be paid, despite the
earning levels of the business, provided the company has distributable
profits.
Redeemable shares come with an agreement that the company can buy
them back at a future date - this can be at a fixed date or at the choice of the
business. A company cannot issue only redeemable shares.
Bonus shares: The word bonus means a gift given free of charge. Bonus
shares are those shares which are issued by the company free of charge as
bonus to the shareholders. They are issued to the existing shareholders in
proportion to their existing share holdings. It is a kind of gift to the
shareholders from the company. It is bonus in the form of shares instead of
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cash. It is given out of accumulated profits and reserves. These shares have
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all types of preferences which are available to the existing shares. For
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example two bonus shares for five equity shares. The issue of bonus shares
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is also termed as capitalization of undistributed profits.Bonus shares are a
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type of windfall gain to the equity shareholders. They are advantageous to
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the equity shareholders as they get additional shares free of cost and also
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they earn dividend on them in future.
Some Other Important terms
 Devaluation means lowering the official value of the local money in terms
of foreign currency or gold.
 Balance of Payments (BOP) is a systematic record of all the economic
transactions between one country and the rest of the world in a given
period.
 Balance of Trade (BOT) is the difference between the value of goods
exported and the value of goods imported per annum. Services not
included in BOT.
 BOP is divided in current account and capital account.
 EXIM Policy 2000-01 introduced Special Economic Zones Scheme (SEZ)
 1994-95, Indian Rupee was made fully convertible on current account.

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FISCAL POLICY
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Fiscal Policy is the policy relating to public revenue and public expenditure
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and allied matters. Government spending policies that influence
macroeconomic conditions. These policies affect tax rates, interest rates and
government spending, in an effort to control the economy.Fiscal policy is the
means by which a government adjusts its levels of spending in order to
monitor and influence a nation’s economy.Fiscal policy and Monetary policy
go hand in hand with each other. Both are interdependent on each other.
Tax System
A compulsory contribution given by a citizen or organisation to the
Government is called Tax, which is used for meeting expenses on welfare
work. Tax imposing and Tax collecting is at three levels in India — Central
level, State level and Local level.The distribution of tax between Centre and
State has been clearly mentioned in the provisions of Indian Constitution.
For rationalising it from time to time, Finance Commission has been
constituted. The tax system has been divided into two parts:
1. Tax by Central Government — Custom Duty, Income Tax and Corporate
Tax etc.
2. Tax by State Government — The state government has right to collect all
the taxes in this category and to spend them.
 There are two types of taxes : 1. Direct Taxes 2. Indirect Taxes:
o Direct Taxes—The taxes levied by the central government on incomes and
wealth are important direct taxes. The important taxes levied on incomes
are—corporation tax and income tax. Taxes levied on wealth are wealth
tax, gift tax etc.
o Indirect Taxes—The main forms of indirect taxes are customs and excise
duties and sales tax. The central government is empowered to levy customs

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and excise duties (except on alcoholic liquors and narcotics) whereas sales
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tax is the exclusive jurisdiction of the state governments.
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However, the union excise duties form the most significant part of central
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taxes. The major tax revenue sources for states are their shares in union
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excise duties and income tax, commercial taxes, land revenue, stamp duty,
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registration fees, state excise duties on alcohol and narcotics etc. Sales tax
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forms the most important component of commercial taxes.
 Progressive Tax—A tax that takes away a higher proportion of one’s
income as the income rises is known as progressive tax. Indian Income Tax
is a progressive and direct tax.
 R. Chelliah Committee was constituted in August 1991 for suggesting
reforms in Tax Structure.
 Chelliah Committee recommended Income Tax for agricultural income of
more than Rs. 25,000 p.a. Chelliah Committee also recommended for
lowering down the tax rates and reducing the tax slabs.
 K.L. Rekhi Committee was constituted in 1992 for suggesting uniform
regulations for indirect taxation (Custom Duty and Excise Duty).
Finance Commission
 Finance Commission is constituted by the President under Art 280 of the
constitution. Since Independence, 13 Finance Commissions have submitted
their reports.
 1st Finance Commission was constituted under chairmanship of Prof. K.C.
Pant.
 14th Finance Commission has been constituted in 2013 with Dr. Y. V Reddy
as the Chairman.
Major Recommendations of 14th Finance Commission headed by Prof.
Y V Reddy
1. The share of states in the net proceeds of the shareable Central taxes
should be 42%. This is 10 percentage points higher than the
recommendation of 13th Finance Commission.
2. Revenue deficit to be progressively reduced and eliminated.

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3. Fiscal deficit to be reduced to 3% of the GDP by 2017–18.
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4. A target of 62% of GDP for the combined debt of centre and states.
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5. The Medium Term Fiscal Plan(MTFP) should be reformed and made the
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statement of commitment rather than a statement of intent.
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6. FRBM Act need to be amended to mention the nature of shocks which shall
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require targets relaxation.
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7. Both centre and states should conclude 'Grand Bargain' to implement the
model Goods and Services Act(GST).
8. Initiatives to reduce the number of Central Sponsored Schemes(CSS) and to
restore the predominance of formula based plan grants.
9. States need to address the problem of losses in the power sector in time
bound manner.
Important Taxes imposed in India

 Tax on Income and Wealth — The central government impose different
types of tax on income and wealth, viz, income tax, corporate tax, wealth
tax and gift tax. Out of them income tax and corporate tax are more
important from the revenue point of view.
 Personal Income Tax — Personal income tax is generally imposed on an
individual combined Hindu families and total income of people of any other
communities.
 In addition to tax, separate surcharges are also imposed some times.
 Agricultural income in India is free from income tax.
 Corporate Tax — Corporate Tax is imposed on Registered Companies and
Corporations.
 The rate of corporate tax on all companies is equal. However, various types
of rebates and exemptions have been provided.
 Custom Duties — As per the Constitutional provisions, the central
government imposes import duty and export duty both. Import and Export
duties are not only sources of income but with the help of it the central
government regulates the foreign trade.

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 Import Duties — Generally import duties are ad-velorem in India. It means
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import duties are imposed on the taxable item on percentage basis.
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 Export Duties — Export Duties are more important, compared to Import
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 Excise Duties — Excise duties are commodity tax as it is imposed on
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production of an item and it has no relevance with its sale. This is the
largest source of revenue for the Central Government.
 Except liquor, opium and other drugs, production of all the other items is
taxable under Central Excise Duties.
 To develop Social Accounting method of National income — Richard Stone.
 One Coin & One Rupee note belong to “Legal Tender Money” category.
 M1 is known as Narrow Money.
 M3 is known as Broad Money.
Types of Tax
Direct Tax Income Tax, Property Tax, Gift Tax etc.

Indirect Tax Sales Tax, Excise Duty Custom Duty etc.
Taxes imposed by the Income Tax, Corporate Tax, Property Tax,
Central Government Succession Tax, Wealth Tax, Gift Tax, Custom
Duty Tax on agricultural wealth etc.
Taxes imposed by the Land revenue tax, Agricultural incometax,
State Government Agricultural Land Revenue, State Excise Duty,
Entertainment Tax, Stamp duty, Road Tax,
Motor Vehicle Tax etc.

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EXTERNAL SECTOR
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Before independence, the foreign trade of India was being operated on the
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principles of colonialism. But after independence, there have been huge
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changes in its state and direction. After independence, inward looking foreign
trade policies were accepted and the policy of import replacement was its
base. Efforts were made for trade liberlisation during the decade of 1980 and
the comprehensive policy of liberalisation and globalisation was made in the
decade of 1990s (after the year 1991).
Volume of India’s Foreign Trade

After independence, Indian foreign trade has made cumulative progress both
qualitatively and quantitatively. Though the size of foreign trade and its value
both have increased during post-independence era, this increase in foreign
trade cannot be said satisfactory because Indian share in total foreign trade of
the world has remained remarkable low.
Composition of India’s Foreign Trade

Imports have been classified into Bulk imports and Non-bulk imports.
Bulk imports are further sub-divided into Petroleum, oil and lubricants (POL)
and non-POL items such as consumption goods, fertilizers and iron and steel.
Non-bulk items comprise of capital goods (which include electrical and non-
electrical machinery), pearls, precious and semiprecious stones and other
items.
The structural changes in imports since 1951 show: (a) rapid growth of
industrialisation necessitating increasing imports of capital goods and raw
materials; (b) growing imports of raw materials on the basis of liberalisation
of imports for export promotion; and (c) declining imports of food grains and
consumer goods due to the country becoming self- sufficient in food grains
and other consumer goods through agricultural and industrial growth.
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Exports of India are broadly classified into four categories: (i) Agriculture and
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allied products which include coffee, tea, oil cakes, tobacco, cashew kernels,
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spices, sugar, raw cotton, rice, fish and fish preparations, meat and meat
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preparations, vegetable oils, fruits, vegetables and pulses; (ii) Ores and
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minerals which include manganese ore, mica and iron ore; (iii) Manufactured
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goods which include textiles and ready-made garments, jute manufactures,
leather and footwear handicrafts including pearls and precious stones,
chemicals, engineering goods and iron steel; and (iv) Mineral fuels and
lubricants.
Direction of Foreign Trade

India is having maximum trade with OECD countries (mainly the USA, EU and
Japan).
The direction of Indian trade registered a change during recent past years.
Indian trade has been partially shifted from West-Europe to East Asia and
OECD countries.
The high growth rate in Japan and ASEAN countries gave a high demand and
favourable market to Indian exports. This has been one of the major reasons
responsible for increasing Indian exports to East-Asian region of the world.
USA is the India’s largest trading partner accounting for nearly 18% of our
exports and 6.44% of the imports. The share of non-traditional items and
value added products have been increasing in our exports to USA while
imports comprised mostly engineering and chemical products. India accounts
for only about 1.06% of USA’s total exports and imports. American trade laws
like Super-301 and Special-301 are not conducive for Indo-American trade.
Balance of Payment—A statement of all transactions of a country with the
rest of the world during a given period. Transactions may be related to trade,
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such as imports and exports of goods and services; movement of short-term
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and long-term investments; gifts, currency and gold. The balance of payments
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may be classified into current account, capital account, unilateral transfer
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account and gold account.
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Balance of Trade—Part of the nation’s balance of payments concerning
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imports and exports. A favourable balance of trade means that exports exceed
imports in value.
Invisibles—A term used to describe those items, such as financial series,
included in the current Balance of Payments accounts, as distinct from
physically visible Imports and Exports of goods. Invisibles include
government grants to overseas countries and subscriptions to international
organizations, net payment for shipping services, travel, royalties,
commissions for banking and other services, transfers to or from overseas
residents, Interest, Profits and Dividends received by or from overseas
residents.
Foreign Exchange Reserves in India

 The foreign exchange reserves of the country include three important
components : (i) Foreign Exchange Assets of RBI. (ii) Gold Stock of RBI (iii)
SDR holdings of the Government.
 After 1991, Indian foreign exchange reserves have rapidly increased due to
various reasons which are as follows: (i) Devlauation of Rupee. (ii)
Availability of loans from international institutions. (iii) Availability of
foreign exchange from NRIs under various schemes. (iv) Increased foreign
investment (both direct and indirect). (v) Full convertibility of Rupee on
current account.
 FEMA (Foreign Exchange Management Act) came into force in July 2000.
This FEMA has replaced Foreign Exchange Regulation Act., 1973 (FERA-
1973).

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 Under FEMA provisions related to foreign exchange have been modified
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and liberalised so as to simplify foreign trade and payments. FEMA will
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make favourable development in foreign Money Market.
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Trade Organizations
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 International Monetary Fund (IMF) was established on 27th December,
1945 on the basis of decision taken in the Bretenwood Conference and it
started functioning w.e.f. 1st March, 1947.
 The function of IMF is to encourage financial and economic Co-operation
between member countries and to extend world trade.
 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) was
 IBRD alongwith other institutions is also called World Bank. The other
institutions are International Finance Corporation, International
Development Agency and Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency.
 Presently, it is helping member countries in capital investment and
encouraging long-term balanced development.
 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), came into being on 30th
October, 1947 and started functioning from January, 1948.
 The principle of GATT was — equal tariffs policy, to remove quantitative
ban and disposal of business dispute in a democratic way.
 On 1st January, 1995 the World Trade Organisation took over the place and
position of GATT.
 The Headquarter of WTO is in Geneva and the number of its member
countries in the year 2003 was 146. India is also a member of it.

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Miscellaneous Facts
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 Inflation, in theory, occurs when money supply grows at a higher rate than
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GDP in real terms.
 The existence of a large parallel economy, fluctuations in agricultural and
industrial output and indirect taxation are the reasons for: cost-push
inflation.
 Among the supply side measures to contain inflation is: to increase the
supply of products or commodities.
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 opulation experts refer to the possible ‘demographic bonus’ that may
accrue to India around 2016 A.D. They are referring to the phenomenon of:
a surge in the population in the productive age group.
 The significant change in the new FEMA which has replaced FERA is that
the emphasis from imprisonment will be shifted to: Voluntary compliance.
 ‘Level playing field’ argument industries requires: Domestic industry to be
treated at par with MNCs.
 One of the disadvantages of the Wholesale Price Index in India is that: it
does not cover the services sector.
 Check off system refers to the verification of membership through:
deduction of subscription from pay.
 Among the tax revenues of the union government, the most important
source is: Union Excise Duties.
 Direct taxation is a better form of taxation because: it allows for taxation
according to means.
 Lender of the last resort, periodic inspection of commercial banks, issue of
bank notes of all denominations are the functions of: Reserve Bank of India.
 Multi Fibre Agreement deals with:Textiles.

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 Under the Medium Term Fiscal Restructuring Programme, state
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governments have been permitted to borrow from international financial
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institutions like the World Bank and Asian Development Bank (ADB)
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 Bank rate refers to :the rate at which banks rediscount bills with RBI.
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 Open market operation of RBI Refers to trading in securities.
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 The new definition of fiscal deficit was suggested by: Chakravarthy
Committee.
 According to the Chakravarthy Committee, one of the principal causes
affecting price stability in India is: Violent fluctuation in agricultural
production.
 RBI does not transact the business of J & K government.
 The concept of Total Fertility Rate (TFR) in population means the average
number of children born to a woman during her lifetime.
 Tarapore Committee recommended that before capital account was made
convertible the rate of inflation should be brought down for three years
within 3—4%.
 Tarapore Committee recommended that foreign exchange reserves should
not be below the requirements of import for 6 months.
 The first bank managed by Indians was: Oudh Bank.
 The statement, “India has achieved national food security but has not
ensured household food security” means: there is sufficient food stock but
all households do not have occurs to it.
 The permit for duty free trade issued by the East India Company at a price
to private traders was called:Diwani.
 The demand for establishment of a department of agriculture in India was
made by:Manchester Cotton Supply Association.
 The birth rate measures the number of births during a year per: 1000 of
population.
 Structural unemployment arises due to: inadequate productive capacity.
 ‘Disguised unemployment’ refers to: more persons employed for a job
which a few can accomplish.
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 India has different categories of Commercial banks e.g. Private Banks, PSU
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/ Nationalised Banks, Cooperative Banks, Foreign Banks etc. But the
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‘Commodity Bank’ is not one such category.
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 The Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) recently imposed a
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restriction on money flow in equity through ‘P—Notes’. The full form of
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‘P—Notes’ is:Participatory Notes.
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 The money which government of India spends on the development of
infrastructure in country comes from the following sources — Loan from
World Bank / ADB etc., Taxes collected from the people, Loan from the RBI.
 ‘Investor Protection Fund’ has been established by: Stock Exchange
 The full form of FIT is:Foreign Institutional Investor.
 The second largest newspaper market in the world is : India.
 World Association of News papers (WAN) officially recognises India as the
second largest newspaper market in the world (99 million copies per day)
after China.
 The Centre approved the amendment to the Prevention of Money
Laundering Act (PMLA), a move aimed at bringing casinos, international
credit card payment gateways such as VISA and Master Card, full fledged
money changers (FFMCs) and money transfer service providers (MTSPs)
such as the Western Union under the purview of Indian laws.
 The Central Government has decided on April 6, 2008 to form a strategic
reserve of 5 million tonnes of foodgrains, to be consisted of 3 million
tonnes of wheat and 2 million tonnes of rice.
 The National Association of Software and Service Companies (NASSCOM),
the premier trade body represents: The IT & BPO industry.
 The biggest consumer of natural gas in the world is : the USA.
 The country which leads in oil-consumption in the world is: the USA.
 The country which leads in Internet users in the world is : the USA.
 World’s leading vegetable producing country is: China (India holds the
second place in the world).
 World’s leading gold producer country is: South Africa.

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 In the production of vegetables, India is in the second position (after
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China).
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 India is in the first position in the production of milk.
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 The highest producer of milk in India is Uttar Pradesh.
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 India is the third largest producer of Tobacco. The largest producer and
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consumer of tobacco is China.
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 Four industries which have been reserved for public sector are -Arms &
Ammunition, Atomic Energy, Rail Transportation and Minerals mentioned
in the scheduled list of Atomic Energy.
 The position of India is first as a producer of pulses.
 The Centre receives maximum net revenue through Excise Duty.
 First Hydel Power Plant in India was started in Darjiling.
 The Money-Order system in India was launched in 1880.
 First postal stamp was launched in India in 1852.
 Maharashtra is the 1st state which accorded the status of Industry to
agriculture in 1997.
 According to the World Bank, per person property in India is $ 25
thousand.
 The “Big Push Theory” has been given by R. Rodan.
 Alfred Marshal propounded the “Principle of consumer surplus”.
 Central Agmark Laboratory is in Nagpur.
 First Cotton Industry of the country was established in Kolkata in 1818 and
the second by Kovas Tee Nana Bhai in Mumbai in 1853.
 Sindri Fertilizer Factory, Chitaranjan Locomotives, Indian Telephone
Industr Integral Coach Fador Penciline Factory Indian Telephone Industry
were all established during first five-year plan.
 The largest number of co-operative institutions is in India.
 Unorganised sectors are creating more employment than organised sector
in India.
 The share of groundnut is the highest in the production of oil seeds.
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 Three cities of India have more than 1 crore population — Mumbai, Kolkata
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and Delhi.
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 Urbanisation is highest in Goa in India.
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 Asian Development Bank was established in 1966. (Head Office - Manila)
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 The social accounting method of estimating national income was developed
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by Richard Stone.
 TRIFED - Tribal Co-operative Marketing Development Federation of India
Ltd. established by government in 1987 to benefit small tribal farmers.
 NAFED - National Agricultural Co-operative Marketing Federation of India
Ltd. was established for marketing the agricultural products.
 In 1993 FERA (Foreign Exchange Regulation Act 1973) was replaced by
FEMA (Foreign Exchange Management Act).
 Textile Industry has the largest contribution of 20% in India’s total
industrial production.
 Small Industries have been completely relaxed from licencing.
 Since 2002, price of all petroleum products are market determined.
Kerosene and domestic LPG is supplied at subsidised rates to target groups.
 Average size of holding in India is continuously decreasing due to rigid
population growth.
 Department of Agriculture and Co-operation formulated the Farm Income
Insurance Scheme.
 Green Revolution is associated with the use of HYVS (High Yielding Variety
Seeds), Chemicals fertilizers and new techniques.
 Seed Crop Insurance is operational since 1999-2000.

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 Seed Bank is in operation since 1999-2000. Its functions include meeting
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contigency requirement, development infrastructure for production and
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distribution of seeds.
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 Export-Import Bank was set up in 1982 for financing exports & imports.
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 Some Important Books on Economics:
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The Wealth of Nations —Adam Smith
Money Illusion — Irwin Fisher
Capital and growth — Hicks
General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money — J. M. Keynes
Planned Economy for India M. Vishveshwaraiya
The Value and Capital — Hicks
The Canon (theory) of Consumer’s Surplus — Marshall
Big Push Theory — A. R. Rodons

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GLOSSARY
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10
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Active Market : It is a stock exchange term. It is used for a particular stock or
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share in which there are regular and frequent dealings. This is a term used by
stock exchange which specifies the particular stock or share which deals in
frequent and regular transactions. It helps the buyers to obtain reasonably
large amounts any time.
Administered Prices: When the prices of an item or a commodity are
decided by the central power, generally the government or any other agency
and not on the basis of demand and supply, such types of prices are called
Administered Prices.
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D-valorem Tax : Advalorem tax is a kind of indirect tax in which goods are
taxed by their values. In the case of advalorem tax, the tax amount is
calculated as the proportion of the price of the goods. Value Added Tax (VAT)
is an advalorem tax. In other words when the tax is determined on the basis
of value of a commodity, it is known as Ad-valorem tax.
Amalgamation: It means ‘merger’. As and when necessity arises two or more
companies are merged into a large organisation. The old firms completely
lose their identity when the merger takes place.
Appreciation : Appreciation means an increase in the value of something e.g.
stock of raw materials or manufactured goods. It also includes an increase in

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the traded value of currency. It is an increase in the value of assets over a
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particular time period. Example : land, building, paintings etc. Appreciation is
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just opposite to depreciation. When the prices rise due to inflation,
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appreciation may occur.
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Arbitration: Where there is an industrial dispute, the Arbitration comes to
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the force. The judgement is given by the Arbitrator. Both the parties have to
accept and honour the Arbitration. Arbitration is the settlement of labour
disputes that takes place between employer and the employees.
Auction : When a commodity is sold by auction, the bids are made by the
buyers. Who so ever makes the highest bid, gets the commodity which is
being sold. The buyers make the bid taking into consideration the quality and
quantity of the commodity.
Autarchy: It means self-sufficiency and self-reliance of an economy. Autarchy
is an indicator of self-sufficiency. It means that the country itself can satisfy
the needs of its population without making imports from other countries.
Balance of Payment: It is the difference between country’s payments and
receipts from other countries during a year. In other words the balance of
payment shows the relationship between the one country’s total payment to
all other countries and its total receipts from them. Balance of payment not
only includes visible export and imports but also invisible trade like shipping,
banking, insurance, tourism, royalty, payments of interest on foreign debts.
Balance of Trade : It refers to the relationship between the values of
country’s imports and its export, i.e. the visible balance. Balance of trade
refers to the total of country’s export commodities and total value of imports
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commodities. Thus balance of trade includes Only visible trade i. e. movement
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of goods (exports and imports of goods). Balance of trade is part of Balance of
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Payment statement.
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Balance Sheet : Balance sheet is a statement showing the assets and
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liabilities of a business at certain date. Balance sheet helps in estimating the
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real financial situation of a firm.
Bank : Bank is a financial institution. It accepts funds on current account and
savings accounts. It also lends money. The bank pays the cheques drawn by
customers against current or savings bank account. The bank is a trader that
deals in money and credit.
Bank Draft: Banker’s draft (Demand Draft) is a negotiable claim drawn upon
a bank. Drafts are as good as cash. The drafts cannot be returned unpaid.
Draft is issued when a customer shows his unwillingness to accept cheque in
payment for his services or mercantile goods. Bank Draft is safer than a
cheque.
Bank Rate : It is official rate of interest charged by Reserved Bank of India on
loans to other banks. It is the rate at which R.B.I. discounts first class
securities including bills of exchange. Thus, it is also known as discount rate.
Bankruptcy : It is a situation in which a person is unable to discharge his
debt obligations.
Basket of Currency: In this system the exchange value of a country’s
currency is fixed in terms of some major international currencies. Indian
rupee is valued against US Dollar British Pound, Japanese Yen, French Franc
and German Deutsche Mark. India opted for this system in 1975.
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Bear and Bull : These terms are used in stock exchange. ‘Bears’ is an
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individual who sells shares in a hope that the stock’s price would fall. ‘Bull’ is
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an individual who buys shares in a hope that the stock’s price would rise.
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Bill of Exchange : It is an unconditional order in writing addressed by one
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person to another requiring the addressee to pay on demand or at a fixed
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future time a certain sum of money to the order of the specified person or to
the bearer.
Birth Rate : Birth Rate (or Curde Birth Rate) is number of the births per
thousand of the population during a period, usually a year. Only live births
are included in the calculation of birth rate.
Black Money : It is unaccounted money which is concealed from tax
authorities. All illegal economic activities are dealt with this black money.
Howala market has deep roots with this black money. Black money creates
parallel economy. It puts an adverse pressure on equitable distribution of
wealth and income in the economy.
Blue Chip : The most reliable industrial shares on a stock exchange. It is

concerned with such equity shares whose purchase is extremely safe. It is a
safe investment. It does not involve any risk.
Blue Collar Jobs : These Jobs are concerned with factory. Persons who are
unskilled and depend upon manual jobs that require physical strain on
human muscle are said to be engaged in Blue Collar Jobs. In the age of
machinery, such Jobs are on the decline these days.

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Boom : The point at which price and employment are the maximum. The
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trade is also at its highest point and beyond this no upward movement is
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possible.
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Bounty: It is a subsidy paid by the government to exporters. It reduces the
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price of exportable goods and hence act as incentive to enhance exports.
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Bridge Loan : A loan made by a bank for a short period to make up for a
temporary shortage of cash. On the part of borrower, mostly the companies
for example, a business organisation wants to install a new company with
new equipments etc. While his present installed company or equipments etc.
are not yet disposed off. Bridge loan covers this period between the buying
the new and disposing of the old one.
Budget : It is a document containing a preliminary approved plan of public
revenue and public expenditure. It is a statement of the estimated receipt and
expenses during a fixed period. It is a comparative table giving the accounts
of the receipts to be realised and of the expenses to be incurred.
Budget Deficit : Budget deficit is the difference between the estimated public
expenditure and public revenue. The government meets the deficit by way of
printing new currency or by borrowing. Budget may take a shape of deficit
when the public revenue falls short to public expenditure.
Buffer Stocks : These are the stocks (generally of primary goods)
accumulated by a government agency when supply is plentiful. These stocks
are released in case of shortage of supply. In India Food Corporation of India
(FCI) accumulates foodgrains as buffer stocks

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Bullion : It is gold or silver having a specific degree of purity. Generally it is in
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the form of gold or silver bars.
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Bull Market : It is a market where the speculators buy shares or commodities
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in anticipation of rising prices. This market enables the speculators to resale
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such shares and make a profit. The opposite is Bear Market.
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Buoyancy: In the inflationary period, the increase in tax revenue is known as
buoyancy. When the government fails to check inflation, it raises income tax
and the corporate tax. Such a tax is called Buoyancy It concerns with the
revenue from taxation in the period of inflation.
Buyer’s Market : When the market is favourable to buyer’s market. This
situation occurs when there is a change from boom to recession i.e. demand is
less than supply.
Call Money: It is a loan that is made for overnight or single day (In case of
interbank borrowings). It carries a low rate of interest. In case of stock
exchange market, the duration of the call money may be for a fortnight.
Capital: The stock of goods which are used in production and which
themselves have been produced. It is one of the major factors of production,
the other being land, labour and entrepreneurship.
Capitalism: The economic system based on free enterprise and private profit.
Capitalism is an economic system in which all means of production are owned
by private individuals. Self-profit motive is the guiding feature for all the
economic activities under capitalism. Under pure capitalist system economic
conditions are regulated solely by free market forces. This system is based on
‘Laissez-faire system’ i.e, no state intervention. Sovereignty of consumer
prevails in this system.

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Capital Market: It is a market for long term loans. Capital market is the
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market which gives medium term and long term loans. It is different from
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money market which deals only in short term loans.
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Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR) : It refers to that portion of banker’s total cash
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reserves which they are statutorily required to hold with the R.B.I. The
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commercial banks are required to keep a certain amount of cash reserves at
the central bank i.e. RBI. This percentage amount is called CRR. It influences
the commercial bank’s volume of credit because variation in CRR affects the
liquidity position of the banks and hence their ability to lend.
Ceiling Prices: This is the maximum limit fixed generally by government or
its agency. Beyond it the prices cannot rise.
Cheap Money: It indicates a situation when bank rate and other rates of
interest are low.
Cheque : Cheque is an order in writing issued by the drawer to a bank. If the
customer has sufficient amount in his account, the cheque is paid by the bank.
Cheques are used in place of cash money.
Clearing House : Clearing house is an institution which helps to settle the
mutual indebtedness that occurs among the members of its organisation.
Closed Economy: Closed economy refers to the economy having no foreign
trade (i.e. export and import). Such economies depend exclusively on their
own internal domestic resources and have no dependence on out side world.
Core Industries : Core Industries include strategic, basic and critical

industries which remain generally under state control, e.g. defence, iron and
steel, fertilizers etc.

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Core Sector: Economy needs basic infrastructure for accelerating
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development. Development of infrastructure industries like cement, iron and
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steel, petroleum, etc. can only ensure the development of the economy as a
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whole. Such industries are core sector industries.
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Corporate Tax : It is a direct tax levied on company’s profit. It is calculated
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on profits after interest and allowance (i.e. capital allowance) have been
deducted.
Cost Price Index (CPI) : It is used for measuring cost of living and it covers
large number of commodities than Wholesale Price Index (WPI) which is
used for measuring rate of inflamation.
Credit Control: It implies the measures employed by central bank of a
country to control the volume of credit in the banks.
Credit Rating : It is the assessed credit worthiness of prospective customer.
Credit Rationing : Credit rationing takes place when the banks discriminates
between the borrowers. Credit rationing empowers the bank to lend to
someone and refuse to lend others. In this way credit rationing restricts
lending on the part of bank.
Credit Squeeze : Monetary authorities restrict credit as and when required.
This credit restriction is called credit squeeze. In other words when the credit
control is very tight and restrict, this situation is known as credit squeeze.
Custom Duty: It implies tax on imports. Custom duty is a duty that is
imposed on the products received from exporting nations of the world. It is
also called protective duty as it protects the home industries.
Cyclical Unemployment: It is that phase of unemployment which appears
due to the occurance of the downward phase of the trade cycle. Such an

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employment is reducted or eliminated when the business cycle turns up
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again.
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Death Rate : Death rate signifies the number of deaths in a year per thousand
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of the population. It is mostly known as crude death rate. Life expectancy is
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important determinant of death rate. A country having high life expectancy
will have a high crude death rate.
Debentures : It is a document which enlists the terms or conditions of a loan.
The debentures are used by corporate sector (companies). The debenture
holders are to be paid a fixed annual rate of interest and they have the first
claim on the assets of a company as creditors.
Decentralisation : Decentralisation means the establishment of various units
of the same industry at different places. Large scale organisation or industry
can not be run at one particular place or territory. In order to increase the
efficiency of the industry, various units at different places are located.
Deed : It is a written contract signed under legal seal.
Deflation: It is opposite to inflation. Thus, deflation is a fall in the general
price level over a particular period of time.
Demand Draft: It is a bill of exchange payable at sight.
Depreciation : It is the reduction in the value of a fixed asset due to wear and
tear.
Depression : It is just opposite to “boom”. It implies a state of economy when
lack of demand result in heavy unemployment and stagnation in economy.
Devaluation : It is the reduction in the official rate of a currency in terms of a
foreign currency. Indian rupee has been devalued thrice in 1949, 1966 and
1991.

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Direct Tax: It is a tax whose burden cannot be shifted i.e. the burden of direct
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tax is borne by the person on whom it is initially fixed, e.g.- personal income
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tax, social security tax paid by employees, death tax etc.
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Dividend : It is earnings on stocks paid to shareholders.
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Dumping : It means selling goods in international market at a price which is
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lower than that in domestic or home market.
Elasticity of Demand : The responsiveness of demand of a commodity to the
change in its price is known as elasticity of demand.
Embargo : It means prohibition of entry of goods from certain countries into
a particular country.
Engel’s law : Ernest Engel, the 19th century German statistician, analysed the
budget data of working families and established a relationship between the
families income and expenditure. According to the Law “When a family’s
income increases the percentage of its income spent on food decreases.”
Exchange Rate : The rate at which central banks will exchange one country’s
currency for another.
Excise Tax: Tax imposed on the manufacture, sale or the consumption of
various commodities, such as taxes on textiles, cloth, liquor etc.
Factor Cost : It is the sum total of amount paid to four main factors of
production i.e. Land (rent), Labour (compensation of employees), Capital
(interest), entrepreneurship (profit). It is exclusive of taxes or subsidies.
Floating of a Currency: When the exchange value of a currency in terms of
other currencies is not fixed officially, that currency is said to be floating.
Foreign Exchange Reserves : Foreign Exchange Reserves of a country
includes foreign currency assets and interest bearing bonds held by it. In
India it also includes SDR and value of gold.

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Free market : It means a market where price of a commodity is determined
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by free play of the forces of demand and supply.
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Free Trade : It implies absence of any protective tariffs or trade barriers by
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any economy with respect to export and import.
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Greshan’s law: “If not limited in quantity; bad money drives good money out
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of circulation.” This statement was given by economist Sir Thomas Gresham,
the economic advisor of Queen Elizabeth.
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) : It is the aggregate of total flow of goods
and services produced by an economy in a year.
Gross National Product (GNP) : Gross Domestic product plus net factor
income from abroad is equal to Gross National Product.
Hot Money : It is a volatile money which comes easily but can also go out
easily, e.g. portfolio investment.
Indirect Tax: Taxes levied on goods purchased by the consumer (and
exported by the producer) for which the tax payer’s liabilities varies in
proportion to the quantity of particular goods purchased or sold.
Inflation : It is a sustained increase in general price level over a particular
period of time. It reduces the purchasing power of money.
Interim Budget : It is an addition to the general budget and is presented as a
part of it through the financial year.
International Monetary Fund (IMF) : It is a multinational institution set up
in 1945. It started working as an independent organisation in 1947. It seeks
to maintain cooperative and orderly currency arrangements between
member countries with the aim of promoting increased international trade
and BOP equilibrium.

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Joint Stock Company : It is a form of company in which a number of people
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contribute funds to finance a firm in return for ‘shares’ in the company.
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Laissez-faire : It is of French origin of which British variation is ‘Laissez-
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faire’. Literally it means ‘to let people do as they choose’. It is an economic
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doctrine which emphasizes the superiority of ‘free’ trade and ‘free’ markets
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over state’s interference in economic affairs.
Legal Tender : The currency (coins and bank notes) which have to be
accepted in payment.
Liquidation : Winding up of company by selling assets and paying liabilities;
any remaining money goes to owners.
Market value : The market value of an equity share is the price at which it is
traded in the market . This price can be easily established for a company that
is listed on the stock market and actively traded. For a company that is listed
on the stock market but traded very infrequently, it is difficult to obtain a
reliable market quotation . For a company that is not listed on the stock
market, one can merely conjecture as to what its market price would be if it
were traded.
Merchant Banking: In Merchant Banking banks act as “underwriter” and do
business on behalf of corporate sector. Such banking helps in larger
participation of people in capital market e.g. ICICI.
MODVAT : The modified system of value added taxation is based on the idea
of tax final products and not inputs that go into production.
Money Market : It is a market engaged in short-term lending and borrowing

of money linking together the financial institutions, companies and the
government.

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Monopoly: It is a type of market structure having one seller and many
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buyers. There is a lack of substitute products and entry of new firms into
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market is not possible.
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MoU : The concept of Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) was introduced
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in 1988. The main objective of MoU is to reduce the quantity of control and
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increase the quality of accountability. The emphasis is on achieving the
negotiated and agreed objectives rather than interfering in the day-to-day
affairs. Over the years, the MoU system has grown at a steady rate, from 4
MoUs in 1987-88 to 108 MoUs in 1997-98.
Mutual Fund : It is a form of collective investment that is useful in spreading
risks and optimising returns.
National Income: It is equal to the total money value of goods and services
produced over the given time period less capital consumption.
Net Domestic Product (NDP) : The money value of a nation’s annual output
of goods and service, less capital consumption (depreciation) experienced in
producing that output.
Net National Product (NNP) : Net National Product is equal to Net Domestic
Product plus Net factor income from aboard.
Octroi : It is an internal tariff system among different region of a country.
Per Capita Income : It implies income per person. It is obtained by dividing
national income of country by its population.
Plastic Money: It refers to use of instruments like “credit cards” instead of
cash in business transactions. It is called so because credit cards are made of
plastic. Plastic Money also carries information about its holder in coded form
which makes it theft proof. No one, but the holder is able to use the card.

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Portfolio : Various shares etc. held by institution or individual is called
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Portfolio.
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Poverty Line : The poverty line has been fixed by the planning commission
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on the basis of an average daily intake of 2400 calories per person in rural
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areas and 2100 calories in urban areas. In monetary terms the poverty line is
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commented to be Rs. 76 per month in rural and Rs. 88 in urban areas in terms
of 1979- 80 prices.
Reflation : It is an increase in the level of National Income and Output.
Reflation is often deliberately brought about by the authorities in order to
secure full employment and to increase the rate of economic growth.
Recession : Recession cycle characterised by a modest downturn in the level
of economic activity means fall up of demand.
Scheduled Bank : It is a bank included in the second schedule of RBI. It has a
minimum cash reserve of “Rs. 5 lakh”.
SDRs (Special Drawing Rights) : The SDR is a reverse asset created within
the framework of the International Monetary Fund in an attempt to increase
international liquidity and forming a part of country’s official reserves along
with gold, reserve positions in the IMF & convertible foreign currencies. It is
also known as “Paper Gold”.
SEBI : It was set up in 1988 by the Government of India to regulate the
operations in stock market of India. The SEBI stands for Securities and
Exchange Board of India.
Self Reliance : Self Reliance, in short, can mean attainment of economic
independence which, in turn, implies capability to sustain a higher rate of
growth of economy essentially with the help of the domestic resources.

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Seller’s Market: It is market situation which exists for a short time period.
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During this period there is an excess demand for good and services at current
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prices which forces price up to the advantage of the seller.
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Sensex : The Stock Exchange Sensitive Index (popularly referred to as the
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SENSEX) reflects the weighted arithmetic average of the price relative of a
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group of share included in the index of sensitive shares. For example, Bombay
Stock Exchange Sensitive Index is a group of 30 sensitive shares.
Shares : These are the equal portions of the capital of a limited company.
Shares in a company do not carry fixed rate of interest. The holders of the
ordinary shares carry the residual risk of the business; they rank after
debenture holders and preference shareholders for the payment of dividends
and they are liable for losses, although this liability is limited to the value of
the shares and to the limit of guarantee given by them. Preference shares are
such shares of a company on which interest is paid before any others, and
owners have prior right to repayment of capital if company is wound up.
Share Capital : Money raised by issuing of shares is called Share Capital.
Share Index : It is the statistical indicator of overall share values, based on

selected group.
VAT : It seeks to tax the value added at every stage of manufacturing and sale
with a provision of refunding the amount of VAT already paid at earlier stages
to avoid double taxation.

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INTRODUCTION
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A. WHAT IS A CONSTITUTION?
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The constitution is the fundamental law of a country which ordains the
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fundamental principals on which the government (or the governance) of that
country is based. It lays down the frame work and principal functions of
various organs of the government as well as the modalities of interaction of
between the government and its citizens.
B. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF INDIAN CONSTITUTION

REGULATING ACT OF 1773
 Governance of the East India Company was put under Parliamentary
control.
 The Governor of Bengal was nominated as Governor General for all the
three Presidencies. Warren Hastings was the first such Governor General.
 A Supreme Court was established in Calcutta (now Kolkata).Sir Elisa
Hamppy was the First Chjief Justice of this court.
 The servants of the Company were forbidden to engage in private trade,
accept presents or bribes, etc.
PITTS ACT OF 1784

 A 6-member Board of Controllers was set up which was headed by a
minister of the British Government. All political responsibilities were given
to this board.
 Trade and commerce related issues were under the purview of the Court of
Directors of the company.
CHARTER ACT OF 1793

(No specific provision is important from exam perspective)

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CHARTER ACT OF 1813
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 Company deprived of its trade monopoly in India except in tea and trade
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with China. This made the Company more of an administrative body. All
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Englishmen could trade with India subject to few restrictions.
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 A sum of Rs. 1 lakh earmarked annually for education of Indians.
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 Further, Christian missionaries were also permitted to come to India and
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preach their religion.
CHARTER ACT OF 1833

 End of Company’s monopoly even in tea and trade with China. Company
was asked to close its commercial business at the earliest.
 All restrictions on European immigration into India and acquisition of land
and property in India by them were removed, legalizing European
colonization of India.
 Governor General of Bengal to be Governor General of India; all powers,
administrative and financial, were centralized in the hands of the
Governor-General-in-Council (Ist Governor General of India — Lord
William Bentinck).
 A law member (without power to vote) was added to the Executive Council
of the Governor General. Macaulay was the first Law member. This
increased the Council’s strength to four. With it began the Indian
Legislature.
 A law commission was constituted for codification of laws.
 The Act threw open to all, irrespective of religion, place of birth, descent
and colour, services under the Company.
 The Governor General and his Council were given vast powers. This Council
could legislate for the whole of India subject to the approval of the Board of
Controllers.
CHARTER ACT OF 1853

 The number of members of the Court of Directors was reduced from 24 to
18 of which 6 were to be nominated by the Crown.

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 The Law member was made a full member of the Governor-General’s
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Executive Council
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 Legislative and executive (administrative) functions of the Council were
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separately identified.The Executive Council could veto a bill of the
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Legislative Council.
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 Recruitment to Civil Services was based on open annual competition
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examination (excluding Indians).
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT, 1858

 British Crown decided to assume sovereignty over India from the East
India Company in an apparent consequence of the Revolt of 1857
 System of Dual government ended. Court of Directors and Board of Control
abolished and substituted them with a post of Secretary of State (a member
of the British cabinet). He was assisted by a 15-member council (called
Indian Council). He was to exercise the powers of the Crown.
 Secretary of State governed India through the Governor General.
 Governor General received the title of Viceroy.
 A unitary and highly centralized administrative structure was created. The
Provincial Governments had to function under the superintendence,
direction and control of the Governor General in all matters.
INDIAN COUNCIL ACT, 1861

 A fifth member, who was to be a jurist, was added to the Viceroy’s
Executive Council.
 6-12 additional members to be added to the Executive Council for
legislation purpose. This implied that Viceroy’s Executive Council, which
was so long composed of officials, would now include certain additional
non-official members. Some of non-official seats were offered to natives of
high ranks. Thus, a minute element of ‘popular’ participation was
introduced in the legislative process. The additional members, though, had
little powers. The Executive Council was now to be called Central

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 Viceroy could issue ordinances in case of emergency.
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 This is an important landmark in the constitutional history of India. It
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enabled the Governor General to associate representatives of the Indian
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people with the work of legislation by nominating them to his council. It
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decentralized the legislative powers of Governor General’s council and
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vested them in the Government of Bombay and Madras.
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INDIAN COUNCIL ACT, 1892
 Two improvements in both the Central and the Provincial Legislative
Councils were suggested:
a. Though the majority of the official members was retained, the non-official
members were to be nominated by the Bengal Chamber of Commerce and
Provincial Legislative Councils. [The non-official members of the Provincial
Councils were to be nominated by certain local bodies such as universities,
district boards, municipalities]. Indian leaders like G.K. Gokhale, Ashutosh
Mukherjee, Ras Bihari Ghosh and S.N. Banerjee found their way in the
b. The Councils were to have the powers to discuss the annual statement of
revenue and expenditure (i.e. the budget) and of addressing questions to
the Executive. They could also put questions, within certain limits, to the
Government on matters of public interest after giving six days’ notice.
INDIAN COUNCIL ACT, 1909 OR MORLEY-MINTO REFORMS

 Morley was the Secretary of State, while Minto was the Indian Viceroy.
 Legislative Councils, both at the Centre and in the Provinces, were
expanded.
 With regard to Central Government, an Indian member was taken in the
Executive Council of the Governor General.
 An element of election was also introduced in the Central Legislative
Council, but the official majority was maintained.
 The maximum number of additional members of the Indian Legislative
Council (Governor General’s Council) was raised from 16 (under the Act of
1892) to 60 (excluding the Executive Councillors).

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 The size of the Provincial Legislative Councils were enlarged by including
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elected non-official members so that the official majority was gone. Their
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functions were also increased. Now; they could move resolutions on
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Budget and on some matters of public matters.
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 The most notable and retrograde change introduced was that Muslims
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were given separate representation. Thus, communal representation was
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introduced.
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT, 1919 OR MONTAGUE-CHELMSFORD

REFORMS
 The then Secretary of State for India Mr. E.S. Montague and the Governor
General Lord Chelmsford formulated proposals for the Government of
India Act, 1919.
 The Upper House was named the Council of State. This was composed of
60 members of whom 34 were elected.
 The Lower House was named the Legislative Assembly. This was
composed of about 144 members of whom 104 were elected.
 The Provincial Legislature was to consist of one House only (Legislative
Council).
 The number of Indians in the Governor General’s Executive Council was
raised to three in a Council of eight. The Indian members were entrusted
with departments such as Law, Education, Labour, Health and Industries.
 The Centre was now to have a Bicameral Legislature for the first time. It
actually happened after 1935 Act.
 Responsible Governments in the Provinces were to be introduced, without
impairing the responsibility of the Governor through the Governor General.
 The subjects were to be divided into two categories---Central and
Provincial.
 Central subjects were those which were exclusively kept under the
control of the Central Government.
 The provincial subjects were sub-divided into ‘transferred’ and ‘reserved’
subjects.
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 The ‘transferred subjects’ were to be administered by the Governor with
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the aid of Ministers responsible to the Legislative Council in which the
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proportion of elected members was raised to 70 percent.
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 The ‘reserved subjects’ were to be administered by the Governor and his
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Executive Council with no responsibility to the Legislature.
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 The previous Central control over the provinces in administrative,
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legislative and financial matters was relaxed. Sources of revenue were
divided into two categories so that the provinces could run the
administration with the revenue raised by the provinces themselves.
 The provinces budget was separated from the central budget.
 The provinces legislature was empowered to present its own budget and
levy its own taxes relating to the provincial sources of revenue.
 Communal representation extended to Sikhs, Christians, Anglo-Indians, etc.
 Secretary of State to be henceforth paid salary out of the British revenue.
SIMON COMMISSION (1927)

 This commission headed by Sir John Simon, constituted to inquire into the
working of the Act of 1919, reported in 1930. The report was examined by
the British Parliament and the Government of India Bill was drafted in that
accordance.
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT, 1935

 The Federal Legislature (Central Legislature) was to have two chambers
(bicameral)- the Council of State and the Federal Assembly. The Council of
State was to be a permanent body with one-third of its membership being
vacated and renewed triennially. The Federal Assembly’s duration was
fixed for five years.
 It made a 3-fold division of powers: Federal (Central) Legislative List,
Provincial Legislative List and the Concurrent Legislative List. Residuary
legislative powers were subject to the discretion of the Governor General.
Even if a bill was passed by the Federal Legislature, the Governor General
could veto it, while even Acts assented to by the Governor General could be

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disallowed by the King-in-Council.
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 Provincial autonomy replaced Dyarchy in Provinces i.e., the distinction
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between Reserved and Transferred subjects was abolished arid full
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responsible government was established, subject to certain safeguards.
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They were granted separate legal identity.
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 The Governor was the head of the Provincial Executive and was expected to
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be guided by the advice of the popular ministries. However, the Act gave
arbitrary powers to the Governors to act in their ‘discretion’ in certain
matters.
 The Act also provided for a Federal Court (which was established in 1937,
with original and appellate powers) to interpret the Constitution. A Federal
Bank (the Reserve Bank of India 1st April, 1933) was also established. The
Indian Council of Secretary of State was abolished.
 Principle of separate electorate was extended to include Anglo-Indians,
Indian Christians and Europeans.
 Burma (now Myanmar) and Aden were separated from India and two new
provinces Orissa and Sind- were created.
CRIPPS MISSION
 In March 1942, Sir Stafford Crips, a member of The Cabinet came with a
draft declaration on the proposals of the British Government.
 These proposals were to be adopted at the end of the Second World Waded
the Congress and the Muslim League accepted them.
 The Constitution of India was to be framed by an elected Constitute
Assembly of the Indian people.
 The Constitution should give India Dominion Status.
CABINET MISSION
 Gandhi Jee termed this mission as “Post dated cheque”, some one other
added “of the bankrupt bank”.
 There was three member in this mission, namely P.V. Alexandar
(Chairman), Penthic Lowrance and Sir Stafford Crips.

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 The Cabinet Mission rejected the claim for a separate Constituent Assembly
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and a separate State for the Muslim, yet their scheme involved a virtual
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acceptance of the principle underlying the claim for a Muslim State.
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 There was to be a Union of India, comprising both British India and the
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princely States, and having jurisdiction over the subjects of Foreign Affairs,
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Defence and Communication.
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 The Union was to have an executive and a legislature consisting of
representatives of the provinces and the States.
THE MOUNTBATTEN PLAN

 The plan for transfer of power to the Indians and partition of the country
was laid down in the Mountbatten Plan.
 It was given a formal shape by a statement made by the British
Government on 3rd June, 1947.
 Also known as “3rd June Plan” and “Dickky Burd Plan”.
THE INDIAN INDEPENDENCE ACT, 1947

 From the 15th August 1947 India ceased a Dependency and the suzerainty
of the British Crown over the Indian States and the treaty relations with
Tribal Areas lapsed from that date.
 The Constituent Assembly itself was to function also as the Central
Legislature with complete sovereignty.
C. CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY AND MAKING OF THE CONSTITUTION

 The Cabinet Mission envisaged the establishment of a Constituent
Assembly to frame a Constitution for the country.
 Members of the Constituent Assembly were elected by the Provincial
Legislative Assemblies.
 Each province was allotted seats in proportion of its population, roughly in
the ratio of one to a million.
 The seats so ascertained were divided between the main communities in
each province in proportion to their population. The main communities
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recognised were General, Muslim and Sikh.
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 The total memberships of the Constituent Assembly was 389 of whom 93
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were representatives from the Indian States and 292 from British India and
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rest of 4 member were from Chief Commissionary.
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 After the partition of India number of members of the Constituent
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Assembly came to 299, of whom 284 were actually present on the 26th
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November 1949 and signed on the finally approved Constitution of India.
 It took two years, eleven months and eighteen days for the Constituent
Assembly to finalise the Constitution.
FUNCTIONING OF THE CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY
• The idea to have Constitution was given by M.N. Roy (A pioneer of
Communist Movement in India).
• B N Rao was appointed the constitutional advisor of the Assembly.
• The first meeting of the Constituent Assembly took place on Dec 9, 1946
with Dr. Sachidanand Sinha as its interim President. Dr. Rajendra Prasad
was elected as its President on Dec 11, 1946.
• The principles of the Constitution were outlined by various committees of
the Assembly, and there was a general discussion on the reports of these
Committees.
• Drafting Committee, which bore the responsibility of drafting the
Constitutional document during the recess of the Constituent Assembly,
from July 1947 to Sept 1948, was formed on Aug 29, 1947. Its members
were:
DRAFTING COMMITTEE
• Dr. B. R, Ambedkar-Chairman
• N. Gopalaswami Ayyangar
• Alladi Krishnaswami Ayyar (a distinguished jurist)
• K.M. Munshi (a distinguished jurist)
• Syyed Mohd. Saadulla
• N. Madhav Rao (in place of B.L. Mitra)
• D.P. Khaitan (T Krishnamachari, after Khaitan’s death in 1948).
The Assembly had 13 committees for framing the constitution. The
important ones were:
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Committee Chairman
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Union Power Committee J L Nehru
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Fundamental Rights and Minority Committee V B Patel
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Provincial Constitution Committee V B Patel
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Union Constitution Committee J L Nehru
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Drafting Committee B R Ambedkar
Flag Committee J B Kripalani
Steering Committee K M Munshi
IMPORTANT DATES
 The Constituent Assembly, which had been elected for undivided India,
held its first meeting on December 9,1946,
 Objective Resolution was moved in the first session of the Constituent
Assembly (on 13 December, 1946) by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru and
adopted after considerable deliberation and debate in the Assembly on 22
January, 1947.
 The Assembly appointed a drafting committee on August 29, 1947.
 The third and final reading of the draft was completed on November 26,
1949. On this date, the provisions relating to citizenship, elections and
provisional Parliament etc. were implemented with immediate effect, the
rest of the provisions came into force on January 26, 1950.
 National Flag was adopted on 22nd July 1947.
 National Anthem was adopted on 24th January 1950.
 National Emblem was adopted on 26th January 1950.
NATIONAL EMBLEM
 The state emblem of India is an adaptation from the Sarnath Lion, capital of
Ashoka the Emperor as preserved in the Sarnath Museum.
 The words, Satyameva Jayate from the Mundaka Upanishad meaning ‘Truth
alone triumphs’, are inscribed below the abacus in Devanagari script.

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NATIONAL FLAG
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 The National Flag is a horizontal tri-colour of deep saffron (Kesari) at the
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top, white in the middle and dark green at the bottom in equal proportion.
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 The ratio of the width of the flag to its length is two to three.
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 In the centre of the white band is a wheel, in navy blue. It has 24 spokes.
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 Its use and display are regulated by a code.
NATIONAL ANTHEM
 Rabindranath Tagore’s song Jana-gana-mana was adopted by the
Constituent Assembly as the National Anthem of India on 24th Jan. 1950
and gave Vande Mataram-the national song equal honour.
 It was first sung on 27th Dec. 1911 at the Calcutta session of the Indian
National Congress.
 Playing time of the full version of the national anthem is approximately 52
seconds. A shorter version consisting of the first and last lines of the stanza
takes 20 seconds to play and it is played only on certain occasions.
NATIONAL SONG
 The song Vande Mataram, composed by Bahkimchandra Chatterji, has an
equal status with Jaria-gana-mana.
 The first political occasion when it was sung was the 1896 session of the
Indian National Congress.
 English translation of the stanza rendered by Sri Aurobindo Ghosh
SOURCES OF THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION

 Nearly 75 per cent of the Constitution can be said to be a reproduction of
the Government of India Act, 1935 with suitable adaptations and
modifications. The basic structure of the polity and provisions regulating
Union-State relations, declaration of emergency etc. were largely based on
the 1935 Act.
 Besides the indigenous sources, the Constituent Assembly had before it
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several models of foreign .Constitutions.
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From U.K.
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1. Nominal Head—President (like Queen)
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2. Cabinet System of ministers
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3. Post of the PM
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4. Parliamentary Type of Government
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5. Bicameral Parliament
6. Lower House more powerful
7. Council of Ministers responsible to Lower House
8. Speaker in the Lok Sabha
9. Single citizenship
From U.S.
1. Written Constitution
2. Executive head of state known as President and his being the Supreme
Commander of the Armed Forces
3. Vice — President as the ex-officio Chairman of Rajya Sabha
4. Fundamental Rights
5. Supreme Court
6. Provision of States.
7. Independence of Judiciary and judicial review
8. Preamble
9. Removal of Supreme Court and High Court judges
From erstwhile USSR

1. Fundamental Duties
2. Five year planning
From AUSTRALIA
1. Concurrent list’
2. Language of the preamble
3. Provision regarding trade, commerce and intercourse

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From JAPAN : Law on which the Supreme Court function
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From WEIMAR CONSTITUTION OF GERMANY : Suspension of
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Fundamental Rights during the emergency
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From SOUTH AFRICA : Procedure of Constitutional Amendments
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From CANADA
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1. Scheme of federation with a strong centre.
2. Distribution of powers between Centre and the States and placing
Residuary Powers with the Centre
From IRELAND
1. Concept of Directive Principles of State Policy. (Ireland borrowed it from
SPAIN).
2. Method of election of the President
3. Nomination of members in the Rajya Sabha by the President

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Chapter The Nature Of The Indian
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Constitution
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A. SILENT FEATURE OF THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION
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 The lengthiest Constitution in the world
 Parliamentary form of Government
 Unique blend of rigidity and flexibility
 Directive Principles of State Policy
 A Federation with strong centralizing tendency
 A dult Suffrage
 An Independent Judiciary
 A Secular State
 Single Citizenship
 Fundamental Duties
Parts Article Schedule
Original Constitution 22 399 8
At Present 22 More than 12
450
B. PHILOSOPHY OF THE CONSTITUTION
The Preamble to an Act sets out the main objectives which the legislation is
intended to achieve. It is a sort of introduction to the statute and many a
times very helpful to understand the policy and legislative intent. It expresses
“what we had thought or dreamt for so long”.
PREAMBLE TO THE CONSTITUTION

 It is a preface or the introduction to the Constitution. It is not an integral
part of constitution. The interpretation of constitution is based on the spirit
of Preamble.
 The ‘Objective Resolution’, proposed by Pandit Nehru on December 13,
1946 and passed by the Constituent Assembly, ultimately became the
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Preamble.
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The Preamble states :
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“WE THE PEOPLE OF INDIA have solemnly resolved to constitute
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India into a SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR DEMOCRATIC
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REPUBLIC and to secure to all citizens: JUSTICE social, economic and
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political; LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship;
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EQUALITY of status and of opportunity; and to promote among them
all FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity
and integrity of the Nation; IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY, this
twenty-sixth day of November, 1949, do HEREBY ADOPT ENACT AND
GIVE TO OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION.”
 The idea of preamble was borrowed from the constitution of USA.
 The words ‘SOCIALIST’, ‘SECULAR’ and ‘INTEGRITY’ were added by the
42nd Amendment in 1976.
 Sovereign means free to follow internal and external policies. Socialist
means no concentration of power and money. Secular means no particular
religion. Democratic means Elected representatives. Republic means no
room for hereditary ruler or monarch.
 Preamble is not justiciable.
 Supreme Court stated that preamble will act as ‘Light House’ wherever the
language of constitution in ambiougs.

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Union & Its Territory
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A. THE UNION AND ITS TERRITORY
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 Article 1 of the Constitution says, “India, that is Bharat, shall be a Union of
States”.
 No state has the right to get separated from the Union.
 The State of Jammu and Kashmir has been given special status under article
370.The separate Constitution of the State was drafted by the Constituent
Assembly of Jammu and Kashmir and became effective on Jan. 26, 1957.
RE-ORGANIZATION OF STATES
 After independence, the demand for the reorganization of the States on the
linguistic basis was raised from different regions. The Constituent
Assembly appointed the S.K. Dhar Commission in 1947 to study the issue.
 The Dhar Commission recommended linguistic basis but it was rejected by
the Congress.
 But Congress had to concede to the demand after violence started in the
Telegu speaking areas. After the death of Poti Shrimalu, after a 56 day long
hunger strike, the government was forced to reconsider the issue.
 The State Re-organization Commission was set-up under Fazal Ali to make
exhaustive study. The other members of the Commission were Hridaynath
Kunzru and K.M. Panikkar.
 On the Commission’s recommendations the States were started to be
reorganized on linguistic basis. Andhra Pradesh was the first State to be
reorganized on such basis.
Formation of New States and Alteration of areas, boundaries or names

of Existing States
 Under Article 3, the Constitution empowers the Parliament to form a new

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State by separation of territory from any State or by uniting two or more
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States or parts of States or by uniting any territory to a part of any State.
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 The Constitution further states that Parliament has the power to increase
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or diminish the area of any State or to alter the boundaries or names of any
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State.
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The procedure followed is:
 A Bill giving effect to any or all the changes stated above can be introduced
in either house of the Parliament, only on the recommendation of the
President.
 If such a Bill affects the boundary or name of the State, then the President,
before introducing it in the Parliament, shall refer the Bill to the State
Legislature concerned for its opinion, Parliament is not bound to accept or
act upon the views of the State Legislature
 The Bill is passed with simple majority.
Andhra Pradesh Created by the State of Andhra Pradesh Act, 1953 by

carving out some areas from the State of Madras.
Gujarat and The State of Bombay was divided into two States, i.e.,
Maharashtra Maharashtra and Gujarat by, 1960.
Kerala Created by the State Reorganisation Act, 1 956.
Karnataka Created from the Princely State of Mysore by the
State Reoganisation Act, 1956.
Nagaland It was carved out from the State of Assam 1962.
Haryana It was carved out from the State of Punjab 1966.
Himachal Pradesh The Union Territory of Himachal Pradesh was
elevated to the status of State by Pradesh 1970.
Meghalaya First carved out as a sub-State within the State of
Assam 1969. Later, in 1971, it received the status of a
full-fledged State 1971.
Manipur and Both these States were elevated from the status of
Tripura Union Territories 1971.

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Sikkim Sikkim was first given the Status of Associate State by
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the 35th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1974. It got
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the status of a full State in 1975 by the 36th
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Amendment Act, 1975.
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Mizoram It was elevated to the status of a full State 1986,
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Arunachal Pradesh It received the status of a full State 1986.
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Goa 1987
Chhattisgarh By dividing Madhya Pradesh on November 1, 2000.
Uttarakhand By dividing Uttar Pradesh on November 9, 2000.
Jharkhand By dividing Bihar on November 15, 2000.
B. CITIZENSHIP
Meaning of Citizenship - A citizen of a State is a person who enjoys full civil
and political rights. Citizens are different form aliens who do not enjoy all
these rights.
 Single Citizenship: No State Citizenship.
CITIZENSHIP AT THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE CONSTITUTION

1. Every person who has domicile in the territory of India and:
a. Who was born in the territory of India; or
b. Either of whose parents was born in the territory of India; or
c. Who has been ordinarily residing in the territory of India for not less than
five years immediately preceding such commencement; shall be a citizen of
India.
2. Any person who or either of whose parents or any of whose grandparents
was born in India.
However, no person will be deemed to be a citizen, if he voluntarily

acquires the citizenship of a foreign State.

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CITIZENSHIP ACT, 1955 AS AMENDED BY CITIZENSHIP (AMENDMENT)
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ACT, 1986
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 ‘The Act provides for the acquisition of Indian Citizenship after the
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commencement of the Constitution in five ways, i.e., Birth, Descent,
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Registration, Naturalization and Incorporation of territory.
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1. Citizenship by Registration: Any person who is not a citizen and belongs to
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any of the following categories, can apply for registration as a citizen.
However, he must have resided in India for atleast five years immediately
before making an application for registration as a citizen. These are:
a. Persons of Indian origin who are ordinarily resident in India for five years
immediately before making an application for registration;
b. Persons of Indian origin who are ordinarily resident in any country, or
place outside India;
c. Women who are married to citizens of India;
d. Minor children of persons who are citizens of India; and
e. Persons of full age and capacity who are citizens of a country mentioned in
the first schedule of the Act.
2. Citizenship by Naturalization: A foreigner, on application for naturalization
to a competent authority appointed by the State, can acquire Indian
citizenship provided he satisfies certain conditions like having normally
resided for at least ten years in India immediately before making an
application.
3. Citizenship by Incorporation of Territory: If any new territory becomes a
part of India, the Government of India shall notify the persons of that
territory to be citizens of India.
LOSS OF INDIAN CITIZENSHIP UNDER THE ACT

 The Citizenship Act, 1955 also lays down the three modes by which an
Indian citizen, may lose his citizenship. These are renunciation, termination
and deprivation.
1. Renunciation is a voluntary act by which a person after acquiring the
citizenship of another country gives up his Indian citizenship.
2. Termination takes place by operation of law. When the Indian citizen
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voluntarily acquires the citizenship of another country, he automatically
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ceases to be an Indian citizen.
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3. Deprivation is a compulsory termination of the citizenship of India
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obtained by registration or naturalization. The citizenship is deprived on
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the basis of an order of the Government of India, in cases involving
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acquisition of Indian citizenship by fraud, false representation, and
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concealment of material fact or being disloyal to the Constitution.
CITIZENSHIP AMENDMENTACT, 1992

 According to this Amendment Bill, the child who is born outside India and
if his mother belongs to India, can have the Indian citizenship.
 Before this Act, any child born outside India could acquire citizenship only
if his father was a citizen of India.
OVERSEAS CITIZEN OF INDIA STATUS

 Parliament has passed the Citizenship (Amendment) Act, which says that
all the people of Indian origin in various countries, except in Pakistan and
Bangladesh, whose parents/grand parents migrated from India after 26
Jan, 1950 or were eligible to become Indian citizens on 26 Jan, 1950 or
belonged to a territory that became part of India after 15 Aug, 1947, will
become eligible to be registered as the Overseas Citizens of India (OCI). All
legal steps in this direction have been completed.
Entitled
 OCIs are entitled to multiple-entry, multi-purpose, life-long visas with no
requirement of registration with police.
 They can live and work in India or in the country of their naturalization.
 They are eligible to work in the private sector.
 OCIs enjoy parity with NRIs in respect of economic, financial and
educational fields except in relation to acquisition of agricultural or
plantation property.

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Not entitled
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 They are not entitled to hold constitutional posts and employment with the
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government.
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 They cannot vote.
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C. FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS
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Need for Fundamental Rights – Fundamental Rights were deemed essential
to protect the rights and liberties of the people against the encroachment of
the power delegated by them to their Government. They are limitations upon
all the powers of the Government, legislative as well as executive and they are
essential for the preservation of public and private rights.
CLASSIFICATION OF FUNDAMENTAL RIGHT

 The fundamental rights as incorporated in the Indian Constitution can be
classified under the following six groups:-
(a) Right to equality (Articles 14-18).
(b) Right to freedom (Articles 19-22).
(c) Right against exploitation (Articles 23-24).
(d) Right to freedom of religion (Articles 25-28).
(e) Cultural and educational rights (Articles 29-30).
(f) Right to constitutional remedies (Articles 32-35).
The 44th Amendment has abolished the right to property as a fundamental
right as guaranteed by Article 19(1)(f) and Article 31 of the Constitution, and
hence Article 19(1)(f) and Article 31 has been omitted.
RIGHT TO EQUALITY
 Article 14. Equality before law—The State shall not deny to any person
equality before the law or the equal protection of the laws within the
territory of India. Equality before the law implies that no one is above the
law of the land.
However, the Constitution allows the following exceptions to the rule of
equality before the law:
The President or the Governor of a State is not answerable to any Court for
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the exercise and performance of the powers and duties of office; These
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apart, other exceptions, such as in favour of foreign rulers and
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ambassadors, also exist in accordance with international standards.
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 Article 15: Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race,
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caste, sex or place of birth- Nothing in this article shall prevent the State
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from making any special provision for women and children and also for the
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advancement of any socially and educationally backward classes of citizens
or for the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes.
 Article 16: Equality of opportunity in matters of public employment-
There shall be equality of opportunity for all citizens in matters relating to
employment or appointment to any office under the State.
o It does not prevent the State from prescribing the necessary qualifications
and selective tests for recruitment for Government services.
o It also empowers the State to make special provision for the reservation of
appointments or posts in favour of any backward class of citizens which in
the opinion of State are not adequately represented in the services under
the State.
o It also provides for the reservation of seats in promotion for the Scheduled
Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
 Article 17: Abolition of untouchability — Untouchability is abolished
and its practice in any form is forbidden and shall be punishable according
to the law.
 Parliament has passed an act “Untouchability (Offences) Act, 1955” which
was amended and renamed in 1976 as “Protection of Civil Right Act, 1955”.
 Article 18: Abolition of titles—No title, not being a military or academic
distinction, shall be conferred by the State.
o Bharat Ratna, Padma Vibhushan, Padma Bhushan, Padma Shri and other
State awards are not regarded as titles in terms of Article 18(1) of the
Constitution.
o Clause (2) prohibits a citizen of India from accepting any title from a
foreign State.

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RIGHT TO FREEDOM
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 Article 19: Protection of certain rights regarding freedom of speech
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etc-It guarantees the citizens of India the following six fundamental
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freedoms:
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a. Freedom of Speech and Expression
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b. Freedom of Assembly.
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c. Freedom to form Associations.
d. Freedom of Movement.
e. Freedom of Residence and Settlement.
f. Freedom of Profession, Occupation, Trade or Business.
Freedom of Press: The Indian Constitution does not provide for the freedom
of press separately. It is implicit in Article 19.
RIGHT TO INFORMATION ACT

 Right to Information is a corollary of the Fundamental Right of Freedom of
Speech and Expression, Art 19(a).
 On Oct 12, 2005 Right to Information was made a constitutional Act with
the hope of an era of better, more transparent, accountable and responsive
governance.
 A strong and independent information Commission has been Set up at the
Centre on the pattern of Central Vigilance Commission.
 The Central Information Commission shall consist of one Chief Information
Commissioner (CIC) and not more than ten Central Information
Commissioners. The CIC and other Information Commissioners shall hold
office for a term of 5 years or till they attain the age of 65 years, whichever
is earlier. They shall not be eligible for reappointment.
 The Central Information Commission can fine official Rs, 250 per day, with
a maximum of Rs. 25,000, if information is delayed beyond stipulated 30
days.
 Article 20: Protection in respect of conviction for offences. No person
shall be convicted of any offence except for violation of the law in force at

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the time of the commission of the act charged as an offence, nor be
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subjected to a penalty greater than that which might have been inflicted
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under the law in force at the time of the commission of the offence. Thus
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the legislature is prohibited to make criminal laws having retrospective
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effects.
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No person shall be prosecuted and punished for the same offence more than
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once (double jeopardy).
No person accused of any offence shall be compelled to be a witness against
himself.
 Article 21: Protection of life and personal liberty. No person shall be
deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure
established by law. Personal freedom is secured by the Constitution by the
judicial writ of Habeas Corpus (Article 32 and 226).
 Article 21A: Right to Education
The 86th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2002, has inserted in the
Constitution a new article 21-A. It states that the State shall provide free and
compulsory education to all children of the age of six to fourteen years in
such manner as the State may, by law, determine.
 Article 22: Protection against arrest and detention in certain cases. It
states that: (a) no person who is arrested shall be detained in custody
without being informed of the grounds for such arrest nor shall he be
denied the right to consult, and to be defended by, a legal practitioner of his
choice; (b) every person who is arrested and detained shall be produced
before the nearest magistrate within a period of twenty-four hours of such
arrest excluding the time necessary for the journey from the place of arrest
to the court of the magistrate and no such person shall be detained in
custody beyond the said period without the authority of a magistrate.
 The above safeguards are not, however, available to an enemy alien and a
person arrested or detained under a law providing for Preventive
Detention.
 The government is entitled to detain an individual under Preventive
Detention only for two months. If it seeks to detain the arrested person for
more than two months, it must obtain a report from an Advisory Board.
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 Parliament is empowered to prescribe, bylaw, the maximum period for
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which a person may be detained under a law of Preventive Detention.
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RIGHT AGAINST EXPLOITATION
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 Article 23: Prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour-
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Traffic in human beings and ‘begar’ (involuntary work without payment)
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and other similar forms of forced labour are prohibited and any
contravention of this provision shall be an offence and punishable in
accordance with law.
 Article 24: Prohibition of employment of children in factories etc - No
child below the age of 14 can be employed in any factory or mine or any
other hazardous employment.
RIGHT TO FREEDOM OF RELIGION

 Article 25: Freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and
propagation of religion. This right is, however, subject to public order,
morality and health
 Article 26: Freedom to manage religious affairs.
 Article 27: Freedom as to payment of taxes for promotion of any
particular religion
 Article 28: Freedom as to attendance at religious instruction or
religious worship in certain educational institutions.
 Article 29: Protection of interests of minorities.
(1) Any section of the citizens residing in the territory of India or in any
part thereof having a distinct language, script or culture of its own shall
have the right to conserve the same.
(2) No citizen shall be denied admission into any educational institution
maintained by the State o receiving aid out of State funds on grounds only
of religion, race, caste, language or any of them.
 Article 30: Right of minorities to establish and administer educational
institutions.
(1) All minorities, whether based on religion or language, shall have the

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right to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice.
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(2) The State shall not, in granting aid to educational institutions,
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discriminate against any educational institution on the ground that it is
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under the management of a minority, whether based on religion or
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language.
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 Article 31: Omitted by the 44th Amendment Act, 1978.
RIGHT TO CONSTITUTIONAL REMEDIES
 Article 32: The right to move the Supreme Court in case of the violation of
Fundamental Rights (called Soul and heart of the Constitution by Dr. BR
Ambedkar).
To enforce the Fundamental Rights, the Supreme Court and High Court is
empowered, under Article 32 and 226 respectively, to issue writs of various
forms.
FORMS OF WRITS
HABEAS CORPS
 Literally means ‘to have the body. It implies that a person imprisoned or
detained by the law can enquire under what authority he has been
imprisoned or detained. The Court issues the writ against the authority
concerned if the executive arrests someone without the authority of law or
in contravention of procedure established by law.
MANDAMUS
 Literally means a ‘command’ issued by the court commanding a person or a
public authority to do, or forbear to do something in the nature of public
duty. The writ of mandamus can be issued by the Court to enforce
Fundamental Rights; whenever a public officer or a Government has
committed an act violating a person’s Fundamental Rights, the Court can
restrain that authority from enforcing such orders or committing such an
 act.
 The writ is issued against a private individual or organization unless the
State is in collusion with such a party in contravening a Constitutional
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provision or a statute.
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QUO WARRANTO
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 An order issued by the court to prevent a person from holding office to
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which he is not entitled and to oust him from that office.
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 For the writ of quo warrant to be issued, the office must be public, created
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by statute or by the Constitution, the office must be a substantive one, and
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there should have been a contravention of the Constitution or a statute in
appointing the person to that office.
PROHIBITION
 The writ of prohibition is issued by the Supreme Court or a High Court to
an inferior Court forbidding the latter to continue proceedings in a case in
excess of its jurisdiction or to usurp a jurisdiction with which it is not
legally vested.
 The writ is not available against a public officer not vested with judicial or
quasi-judicial functions. The Supreme Court can issue the writ only where a
Fundamental Right is affected.
CERTIORARI
 The writ of certiorari is issued to a lower Court after a case has been
decided by it, quashing the decision or order. The objective to secure that
the jurisdiction of an inferior Court or tribunals is properly exercised and
that it does not usurp the jurisdiction which it does not possess.
 In short, while prohibition is available during the pendency of the
proceedings and before the order is made, certiorari can be issued only
after the order has been made, under similar circumstances.
SUSPENDABILITY OF FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS

 When the President proclaims a National Emergency under Article 352, on
grounds of war or external aggression (but not armed rebellion), the rights
guaranteed by Article 19 are automatically suspended.
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the Constitution further empowers the President to issue a separate
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proclamation under Article 359.
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 By the 44th Amendment Act, 1978, the suspension of Articles 20 and 21
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has been prohibited under any circumstances.
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D. FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES
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Added by 42nd amendment in 1976 on the basis of Sardar Swarn Singh
Committee report.
 There are eleven Fundamental Duties which are contained in Article 51A.
 It shall be the duty of every citizen of India:
1. To abide to the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the
National Flag and the National Anthem;
2. To cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle
for freedom;
3. To uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India;
4. To defend the country and render national service when called upon to do
to;
5. To promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all
the people of India transcending religious, linguistic and regional or
sectional diversities; to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of
women;
6. To value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture;
7. To protect and improve the national environment including forests, lakes,
rivers, and wild life and to have compassion for living creatures;
8. To develop scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and
reform;
9. To safeguard public property and to abjure violence;
10. To strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective
activity so that the nation constantly rises to the higherievels of endeavor
and achievement.
11. It shall be duty of every citizen of India who is a parent or guardian to
provide opportunities for education to his child or as the case may be,
ward between the age of 6 and 14 years. (Added by 86th Amendment,
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2002).
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 The addition of Fundamental Duties along with the exceptions to the
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Fundamental Rights limits the operation and the free enjoyment of
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Fundamental Rights.
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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS AND DPSP
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 Fundamental rights constitute limitations upon State action, the Directive
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Principles are instruments of instruction to the Government.
 The directives require to be implemented by legislation while fundamental
rights are already provided in the Constitution.
 The Directives are not enforceable in the Courts and do not create any
Justiciable rights in favour of the individuals, while the fundamental rights
are enforceable by the Courts [Ref.: Arts. 32, 37, 226(1)]
 In case of any conflict between fundamental rights are directive principles
the former should prevail in the Courts.
 42nd Amendment Act ensured that though the directives themselves are
not directly enforceable it would be totally immune from
unconstitutionality on the ground of contravention of the fundamental
rights conferred by Arts. 14 and 19.
E. DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY
Introduction – The Directive Principles of State Policy contained in Part IV of
the Constitution set out the aims and objectives to be taken up by the States
in the governance of the country. This novel feature of the Constitution is
borrowed from the Constitution on Ireland which had copied it from the
Spanish Constitution.
 Mentioned under Part IV of the Constitution covering Articles 36 to 51.
 They tell about the aims that the state should strive to achieve.
 They are a unique blend of socialistic, liberal, democratic and Gandhian
Principles.
 Mere instructions, not enforceable bylaw, for day-to-day administration of
the country.

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CLASSIFICATION AND ENUMERATION OF DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES
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 Can be classified under four principal groups. The first group deals with
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general principles of social policy. The second with the principles of
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administrative policy. The third deals with socio-economic rights. The
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fourth and last group contains a statement ‘of the International Policy of
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the Indian Republic.
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 They are as follows:
1. Article 38: To secure and protect a social order which stands for the
welfare of the people.
 Article 38 (1):1The State shall, in particular, strive to minimise the
inequalities in income and endeavor to eliminate inequalities in status,
facilities and opportunities, not only amongst individuals but also amongst
groups of people residing in different areas or engaged in different
vocations.
2. Article 39: The State will, in particular, direct its policy towards securing:
a. Adequate means of livelihood to all citizens
b. A proper distribution of the material resources of the community for the
common good.
c. Prevention of concentration of wealth to common detriment.
d. Equal pay for equal work for both men and women.
e. The protection of the strength and health of the workers and avoiding
circumstances that force citizens to enter avocations unsuited to their age
or strength.
f. Article 39(f): **That children are given opportunities and facilities to
develop in a healthy manner and in conditions of freedom and dignity and
that childhood and youth are protected against exploitation and against
moral and material abandonment.
g. Article 39(A): **The legal system promotes justice on the basis of equal
opportunity and will, in particular, free legal aid by suitable legislation.
3. Article 40: To organize village panchayats as units of self-government.
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in cases of unemployment, old age, sickness, etc.
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5. Article 42: To secure just and humane conditions of work and maternity
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relief.
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6. Article 43: To secure work, a living wage, a decent standard of life, leisure
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and social and cultural opportunities for people, and in particular to
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promote cottage industries.
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 Article 43(A): **To secure the participation of workers in the
management of undertakings engaged in any industry.
7. Article 44: To secure a uniform civil code applicable to the entire country.
8. Article 45: To provide, within 10 years from the commencement of the
Constitution, free and compulsory education to all children upto the age of
14.
9. Article 46: To promote with special care the educational and economic
interests of the weaker sections of the people, especially the Scheduled
Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
10. Article 47: To secure the improvement of public health and the
prohibition of intoxicating drinks and drugs.
11. Article 48: To organize cultural and animal husbandry on scientific
lines and preserve and improve the breeds and prohibit the slaughter of
cows, calves and other milch and draught cattle.
 Article 48(A): ***To protect the environment and to safeguard the
forests and wildlife of the country
12. Article 49: To protect all monuments of historic interest and national
importance.
13. Article 50: To bring about the separation of the judiciary from the
executive.
14. Article 51: To endeavor to secure
a. The promotion of international peace and security.
b. The maintenance of just and honorable relations between nations.
c. The settlement of international disputes by arbitration.

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Directive Principles Mentioned in Other Parts
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 Article 350(a): It is the duty of the officers of concerned states to provide
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primary education in mother tongue to the people of minorities
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particularly to the children of minorities’ class.
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 Article 351: It will be the duty of the Union to spread Hindi language
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element.
 Article 355: It will be under consideration to appoint the people of the
Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes in and as Union or State
services.

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Executive
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THE UNION EXECUTIVE
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PRESIDENT
 According to the Article 52 “There shall be a President of India” as the
Executive Head of the State and first citizen of India.
 According to the Article 53 “The Executive powers vested in the President
are to be exercised on the advice of the Council of Ministers responsible to
 the Parliament.
A.QUALIFICATIONS
a. Must be a citizen of India.
b. Completed 35 yrs in age.
c. Eligible to be a member of Lok Sabah.
d. Must not hold any Government post. Exceptions:
o President and Vice- President
o Governor of any State
o Minister of Union or State.
B.ELECTION
 Article 54 and 55 lay down the procedure for electing the President.
 Indirectly elected through ‘Electoral College’ consisting of elected members
of both the Houses of Parliament & elected members of the Legislative
Assemblies of the States. (No nominated members). According to the 70th
Amendment Act, 1992, the expression ‘States’ includes the National Capital
Territory of Delhi and the Union Territory of Pondicherry. Members of the
Legislative Councils have no tight to vote in the Presidential election.
 The total voting strength of the Parliament is equal to the total voting
strength of all state assemblies together.

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 There is uniformity in the representation of different States at the
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President’s election according to the population and the total number of
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elected members of the Legislative Assembly of each State. The formula
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adopted to secure uniformity among the States is as follows:
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Value of Vote of an MLA =
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State population
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1,000 × Total number of elected MLAs
 On the basis of the above formula, the value of the vote of an MLA from UP
has the highest value and that from Sikkim the lowest.
 The formula adopted to secure uniformity between all the States on one
hand and the Parliament on the other is as follows:
 Value of Vote of an MP =
Total value of votes of MLAs of all States
Total number of elected MPs (LS + RS)
 The election is held through the system of proportional representation by
means of the single — transferable vote by secret ballot. The candidate
who gets 50% of votes is considered elected.
Number of Votes Polled
Quota   1
2
 Supreme Court inquires all disputes regarding President’s election.
In the history of Presidential elections, V.V. Giri is the only person who won
the election of the President as an independent candidate in 1969.
In July 1977, Neelam Sanjeeva Reddy was elected unopposed as no one else
filed nomination for the post of the President.
 Takes Oath in presence of Chief Justice of India, or in his absence, senior
most judge of Supreme Court.
C.TERM & EMOLUMENTS

 5 year term.
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become President.
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 Can give resignation to Vice President before full-term.
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D.IMPEACHMENT (ARTICLE 61)
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 Quasi-judicial procedure.
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 Can be impeached only on the ground of violation of Constitution.
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 The impeachment procedure can be initiated in either House of the
Parliament. The charge must come in the form of a proposal which must be
signed by at least one-fourth of the total membership of that House. Before
the resolution could be passed, a fourteen days notice must be given to the
President. If, after the notice, the House passes the resolution by a majority
of not less than 2/3rd membership of that House, the matter will be
referred to the other House.
 After the charges are framed by one house, the other House investigates
them. At this time President has the right to defend himself either in person
or through his lawyer. If after the investigation, the other house passes the
resolution by not less than 2/3rd majority of that House, the President
stands impeached from his office from the date on which the motion is so
passed.
E.VACANCY
 In case the office falls vacant due to death, resignation or removal, the Vice-
President acts as President. If he is not available then Chief Justice, if not
then senior-most judge of Supreme Court.
 The election is to be held within 6 months of the vacancy
Only once in the History of India, Justice M. Hidayatullah Chief Ji Court,
discharged the duties of the President in 1969.
Justice Hidayatullah is the only person to perform the functions of the
President two times in two different capacities, the first time in 1969 being
the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court and the second time being the Vice-
President of India in 1982.
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F. POWERS
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 Appoints PM, ministers, Chief Justice & judges of Supreme Court & High
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Courts, chairman & members of UPSC, Comptroller and Auditor General,
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Attorney General, Chief Election Commissioner and other members of
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Election Commission, Governors, Members of Finance Commission,
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Ambassadors, etc.
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 He directly administers the Union Territories through the Lt. Governor,
Commissioner or Administrator.
Legislative Powers
 Can summon & prorogue the sessions of the 2 houses & can dissolve Lok
Sabha. Can address both the houses jointly/separately.
 Addresses the first session after general elections and at the
commencement of the first session of each year.
 Can send messages to both the Houses, whether with respect to a Bill
pending in the Parliament or otherwise.
 Can appoint any member of the Lok Sabah to preside over its proceedings
when both the offices of Speaker and the Deputy Speaker fall vacant
simultaneously (Same way in Rajya Sabah also).
 Nominates 12 members to Rajya Sabha.
 Nominates 2 members of Anglo-Indian community in Lok Sabha if they
haven’t received adequate representation.
 Decides on the questions as to the qualifications of the MPs, in consultation
with the Election Commission.
 His prior recommendation or permission is needed to introduce certain
types of Bills in the Parliament. E.g., a Bill for the formation of new States or
alteration of boundaries of a State, a Money Bill, etc.
 When a Bill is sent to the President after it has been passed by the
Parliament, he can:
1. Give his assent to the Bill, or
2. Withhold his assent to the Bill, or
3. Return the Bill (if it is not a Money Bill or a Constitutional Amendment Bill)
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for reconsideration of the Parliament, although only once.
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 President has the power to veto with respect to the Bills passed by the
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Parliament. He enjoys three types of veto powers:
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1. Absolute Veto: Withholding the assent to the Bill. Normally, it is exercised
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only in the case of private member’s Bill. In the case of a Government Bill, a
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situation may however be imagined where, after the passage of a Bill and
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before it is assented to by the President, the ministry resigns and new
council of ministers advices the President to use his veto power against the
Bill.
2. Suspense Veto: It is exercised when instead of refusing his assent out
rightly to a Bill, the President returns the Bill or part of it for the
reconsideration and the Parliament makes it obligatory on him to give his
assent to it. In this case, the veto power is merely of suspensive nature.
3. Pocket Veto: Since the Constitution does not provide any time limit within
which the President is to declare his assent or refusal, the President could
exercise this veto by not taking any action for an indefinite time; but if the
ministry has a strong backing in Parliament, it would not be possible for
him to do so. Pocket Veto was used in 1986 by the then President Giani Zail
Singh in the Postal Bill.
 Can enact laws through ordinance when the Parliament is in recess (Article
123). These ordinances must be passed by Parliament within 6 weeks of
reassembly.
 Lays the report of the Comptroller and Auditor General, UPSC, the Finance
Commission, and others, before the Parliament.
Financial Powers
 All money bills can originate in Parliament only on recommendation of
President.
 No Demand for a grant can be made except on his recommendation.
 He can make advances out of the Contingency Fund of India to meet any
unforeseen expenditure.
 Appoints Finance Commission (after every 5 yrs) that recommends
distribution of taxes between Union & State govts.
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Judicial Powers
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 The President’s pardoning power comprises a group of analogous powers:
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1. Pardon: It rescinds both the sentence and the conviction and completely
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absolves the offender from all punishments and disqualifications.
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2. Reprieve: It means a stay of execution of sentence pending a proceeding
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for pardon or commutation.
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3. Remission: The power of remission reduces the amount of sentence
without changing its character. E.g., a sentence of imprisonment for one
year may be remitted for six months.
4. Respite: The power to grant respite means awarding a lesser sentence
instead of the prescribed penalty in view of some special facts. E.g.,
pregnancy of the woman offender.
5. Commutation: It merely substitutes one form of the punishment for
another of a lighter character — death by transportation, transportation by
rigorous imprisonment, rigorous imprisonment by simple imprisonment,
and simple imprisonment by fine and so on.
 Appoints the Chief Justice and the judges of the Supreme Court and High
Courts.
Military Powers
 He is the Supreme Commander of the Defence Forces of India.
 Appoints Chiefs of Army, Navy & Air Force.
 Declares wars & concludes peace subject to the approval of the Parliament.
Diplomatic Powers
 Represents country in international forums.
 Sends ambassadors & receives diplomats.
 International treaties & agreements are concluded on his behalf.
EMERGENCY POWERS
1. National Emergency (Article 352)
 On the grounds of security threats to India by war, external aggression or
armed rebellion.
 The President can proclaim this emergency only after receiving a written

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recommendation from the Cabinet.
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 The proclamation of the emergency must be approved by the Parliament
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with in one month. If approved, it will continue for six months.
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2. State Emergency (Article 356)
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 Emergency due to failure of constitutional machinery in State. The
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President’s rule can be imposed when the President is satisfied, on the
basis of either a report of the State Governor or otherwise, that the
governance of the State cannot be carried on in accordance with the
provisions of the constitution.
 The proclamation of the President’s rule should be approved by the
Parliament within two months. If approved, it remains in force for six
months from the date of proclamation of the State Emergency.
3. Financial Emergency (Article 360)
 The President can proclaim Financial Emergency if he is satisfied that the
financial stability or the credit of India or any part there of is threatened.
 Such a proclamation must be approved by the Parliament within two
months.
CONSTITUTIONAL STATUS OF THE PRESIDENT
 Before the 42nd Amendment Act, 1976, there was no provision in the
Constitution which made the advice of the Council of Ministers obligatory
on the President. Article 74 simply stated that there shall be a Council of
Ministers, with the Prime Ministers at the head, to aid and advice the
President.
 The 42nd Amendment Act made it clear beyond doubt that the President is
constitutionally bounded by the advice of the Council of Ministers.
 The 44th Amendment Act further stated that the President can send the
advice back for reconsideration, but only once.
 Although the Constitution (after 42nd and 44th Amendment Acts) made it
mandatory or obligatory for the President to act on the advice of the
Council of Ministers, but even then the practice of Parliamentary
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governance creates some circumstances when the President has to act as
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per his own wisdom.
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 The situations are:
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a. Appointment of the Prime Minister [Article 75(1)] under a situation when
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no single political party commands clear support of the Lok Sabha.
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b. Appointing a Prime Minister in case of vacancy due to sudden death of the
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incumbent, where there is no acknowledged leader due to inability of the
legislative party to do it or in case of absence of a settled seniority among
Cabinet Ministers and a name for the Prime Minister is proposed from the
outside.
c. Dissolution of Lok Sabha on the advice of the Council of Ministers which
has lost the support of the majority members of Lok Sabha or against
whom a vote of no-confidence motion may has been passed.
d. Dismissing ministries [Article 75(2)] in case the Council of Ministers has
lost the confidence of the House but refuses to resign.
VICE- PRESIDENT
 Elected by both the houses (Electoral College) in accordance with the
system of proportional representation by means of single transferable vote
and the vote being secret. Nominated members also participate in his
election.
 The Supreme Court has the final and exclusive jurisdiction for resolving
disputes and doubts relating to the election of the Vice-President.
Qualification
 Citizen of India.
 More than 35 yrs of age.
 Possess the qualification for membership of Rajya Sabha.
 Not hold any office of profit under union state or local authority. However
for this purpose, the President, Vice-President, Governor of a State and a
Minister of the Union or a State, are not held to be holding an office of
profit.

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TERMS AND OFFICE OF VICE PRESIDENT
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 Holds office for 5 yrs. Can be re-elected.
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 Term can be cut short if he resigns or by a resolution of the Rajya Sabha
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passed by a majority of all the then members of the Rajya Sabha and agreed
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to by the Lok Sabha.
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 The Vice President is the second highest dignitary of India, next to the
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President of India. No formal functions are attached to the office of Vice
President. He is the ex-officio chairman of Rajya Sabha. Since he is not a
member of Rajya Sabha, he has no right to vote.
 Being the Vice President of India he is not entitled for any salary but he is
entitled the salary and allowances payable to the Chairman of the Rajya
Sabha.
 All bills resolution motion can be taken in Rajya Sabha after his consent.
 Can discharge the function of President if the post falls vacant (For
maximum 6 months) The Vice President takes over the office of the
President normally under these conditions :
a. death of the President;
b. resignation of the President;
c. removal of the President;
d. When President owing to absence, illness or any other cause, is unable to
perform the functions of his office.
 When he discharges the functions of the President, the Vice President shall
not perform the duties of the office of the Chairman of Rajya Sabha and
shall not be entitled to receive the salary of the Chairman. During this
period, he is entitled for the salary privileges of the President of India.
PRIME MINISTER
 Real executive authority.
 Gets the same salary as other MPs. [In addition, he gets some other
allowances].
 He is the ex-officio Chairman of the Planning Commission, National
Development Council National Integration Council and Inter-state Council.

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Powers
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a. The President convenes and prorogues all sessions of Parliament in
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consultation with him.
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b. Can recommend the dissolution of Lok Sabha before expiry.
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c. Appoints the Council of ministers.
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d. Allocates portfolios. Can ask a minister to resign & can get him dismissed
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by President.
e. Assists the President in appointment of all high officials.
f. Can recommend to the President to declare emergency on grounds of war,
external aggression or armed rebellion.
g. Advises President about President’s Rule in the state or emergency due to
financial instability.
h. Leader of the House.
COUNCIL OF MINISTERS
 The President has to act in accordance with the advice of Council of
ministers.
 In this, 3 types of ministers are there :
a. Minister of Cabinet Rank : Real policy makers. The cabinet meetings are
not attended by other ministers.
b. Minister of State : Can either hold independent charge or attached to a
cabinet minister.
c. Deputy Ministers : Do not hold separate charge.
 Collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha and individually to the President.
 It is a team & its members sink or swim together. (Article 75). This is called
‘Collective Responsibility’. A vote of no confidence against any Minister
automatically leads to the resignation of the entire Council (or its dismissal
by the President).
 A person can remain a minister or Prime Minister without being a member
of the either house upto 6 months maximum.
 A Minister who is a member of one House has a right to speak in and take
part in the proceedings of the other House—though he has no right to vote

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in the House of which he is not a member.
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ATTORNEY-GENERAL
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 Highest legal officer of the Union Govt.
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 Appointed by the President.
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 The person should be qualified to be appointed a judge of the SC.
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 He is entitled to audience in all courts of the country & can take part in the
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proceedings of the Parliament & its committees. However, he is not given
the right to vote.
 He is also allowed to take up private practice provided the other party is
not the State. Because of this, he is not paid salary but a retainer to be
determined by the President.
 In England, the Attorney General is a member of the Cabinet, but in India he
is not. It is a political appointment.
 The Attorney General is assisted by two Solicitors-General and four
Additional Solicitors-General.
 The Attorney General gets a retainer equivalent to the salary of a judge of
the Supreme Court.
STATE EXECUTIVE
The functions and structure of state executive is some as union executive
difference, lies in only the jurisdiction & powers. Union executive regulate
and govern the whole nation whereas the jurisdiction and power of state
restricted only to that state.
THE GOVERNOR
 Nominal executive head.
 Normally each State has its own Governor, but under the Seventh
Amendment Act, 1956, the same person can be appointed as Governor of
one or more States or Lt. Governor of the Union Territory.
 Appointed by the President on the recommendations of Union Council of
Ministers.
 Sarkaria Commission suggested that CM should be consulted while
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appointing the governor; Only unquestionable person be there; Active
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politician shouldn’t be appointed; Removal should be difficult; No need to
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remove the post of governor
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QUALIFICATION
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 Citizen of India.
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 Completed 35 yrs of age.
 Shouldn’t be a member of either house of parliament or the state
legislature.
 Must possess the qualification for membership of State Legislature.
 Mustn’t hold any office of profit.
 His usual term of office is 5 yrs but he holds office during the pleasure of
the President. He can be asked to continue for more time until his
successor takes the charge.
 His oath is administered by the Chief Justice of the concerned State High
Court and in his absence, the senior-most judge of that Court.
POWERS
a. Executive Powers
 Appoints Chief Minister, Council of Ministers, Chairman & members of State
Public Service Commission, Advocate General of the State and Election
Commissioner of the State.
b. Legislative Powers
 Summons, Prorogues & dissolves the State Legislature.
 Addresses the first session of State Legislature after election and at the
beginning of each new session.
 Sends messages to State Legislature on bills pending before it.
 Appoints 1/6th members of Legislative Council.
 Nominates one member from, the Anglo-Indian community (if not proper
representation).
 Makes laws through ordinances.
 Gives assent to the Bills so that they become laws. The Governor has three
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alternatives before him with respect to the Bills: (i) He can give his assent
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to the Bill; (ii) He can return it, if it is not a Money Bill, for reconsideration
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suggesting alternations. But such Bills when passed again, have to be given
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assent; (iii) He may reserve the Bill for the assent of the President.
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c. Financial Powers
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 Ensures that the budget is laid. All money bills can be introduced on his
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recommendation only.
d. Judicial Powers
 President consults Governor while appointing Chief Justice and other
judges of High Court. Appoints judges of courts below the High Court can
grant pardon reprieve or remission of punishment for offence against State
laws. But he cannot grant pardon in cases of death sentences.
e. Emergency Powers
 Reports to the President if the State Government is not running
constitutionally and recommends the President’s Rule (Article 356). When
the President’s Rule is in progress, he becomes the Agent of the Union
Government in the State’. He takes over the reigns of administration
directly into his own hands and runs the State with the aid of the civil
Servants.
f. Other Powers
 Receives & tables the report of Stare Auditor General.
 Tables the report of State Public Service Commission. -
 Acts as Chancellor of State Universities & appoints Vice-chancellor.
 Can appoint any members as Chief Minister if no party has clear-cut
majority.
 Can refuse to sign an ordinary bill passed by State Legislature.
CHIEF MINISTER
 Real executive head of the Govt. at the State level.
 The position of Chief Minister at the State level is analogous to the position
of the Prime Minister at the Centre.
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the advice of the Chief Minister.
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 The Chief Minister is the chief link between the Governor and the Council of
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Ministers. It is he who keeps the Governor informed of all decisions of the
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Council of Ministers.
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 If CM resigns, entire ministry resigns.
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 Generally, the leader of the majority party is appointed.
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 A person who is not a member of State Legislature can be appointed, but he
has to get himself elected within 6 months, otherwise he is removed.
THE ADVOCATE-GENERAL
 Each state has an Advocate-General corresponding to the Attorney- General
of India.
 He has similar functions (to Attorney-General) for the state.
 He is appointed by the Governor of the state and holds office during the
pleasure of the Governor.
 Only a person who is qualified to be a judge of a High Court can be
appointed Advocate-General.
 He has the right to speak and to take part in the proceedings of the Houses
of the Legislature of the state.

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Legislative
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PARLIAMENT
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 According to Article 79, the Parliament consists of the President, the
Council of States (Rajya Sabha) and the House of the People (Lok Sabha).
Though the President is not a member of either of the House, he is an
integral part of it.
COMPOSITION OF PARLIAMENT
RAJYA SABHA
Maximum Strength — 250 Out of these, President nominates 12 amongst per
sons having special knowledge or practical experience in the fields of
literature, science, art and social service. Presently, the Parliament, by law,
has provided for 233 seats for the States and the Union Territories. The
total membership of Rajya Sabha is thus 245.All the States and the Union
Territories of Delhi and Pondicherry are represented in the Rajya Sabha.
 Representatives of the State are elected by members of state legislative
assemblies on the basis of proportional representation through a single
transferable vote. [States are represented on the basis of their population].
 There are no seats reserved for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in
Rajya Sabha. The qualification to become a member is
a. Citizen of India.
b. 30 yrs of age.
c. Be a parliamentary elector in the state in which he is seeking election.
d. Others as prescribed by parliament from time-to-time.
Special Powers of the Rajya Sabha
 A resolution seeking the removal of the Vice-President can originate only in
the Rajya Sabba.
 If the Rajya Sabha passes a resolution by a majority of not less than two-
third of the members present and voting that it is necessary in the national
interest that Parliament should make laws with respect to any matter
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enumerated in the State List, it shall be lawful for Parliament to make law
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for a period of not more than one year.
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 If the Rajya Sabha passes a resolution by a majority of not less than two-
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third of the members present and voting that it is necessary in the national
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interest to create one or more All-India services, Parliament bylaw, provide
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for such service or services.
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LOKSABHA
 Maximum strength — 550 + 2 [530 — States/ 20 — Union Territories]
 Present strength of Lok Sabha — 545.
 The Ninety First Amendment, 2001, extended freeze on Lok Sabha and
State Assembly seats till 2026.
 The normal tenure of the Lok Sabha is five years, but it may be dissolved
earlier by the President. The life of the Lok Sabha can be extended by the
Parliament beyond the five year term, when a proclamation of emergency
under Article 352 is in force. But the Parliament cannot extend the normal
life of the Lok Sabha for more than one year at a time (no limit on the
number of times in the Constitution).
 The qualification to become a member is:
b. Atleast 25 yrs of age.
c. Mustn’t hold any office of profit.
d. No unsound mind/insolvent.
e. Has registered as voter in any Parliamentary constituency.
Disqualification
a. If he voluntarily gives up the membership of party.
b. If he over rules the ‘whip’.
c. Absent for 60 days without intimation.
 Members’ oath is administered by Pro-Tem Speaker.
 Can resign, by writing to Speaker.

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 Presiding officer is Speaker (In his absence Deputy Speaker). The members
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among themselves elect him.
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 The Speaker continues in office even after the dissolution of the Lok Sabha
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till a newly elected Lok Sabha meets.Usually the Speaker, after his election
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cuts-off all connection with his party & acts in an impartial manner. He
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does not vote in the first instance, but exercises his casting vote only to
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remove a deadlock.
 Speaker sends his resignation to Deputy Speaker.
 The majority of the total membership can remove Speaker after giving a 14
days notice. (During this time, he doesn’t preside over the meetings). After
his removal, continues in office till his successor takes charge.
QUORUM
Quorum for Either House is 1/10 of the total no. of members.
PRIVILEGES OF PARLIAMENT
 The privileges of each House can be divided into two groups:
o Those which are enjoyed by the members individually.
o Those which belongs to each House of Parliament, as a collective body.
 The privileges enjoyed by the members individually are:
o Freedom from arrest exempts a members from arrest during the
continuance of a meeting of the House or Committee thereof of which he is
a member and during a period of 40 days before and after such meeting or
sitting. This immunity is confined to arrest in civil cases and not in criminal
cases or under the law of preventive detention.
o A member cannot be summoned, without the leave of the House to give
evidence as a witness while Parliament is in session.
o There is freedom of speech within the walls of each House.
o The limitation on freedom of speech is that no discussion can take place in
Parliament with respect to the conduct of any judge of the Supreme Court
or of a High Court except upon a motion for removal of the judge (Ref.: Art.
121).

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 The privileges of the House collectively are:
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o The right to publish debates and proceeding and to restrain publication by
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others.
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o The right to exclude others.
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o The right to regulate internal affairs of the House.
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o The right to punish members and outsiders for breach of its privileges.
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THE LEGISLATIVE PROCEDURES IN PARLIAMENT
 Bills are of two types viz., Government and Private Member’s Bills.
 Bills may be classified under four heads viz., Ordinary, Money, Financial
and Constitutional Amendment Bills. The different stages in Parliament
relating to Bills other than Money Bills as follows :
o Introduction
o Motions after introduction
o Report by Select Committee
o Passing of the Bill in the House where it was introduced
o Passage in other House
o President’s Assent
 Money and Financial Bills cannot be introduced in the Rajya Sabha. The
other Bills can be introduced in either House.
 Money, Financial and an Ordinary Bill under Article 3 can be introduced
only on the recommendation of the President. It means they cannot be
introduced as Private Member’s Bill.
 The legislative procedure adopted for passing Government and Private
Member’s Bills is the same.
JOINT SESSION
 Can be ordered by President to consider a particular bill in case:
a. A bill passed by one house is rejected by other.
b. The amendments made by the other house are not acceptable to the house

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where the bill originated.
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In case, a bill remains pending unpassed for more than 6 months.
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 Joint session is presided over by the Speaker of Lok Sabha or in his absence
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by the Deputy Speaker,
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 If the President has notified his intention to summon the Houses for joint
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sitting and then the Lok Sabha is dissolved, the joint sitting takes place not
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withstanding the dissolution of the House.
 The deadlock over a Bill is resolved by a majority of the total number of the
members of both the Houses present and voting.
 Since the Lok Sabha has larger membership, its will prevails.
 No fresh amendment can be done in Joint session.
SESSIONS OF PARLIAMENT
 At the discretion of the President Provided that gap shouldn’t be more than
6 months.
 The Parliament generally meets in three sessions in a year. These are:
a. Budget Session: In Feb.-May, longest.
b. Monsoon Session: July-August
c. Winter Session: Nov.-Dec., shortest.
PROROGATION OF HOUSE
 Means ending the session.
 Pending bills/business does not lapse; they are taken in the next session.
DISSOLUTION OF HOUSE
 Only of Lok Sabha.
 By President on advice of PM.
 Bills pending in Rajya Sabha, passed by Lok Sabha also lapses unless
President call a joint sitting of the 2 houses.
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THE BUDGET
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 The Budget is the annual financial statement of the Government. It is
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presented to the Lok Sabha upon the recommendation of the President. It is
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presented by the Finance Minister. It is the statement of the estimated
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receipts and expenditures of the Government of India for the following
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Financial Year. It also contains the actual receipts and expenditure of She
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previous year with a review of the financial position during that period.
 After introduction of the Budget, the Lok Sabha discusses the demands for
grants (i.e. proposed expenditure) of various ministries and departments
and is approved by it, one by one. All the expenditures approved through
various demands for grants and expenses charged on the Consolidated
Fund of India, are then presented in the form of a single Bill called the
‘Appropriation Bill’.
CONDUCT OF BUSINESS IN PARLIAMENT

 Ordinary Bills : All bills, except money bills, are introduced in either house.
[Speaker of Lok Sabha decides whether the bill is a money bill or not].
 Money Bills: It deals with the imposition or abolition of taxes, matters
pertaining to borrowing of money by the govt. custody & maintenance of
consolidated funds, etc.
 It can originate only in Lok Sabha on the recommendation of the President.
The Rajya Sabha can only delay it by 14 days. Its final authority lies with
Lok Sabha only.
PARLIAMENT’S CONTROL OVER THE FINANCIAL SYSTEM

 Article 265 states that no tax can be levied or collected except by authority
of law. The executive, therefore, cannot impose any tax without the
sanction of the Parliament.
 All the revenue and loans raised by the authority of law are paid into the
Consolidated Fund of India. Under Article 266 no money can be withdrawn
or spent or appropriated from the Consolidated Fund of India without the
sanction of the Parliament.

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CONSOLIDATED FUND OF INDIA
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 Ii is fund to which all the revenue, loans raised and income of the
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Government of India are deposited.
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 Similarly no money can be spent out of this Fund except through the grants
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made by the Parliament and expenditures charged on the Consolidated
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Fund of India.
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Charged Expenditures
 They are the expenditures that do not require the approval of the
Parliament to be spent out of the Consolidated Fund of India. These
expenditures are sanctioned either by the Constitution itself or by Acts of
Parliament.
 According to Article 112(3), the following are some of the charged
expenditures on the Consolidated Fund of India:
a. The emoluments and allowances of the President and other expenditures
relating to his office.
b. The salaries and allowances of the Chairman and Deputy Chairman of the
Rajya Sabha and the Spaker and the Deputy Speaker of the Lok Sabha.
c. Debt charges for which the Government of India is liable.
d. Salaries, allowances and pension payable to the, Judges of the Supreme
Court and the Comptroller and Auditor-General of India and the pension
payable to the Judges of the High Courts.
e. Other expenses declared by the constitution or parliament to be charge-
able to he Consolidated Fund.
CONTINGENCY FUND OF INDIA

 Through an act of parliament in 1950
 It has a limit of Rs. 50 crore.
 It is at the disposal of the. President, He can make advances out of this fund
to meet unforeseen expenses where the Parliament’s approval cannot be
obtained owing to time factor. However the sanction of the Parliament is
necessary to replenish the Fund from the Consolidated Fund of India.

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 The States have their own Consolidated and Contingency Funds.
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 The Parliament, thus, controls the revenue expenditure and appropriation
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of Government of India.
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COMMITTEE SYSTEM
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 Appointed to save time.
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 Most of them functions under the direction of the Speaker and are
essentially Committees of the Lok Sabha.
 Classified under two heads:
a. Standing Committees
b. Ad hoc Committees
 Members of the Rajya Sabha are associated with all the Committees except
the Estimates Committee. They constitute about one third of the strength of
each Committee. They are either elected by the Rajya Sabha or nominated
by the Chairman of the Rajya Sabha.
 Members of the Lok Sabha constitute two third of the strength of the
Committee in which Rajya Sabha members are there. They are either
elected by the Lok Sabha or are nominated by the Speaker.
 The Chairman of the Committee on Public Accounts is appointed by the
Speaker from amongst opposition members elected from Lok Sabha.
 In case the Speaker is a member of a Committee, he is ex-officio Chairman
of the Committee.
QUESTION HOUR
 The first hour of every sitting in both houses (11-12AM). In this questions
are asked by members & answered by ministers.
3 types of questions:
a. Starred Questions (1 member can ask only one/day) for which oral
answers is required.
b. Unstarred Questions for which written answer (10 days notice) is required.
c. Short Notice Questions are the ones which relates to matters of urgent
public importance and can be asked by members with notice shorter than
the ten days prescribed for an ordinary question.
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ZERO HOUR
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 From 12-1 PM daily. Time allotted everyday for miscellaneous business is
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call-attention notices, questions on official statements & adjournment
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motions.
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MOTION
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 It is a proposal brought before the house for its opinion/decision.
 Types:
a. Privilege Motion - A resolution introduced by the opposition that a
minister has mislead the house by giving wrong information.
b. Censure Motion - Can be moved only in Lok Sabha only by the opposition.
It can be brought against the ruling government or against any minister for
the failure to act or seeking disapproval of their policy. A censure motion
must specify the charges against the government for which it is moved.
Further, no leave of the House is required for moving it. If a censure motion
is passed in the Lok Sabha, the Council of ministers is bound to seek the
confidence of the Lok Sabha as early as possible.
c. No Confidence Motion - Can be moved only in Lok Sabha and only by the
opposition. It can be brought only against the Council of ministers and not
against any individual minister.
Further, unlike censure motion, a no-confidence motion need not set out
any specific ground. Once admitted in the House, it takes precedence over
all the pending business of the House. If the motion is adopted by the
House, the Council of Ministers is bound to resign.
d. Call - Attention Motion - A member (after permission from Speaker) calls
the attention of the minister to any matter of ‘urgent public importance’.
There is no Call-Attention motion in the Rajya Sabha. Instead there exists a
motion called ‘Motion for Papers’.
e. Adjournment Motion - Leads to setting aside the normal business of the
House for discussing a definite matter of urgent public importance.
f. Cut Motions - They are moved in the Lok Sabha only. They are part of the
Budgetary process which seeks to reduce the amounts for grants.
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SOME IMPORTANT TERMS
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WHIP
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 A directive issued by any political party to ensure the support of its
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members voting in favour or against a particular issue on the floor of the
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House. A person may lose the membership of the party and the legislature
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if he votes against the whip or abstains from voting.
LAME DUCK SESSION
 This refers to the last session of the old parliament which is held after a
new Lok Sabha has been elected after the general election. The lame ducks
under it are those members who were part of the old House but could not
get re-elected for the new House.
SNAP VOTE
 Refers to a vote taken unexpectedly without voters being briefed or
informed about it in advance.
GERRY MANDERING
 It is the reorganization f electoral districts attempted by the party to gain
some electoral advantage in the forthcoming elections.
SPEAKER PRO-TEM
 As soon as the new Lok Sabha is constituted, the President appoints a
Speaker Pro-tern who is usually the senior-most member (seniority in
terms of number of years he/she served as a member) of the House. His
functions include administering the oath to the newly elected Lok Sabha
members and presiding over the election of the new Speaker. His term
ceases as soon as the Speaker is elected.
GUILLOTINE
 When due to lack of time, demand for grants are put to vote whether they
are discussed or not in the House on the last day of the allotted time, it is
called Guillotine and it concludes the discussion on demands for grants

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STATE LEGISLATURE
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The Constitution provides for a Legislature for every State in the Union. The
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Legislature of every State consists of the Governor and House or Houses. The
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Legislatures in the States are either bicameral (consisting of two Houses) or
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unicameral (consisting of one House). The Legislature in Bihar, Maharashtra,
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Karnataka and Uttar Pradesh J.K. & Andhra Pradesh. is bicameral. In the
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remaining State the Legislature is unicameral consisting of only one House,
i.e., the Legislative Assembly.
LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL [VIDHAN PARISHAD]
 Also known as Upper House. Like Rajya Sabha, it is also a permanent house
(sort of) and cannot be dissolved.
Strength
 The total strength cannot exceed 1/3rd of the strength of Legislative
Assembly, subject to a minimum of 40 members. The strength varies as per
the population of state.
Creation and Abolition
 As per Article 169, if the Legislative Assembly passes a resolution for
abolishing or creating of the Legislative Council by a majority of the total
membership of the assembly and by a majority of not less than two-third of
the members present and voting, the Parliament may approve the
resolution by a simple majority.
 A resolution passed by the Legislative Assembly for the creation or
abolition of its Council is not binding on the Parliament. The Parliament
may or may not approve such a situation.
Tenure
 6 yrs term with 1/3rd members retiring every two years.
Qualification
 Same as that of Lok Sabha, except the age which is 30 yrs.
Election
 One-third of the members are elected by local bodies, one-third by
legislative assembly, one-twelfth by university graduates of atleast 3 yrs
standing, similar proportion by teachers (not less than secondary school)
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of atleast 3 yrs standing & one-sixth nominated by the Governor from among
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those persons who distinguish themselves in literature, science or social
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service.
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Chairman
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 The Council elects a Chairman & a Vice-chairman from amongst its
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members.
LEGISLATIYE ASSEMBLY [VIDHAN SABHA]
 Also known as Lower House, just like the Lok Sabha.
 Consists of directly elected representatives.
 Has a term of 5 yrs but can be dissolved by the Governor earlier. Term can
be extended by one year during national emergency.
 The Council of ministers is collectively responsible to the Assembly. The
Chief Minister is the leader of the house.
Strength
 Consists of not more than 500 members & not less than 60 members. The
strength varies according to the population of the State concerned.
However, the Legislative Assembly of Sikkim, Goa, Mizoram, Arunachal
Pradesh and Pondicherry have less than 60 members.
Qualification
 Same as that of Lok Sabha or Legislative Council except that the minimum
age is 25 yrs.
Speaker/Deputy Speaker
 Every Legislative Assembly chooses its two members to be the Speaker and
Deputy Speaker.
 Their functioning, resignation, removal procedures are exactly the same as
the Speaker/Deputy Speakers of the Lok Sabha.

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Legislative Procedure
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 With reference to Money Bill, the position is the same at Union and State
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levels
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 In case of Ordinary Bill, the only power of the Council is to interpose some
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delay in the passage of the Bill for a period of three months at the most.
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Ultimately the will of the Assembly prevails and when the Bill comes to the
Council a second time the Council can delay it for not more than a month.
There is no provision of joint sitting for solving differences between the
two Houses. In the case of a Bill originating in the Council, the Assembly
has the power of rejecting and putting an end to it forthwith.
Powers of State Legislature
 Can legislate on subjects contained in the State List as well as Concurrent
List.
 Exercise control over State expenses.
 Exercise control over State Council of Ministers (can even remove it by
passing the no-confidence motion).
 Participates in the election of the President.
 Has a share in the Amendment of Constitution as some provisions can be
amended after ratification by the legislatures of half of the states.
CENTRE – STATE RELATIONS
A. LEGISLATIVE RELATIONS
 The Constitution divides the subject into the –
Union List : (97 subjects)

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State List : (66 subjects)
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Concurrent List : 47 subjects)
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 Parliament has exclusive power on Union list (contains subjects like
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defence, foreign affairs, currency, communication, citizenship, inter-state
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trade & commerce, banking, atomic energy, posts and telegraphs, etc).
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 The State List contains subjects on which ordinarily the States alone can
make laws. These include public order, police, administration of justice,
prisons, local government, agriculture, public health and sanitation,
irrigation, etc. but under certain conditions the Constitution authorizes the
Central Government to extend its jurisdiction over matters formally
included in the State List. In fact, when a proclamation of emergency is in
operation, Parliament can legislate on matters enumerated in all the three
lists.
 Both Parliament & State Legislature can legislate on subjects contained in
the concurrent list. (contains subjects like criminal and civil law, forest,
education, marriage & divorce, drugs, trade unions, labour welfare,
newspapers, books & printing press, population control and family
planning, etc),
 Residual powers (i.e. subjects not included in any of the lists) restwith
union govt.
 Article 200 directs the Governor to reserve a Bill passed by the State
Legislature for the consideration of the President, if in his opinion, if passed
into law, would derogate the powers of the High Court.
B. ADMINISTRATIVE RELATIONS
 The Indian Constitution has a strong bias towards the Centre to make it
strong. The Central administration prevails over the State administration.
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 The executive powers of the State should be so exercised as to ensure
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compliance with the laws of the Union Parliament and not impede or
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prejudice the executive power of the Union.
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 If the State does not comply with the directives of the Centre; the latter may
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invoke Art. 356 and take-over the administration of the State to itself.
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C. FINANCIAL RELATIONS
 States are greatly dependent on the Centre. Constitution provides
inadequate sources of revenue to States. Therefore, they have to depend on
the Centre for subsidies & contributions. Union exercises control through
Comptroller and Auditor General of India, who audits State accounts.
Appointment of Finance Commission by President every 5 years also adds
to it.
 The Centre also has powers to grant loons and provide Grants-in-aid
(Article 275) to the States, especially for the purposes for promoting the
welfare of the Scheduled Tribes and raising the levels of administration of
the Scheduled Areas. This is, in fact, the most important source of income
for the States.
SARKARIA COMMISSION
 After demands of greater autonomy to States. Appointed in June, 83 under
Justice Sarkaria. The Commission submitted its report on Oct 27, 1987.
 Recommended a process of consultation by the centre on all concurrent
subjects

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Judiciary
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SUPREME COURT OF INDIA
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Supreme Court – The Guardian of the Constitution
The essence of a federal Constitution is the division of powers between the
Central and State Governments. The division is made by a written
Constitution which is the Supreme Law of the Land.In order to maintain the
supremacy of the Constitution, there must be an independent and impartial
authority to decide disputes between the Centre and the States. This function
can only be entrusted to a judicial body. The Supreme Court under our
Constitution is such an arbitration. It is the final interpreter and guardian of
the Constitution.
 Stands at the apex of the judicial system of India.
 Consists of Chief Justice & 30 other judges.
APPOINTMENT
 The senior most judge of the Supreme Court is appointed as the Chief
Justice of India. Other judges are appointed by the President after
consultation with such judges of the Supreme Court and of the High Courts
as the President may deem necessary.
 In a landmark judgement, the Supreme Court in the “Supreme Court
Advocates-on-Record Association vs. Union of India” case, 1993, held that
the Chief Justice’s opinion in the appointment of the judges of the Supreme
Court and in the appointment and transfer of the judges of the High Court
shall enjoy primacy.
QUALIFICATION
b. Have been a judge of High Court for 5 yrs or an advocate of High Court for
10 yrs minimum or in President’s view, a distinguished jurist of the
country.
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TERM & SALARY
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 The Chief Justice & other judges hold office till 65 yrs of age.
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a. Can give resignation to President.
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b. Can be removed by the Parliament.
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c. After retirement, a judge of Supreme Court cannot plead or act before any
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authority.
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REMOVAL OF JUDGES
 A motion seeking the removal of the judge can be preferred before either
House of the Parliament.
 If it is to be introduced in the Lok Sabha, it should be signed in by not less
than 100 members of the Lok Sabha.
 If it is to be introduced in the Rajya Sabha, the motion should be signed in
by not less than 50 members.
 The resolution should be supported by a majority of total membership of
both the houses & by 2/3 majority of the members present & voting.
INDEPENDENCE OF JUDGES
 The Constitution has ensured this by:
a. Salaries from Consolidated Fund.
b. Salaries cannot be changed to their disadvantage.
c. Removal difficult.
d. Cannot practice after retirement.
e. Decision & actions of judges cannot be criticized & the person doing so can
be punished.
f. Conduct of judges cannot be discussed in Parliament.
g. President cannot appoint judges of the Supreme Court himself, he has to
consult the judges also.
JURISDICTION OF THE SUPREME COURT
a. Original Jurisdiction: The Supreme Court settles all disputes between
Centre — State, State — State, etc.
b. Writ Jurisdiction: Every individual has the right to move the Supreme Court

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directly by appropriate proceedings for the enforcement of his Fundamental
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Rights.
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c. Appellate Jurisdiction: ft is three-fold:
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1. Constitutional: In constitutional matters, an appeal lies to the Supreme
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Court if the High Court certifies that the case involves a substantial
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question of law as to the interpretation of the Constitution.
2. Civil: In civil cases, an appeal lies to the Supreme Court if a High Court
certifies that the value of the subject matter of the dispute is not less than
Rs.20,000 or that the case is fit for appeal to the Supreme Court.
3. Criminal: In criminal cases, an appeal lies to the Supreme Court if the High
Court:
(i) Has on appeal reversed the order of acquittal of an accused and
sentenced him to death; or
(ii) Has withdrawn for trial before itself any case from any subordinate
court and has in such trial convicted the accused and sentenced him to
death; or
(iii) Certifies that the case is fit for appeal to the Supreme Court.
d. Advisory Jurisdiction: If the President seeks the advice of Supreme Court, it
is duty bound to give its opinion. (Its opinion isn’t a binding on President).
e. Revisory Jurisdiction: The Supreme Court under Article 137 is empowered
to review any judgement or order made by it with a view to removing any
mistake or error that might have crept in the judgement or order.
f. It is a court of record as its decisions are of evidentiary value & cannot be
questioned in any court.
g. The Supreme Court also enjoys the power of judicial review as it can
ensure that the laws passed by legislature and orders issued by the
executive do not contravene any provision of the Constitution.
h. The Supreme Court decides disputes regarding the election of the President
and the Vice President.

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i. The Supreme Court recommends the removal of members of UPSC to the
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President.
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PUBLIC INTEREST LITIGATION
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 Any member of the public can now initiate a proceeding on behalf of the
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aggrieved person (esp. if the person is too poor or unable to move the court
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on his or her own) in either the High Court or the Supreme Court for
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enforcement of constitutional rights. A destitute citizen can file a writ
petition even through a simple letter written on a postcard.
 This derives from the ‘right to be heard’ as implied by Article 32.
 Justice P.N. Bhagwati and Justice V.R. Krishna Iyer were among the first
judges to admit PILs in the Court.
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HIGH COURT
 Each State has a High Court; it is the highest judicial organ of the State.
 However, there can be a common High Court like Punjab, Haryana & Union
Territory of Chandigarh.
 Presently there are 21 High Courts in India.
 Consists of Chief Justice & other such judges as appointed by the President.
 The Constitution, unlike in the case of the Supreme Court, does not fix any
maximum number of judges for a High Court.
 A judge of a High Court can be transferred to another High Court without
his consent by the President. In this, the Chief Justice of India is also
consulted. The opinion provided by him shall have primacy and is binding
on the President.
Appointment of Judges
 The appointment of Chief Justice is made after consultation with the Chief
Justice of Supreme Court & the Governor of the State by the President. In
case of appointment of a Judge, the Chief Justice of the High Court
concerned is also consulted in addition to Chief Justice of Supreme Court &
Governor of the State concerned.
Qualifications
 a. Must be a citizen of India.
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 b. Should have been an advocate of a High Court or of two such Courts in
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succession for atleast 10 yrs; or should have held judicial office in Italian
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for a period of atleast 10 yrs.
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Term & Salary
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 A judge of High Court continues his office till 62 yrs of age. Term can be cut
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Removal
 The President can remove a judge of High Court only if the Parliament
passes the resolution by a 2/3 majority of its members present & voting in
each house.
 The conduct of the judges of the High Court cannot be discussed in
Parliament, except on a motion for the removal of a judge.
Restriction on Legal Practice

 The judge of a High Court is not allowed to practice law before the
authority of the same court except the Supreme Court & any other High
Court.
Jurisdiction of High Court

a. Court of record & has power to punish for its contempt.
b.Under Article 226, the High Courts are given powers of issuing writs for the
enforcement of Fundamental Rights and for other purposes. The
jurisdiction to issue writs under this Article is larger for High Courts as
compared to the Supreme Court because whereas the Supreme Court can
issue them only where a Fundamental Right has been infringed, a High
Court can issue them not only in such cases but also where an ordinary
legal right has been infringed.
c. Supervises the working of all subordinate courts & frames rules &
regulations for the transaction of business. It can examine the records of
subordinate courts.

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SUBORDINATE COURTS
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 Judiciary in States consists of a High Court and subordinate courts.
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 The organisation of the Subordinate Courts throughout the country is
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generally uniform. There are two types of law courts in every district —
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Civil and Criminal Courts. They function under the superintendence and
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control of the High Court of that particular state.
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 The highest civil court in a district is the court of the District Judge The
court decides civil and criminal cases.
 When the judge decides civil cases, he is called the District Judge and when
he deals with the Criminal Cases, he is called the Session Judge.
 The District Judge is appointed by the Governor in consultation with the
Chief Justice of the High Court. He hears the appeals against the decision of
the sub-judges.
 Besides the District Court, there are courts of sub-judges, munsiff courts
and courts of small causes.
 Below the Session Courts are the courts of First Class Magistrates. In
Metropolitan cities like Kolkata, Chennai, Mumbai and Delhi, these
Magistrates are known as Metrqpolitan Magistrates. Apart from this, there
are courts of Second Class and Third Class Magistrates also.
UNION TERRITORIES
 Refers to areas directly administered by the Central Govt.
 They are administered by the President through an administrator
appointed by him with a suitable designation.
 In Delhi, Daman-Diu, Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Pondicherry — Lt.
Governor
 Andaman & Nicobar and Chandigarh — Chief Commissioner
 Lakshadweep - Administrator
 There are Legislative assemblies and council of ministers in Pondicherry &
Delhi.
 Total no. is 6 + 1 at present — Andaman & Nicobar Island, Chandigarh,
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Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Delhi (National Capital Territory), Daman-Diu,
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Lakshadweep & Pondicherry
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 According to the 69th Amendment Act, 1991, Union Territory of Dethi shall
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be called the National Capital Territory and it shall have a Legislative
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Assembly to which members shall be directly chosen by the people. The
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Assembly shall make laws on the matters enumerated in State List (except
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on matters relating to Public order, Police, Land).
IMPORTANT COMMISSION
UNION PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSION [UPSC]
 Composition is determined by the President.
 The members of the UPSC are appointed for a term of 6 yrs, or till they
attain 65 yrs of age.
 Can resign earlier to the President.
 President can remove them by issuing orders only the SC makes such a
recommendation on the basis of an inquiry.
 Members of the UPSC are no eligible for employment by the govt. after
retirement.
 Function :-
a. To conduct exams for appointment to services under the Union.
b. Advise the President (not obligatory on him) in maters relating to
appointments, promotions & transfers from one service to another of civil
servants.
c. All disciplinary matters affecting a person in the service of Union.
d. Matters regarding award of pension & awards in respect to injuries
sustained during service under the govt.
e. Maintains continuity of administration.
ELECTION COMMISSION
 The Constitution provides for an independent election commission to
ensure free and fair election to the Parliament, the state legislature and the
offices of President and Vice-President.
 Consists of Chief Election Commissioner + 2 Election Commissioners. They
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all enjoy equal powers.
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 The Chief Election Commissioner is appointed by the President and the
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other Election Commissioners are appointed by the President after
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consultation with the Chief Election Commissioner. Article 324 also
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provides for .the appointment of Regional Commissioners at the time of
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General Elections after consultation with the Election Commission.
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 Election Commissioners are appointed for a term of 5 yrs.
 They are not eligible for re-appointment. Also, they cannot hold any office
of profit after their retirement.
 Article-324 says that there is no upper limit on the no. of Election
Commissioners. In 1990, Dinesh Goswami Committee recommended that
the Election Commission be a 3-membered body. Also, at its constitution
Chief Justice & leader of the opposition ought to be consulted. (Thus Art.-
324 was amended).
 The Chief Election Commissioner can be removed from office before expiry
of his term by the President on.the basis of a resolution passed by the
Parliament by a special majority on the ground of proven misbehavior or
incapacity (same as that of Judge of Supreme Court). The other Election
Commissioners may be removed by the President on the recommendation
of the Chief Election Commissioner.
Functions
a. Preparation of electoral rolls & keep voters list updated. The electoral roll is
nor mall revised every year to add the names of those who have turned 18
on the 1st January of that year or have moved into a constituency and to
remove the names of those who have died or moved out of a constituency.
b. Preparation of code of conduct for all political parties.
c. Recognition of various political parties & allotment of election symbols.
d. Appointment of election officers to look into disputes concerning election
arrangements.
e. To examine the returns of election expenses filed by the candidate.

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FINANCE COMMISSION
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 The Finance Commission is constituted by the President of India every fifth
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year or at such an early time as he considers necessary.
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 It consists of a Chairman & 4 other members. They are eligible for re-
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 The Chairman is selected from persons who have had experience in public
affairs, while the members are selected from the persons who :
a. Qualified to be appointed judges of High Court.
b. Have special knowledge of the finance & accounts of govt.
c. Wide experience in financial matter & in administration
d. Have special knowledge of Economics.
 Presently 13th Finance Commission is working. (Vijay S. Kelkar-Chairman)
Functions
a. To recommend to the President distribution of net proceeds of the taxes
which are divisible between Union and States.
b. To recommd the principles which should govern the Grants of the revenues
of the State out àf the Consolidated Fund of India.
c. The recommendations made by it are only of advisory nature and hence,
not binding on the Government.
d. To tender advice to the President on any other matter referred to the
Commission in the interest of sound finance.
INTER-STATE COUNCIL
 Inter-State Council was constituted in 1990 under Art. 263.
 Inter-State Council consists of Prime Minister, 6 Union Cabinet Ministers
the Chief Ministers of all the State and administrators of all UTs.
 The Sarkaria Commission recommended the Constitution of a permanent
Inter-State Council for co-ordination among States and with the Union.
(Justice R.S. Sarkaria died in 2007.)
 Inter-state Council is chaired by Prime Minister.
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 Inter-State Council meets thrice a year.
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PLANNING COMMISSION
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 Planning Commission is not mentioned in the Constitution.
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 Planning Commission is an economic advisory body set up by a resolution
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 At present, the planning commission consists of the chairman, four
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Ministers as part time members and seven full-time members.
 Prime Minister is the Chairman of Planning Commission.
 Main functions of the Planning Commission are:
o To formulate an intergrated Five Year Plan for economic and social
development.
o To act an advisory body to the Union Government.
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT COUNCIL (NDC)
 The National Development Council was formed in 1952, to associate the
States in the formulation of the Plans.
 All members of the Union Cabinet, Chief Ministers of States, the
Administrators of the Union Territories and member of the Planning
Commission are members of the NDC.
 Functions of the NDC are:
o Review working of national plan
o Recommend measures to meet targets of national plan
 It is a non-constitutional body.
NATIONAL INTEGRATION COUNCIL
 National Integration Council, was set-up in 1986, to deal with welfare
measures for the minorities on an All-India basis.
 It includes Union Ministers, Chief Ministers of State, representatives of
National and Regional political parties, labour, women public figures and
media representative.
 It is a non-constitutional body.
ZONAL COUNCILS
 Set up under State Reorganization Act 1956,
1. Northern Zone : Consist of Punjab, Rajasthan, Haryana, J&K, Uttarakhand,
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Himachal Pradesh, Chandigarh & National Capital Territory of Delhi.
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2. Central Zone: UP Chhattisgarh and MP.
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3. Eastern Zone: Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Orissa and Sikkim.
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4. Western Zone : Maharashtra, Goa’ Gujarat and UTs of Dadar and Nagar
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Haveli and Daman Diu.
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5. Southern Zone : Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala and UT of
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Pondicherry.
6. North Eastern Council: Itwas created in 1972 for Assam, Manipur, Tripura,
Meghalaya, Nagaland, Mizoram & Arunachal Pradesh, In 1994, Sikkim was
included in it making its strength as eight.
 The objective is to promote collective approach and for sorting out
common problems of the member states and also for solving inter-state
disputes.
 Each Council consists of a Chief Minister and two other ministers of each of
the States in the zone and the administrator in the case of a Union
Territory.
 The Union Home Minister has been nominated to be the common Chairman
of all the Zonal Councils.

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Panchayati raj
 Ensures the direct participation of people at the grass root level.
 In 1956, the National Development Council appointed a committee under
Balwant Rai Mehta, which submitted its report in 1957 in which it
recommended:
 A 3-tier structure consisting of Zila Parishad at the District Level,.
Panchayat Samiti at the Block Level and Gram Panchayat at the Village
 Level.
 All social & economic development programmes channelized through
these.
 The 3-tier system of Panchayat Raj was 1st adopted by Rajasthan (Nagaur
District) on Oct 2, 1959.
THREE TIER SYSTEM

 It envisages Panchayat at the village level, Panchayat Samitis at the block
level & Zila Parishad at the district level.
a. Village Panchayat
 Consists of elected representatives of the people.
 Seats reserved for SC, ST, women, etc.
 Chairman is elected from among its members, known as ‘Sarpanch’.
 The Panchayat is accountable for all its actions to the Gram Sabha, the
general body of villagers.
 Gram Sabha consists of all the adults residing within the jurisdiction of the
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Panchayat.
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 It exercises general supervision over the working of the Panchayat & lays
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down necessary guidelines for its working.
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b. Block & Panchayat Samiti
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 The block, consisting of 20-60 villagers is administered through a
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panchayat.
 The chairman of Panchayat Samiti is called ‘Pradhan’.
c. Zilla Parishad
 It is the top level of the 3-tier structure.
 Elect its chairman from amongst its members who is known as the District
Collector.
ASHOK MEHTA COMMITTEE

 Appointed in Dee, 1977 by the Janta govt.
a. Submitted its report in 1978, which said :- Replacement of 3-tier system by
2-tier system consisting of Mandal Panchayats at the base (consisting of a
group of villages comprising a population of 15,000 to 20,000) & the Zila
Parishad at the top.
 In Dec, 1992 73rd constitutional amendment was passed to decentralize
the power, down to village level. It said (envisaged):
a. Panchayati Raj institutions to be constituted through direct elections, with
reservation as well.
b. Fixed term of 5 yrs, & if dissolved earlier, elections must be held within 6
months.
c. They are authorized to make laws concerning economic & social
development of villages. These have been listed in the eleventh schedule &
comprise 29 subjects.

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The Constitution of India provides for three types of emergency –
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A. National Emergency (Art. 352) – Due to war, external aggression or
armed rebellion.
B. State Emergency (Art. 356) – Due to the failure of Constitutional
Machinery in States.
C. Financial Emergency (Art. 360)
1. National Emergency (Article 352)
 On the grounds of security threats to India by war, external aggression or
armed rebellion.
 The President can proclaim this emergency only after receiving a written
recommendation from the Cabinet.
 The proclamation of the emergency must be approved by the Parliament
with in one month. If approved, it will continue for six months.
 It can be extended for an indefinite period with an approval of the
Parliament for every six months.
 It has been proclaimed three times so far- 1962, 1971 and 1975.
 President can suspend the operation of Fundamental Rights (except
Articles 20 and 21) during this type of emergency.
 Article 19 can only be suspended in case of external emergency and not in
the case of internal emergency.
 The Parliament can make laws on items mentioned in the State list during
the period of National Emergency.
3. State Emergency (Article 356)
 Emergency due to failure of constitutional machinery in State. The
President’s rule can be imposed when the President is satisfied, on the
basis of either a report of the State Governor or otherwise, that the
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provisions of the constitution.
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 The proclamation of the President’s rule should be approved by the
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Parliament within two months. If approved, it remains in force for six
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 It can be extended for a maximum period of three years with the approval
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of the Parliament every six months.
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 The State Governor, on behalf of the President, carries on the State
administration with the help of the advisors appointed by the President or
the Chief Secretary of the State.
 The Presidents rule has been imposed more than 100 times.
4. Financial Emergency (Article 360)

 The President can proclaim Financial Emergency if he is satisfied that the
financial stability or the credit of India or any part there of is threatened.
 Such a proclamation must be approved by the Parliament within two
months.
 During the Emergency, the President can issue directions for the reduction
of salaries and allowances of all or any class of persons serving under the
State.
 Financial Emergency has not been declared so far.
METHODS OF AMENDMENTS IN CONSTITUTION
1. Method of Simple majority : Applies to matters related to Citizenship,
abolishing or creating second chambers in the states, provisions relating to
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, etc.
2. Method of 2/3 majority In this, the following conditions should be fulfilled
:Both the houses must pass the proposal by a majority of the total
membership. By a 2/3 majority of the members present.
3. Method of 2/3 majority & state approval: Both the houses must pass the
proposal by a majority of the total membership. By a 2/3 majority of the
members present.After this, the amendment bill must also be ratified by
not less than half of state legislatures
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SPECIAL STATUS OF JAMMU & KASHMIR
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 The special status of this state is guaranteed in Article 370. This status has
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been provided on the basis of an agreement concluded at the time of
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Jammu and Kashmir’s accession to the Indian Union.
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 The following are some of the special features of the special relationship
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between the Union of India and J&K
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1. J&K has its own constitution, apart from the Indian Constitution. Its
constitution was framed by a Constituent Assembly of its own and came
into being on the 26th January, 1957.
2. The Parliament cannot make law with regard to J&K on subjects in the
State List.
3. The residuary powers lie with the legislatures of J&K and not with the
Parliament.
4. It follows dual citizenship. Only the citizens of J&K can take part in the
elections to the State Assembly and acquire, own and dispose of immovable
property in J&K.
5. Only National Emergency proclaimed on grounds of war and external
aggression shall have automatic extension to J&K. National Emergency
proclaimed on the basis of armed rebellion shall not be automatically
extended to J&K.
6. Apart from the President’s Rule, the Governor’s Rule can also be imposed
for a maximum period of six months, in case of constitutional breakdown in
the State.
7. The Parliament cannot change the name, boundary or territory of J&K,
without the concurrence of State Legislature.
8. The State Government shall be consulted by the Centre before appointing a
person as the Governor of J&K.
9. No preventive detention law made by the Parliament can have automatic
extension to J&K.
10. The Union has no power to proclaim a Financial Emergency to J&K.

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Index
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SCHEDULES IN CONSTITUTION
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First Sch List of States & Union Territories.
edule
Second Salary of President, Governors, Chief Judges, Judges of High
Schedule Court and Supreme Court, Comptroller and Auditor General.
Third Forms of Oaths & affirmations
Schedule
Fourth Allocate seats for each State of India in Rajya Sabha
Schedule
Fifth Administration and control of Scheduled Areas and Tribes.
Schedule
Sixth Provisions for administration of Tribal Area in Assam,
Schedule Meghalaya, Tripura, Mizoram & Arunachal Pradesh.
Seventh Gives allocation of powers & functions between Union &
Schedule States. Contains 3 lists:
1. Union list (for Central Govt.): 97 subjects
2. States list (Powers of State Govt.): 66 subjects
3. Concurrent list (Both Union & States): 47 subjects
Eighth List of 22 languages of India recognized by constitution.
Schedule 1. Assamese 2. Bengali 3. Gujarati 4. Hindi
5. Kannada 6. Kashmir 7. Konkani 8. Malayalam
9. Manipuri 10. Marathi 11. Nepali 12. Oriya
13. Punjabi 14. Sanskrit 15. Sindhi 16. Tamil
17. Telegu 18. Urdu 19. Santhali 20. Bodo
21. Maithili 22. Dogri
 Sindhi was added in 1967 by 21st amendment)
 Konkani, Manipuri and Nepali were added in 1992 by

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71st amendment]
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 Santhali, Maithili, Bodo and Dogri were added in 2003 by
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92nd amendment]
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Ninth Added by 1st amendment in 1951. Contains acts & orders
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Schedule related to land tenure, land tax, railways, industries.
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[Right of Property not a fundamental tight now].
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Tenth Added by 52nd amendment in 1985. Contains provisions of
Schedule disqualification of grounds of defection.
Eleventh By 73rd amendment in 1992. Contains provisions of
Schedule Panchayati Raj.
Twelfth By 74th amendment in 1992. Contains provisions of
Schedule Municipal Corporation.
PRESIDENTS OF INDIA
Name Tenure
From To
Dr. Rajendra Prasad 1950 1962
Dr. S. Radhakrishnan 1962 1967
Dr. Zakir Hussain 1967 1969
V.V. Giri (Vice-President) # 1969 1969
Justice M. Hidayatullah* 1969 1969
V.V. Giri 1969 1974
F. Ali Ahmed 1974 1977
B.D. Jatti# 1977 1977
N. Sanjiva Reddy 1977 1982
Gaini Jail Singh 1982 1987
R. Venkataraman 1987 1992
Dr. S.D. Sharma 1992 1997
K.R. Narayanan 1997 2002
Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam 2002 2007
Mrs. Pratibha Patil 2007 2012
Mr Pranab Mukherjee 2012 Till Date

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#Acting; *First Chief-Justice to be appointed President.
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VICE-PRESIDENTS OF INDIA
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From To
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Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan 1952 1962
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Dr. Zakir Hssain 1962 1967
V.V. Giri 1967 1969
Bal Swaroop Pathka 1969 1974
Dr. M. Jatti 1974 1979
Justice Mohd. Hidayatullah 1979 1984
S. Venkataraman 1984 1987
Dr. shankar Dayal Sharma 1987 1992
K.R. Narayanan 1992 1977
Krishan Kant 1997 2002
Bhairon Singh Sekhawat 2002 2007
Hamid Ansari 2007 Till date
PRIME MINISTERS OF INDIA
Name Tenure
From To
Jawahar Lal Nehru 1947 1964
Gulzari Lal Nanda 1964 1964
Lal Bahadur Shastri 1964 1966
Gulzari Lal Nanda 1966 1966
Indira Gandhi 1966 1977
Morarji Desai 1977 1979
Charan Singh 1979 1970
Indira Gandhi 1980 1984
Rajiv Gandhi 1984 1989
V.P. Singh 1989 1990
Chandra Shekhar 1990 1991
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P.V. Narasimha Rao 1991 1996
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Atal Bihari Vajpayee 1996 1996
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H.D. Deve Gowda 1996 1997
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I.K. Gujral 1997 1998
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Atabl Bihari Vajpayee 1998 1999
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Atal Bihary Vajpayee 1999 2004
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Dr. Manmohan Singh 2004 Till date
TABLE OF PRECEDENCE (GOVT. OF INDIA)

 President
 Vice President
 Prime Minister
 Governors of States within their respective States
 Former Presidents
 Deputy Prime Minister
 Chief Justice of India
a. Speaker of Lok Sabho
 Cabinet Ministers of the Union
a. Chief Minister of States within their respective States
b. Dy. Chairman, Planning Commission
c. Former Prime Ministers
d. Leaders of opposition in Rajya Sabha and Lok Sabha
 Holders of Bharat Ratna decoration
LIST OF IMPORTANT AMENDMENTS

 First Amendment 1951 : Added Ninth Schedule.
 Seventh Amendment 1956 : Necessitated on account of reorganisation of
States on a linguistic basis.
 Eighth Amendment 1959: Extended special provisions for reservations of
seats for SCs, STs and Anglo-Indians in Lok Sabha and Leg. Assemblies for a
period of 10 gears from 1960 to 1970.
 The Ninth Amendment 1960 Gave effect to transfer certain territories to
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Pakistan following the 1958 Indo-Pak agreement.
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 The Tenth Amendment 1961 : Incorporated Dadra & Nagar Haveli as a UT.
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 Twelfth Amendment 1962 Incorporated Goa, Daman & Diu as a UT.
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 Thirteenth Amendment 1962 : Created Nagaland as a State.
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 S. Fourteenth Amendment 1963 : Pondicherry, Karaikal, Mahe and Yanam,
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the former French terrritories were included in the I schedule as UT of
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Pondicherry.
 Eighteenth Amendment 1966 : Reorganised Punjab into Punjab, Haryana
and UT of Chandigarh.
 Twenty first Amendment 1967 : Included Sindhi as the Fifteenth Regional
language.
 Twenty second Amendment 1969 : Created a sub-state of Meghalaya within
Assam.
 Twenty third Amendment 1969: Extended the reservation of seats for
SC/ST and nomination of Anglo-Indians for a further period of 10 years (till
1980).
 Twenty sixth Amendment 1971: Abolished the titles and special privileges
of former rulers of princely states.
 Twenty seventh Amendment 1971 : Established Manipur and Tripura as
States and Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh as UTs.
 Thirty first Amendment 1973 : Increased the elective strength of LS from
525 to 545. The upper limit of representatives of States went up from 500
to 525.
 Thirty sixth Amendments 1975 : Made Sikkim a State.
 Thirty eighth Amendment 1975 : Provided that the President can make a
declaration of emergency, and the promulgation of ordinances by the
President, Governors and the Administrative Heads of UTs would be final
and could not be challenged in any court. It also authorised the President to
declare different kinds of emergencies.
 Thirty ninth Amendment 1975: Placed beyond challenge in courts, the
election to Parliament of a person holding the office of PM or Speaker and
election of the President and Prime Minister.
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 Forty second Amendment 1976 : Provided supremacy of Parliament and
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gave primacy to Directive Principles over Fundamental Rights. It also
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added 10 Fundamental Duties. New wards- Socialist, Secular and Unity and
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Integrity of the Nation, were added in the preamble.
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 Forty fourth Amendment 1978 : The Right to Property was deleted from
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Part Ill. Article 352 was amended to provide ‘Armed Rebellion’ as one of
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the circumstances for declaration of emergency.
 Forty fifth Amendment 1985 Extended reservation for SC/ST by another 10
years (till 1990).
 Fifty second Amendment 1985 : Added the Tenth Schedule (regarding anti-
defection).
 Fifty third Amendment 1986 : Mizoram was made a state.
 Fifty fifth Amendment 1986: Conferred statehood to Arunachal Pradesh.
 Fifty sixth Amendment 1987 : Hindi version of the Constitution of India
was accepted for all purposes. The UT of Goa, Damon and Diu was divided
and Goa was made a State. Daman and Diu remained as a UT.
 Sixty first Amendment 1989: Reduced the voting age from 21 to 18 years
for the LS as well as Assemblies.
 Sixty first Amendment 1989 : Also extended reservation of seats for SC/ST
till 2000 AD.
 Seventy first Amendment 1992 : Konkani, Manipuri and Nepali were
included in the VIII Schedule.
 Seventy third Amendment 1993 : (Panchayati Raj Bill) Provided among
other things Gram Sabha in Villages, constitution of panchayats at the
village and other levels, direct elections to all seats in panchayats and
reservation of seats for the SC and ST and fixing of tenure of 5 years for
panchayats.
 Seventy fourth Amendment 1993 : (Nagarpalika Bill) Provides for, among
other things, constitution of three types of municipalities, reservation of
seats in every municipality for the SC and ST, women and the backward
classes.
 Eighty second Amendment 2000 : Reinstaled the provision of reservation
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of SC and STs in matters related to promotion. Besides, the qualifying
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marks for passing an examination for them has also been lowered.
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 Eighty fourth Amendment 2001 : Extended freeze on Lok Sabha and State
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Assembly seats till 2026.
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 Eighty sixth Amendment 2002 : Makes education a fundamental right for
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children in the age group of 6-14 years.
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 Eighty seventh Amendment 2003 : Made the 2001 census the basis for
delimitation of constituencies of the Lower House of Parliament (Lok
Sabha) and State assemblies (Vidhan Sabhas).
 Ninety first Amendment 2003 : Amended the Anti-Defection Law and also
mode a provision that the number of ministers in the Central & State Govts.
cannot be more than 15% of the strength of Lok Sabha & respected Vidhan
Sabha.
 Ninety second Amendment 2003: Bodo, Maithili, Santhali and Dogri added
into the VIII Schedule.
 Ninety third Amendment 2005: To reserve seats for socially and
educationally backward classes, besides the Scheduled Castes and the
Scheduled Tribes, in private unaided institutions other than those run by
minorities.
 Ninety fourth Amendments 2006: To provide for a Minister of Tribal
Welfare in newly created Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh.

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Module -3 HISTORY
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What is History?
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History is the discovery, collection, organization and chronological
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presentation of information about past events. In other words History is a
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systematic, written account of events, particularly of those affecting a
nation, institution, science, or art, and usually connected with a
philosophical explanation of their causes.
Classification of History
Indian History can be classified into four parts-Ancient, Early Medieval,
Medieval and Modern. Every part or age is further divided into Political
history, Social history, Economic history, Religious history & Cultural
history.
History can also be classified (on the basis of source) in the following
category:
Period Definition Example

Pre-historic The period for which only Archeological Stone Age
period evidence is available
Proto- The period for which both Archeological and Indus valley
historic Literary evidence are available, but literary
civilization
period sources are not readable & Vedic
civilization
Historic The period for which both Archeological and Buddha age
period Literary evidence are available, and we are and
able to read and understand them. onwards.

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Part A: Ancient India
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An Introduction to Ancient History
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Though the Ancient history began with evolution of the earth. The history of
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India commences with the evidence of human activity of Homo sapiens as
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long as 75,000 years ago. But broadly Indian history comprises more than a
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span of 5000 years. The Indus Valley Civilization, which spread and
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flourished in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent from
somewhere around 2500 to 1750 BC, was the first major civilization in India.
It actually straddled modern India and Pakistan. The people of the area had
begun farming, they had invented pottery. By about 2,500 BC a prosperous
farming society had grown up. The people spun cotton and they traded with
other cultures such as modern day Iraq. Some of the people of the Indus
Valley began to live in towns. The two largest were at Mohenjo-Daro and
Harappa.
After the collapse of the Indus Valley civilization a new wave of people
entered India. The Aryans came from central Asia and they probably entered
India through Afghanistan after 1500 BC. There were probably waves of
invasions over a period of time rather than just one. The Aryans were a semi-
nomadic race of pastoralists. At first they wandered about with their herds of
cattle rather than live in one place. However in time the Aryans settled down
and became farmers. Slowly a more ordered and settled society evolved.
Tribes became kingdoms. The various Indian kingdoms had begun to conquer
one another. At approximately the same time the Persians captured the
extreme North-west of India. Alexander the Great destroyed the Persian
Empire and penetrated the far North-west of India.
In 322 BC Chandragupta Maurya became king of the powerful and highly
centralized state of Magadha in the North of India. Aided by his able advisor
Kautilya Chandragupta created an empire. This new empire was rich and
trade thrived. In 296 Chandragupta abdicated in favour of his son Bindusara.
The greatest Mauryan ruler was Ashoka (269-232 BC). He conquered Kalinga
(modern day Orissa). Afterwards he declared he was appalled by the
suffering caused by war and decided against any further conquest. Asoka also
converted to Buddhism. However despite his conversion to Buddhism
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Mauryan rule was authoritarian.After his death the Mauryan empire declined,
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as all empires do. It suffered an economic decline and political instability as
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different brothers strived to become king. A general assassinated the last
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Mauryan ruler in 185 BC.
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The general then took over running the empire and founded the Shunga
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dynasty. However in 73 BC the last Shunga ruler was, in turn, assassinated.
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They were replaced by the Kanva dynasty which ruled from 73-28BC.A new
empire was founded early in the 4th century AD by Chandragupta. After his
death his son Samudragupta (335-375) conquered the whole of Northern
India and much of Central India. The Gupta Empire reached a peak under
Chandragupta II 375-415 AD. However it then went into decline. The Gupta
Empire broke up in the early 6th century. However Gupta rule was less strict
then Mauryan rule and provinces of the empire were given some autonomy.
The next great ruler in Indian history was king Harshavardhana (606-647).
Harsha began as ruler of the kingdom of Thanesar. He then carved out an
empire in Northern India. But Harsha's kingdom really depended on his
personality to hold it together. After his death it quickly broke up.India once
again became a land of several kingdoms, which were frequently at war with
each other.

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Introduction
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The evolution of Earth is supposed to took place in 4.6 billion year ago. After
many dramatic changes in earth’s structure and environment, it becomes
supportive for life. From their first appearance to around 3000 BC humans
used only stone tools for different purposes. This period is, therefore, kn
own as the Stone Age, which has been divided into Paleolithic (early or Old
Stone) Age, Mesolithic (Middle Stone) Age, and Neolithic (New Stone) Age.
A.The Paleolithic Period (500,000 BC - 8000 BC)

 The people of this age were food gathering people who lived on hunting
and gathering wild fruits and vegetables.
 Man during this period used tools of unpolished, undressed rough stones
and lived in cave and rock shelters. They mainly used hand axes, cleavers,
choppers, blades, scrapers and burin. Their tools were made of hard rock
called ‘quartzite’, hence Paleolithic men are also called ‘Quartzite Men’
 The Paleolithic sites are spread in practically all parts of India except the
alluvial plains of Indus and Ganga.
 They had no knowledge of agriculture, fire or pottery of any material.
 Homo sapiens first appeared in the last of this phase.
 It has been pointed out that Paleolithic men belonged to the Negrito race.

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 The Paleolithic Age in India has been divided into three phases according to
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the nature of stone tools used by the people and also according to the
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nature of change in the climate — early or lower Paleolithic, Middle
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Paleolithic and Upper Paleolithic.
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The Early Paleolithic Phase: Its characteristic tools are hand axes,
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cleavers and choppers. Such tools have been found in Soan and Sohan river
valley (now in Pakistan) and in the Belan Valley in the Mirzapur district of
UP.
Middle Paleolithic Phase: It is characterized by the use of stone tools
made of flakes mainly scrapers, borers and blade like tools. The sites are
found in the valleys of Soan, Narmada and Tungabhadra rivers.
Upper Paleolithic Phase: This stage is marked by burins and scrapers.
Such tools have been found in AP, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Bhopal and
Chhota Nagpur plateau.
B.The Mesolithic Period (8000 - 6000 BC)

 The people lived on hunting, fishing and food gathering; at a later stage
they also domesticated animals.
 The characteristic tools of the Mesolithic Age are known as Microliths—
pointed, cresconic blades, scrapers, etc, all made of stone.
C.The Neolithic Period (6000 – 1000 BC)

 Neolithic men cultivated land and grew fruits and corn like ragi and horse
gram. They domesticated cattle, sheep and goat.
 In the later phase of Neolithic phase people led ‘a more settled life and lived
in circular and rectangular houses made of mud and reed.

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 They knew about making fire and making pottery, first by hand and then by
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potters wheel. They also painted and decorated their pottery.
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 They lived in caves and decorated their walls with hunting and dancing
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scenes (Bhimbetka and Bagh Cave M.P.). They also knew the art of making
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boats. They could also weave cotton and wool to make cloth.
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 Important sites of this age are Burzahom and Gufkral in J&K (famous for
pit dwelling, stone tools and graveyard in house), Piklihal and Hallur in AP,
Chirand and Senuwar in Bihar (known for remarkable bone tools), Amri,
Kotdiji, Mehargadh (First evidence of agriculture especially cotton
production and settled village life) .
 Koldihawa in UP revealed a threefold cultural sequence: Neolithic,
Chalcolithic and Iron Age.
D.The Chalcolithic Period
 The end of the Neolithic Period saw the use of metals of which copper was
the first. A culture based on the use of stone and copper arrived. Such a
culture is called Chalcolithic which means the stone-copper phase.
 The Chalcolithic people used different types of pottery of which black and
red pottery was most popular. It was wheel made and painted with white
line design.
 These people were not acquainted with burnt bricks. They generally lived
in thatched houses. It was a village economy.
 They venerated the mother goddess and worshiped the bull.
 Important sites of this phase are spread in Gilund, Ahar and Tambavati in
Rajasthan, Jorwe culture in Maharashtra, Navadatoli in MP, etc.

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Indus Vally Civilization
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Introduction
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The Indus Valley Civilization(IVC) was a Bronze Age civilization which was
sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture. Among other
names for this civilization is the Harappan Civilization, in reference to its
first excavated city of Harappa. More than 100 sites belonging to this
civilization have been excavated. According to radio-carbon dating, it spread
from the year 2500 - 1750 BC. Mediterranean, Proto-Australoid, Mongoloids
and Alpines formed the bulk of the population, though the first two were
more numerous. Copper, bronze, silver, gold were known but not iron.
A.Geographical Extent
 IVC was thriving along the Indus River and the Ghaggar-Hakra River in
what is now Pakistan and north-western India. Most of the Indus Valley
sites have been found at the Halkra-Ghaggar River.
 Covered parts of Punjab, Sindh, Baluchistan, Gujarat, Rajasthan and some
parts of Western UP It extended from Manda in Jammu in the north to
Daimabad in the south and from Alamgirpur in W. UP to Sutkagendor in
Baluchistan in the west.
Important sites of IVC & their location
Site River Location Excavators
Harappa Ravi Montgomery Daya Ram Sahni (1921),

Punjab
Pakistan
Mohenjodaro Indus Larkana Rakhal Das Bannerji (1922),
Sindh
Pakistan

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Chanhudaro Indus
Nawabshah Mackay (1925), N.G.
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Sindh Mazumdar (1931)
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Pakistan
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Lothal Ghaggar Kathiyawar S.R. Rao (1954)
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Gujrat
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India
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Kalibangan Ghaggar Ganganagar Amalnand Ghosh (1951),
Rajasthan
India
Banawali Ghaggar Hissar R.S. Bist (1973)
Haryana
India
Dholavira Luni Kutchh J.P. Joshi (1967-68)
Gujarat
India
Suktagendor Sindh (Pakistan),
Alamgirpur Uttar Pradesh,
India
Kot-Diji Sindh, Pakistan
Amri Sindh, Pakistan
B.Major sites of Indus Valley Civilization
(a)Harappa
 Excavations at the site have led to following specific findings :
(i) two rows of six granaries with brick platforms; 12 granaries together
had the same area as the Great Granary at Mohenjodaro;
(ii) evidences of coffin burial and cemetry ‘H’ culture (two antelopes and
the hunter on a postherd from a cemetry have been discovered;
(iii) single-room barrack;
(iv) evidence of direct trade interaction with Mesopotamia;
(v) a red sandstone male torso;

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(vi) Stone symbols of female genitals.
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(b)Mohenjo-daro
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 Also known as “Mount of the Dead”
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 Some of the specific findings during the excavations of Mohenjodaro
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include;
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(i) a college, a multi-pillared assembly hall;
(ii) the Great bath-(the most important public place of the city);
(iii) a large granary (the largest building of Mohenjo-daro);
(iv) evidence of direct trade contact with Mesopotamia;
(v) a bronze dancing girl;
(vi) evidence of violent death of some of the inhabitants (discovery of
human skeletons put together);
(vii) a seal representing Mother Goddess with a plant growing from her
womb, and a woman to be sacrificed by a man with a knife in his
hand;
(viii) a seal with a picture suggesting Pashupati Mahadev.
(c) Kalibangan
 The word ‘Kalibangan’ means ‘black bangles’. A ploughed field was the
most important discovery of the early excavations. Later excavations at
Kalibangan made the following specific discoveries.
(i) a wooden furrow;
(ii) seven ‘fire-altars’ in a row on a platform, suggesting the practice of the
cult of sacrifice;
(d)Lothal
 Lothal was an important trade centre of the Harappan culture, the town
planning in Lothal was different from that of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro.
Excavations at Lothal led to some specific discoveries which include :
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(i) remains of rice husk (the only other 1-larappan city where the rice
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husk has been found is Rangpur, near Ahmedabad);
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(ii) an artificial dockyard;
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(iii) evidences of direct trade contact with Mesopotamia;
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(iv) a painting on a jar resembling the story of the cunning fox narrated in
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the Panchatantra;
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(v) evidence of double burial (burying a male and a female in a single
grave);
(e)Chanhu-daro
 Sindh, Pakistan
 The site is especially important for providing evidences about different
Harappan factories. These factories produced seals, toys and bone
implements. It was the only Harappan city without a citadel. Some
remarkable findings at Chanhu-daro include bronze figures of bullock cart
and ekkas.
(f)Ropar
 Punjab, India
 There is an evidence of burying a dog below the human burial (Though the
practice was prevalent in Burzhom in Kashmir, it was rare in the Harappan
context).
(g)Banwali
 Haryana, India
 Situated in Hissar district of Haryana, Banwali. Chess-board or grid pattern
of town planning was not always followed as in other Harappan sites. The
roads were neither always straight, nor did they cut at right angles. It also
lacked another remarkable feature of the Harappan civilisation—a
systematic drainage system.
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(h)Surkotada
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 Situated in Kutch (Bhuj) district of Gujarat. The site is important
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particularly because it has provided the first actual remains of horse bones.
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C. Political History
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There is no dear idea of the political organization of the Indus Valley people.
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Perhaps they were more concerned with commerce and they were possibly
ruled by a class of merchants.
 Also, there was an organization like a municipal corporation to look after
the civic amenities of the people.
D.Eonomic History
A. Agriculture
 Grew wheat, barley, rai, peas, sesamum, mustard, rice (in Lothal), cotton,
dates, melon, etc. The Indus people were the first to produce cotton.
 In Kalibangan, fields were ploughed with wooden ploughs.
 Domesticated animals on large scale. Besides the cattle, cats and dogs were
domesticated. Horse wasn’t in regular use but elephant was. Remains of
horse at Surkotda and dogs with men in grave at Ropar have been
discovered.
 Produced sufficient to feed themselves.
 Food grains were stored in granaries.
B. Trade and Commerce

 Well-knit external and internal trade. There was no metallic money in
circulation and trade was carried through Barter System.
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 Weights and measures of accuracy existed in Harappan culture (found at
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Lothal). The weights were made of limestone, steatite, etc and were
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generally cubical in shape.
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 16 was the unit of measurement (16, 64, 160, 320).
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External Trade Relation
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Imports From Imports From
Gold Kolar (Karnataka), Copper Khetri (Rajasthan),
Afghanistan, Persia Baluchistan, Arabia
(Iran)
Silver Afghanistan, Persia Tin Afghanistan, Bihar
(Iran), South India
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 Bead making factory existed in Chanhudaro and Lothal. Theywere items of
export.
 A dockyard has been discovered at Lothal.
 Every merchant or mercantile family probably had a seal bearing an
emblem, often of a religious character, and a name or brief description, on
one side. The standard Harappa seal was a square or oblong plaque made
of steatite stone. The primary purpose of the seal was probably to mark the
ownership of property
 The Mesopotamian records from about 2350 BC onwards ‘refer to trade
relations with Meluha, the ancient name of the Indus region. Harappan
seals and other material have been found at Mesopotamia. Also traded with
Sumer.

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C. Art and craft
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 The Harappan culture belongs to the Bronze Age.
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 Bronze was made by mixing tin and copper. Tools were mostly made of
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copper and bronze.
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 The Harappans were also expert bead makers.
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 Potter’s wheel was in use. Their pottery was red or black pottery Played
dice games. Their favourite pastime was Gambling.
 The Harappans’ most notable artistic achievement was their seal gravings,
esp. those of animals. The red sandstone torso of a man is particularly
impressive for its realism: However, the most impressive of the figurines -
is perhaps the bronze image of the famous dancing girl (identified as
devadasi), found at Mohenjodaro.
E. Religious History
 Main object of worship was the Mother Goddess. But the upper classes
preferred a god, nude with two horns, much similar to Pasupati Siva.
Represented on the seal is a figure with three homed heads in a yogic
posture.
 Phallus (lingam) and yoni worship was also prevalent.
 Many trees (pipal), animals (bull), birds (dove, pigeon) and stones were
worshipped. Unicorn was also worshipped. However, no temple has been
found, though idolatry was practiced.
 At Kalibangan and Lothal fire altars have been found.
 Dead bodies were placed in the north-south orientation.

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F. Script
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 The script is not alphabetical but pictographic (about 600 undeciphered
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pictographs).
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 The script has not been deciphered so far, but overlaps of letters show that
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it was written from right to left in the first line and left to right in the
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second line. This style is called ‘Boustrophedon’.
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G. Town planning
 Elaborate town-planning. It followed the Grid System. Roads were well cut,
dividing the town into large rectangular or square blocks.
 The towns were divided into 2 parts: Upper part or Citadel and Lower Part.
The Citadel was an oblong artificial platform. It was enclosed by a thick (13
m at Harappa) crenelated mud-brick wall. In Citadel public buildings,
granaries, important workshops and religious buildings were there. In
lower part people used to live.
 Used burnt bricks of good quality as the building material. Elsewhere in the
contemporary world, mud-bricks were used.
 Houses, often of two or more storey, varied in size, but were quite
monotonous. No window faced the streets.
 Good drainage system. Drains were made of mortar, lime and gypsum and
covered with large brick slabs for easy cleaning. Shows developed sense of
health and sanitation.
H. End of the civilization

 The Harappan culture lasted for around 1,000 years.
 Invasion of the Aryans, recurrent floods, social breakup of Harappans,
Earthquakes, etc are listed as possible causes.

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Aryan Civilization
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Introduction
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Many historians have given various theories regarding the original place of
the Aryans. However, the Central Asian theory, given by Max Muller, is the
most accepted one. It states that the Aryans were semi-nomadic pastoral
people and originated from area around the Caspian Sea in Central Asia.
Entered India probably through the Khyber Pass (in Hindukush Mountains)
around 1500 BC.
Vedic Period is broadly divided into two parts :
i. Early vedic or rig vedic period (1500 BC – 1000 BC)
ii. La
iii. ter vedic period(1000 BC – 600 BC)
A. Source of History
i. Archelogical evidence
POTTERY
 The later Vedic people used four types of pottery—black and red ware,
black-slipped ware, painted grey ware and red ware.
 Red ware was most popular with them, and has been found almost all over
western UR However, the most distinctive pottery of the period is known
as Painted Grey Ware, which comprised bowls and dishes, used either for
rituals or for eating by the upper classes.
ii. Lieteraly Evidence
THE VEDAS
 The word ‘veda’ comes from the root ‘vidi’, signifying knowledge.
 Vedas are also known as ‘shruti’ (to hear) as they were passed from
generation to generation through verbal transmission.

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 They are four in all — Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda.
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 The first three vedas are collectively known as ‘Trayi’ or ‘trio’. Each veda is
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further divided into Samhitas.
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(a) RIG VEDA
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 Oldest religious text in the world.
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 A collection of hymns. Were recited at the time of sacrificial rites and other
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rituals with utmost devotion.
 Contains 1028 hymns (1017 + 11 valakhilyas) and is divided into 10
mandalas.
 The X mandala contains the famous Purushsukta which explains that the 4
varnas (Brahmans, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra) were born from the
mouth, arms, thighs and feet of the creator, Brahma.
 Words in Rig Veda : Om (1028 times), Jan (275 times), etc. 250 hymns are
dedicated to Indra while 200 are dedicated to Agni.
 The third mandala contains the Gayatri Mantra (addressed to sun).
 Saraswati is the deity river in Rig Veda.
(b) SAMA VEDA

 Derived from the root ‘Saman’, i.e., ‘melody’. It is a collection of melodies.
 It has 1603 verses but except 99 all the rest have been borrowed from Rig
Veda.
(c) YAJUR VEDA

 Deals with the procedure for the performance of sacrifices.
 There are two main texts of Yajur veda: White Yajurveda (or Shukia
Yajurveda) and Black Yajurveda (or Krishna Yajurveda). The former
contains mantras and the latter has commentary in prose.
(d) ATHARVA VEDA
 Entirely different from other 3 vedas.
 Mainly dealing with magic (along with personal problems of people).

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THE BRAHMANAS
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 They explain the hymns of the vedas in an orthodox manner.
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THE ARANVAKAS
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 Called ‘forest books’, written mainly by the hermits living in the jungles for
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their pupils.
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 Deals with mysticism and philosophy. Opposed to sacrifice and emphasize
‘Meditation’.
THE UPANISHADS
 The word means ‘to sit down near someone’ and denotes a student sitting
near his guru to learn.
 Called Vedanta (the end of the vedas) firstly because they denote the last
phase of the Vedic Period and secondly, because they reveal the final aim of
the vedas.
 They are the main source of Indian philosophy.
 There are 108 Upanishads.
 They also condenm the ceremonies and the sacrifices.
 They discuss the various theories of creation of the universe and define the
doctrine of action (Karma).
 Mundako upnishad contain the famous slogan “ Satya Mew Jayate”
SMRITIS
 Explains rules and regulations in the Vedic life.
 Main are Manusmriti (Oldest), Naradsmriti, Yagyavalkyasmriti and
Parasharsmriti.
VEDANGAS
 Six Vedangas are Shiksha, Kalpa, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Chhanda and Jyotisha.
o Shiksha deals with pronunciation.
o Kalpa with rituals.
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o Vyakarana with grammar.
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o Nirukta with etymology.
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o Chhanda with meter.
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o Jyotisha with astronomy.
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DARSHANS
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 There are 6 schools of Indian philosophy known as Shad-Darshana.
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 These are given by 6 philosophers of Ancient India:
Darshana Founder Darshana Founder
(i) Sankhya Kapila (iv) Vaishesika Uluka Kanada
Darshan Darshan
(ii) Yoga Patanjali (v) Mimansa/Purva- Jaimini
Darshana Mimasa
(iii) Nayaya Akshapada (vi) Vedant/Uttara Badarayana
Darshana Gautama Mimansa
UPAVEDAS
 There are four upavedas:
o Dhanurveda (deals with art of warfare) - Yajur Veda
o Gandharvaveda (deals with art & music) - Sam Veda
o Shilpaveda (deals with architecture) - Atharva Veda
o Ayurveda (deals with medicine) - Rig Veda
EPICS
 Though the two epics — the Mahabharata and the Ramayana — were
compiled later, they reflect the state of affairs of the Later Vedic Period.
o The Mahabharata, attributed to Vyasa, is considered older than the
Ramayana and describes the period from the tenth century BC to the fourth
century AD. It is also called Jaisamhita and Satasahasri Samhita and has one
lath verses.

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o The Ramayana, attributed to Valmiki, has 24,000 verses. Its composition
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started in the fifth century BC and passes through five stages; the fifth stage
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ended in the twelfth century AD.
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Early vedic or rig vedic period (1500 – 1000 BC)
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A. Region
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The early Aryans settled in Eastern Afghanistan, modern Pakistan, Punjab
and parts of western UP The whole region hi which the Aryans first settled in
India is called the ‘Land of Seven Rivers or Sapta Sindhava’ (The Indus and its
five tributaries and the Saraswati).
Rivers in Rig-Veda
Rig VedicNames Modern Name Rig Vedic Names Modern Name
Sindhu Indus Sutudri Sutlej
Vitasta Jhelum Gumal Gomati
Asikni Chenab Krumu Kurram
Purushni Ravi Drisshadvati Ghaggar
Vipasa Beas
Besides these rivers with specific, names, the Rig-Veda also mentions Ganga,
Yamuna, Saraswati and other rivers.
A. POLITICAL ORGANIZATION
 Monarchial form, tribe was known as Jan and its king as Rajan. He was the
leader in battle and protector of tribe. His office was not hereditary and
was selected among the clan’s men. The rajan was not an absolute
monarch, for the government of the tribe was in part the responsibility of
the tribal councils like sabha, samiti, gana and vidhata. Even women
attended sabha and vidhata.
 The king was assisted by a number of officers of which purohita was the
most important. Next important functionary was the Senani (leader of the
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technique of the early Aryans was much advanced. The Aryans-succeeded
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everywhere because they possessed chariots driven by horses.
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 There was no regular revenue system and the kingdom was maintained by
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the voluntary tribute (Bali) of his subjects and the booty won in battle.
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 Villages were headed by Gramini who used to represent village in sabha
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and samiti. Later, Gramini was handed over the charge of Vrajapati also (an
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officer who enjoyed authority over the pasture ground).
 Many clans (Vish) formed a tribe. The basic social unit was the Kula or the
family and Kulapa was the head of the family.
B. SOCIAL LIFE
 When the Aryans entered India there was already a class division in their
tribal structure. As they settled among the dark aboriginals, the Aryans
seem to have laid greater stress than before on purity of blood, and class
divisions hardened, to exclude those dasas who had found a place in the
Aryan society and those Aryans who had intermarried with the dasas and
adopted their ways. Gradually, the tribal society got divided into three
groups—warriors, priests and commoners. Later, the fourth—dasas or
shudra — was also added.
 The term Varna was used for color, the Aryans being fair, the dasas dark.
 Family was the basic unit of society. The family was patriarchal in nature.
But women enjoyed equal power with men. Marriage was usually
monogamous and indissoluble, but there are few instances of polyandry
levirate and widow-marriage. There are no examples of child-marriage.
Aryans were fond of soma, food and dresses. Soma was drunk at sacrifices
and its use was sanctified by religion.
C. ECONOMY
 Their bronze smiths were highly skilled, and produced tools and weapons
much superior to those of Harappan culture.
 Aryans followed a mixed economy — pastoral and agricultural — in which
cattle played a predominant part.
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 Most of their wars were fought for cow (most important form of wealth).
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 Standard unit of exchange was cow. At the same time coins were also there
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(gold coins like Nishka, Krishnal and Satmana).
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 Gavyuti was used as a measure of distance and Godhuli as a measure of
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 Physicians were there called ‘Bhishakas’.
 The staple crop was yava’, which meant barley.
D. RELIGION
 The Aryans personified the natural forces and looked upon them as living
beings.
 The most important divinity was Indra who played the role of warlord
(breaker of forts—Purandar, also associated with storm and thunder).
 The second position was held by Agni (fire-god). He is considered as an
intermediary between gods and men.
 Vuruna occupied the third position. He personified water and was
supposed to uphold the natural order. He was ethnically the highest of all
Rigvedic gods.
 Soma was considered to be the god of plants. Maruts personified the
storms. Some female deities are also mentioned, like Aditi and Usha, who
represented the appearance of dawn.
 Didn’t believe in erecting temples or idol worship. Worshipped in open air
through yajnas.

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LATER VEDIC PERIOD (Painted Grey Ware Phase)
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A. REGION
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 They reveal that the Aryans expanded from Punjab over the whole of
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tools which became common by 1000-800 BC.
B. POLITICAL ORGANIZATION
 Tiny tribal settlements were replaced by strong kingdoms.
 Powers of the king, who was called Samrat increased. Importance of
assemblies declined. Women were no longer permitted to attend
assemblies. The term ‘rashtra’ indicating territory first appeared in this
period.
 A regular army was maintained for the protection of kingdom.
 References of Priest (Purohita), Commander in chief (Senapati), Charioteer
(Suta), treasurer (Sangrahita), tax collector (Bhagdugha), chief queen
(Mahisi) and the game companion (aksavapa).
C. SOCIAL LIFE
 The four fold division of society became clear- initially based on
occupation, which later became hereditary: Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas
(Warriors), Vaishyas (agriculturists, cattle-rearers, traders) and Shudras
(servers of the upper three).
 Women enjoyed freedom and respect but their status deteriorated
compared to earlier time.
 The institution of gotra appeared in this age first time. Gotra signified
descent from common ancestors.
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 In this time also, Chariot racing was the main sport and gambling was the
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main pastime.
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 Anulama marriage was the marriage of a higher varna man with a lower
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D. RELIGION
 Rituals and formulae became prominent in the cult of sacrifice.
 Indra and Agni lost their importance. Prajapati (the creator) became
supreme. Vishnu came to be conceived as the preserver and protector of
the people.
 Some of the social orders came to have their own deities, e.g., Pushan,
responsible for well being of the cattle, became the god of the shudras.
 Towards the end of the period, began a strong reaction against sacrificial
cults and rituals with the composition of the Upanishads, which valued
right belief and knowledge more than anything else.
Important Vedic Rituals

 Asvamedha : A kind performed this sacrifice, which meant control over the
area in which the royal horse ran uninterrupted. The ceremony lasted for
three days at the end of which the horse sacrifice was performed.
 Vajapeya : A chariot race was performed in which the king must win the
race (it was fixed). It was meant to re-establish a king’s supremacy aver his
people.
 Raiasuya : A sacrifice ceremony which conferred supreme power on the
king.

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Formation of Magadh Empire
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A. Introduction
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After the later Vedic period janpads were gradually converted into
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Mahajanpads through the process of alliance and conquest. In the sixth
century BC onwards, the widespread use of iron in eastern UP and western
Bihar created conditions for the formation of large territorial States. The new
agricultural tools and implements enabled the peasants to produce more; and
the extra product was collected by Princes to meet military and
administrative needs. With this, ‘Janapadas’ started making ‘Mahajanpadas’.
The land between Himalayas & Narmada was divided into 16 independent
states (MAHAJANPADAS). This chapter is divided into two parts: Formation
of Magadh Empire & Foreign invassion
Formation of Magadh Empire

The Mahajanapadas
Mahajanapad Capital Present Day Location
as
1. Kashi Varanasi Around Varanosi
2. Kosala Shravasti Eastern UP
3. Ango Champonagri Bhagal and Monger distts. of
Bihar
4. Magadh Girivraj or Rajgriha Patna and Gayn distt
5. Vaji Vaishali Vaishali distt of Bihar
6. Malla Kushinagar and South of Vaishali disti
Pavapuri
7. Chedi Shuktimati Eastern parts of modern
Bundelkhand
8. Vatsa Kaushambi Around modem Allohabad
9. Kuru Hastinapur, Around the Delhi-Meerut

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Indraprastha and region
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10 Panchal Ahichhatra and Rohilkhand
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11 Matsya Viratnagar Jaipur Bharatpur-Alwar distts
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12 Surasen Mathura Mathura region

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13 Assaka Paudanya Near Paithan in Mahoroshtra

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14 Avanti Ujjaini Ujjain distt

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15 Gandhara Taxila Between Kabul and

. Rawalpindi
16 Kamboj Rajpur Punchh area in Kashmir

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Out of the above 16 mahajanpads Magadh emerged as the biggest

empirical power. Under the rule of different dynasty Magadh Conquest
all others Janapads and laid down the foundation of Maurayan Empire.
A. HARYANKA DYNASTY
i. BIMBISARA (544 BC-492 BC)
 Founder, and Contemporary of Buddha.

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 He conquered Anga (E.Bihar). He strengthened his position by matrimonial
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alliance with the ruling families of Kosala, Vaishali, and Madra (3 wives).
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 His capital was Rajgir (Girivraja), which was surrounded by 5 hills, the
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openings in which were closed by stone walls on all sides. This made Rajgir
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ii. AJATSHATRU (492 BC - 460 BC)
 Son of Bimbisara, killed his father & seized the throne.
 Annexed Vaishali and Kosala. Kosala was ruled by Prasenajit at that time.
 Buddha died during his reign; arranged the first Buddhist Council.
iii. UDAYIN (460- 444 BC)
 He founded the new capital at Pataliputra, situated at the confluence of the
Ganga & Son.
B. SHISHUNAGA DYNASTY
 Founded by a minister Shishunaga. He was succeeded by Kalasoka (who
organised II Buddhist council). Dynasty lasted for two generations only.
 Greatest achievement was the destruction of power of Avanti.
C. NANDA DYNASTY
 It is considered first of the non-Kshatriya dynasties.
 Founder was Mahapadma Nanda. He added Kalinga to his empire. He
claimed to be the ekarat, the sole sovereign who destroyed all the other
ruling princes.
 Alexander attacked India in the reign of Dhana Nanda.
CAUSES OF MAGADHA’S SUCCESS

 Enjoyed advantageous geographical position, i.e., near richest iron deposits
(thus effective weapons).
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 The 2 capitals of Magadha, Rajgir and Patliputra, were situated at very
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strategic points.
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 Fertile soil of the lower Ganga regions.
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 First used elephants in wars.
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Second Urbanization in India: Archaeologically, 6th century BC marks the
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beginning of NBPW phase (Northern Black Polished Ware) which was very
glossy, shinning type of pottery. This marked the beginning of Second
Urbanization in India.
Foreign Invassion
Iranian/Persian Invasion
The Achaemenian ruler Darius I (Daryayabahu) penetrated into North–West
Indian in 516 BC and annexed Punjab, West of the Indus and Sindh.
MACEDONIAN INVASION
Alexander (356 BC — 323 BC) was the son of Philip of Macedonia (Greece)
who invaded India in 326 BC. At that time North West India was split up into
a number of small independent states like Taxila, Punjab (kingdom of Porus),
Gandhara etc. Except Porus who fought the famous battle of Hydaspas (on
banks of Jhelum) with Alexander, all other kings submitted meekly.
 When Alexander reached Beas, his soldiers refused to go further, so he was
forced to retreat. Remained in India for 19 months and died in 323 BC at
Babylon.
 The effects of Alexander’s invasion were following :
o It exposed India to Europe, by opening up four distinct lines of
communication, three by land and one by sea.
o Due to cultural contact, a cosmopolitan school of art came up in Gandhara.
o Paved the way for the unification of north India under Chandragupta
Maurya by weakening small states.

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Buddhism & Jainism
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CAUSES OF NEW MOVEMENT
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The Vedic rituals were expensive & the sacrifices prescribed were very
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complicated & had lost their meaning.The caste system had become rigid
(both Buddhism & Jainism offered them an honored place). Supremacy of
Brahmins created unrest. All the religious text was in Sanskrit, which was not
understandable to the masses.
BUDDHISM
Buddhism stands for 3 pillars:
a. Buddha : Its Founder
b. Dhamma: His Teachings
c. Sangha: Order of Buddhist monks and nuns.
A. BUDDHA
 Also klnown as Sakyamuni or Tathagata.
 Born in 563 BC on the Vaishaltha Poornima Day at Lumbjni (near
Kapilarastu) in Nepal.
 His father Suddhodana was the Saka ruler.
 His mother (Mahamaya, of Kosala dynasty) died after- 7 days of his birth.
Brought up by stepmother Gautami.
 Married at 16 to Yoshodhara. Enjoyed the married life for 13 years and had
a son named Rahula.
 After seeing an old man, a sick man, a corpse and an ascetic, he decided to
become a wanderer.
 Left his palace at 29 (with Channa, the charloteer and his favourite horse,
Kanthaka) in search of truth (also called ‘Mahabhinishkramana’ or The
Great Renunciation) and wandered for 6 years.

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 He first meditated with Alara Kalama. But he was not convinced that man
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could obtain liberation from sorrow by mental discipline and knowledge.
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His next teacher was Udraka Ramputra.
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 For six years he tortured himself until he was nothing but a walking
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skeleton. But after six years, he felt that his fasts and penance had been
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useless. So he abandoned these things. The five disciples also left him.
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 Attained ‘Nirvana’ or ‘Enlightenment’ at 35 at Gaya in Magadha (Bihar)
under the Pipal tree.
 Delivered the first sermon at Sarnath where his five disciples had settled.
His first sermon is called ‘Dharmachakrapravartan’ or ‘Turning of the
Wheel of Law’.
 Attained Mahaparinirvana at Kushinagar (identical with village Kasia in
Deoria district of UP) in 483 BC at the age of 80 in the Malla republic.
B. DHAMMA
(1) THE FOUR GREAT TRUTHS
o The world is full of sorrow and misery.
o The cause of all pain and misery is desire.
o Pain and misery can be ended by killing or controlling desire.
o Desire can be controlled by following the Eight Fold Path.
(2) THE EIGHTFOLD PATH

o Consists of: Right Faith, Right Thought, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right
Efforts, Right Speech, Right Remembrance and Right Concentration
(3) BELIEF IN NIRVANA

o When desire ceases, rebirth ceases and nirvana is attained i.e. freedom
from the cycle of birth, death and rebirth is gained by following the 8-fold
path.
o According to Buddha, soul is a myth.
(4) BELIEF IN AHIMSA

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o One should not cause injury to any living being, animal or man.
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(5) LAW OF KARMA
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o Man reaps the fruits of his past deeds.
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C. SANGHA
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 Consists of monks (Bhikshus or Shramanas) and nuns.
 Bhikshus acted as a torch bearer of the dhamma.
 Apart from Sangha, the worshippers were called Upusakas.
Buddhist Council
Buddhist C. Venue Chairman Patron Result

1st Buddhist Saptaparn Mahakassapa Ajatashatru Compilation of Sutta-
Council i Cave, (Harayank Pitaka & Vinaya
483 BC Rajgriha a Dynasty) Pitaka by Ananda &
Upali respectively
2nd Buddhist Chullavan Sabbakami Kalashoka (i) The monks of
Council ga Vaishali (Shisunga Vaishali wanted
383 BC Dynasty) some change in
rites.
(ii) Schism into
Sthavira-vadins &
Mahasanghikas.
3rd Buddhist Ashokara Mogaliputta Ashoka (i) Compilation of
Council ma Vihar, Tissa (Maurya Abhidhamma
250 BC Patliputra Dynasty) Pitaka
(ii) Decision to send
missionaries to
various parts of the
world

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4th Buddhist Kundala Vasumitra Kanishka(K (i) Compilation of
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Council Vana, Ashvaghosa ushana Mahavibha sha
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98AD Kashmir (Vice Dynasty) shastra (Sansktri
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Chairman) Comment on
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Tripitaka)
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(ii) the division of
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Buddhists into
Hinayanists &
Mahayanist
Mahayana and Hinayana

In Mahayana, idol worship is there. It became popular in China, Japan, Korea,
Afghanistan, Turkey and other SE countries. Hinayana became popular in
Magadha and Sri Lanka. It believed in individual salvation and not in idol-
worship. Apart from these 2, there is a third vehicle, called ‘Vajrayana’, which
appeared in 8th century and grew rapidly in Bihar and Bengal. They did not
treat meat, fish, wine, etc, as a taboo in dietary habit and freely consumed
them.
BUDDIST LITERATURE
 Buddhist literature in Pali language is commonly referred to as Tripitakas,
ie ‘Threefold Basket’.
VINAYA PITAKA: Rules of discipline in Buddhist monasteries.
SUTTA PITAKA: Largest, contains collection of Buddha’s sermons.
ABHIDHAMMA PITAKA: Explanation of the philosophical principles of the
Buddhist religion.
Mahavansh and Deepvansh are the other Buddhist texts. They provide
information about the then Sri Lanka.
Jataks are the fables about the different births of Buddha.
CAUSES OF DECLINE Of BUDDHISM

 It succumbed to the Brahmanic rituals and ceremonies, such as idol
worship, etc, which Buddhism had earlier denounced.
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 Revival of reformed Hinduism with the preaching of Shankaracharya from
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ninth century onwards.
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 Use of Sanskrit, the language of intellectuals, in place of Pali, the language
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 Deterioration in the moral standards among the monks living in Buddhist
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 Entry of women into Buddhist monasteries.
Attacks of Huna king Mihirkula in the sixth century and the Turkish invaders
in the twelfth century AD.
Buddhist Universities Place Founder

Nalanda Badagaon, Bihar Kumargupta ( (Gupta
ruler)
Odantpuri Biharsharif, Bihar Gopala (Pala ruler)
Vikramshila Bhagalpur, Bihar Dharmapala (Pala ruler)
Somapuri North Bengal Dharmapala (Pala ruler)
Jagadal Bengal Ramapala (Pala Ruler)
Vallabhi Gujarat Bhattarka (Maitrak
Ruler)
JAINISM
 Founded by Rishabhanath.
 There were 24 tirthankaras (Prophets or Gurus ), all Kshatriyas. First was
Rishabhanath (Emblem: Bull). His reference is also in Rigveda. But there is
no historical basis for the first 22 Tirthankaras. Only the last two
Tirthankaras are historical personalities.
 The 23rd Tirthankar Parshwanath (Emblem: Snake) was the son of King
Ashvasena of Banaras. His main teachings were: Non-violence, Truth, Non-
stealing, and Non-possession.
 The 24th and the last Tirthankar was Vardhman Mahavira (Emblem: Lion).
He preached almost the same message as Parshvanath and added one
more, Brahmcharya (celibacy) to it.

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VARDHMAN MAHAVIRA
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 He was born in Kundagram (Distt Muzafffarpur, Bihar) in 599 BC.
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 His father Siddhartha was the head of Jnatrika clan. His mother was Trishla,
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 Mahavira was related to Bimbisara.
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 Married to Yashoda, had a daughter named Priyadarsena, whose husband
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Jamali became his first disciple.
 At 30, after the death of his parents, he became an ascetic.
 In the 13th year of his asceticism, outside the town of Jrimbhikgrama, he
attained supreme knowledge (Kaivalya).
 From now on he was called Jaina or Jitendriya and Mahavira, and his
followers were named Jains. He also got the title of Arihant, i.e., worthy.
 At the age of 72, he attained death at Pava, near Patna, in 527 BC.
 After the death of Mahavira during the reign of King Chandragupta Maurya,
a severe famine led to a great exodus of Jain monks from the Ganga valley
to the Deccan, where they established important centers of their faith. This
migration led to a great schism in Jainism. Bhadrabahu, who led the
emigrants, insisted on the retention of the rule of nudity which Mahavira
had established. Sthulabhadra, the leader of the monks who remained in
the north, allowed his followers to wear white garments, owing to the
hardships and confusions of the famine. Hence arose the two sects of the
Jams, the Digambaras (sky-clad, i.e., naked) and the Svetambaras (white-
clad).
TEACHINGS OF MAHAVIRA
 Rejected the authority of the Vedas and do not attach any importance to the
performance of sacrifices.
 He believed that every object, even the smallest particle, possesses a soul
and is endowed with consciousness. That is why they observe strict non-
violence.
 The Jain reject the concept of a Universal Soul or a Supreme Power as the
creator or. Sustainer of the universe.

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 Jainism does not deny the existence of gods but refuses to give gods any
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important part in the universe scheme. Gods are placed lower than the Jina.
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 Attainment of salvation (moksha) by believing in penance and dying of
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 Universal brotherhood (non-belief in caste system).
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 In Jainism, three Ratnas (Triratnas) are given and they are called the way
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to Nirvana. They are Right Faith, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct.
JAIN COUNCILS
Jain Council/Year Venue Chairman Patron

Result
Compilation
Chandragupta
1st 300 BC Patliputra Sthulabhadra of 12
Maurya
Angas
Final
Compilation
Devardhi
2nd 512 AD Vallabhi — of 12 Angas
Kshmasramana
& 12
Upangas.
OTHER POINTS
 Jainism reached the highest point in Chandragupta Maurya’s time. In
Kalinga, it was greatly patronized by Kharavela in the first century AD.
 Various factors were responsible for the decline of Jainism in India. They
took the concept of Ahimsa too far.
 There was moreover no patronage from the later kings.
Jain literature is in Ardh-Magadhi and Prakrit dialects.Due to the influence of

Jainism, many regional languages emerged out, like Sauraseni, out of which
grew the Marathi, Gujarati, Rajasthani and Kannada.

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A. Introduction
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The Maurian are considered as the architecture of the first and the biggest
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empire in India. The highly centerelized Maurian empire was nourished by
the three great ruler Chandragupta Maurya, Bindusar and Ashok
B. EXTENT OF EMPIRE
His empire covered the whole territory from Hindukush to Bengal & extended
over Afghanistan, Baluchistan & whole of India with the exception of a small
area in the farthest south. Kashmir and Valleys of Nepal were also included,
later
i. CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA (322 — 297 BC)
 With the help of Chanakya, known as Kautilya or Vishnugupta, he
overthrew the Nandas & established the rule of the Maurya dynasty.
 Chandragupta defeated Seleucus Necater in 305 BC and was compelled to
yield pans of Afghanistan to Chandragupta. There was also a marriage
alliance between the two families.
 This account of his reign is given by Megasthenes (A Greek ambassador
sent by Seleucus to the court of Chandragupta Maurya) in his book Indica.
We also get the details from the Arthashastra of Kautilya.
 Chandragupta adopted Jainism and went to Sravanabelagola (near Mysore)
with Bhadrabahu, where he died by slow starvation.
 Vishakhadatta wrote a drama Mudrarakshasa (describing Chandragupta’s
enemy) & Debi Chandraguptam in sixth century AD describing the C.G.M
ii. BINDUSARA (297-273 BC)

 Chandragupta was succeeded by his son Bindusara in 297 BC. He is said to
have conquered ‘the land between the 2 seas’, i.e., the Arabian Sea & Bay of

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Bengal. At the time of his death, almost the entire subcontinent came under
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the Mauryan rule. Greek Ambassador, Deimachos visited his court.
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iii. ASHOKA (269 — 232 BC)
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 Regarded as one of the greatest kings of all times. He was the first ruler to
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 Ashoka was appointed the Viceroy of Taxila and Ujjain by his father,
Bindusara. His formal coronation was delayed for four years, suggesting a
disputed succession. A Buddhist literature says that he came to throne after
killing his 99 brothers.
 In his inscriptions following script has been used: Brahmi, Kharoshthi,
Armaic and Greek. (James Princep first deciphered the inscriptions).
 Language : Prakirt and Greek
 Ashoka became the Buddhist under Upagupta.
The kalinga war (261 BC, mentioned in XIII rock edict)

 It changed his attitude towards life. Ashoka became a Buddhist after that.
 He appointed Dharma Mahapatras to propagate dharma among various
social groups including women.
 He organized a network of missionaries to preach the doctrine both in his
kingdom and beyond. He sent them to Ceylon, Burma (sent his son
Mahindra & daughter Sanghamitra to Ceylon) and other south-east Asian
regions, notably Thailand.
 Ashoka is called ‘Buddhashakya & Ashok’ in Maski edict and Dharmasoka’
in Sarnath inscription. He was also known a ‘Devanampiya’- beloved of the
gods, and ‘Piyadassi’- of pleasing appearance.
I. Rock Edicts
14 Major Rock Edicts : Various Principles of Dhamma
08 different place where its found :
Manshera (Hazara, Pakistan) Shahbajgarhi (Peshwar, Pakistan), Kalsi
(Dehradun, Uttarakhand), Junagadh (Girnar, Gujarat), Sopara (Thana,

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Maharashtra), Yerragudi (Kurnul, Andhra Pradesh), Dhauli (Puri, Orissa),
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Jaugada (Ganjam, Orissa)
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2 Kalinga Rock Edicts : New system of administration after the Kalinga war
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Place where its found :
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Dauli or Tosali (Puri, Orrisa), Jaugada (Ganjam, Orissa)
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Minor Rock Edicts : Personal history of Ashoka and summary of his dhamma
II. Pillar Edicts

7 Pillar Eidcts
Place where its found :Merrut-Delhi (Chhoti Lata), Topra Delhi (Badi Lata),
Allahabad (UP); Lauriya Nandangadh, Lauriya Areraj & Rampurva (Bihar)
The emblem of the Indian Republic has been adopted from the 4-lion capital
of the Ashokan pillar at Sarnath.
III. Cave Edicts

3 Barabar Cave Edicts
Barabar Hills (Gaya, Bihar)
Mauryan Other names of the king Ambassdor

kings (Greek King)
Chandragupta Sandrocottus-Strabo, Justin Megasthenese (302-
Andtrocottus-Arrian, Plutarch 298 BC) Selecus
Vrishala/Kulahina (i.e. of low clan)- Nikator Persia &
Vishakhadatta (Mudrarakshasa) Babylonia)
Bindusara Amitrochates-Greek Texts Dimachos
Vindupala-Chinease text (Antiochus I-Syria)
Sinhasena-Jain text Dionysius
Bhardrasara-Vayu Purana (Philadelphos/Potlemy
II-Egypt)

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C. CAUSES OF THE FALL OF MAURYAN EMPIRE
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 Division of Empire between the successors of Ashoka.
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 Economic crisis
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 Giant size of administrative mechanism
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 Ashoka’s patronage of Buddhism and his anti-sacrificial attitude is said to
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have affected the income of the Brahmins. So they developed antipathy
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against Ashoka.
 Revenue from agrarian areas was not sufficient to maintain such a vast
empire as booty from war was negligible.
 Successors of Ashoka were too weak to keep together such a large
centralized empire.
 The last Mauryan king Brihadratha was killed by Pushyamitra Shunga
(Commander in Chief) in 185 BC, who started the Shunga dynasty in
Magadha.
D. ADMINISTRATION
I Central Administration
 The king: Mauryan government was a centralized bureaucracy of which
the nucleus was the king. According to Kautilya/Chanakya, there are 7
elements of States (Saptanga theory) -
(i) Raja (the king), (ii) Amatya (the secretaries), (iii) Janapada (territory),
(iv) Durg (Fort), (v) Kosha (the treasure), (vi) Sena (Army) & (vii) Mitra
(Friend).
(ii) The king was regarded as the soul among all the seven elements of the
state.
 The Mantri Parishad: The king was assisted by Mantri Parishad, whose
members included-(i) The Yuvaraja (the crown prince) (ii) The purohita

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(the chief priest) (iii) The Senapati (the commander-in-chief) (iv) a few
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other ministers.
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Important Officials and their function.
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Sannidhata Chief treasury officer
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Samaharta The collector general of revenue
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Vyavaharika (Dharmastha) Chief Justice of Dharmasthiya Nyayalaya
(Civil Court)
Pradeshta Chief Justice of Kantakashodhan Nyayalaya
(Criminal Court)
Dhamma Mahamatra A new post created by Ashoka, empowered
with the dual functions of propagating
Dhamma & taking care of the common folk
for their material well-being.
Rashtrapala/Kumara The viceroys in charge of a province
Pradeshika They were the modern district magistrate
Rajukas They were the later day Patwaris &
responsible for surveying & assessing the
land.
Yukta A subordinate revenue officer of the district
level
Sthanika The collecting officer directly under the
control of the Pradeshika
Gopa Responsible for accounts
Nagaraka The officer in charge of the city
administration
Akshapatala Accountant General
Sitaadhyaksha Supervised Agriculture
Panyadhyaksha Superintendent of commerce
Samsthaadhyaksha Superintendent of Market
Pautavadhyaksha Superintendent of weights & measures
Navaadhyaksha Superintendent of ships
Sulkaadhyaksha Collector of tolls
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Akaradhyaksha Superintendent of mines
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Lohadhyakasha Superintendent of Iron
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II. Provincial Administration
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Province Location Capital
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Uttarapatha Northern Province Taxila
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Avantirashtra Western Province Ujjain
Prachi Eastern & Central Patliputra
Province
Kalinga Eastern Province Toshali
Dakshinapatha Southern Province Survarnagiri
Administrative Unit Head

Chakra (i.e. province) Rashtrapala/Kumara (viceoroy)
Ahar/Vishaya (i.e. District) Pradeshika (Administravie) & Rajuka

(Land revenue)
Sangrahana (a group of 10 villages Gopa
Gram (i.e. Village) Gramika
III. Municipal Administration

 Kautilya devotes a full chapter to the rules of the Nagarak i.e. city
superintendent. His chief duty was maintenance of law and order.
 Megasthenese account of the system : 6 committees of five members each,
and their functions; 1st – Industrial Arts, 2nd –Entertainment of Foreigners,
3rd – Registration of Births & Deaths, 4th – Trade & Commerce, 5th – Public
sale of manufactured goods, and 6th Collection of taxes on the articles sold
(1/10th of purchase price).

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IV. Army
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 The most striking feature of Mauryan administration was the maintenance
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of a huge army. They also maintained a Navy.
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 According to Megasthenese the administration of Army was carried by a
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board of 30 officers divided into 6 committee, eah committee consisting of
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5 members. They are (i) Infantry (ii) Cavalry (iii) Elephants (iv) Chariots
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(v) Navy (vi) Transport.
 In the Mauryan period, there were two types of Gudhapurushas
(detectives)– Sansthan (Stationary) & Sanchari (Wandering).
E. Economy
 The state controlled almost all economic activities. The state enjoyed
monopoly in mining, forest, salt, sale of liquor, manufacture of arms etc.
 Tax collected from peasants varied from ¼ to 1/6 of the produce.
 The state also provided irrigation facilities (Setubandha) and charged
water-tax.
 Tolls were also levied on commodities brought to town for sale and they
were collected at gate.
 Sohgaura (Gorakhpur district, U.P.) copper plate inscription & Mahasthana
(Bogara district, Bangladesh) inscription deal with the relief measures to
be adopted during a famine.
 Important ports: Bharukachch/Bharoch & Supara (Western coast),
Tamralipti in Bengal (Eastern coast).
 During Mauryan period, the punch-marked coins (mostly of silver) were
the common units of transanction.
F. Society
 Kautilya’s ‘Arthashastra’ looked upon the Shudras as an Aryan community
which is distinguished from Malechha or non-Aryan community.
 Magasthenese state that Indian society was divided into 7 classes: 1.
Philosophers 2. Farmers 3. Soldiers 4. Herdsmen 5. Artisans 6. Magistrates
7. Councillors. The ‘Classes’ emntioned above appear to have been
economic than social.
 Though Megasthenese stated that there were no slavery in India’ yet,
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according to Indian sources, slavery was a recognized institution during
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Mauryan reign.
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 Women occupied a high position and freedom in the Mauryan society.
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According to Kautilya, women were permitted to have a divorce or
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remarry. Women were employed as personal body-guards of the king. spies
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and in other diverse jobs.
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G. Mauryan Art
Mauryan Art can be classified into two parts.
1. Royal/Court Art: The Royal Palace of Chandragupta Maurya (Kumharar,
Patna) & City of Patliputra, Ashokan Pillars, Caves, Stupas etc.
2. Folk/Popular Art: (i) Figure Sculpture of Yaksha-Yakshini etc. e.g. Yaksha of
Parkham (Mathura), Yakshini of Besanagar/Vidisha (M.P.), Chanwar-
bearer Yakshini of Didarganj (Patna), (ii) Terracotta objects.

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Chapter
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Post Maurayan age
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A. Introduction
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 After the death of Ashoka the Maurayan Empire disintegrated within 50
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years, resulting in the emergence of regional state. Adding salt to this many
foreign invasion took place in this period, therefore some historian termed
this period as the Dark Age. Some other historian criticizes this
generalization in the light of economic and cultural achievements of this
period.
 This chapter is divided into two parts : 1.Successor states of Mauryan
Empire 2.Foreign invasion and Central Asian contact
1. Successor states of Mauryan Empire

 In eastern India, central India & the Deccan, the Mauryas were succeeded
by a number of native rulers such as the Shungas, the Kanvas & the
Satavahanas. In N.W India, they were succeeded by a no. of ruling dynasties
from central Asia.
A. THE SUNGA DYNASTY

 Pushyamitra founded this dynasty by killing the last Mauryan King
Vrihadrath
 He performed two Ashwamedha sacrifices.
 The fifth king was Bhagabhadra, to whose court Heliodoros, the Greek
ambassador visited.
 A Shunga king, Agnimitra was the hero of Kalidasa’s Malavikagnimitram.
 They were basically Brahmins. This period saw the revival of Bhagvatism.
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 Patanjali’s classic Mahabhashya was written at this time.
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B. THE KANVA DYNASTY
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 The founder of this short-lived dynasty was Vasudeva, who killed the last
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Sunga king, Devabhuti.
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 They were swept away by Satavahanas of the Deccan.
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C. THE CHEDIS OF KALINGA
 The Hathigumpha inscription (near Bhubhaneshwar, Orissa) of Kharavela,
the third ruler of the dynasty gives information about the Chedis.
 He was a follower of Jainism and patronized it to a great extent.
D. THE SATAVAHANAS OR THE ANDHRAS

 They were the successors of the Mauryans in the Deccan & the central
India.
 Simuka is regarded as the founder of this dynasty .The most important king
was Gautamiputra Satakami (AD 106 — 130) who raised the power and
prestige of Satavahanas to greater heights. He set up his capital at Paithan
on the Godavari in Aurangabad distt.
IMPORTANT FACTS OF SATAVAHANAS

 Mostly issued lead coins (apart from copper and bronze).
 Satavahanas rulers called themselves Brahmans. Performed vedic rituals
and worshipped gods like Krishna, Vasudeva and others. However, they
also promoted Buddhism by granting land to the monks.
 The two common religious constructions were the Buddhist temple that
was called ‘Chaitya’ & the monasteries, which was called ‘Vihara’. The most
famous Chaitya is that of Karle in Maharashtra.

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 Started the practice of granting tax free villages to brahmanas & Buddhist
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monks.
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 The official language was Prakrit & the script was Brahmi, as in Ashokan
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times. One Prakrit text called Gathasattasai is attributed to a Satavahana
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king called Hala.
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2. Foreign invasion and Central Asian contact
A.THE INDO-GREEKS
A number of invasions rook place around 200 BC. The first to invade India
were the Greeks, who were also called the Indo- Greeks or Bactrian Greeks
(because they ruled Bactria). It is said that they pushed forward as far as
Ayodhya and Pataliputra.
 The most famous Indo — Greek ruler was Menander (165 — 145 BC), also
known as M.ilinda. He had his capital at Sakala (modern Sialkot) in Punjab.
 He was converted into Buddhism by Nagasena. The conversation between
the two has been described in the Pali text, Milinda panho or ‘The
Questions of Milinda’.
 Greeks were the first to issue coins which can be definitely attributed to the
kings, and also the first to issue gold coins in India.
 The Greek rule introduced features of Hellenistic art in the north-west
frontier of India. Gandhara art was its best example.
B. THE SHAKAS OR SCYTHIANS (90 BC)

The Greeks were followed by the Shakas, who controlled a larger part of India
than the Greek did.There were 5 branches of the Shakas with their seats of
power in different parts of India and Afghanistan.

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 A king of Ujjain, who called himself Vikramaditya, defeated Shakas. An era
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called the Vikram Samvat is reckoned from the event of his victory over the
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Shakas in 57 BC. (From this time onward, Vikramaditya became a coveted
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title).
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 The most famous Shaka ruler in India was Rudradaman I (AD 130-150). His
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achievements are highlighted in his Junagarh inscription. This inscription
records in details the repairs of Sudrashana lake in Kathiarwar. It is the
first major inscription to be written in Sanskrit.
C. THE PARTHIANS
Originally they lived in Iran, invaded at the beginning of Christian era, from
where they moved to India. In comparison to Greeks and Shakas, they
occupied only a small portion in N.W. India in the first century.
 The most famous Parthian King was Gondophernes (AD 19-45), in whose
reign St. Thomas is said to have come to India for the propagation of
Christianity
D. THE KUSHANS (45 AD)
Came from northe central Asia near China. Their empire included a good part
of central Asia, a portion of Iran, a portion of Afghanistan, Pakistan &
almost the whole of north India.
 Kanishka (AD 78-144) was their most famous king. He had two capitals-
first at Purushpur, near modern Peshawar and second at Mathura.
 He patronized the following persons:
o Ashwaghosha (wrote ‘Buddhacharjta’, which is the biography of Buddha
and ‘Sutralankar’)
o Nagarjuna (wrote ‘Madhyamik Sutra’)
o Vasumitra (Chairman of fourth Buddhist Council)
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o Charak (a physician, wrote ‘Charak Samhita’)
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 Kanishka controlled the famous silk route in Central Asia, which started
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from China and passed through his empire in Central Asia and Afghanistan
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to Iran and Western Asia which formed part of Roman Empire.
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 Kanishka is known in history for two reasons:
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1. He started an era in AD 78, which is now known as Saka era and is used by
the Govt. of India.
2. He extended his whole-hearted patronage to Buddhism (Held the fourth
Buddhist Council in Kashmir).
 The Gandhara School of art received royal patronage of the Kushans.
IMPACTS OF CENTRAL ASIAN CONTACTS

 Introduced the use of riding horse on a large scale. The Shakas And
Kushans introduced turban, tunic, trousers, and heavy long coats. They also
brought in cap, helmet and boots which were used by warriors.
 In the religious field, the Greek ambassador Heliodorus set up a pillar in
honour of Vasudeva near Vidisa in M.P
 The Kushan empire gave rise to several schools of art — Central Asian,
Gandhara & Mathura.
 Mathura produced beautiful images of Buddha, but it is also famous for the
headless erect statue of Kanishka.
 Vatsyayana wrote Kamasutra.

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Chapter
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Gupta Period – A Golden Age
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A. INTRODUCTION
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The Gupta period is usually termed as the golden period or classical age in
Indian history although relevance of this proverb is deeply debated amongst
the historians. Nevertheless unification of North India, Peace & Stability and
advancement in literature, science & technology and culture is undisputed
contribution of this period. But the growth of feudalism and is the darkest
side of this period.
On the ruins of the Kushan empire arose a new empire, which established its
way over a good part of the former dominions of both Kushans and
Satavahanas. The first two kings of the dynasty were Srigupta and
Ghatotkacha
The Gupta Dynasty
Chandragupta I 319-334 AD Later Gupta Ruler
Samundragupta 335-380 AD (467-540 AD)
Ramgupta 380 AD Purugupta
Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) 380-414 AD Kumargupta II
Kumargupta (Mahendraditya) 415-455 AD Buddhgupta
Skandagupta I 455-467 AD Narsimhagupta
Kumargupta III
The Gupta Dynasty

Chandragupta I 319-334 AD Later Gupta Ruler (467-540 AD)
Samundragupta 335-380 AD Purugupta
Ramgupta 380 AD Kumargupta II
Chandragupta II 380-414 AD Buddhgupta
(Vikramaditya) Narsimhagupta
Kumargupta 415-455 AD Kumargupta III

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(Mahendraditya)
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Skandagupta I 455-467 AD
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1. CHANDRAGUPTA-I
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 First important king of Gupta Dynasty.
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 Started the Gupta era in 319-320 AD.
 He enhanced his power & prestige by marrying Kumara Devi, princes of the
Lichchavi clan of Nepal.
 He acquired the title of Maharajadhiraj.
 Struck coins in the joint names of himself, his queen and the Lachchavi
nation, thereby acknowledging his marriage alliance.
2. SAMUDRAGUPTA
 The Gupta kingdom was enlarged enormously by Chandragupta’s son &
successor Samudragupta.
 His court poet Harisena wrote a glowing account of the military exploits of
his patron. In a long inscription at the Prayag Prashasti pillar (at
Allahabad), the poet enumerated the people & countries that were
conquered by Samudragupta.
 Samudragupta believed in the policy of war and conquest and because of
his bravery and generalship he is called the ‘Napoleon’ of India (by the
historian V.A. Smith).
 Samudragupta is said to have composed numerous poems of high merit.
Some of his coins represent him playing vina. He also performed
Asvamedha sacrifice.
 He assumed the titles of Kaviraj and Vikramanka.
 Though a follower of the brahmanical religion, he was tolerant of other
faiths; received a missionary from Meghavarman, the ruler of Sri Lanka,
seeking his permission to build a Buddhist temple at Gaya, which he
granted.
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3. CHANDRA GUPTA-II
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 Samudragupta was succeeded by Ramgupta but Chandragupta II killed him
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and married his queen Dhruvadevi.
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 He entered into matrimonial alliance with the Nagas (of upper and the
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Central Provinces) by marrying princess Kubernaga whose daughter
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Prabhavati was married to Rudrasena-II of the Vakataka family
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 Took the title of Vikramaditya by defeating Rudrasimha III, a Kthatrap king
of Ujjain.
 He was the first ruler to issue silver coins. Also issued copper coins.
 The iron pillar inscription, fixed near Qutabminar in Delhi mentions a king
Chandra (considered by many as Chandragupta II ).
 His Court was adorned by celebrated nine gems (navratnas) including
Kalidasa, Amarsimha, Varahmihir, and Dhanvantri.
 Chinese pilgrim Fahien visited India at this time.
4. KUMARA GUPTA-I
 He adopted the title of Mahendraditya.
 Founded Nalanda University (a renowned university of ancient India).
 He was the worshipper of Lord Kartikeya (son of Lord Shiva).
 In the last years of his reign, the peace and prosperity of the empire was
disturbed due to the invasion of Turko-Mongol tribe, Hunas. During the
war with the Hunas, Kumaragupta died.
5. SKANDAGUPTA
 Kumaragupta-I was followed by Skandagupta. He faced Hunas effectively.
 Restored Sudarshana Lake.
 After his death, the great days of the Guptas were over. The empire
continued but central control weakened, and local governors became
feudatory kings with hereditary rights.

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B. REASON OF FALL OF GUPTA EMPIRE
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 The weak successors
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 Invasion of Hunas*
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 Rise of Feudalism
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 Economic Crisis.
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 *Mihirkula was the most famous Huna king. Hiuen Tsang mentions him as a
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fierce persecutor of Buddhism. He was defeated by Yashodharman (one of
the feudatories of Guptas in Malwa).
C. GUPTA INSCRIPTION
Rulers Inscriptions their Character
Samudragupta Prayaga/Allahabad Stone Pillar, Prasasti
Eran Stone Pillar, Prasasti
Chandragupta II Mehrauli Iron Pillar Prasasti
Skandagupta Junagarh Rock Prasasti
Bhitari Pillar Prasasti
D. Administration
 Centralized control was not as fully realized under Guptas as it had been
under the Mauryas. Guptan administration was, thus, highly decentralised,
and as patrimonial bureaucracy reached its logical conclusion. In heriditary
grants it reflected the quasi-feudal character of the economy.
Central administration
The Gupta king took exalted titles like the Mahadhiraja, Paramabhattaraka,
Samrat, Ekadhiraja, Chakravartin, benefitting their large empire and imperial
status.
 The practice of appointing the crown prince (Kumara) came in vogue.
 Among the high officers we may take special notice of the Kumaramatya
and the Sandhivigrahika.
 The Kumaramatyas formed the chief cadre for recruiting high officials
under the Guptas. It was from them the Mantris, Senapati,
Mahadandanayaka (Minister of Justice) and Sandhivigrahika (Minister of
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peace and war) were generally chosen.
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 The office of Sandhivigrahika first appears under Samudragupta, whose
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amatya Harisena held this title.
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 Other Important officials: Mahapratihari (the Chief usher of the Royal
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Palace), Dandapashika (Chief officer of Police Department),
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Vinayasthitisthapak (Chief Officer of Religious affiars), Mahapilupati (Chief
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of Elephant corps), Mahashvapati (Chief of Cavalry) etc.
 They issued the largest number of gold coins in Ancient India, which were
called Dinars. Silver coins were called rupyakas.
Provincial Administration
Bhukti/Bhoga (i.e. Province) Uparika/Bhogapati
Vishaya (i.e. District) Vishayapati/Ayukta
Vithika Nagar (i.e. City) Nagarpati/Purapala
Gram (i.e. village) Gramika
Economy
 From the economic stand point, we may classify land under the Gupta
period into 5 groups: 1. Kshetra Bhoomi-Cultivable land 2. Khila-Waster
land 3. Vastu Bhoomi-Habitable land 4. Charagah Bhoomi-Pasture land 5.
Aprahata Bhoomi-Forest land.
 An officer named Pustapala maintained records of all land transactions in
the district.
Important Tax under Gupta Ruler

Bhaga : King’s customary share of the produce normally amounting to
1/6th of the produce, paid by all cultivators.
Bhoga : Periodic supplies of fruits, fire wood, flowers etc., which the
villagers had of furnish to king.
Bali : Originally it was a voluntary offering by the people to the king,

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but later it became compulsory. During the Gupta period, it seems to be an
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additional & oppressive tax.
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Uparikara: An extra tax levied on all subjects.
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Udrang : Land Revenue Tax.
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E. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
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 The castes were further divided into sub-castes.
 Vishti (forced labour) was there.
 Position of women declined further. First instance of Sati took place at
Eran, MP.
 The position of shudras improved substantially.
 The practice of untouchability intensed. (especially hatred for Chandalas).
Fa-hien mentions that the Chandalas lived outside the village and were
distanced by the upper class.
 Nalanda (a university) was established as a Buddhist monastery during the
reign of Kumara Gupta.
F. RELIGION
 Bhagavad-Gita was written during this time only. Buddhism declined.
 Bhagavatism centered on worshipping Vishnu or Bhagvat.
 Idol worship became a common feature.
 Vishnu temple at Deogarh (near Jhansi), a small temple near Sanchi and a
brick temple at Bhitragaon (near Kanpur) belong to the Gupta architecture.
G.ART & CULTURE

 Samudragupta is represented on his coins playing the lute (vina).
 Ajanta Paintings and paintings at Bagh, near Gwalior in MP, are of this time.
They belong to the Buddhist art.

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 Images of Vishnu, Shiva & some other Hindu Gods feature first time in this
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period.
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The architecture it can be divided into three categories:
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i.) Rock-cut caves: Ajanta & Ellora group (Maharashtra) & Bagh (MP).
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ii.) Structural Temples: Dasavatara temple of Deogarh (Jhansi district, UP–
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the oldest and the best, Siva temple of Bhumra (Nagod, MP), Vishnu &
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Kankali temple (Tigawa, MP), Parvati temple of Nanchana-Kuthwa (Panna
district, M)P), Shiva temple of Khoh (Satna, Panna, MP), Krishna brick
temple of Bhittargaon (Kanpur, UP), Laxman temple of Sirpur (Raipur, MP),
Vishnu temple & Varah temple of Eran (MP).
iii.) Stupas: Mirpur khas (Sindh), Dhammekh (Saranath) & Ratnagiri
(Orissa).
H. LITERATURE
 Kalidas, the great Sanskrit dramatist, belonged to this period. His books
are: Abhigyanashakuntalam, Ritusamhara, Meghadutam,
Kumarasambhavam, Malavikagnimitram, Raghuvansha, Vikramurvashi etc.
Out of these, Ritusamhara, Meghadutam, Raghuvansha were epics and the
rest were plays.
 Apart from Kalidas, others were Sudraka (author of Mrichchakatikam),
Bharavi (Kiratarjuniya), Dandin (Kavyadarshana and Dasakumaracharita).
To this period belong 13 plays written by Bhasa. Most famous of these was
Charudatta.
 Vishakhadatta wrote Mudrarakshasa and Devichandraguptam.
 Vishnu Sharma wrote Panchtantra and Hitopdesh.
 The Gupta period also saw the development of Sanskrit grammar based on
Panini and Patanjali. This period is particularly memorable for the
compilation of Amaralcosha by Amarasimha.
 Ramayana & Mahabharata were almost completed by the 4th century AD.

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Chapter Post Gupta Period :
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Harshvardhan
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A. Introduction
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After the downfall of Gupta Empire, Harshvardhan was the last ruler of
ancient India who tried to establish the political unity in North India. Due to
feudalistic character of his Empire he was not successful like Gupta & Maurya
HARSHA VARDHANA (AD 666-647)
 He was son of Prabhakar Vardhan & belonged to Pushyabhuti family.

 Originally belonged to Thaneshwar, but shifted to Kannauj (after Harsha’s
death Kannauj was won from Harsha’s successors by the Pratiharas).
 Defeated by Pulakesin-II, the great Chalukya king, on the banks of Narmada
in 620.
 Chinese pilgrim, Hieun Tsang (Prince of Travelers) visited during his reign.
 Harsha used to celebrate a solemn festival at Prayag (Allahabad), at the end
of every five years.
 Harsha was a great patron of learning. He established a large monastery at
Nalanda. Banabhatta, who adorned his court wrote Harshacharita and
Kadambari.
 Harsha himself wrote 3 plays- Priyadarshika, Ratnavali and Nagananda
 After the death of Harsha in 647, the empire once again broke up into petty
States.
 I-tsing, another Chinese pilgrim, visited in 670 AD.
Part B: Introduction of Early Medieval

The death of Harshavardhana marks the end of glorious regime of great
kingdoms in the Northern region. From here after India once again became a

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land of several kingdoms, which were frequently at war with each other. The
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three most important dynasties were the Rajputs, the Pallavas and the
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Chalukyas. The Rajputas emerged as a powerful force in Northern India and
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dominated the Indian Political scene for nearly 500 years from the 7th
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the Cholas.
Taking advantage of this weak scenario many foreign invasion took place out
of which Mahmud Ghaznavi and Mohammad Ghori were the main invader.
Defeat of Prithviraj Chauhan at the hands of mohd. Ghori paved way for
establishment of Delhi Sultanate in India.

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Rajput Age
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S. No. Important Rajput Capital Founder
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1. Chauhan/Chahaman of Delhi Vasudeva
Delhi-Ajmer (7th century-
1192)
2. Pratihara/Parihar of Avanti, Kannauj Nagabhatt I
Kannauj (730-1036)
3. Pawar/Parmar of Malwa Ujjain, Dhar Seeak II
(790-1150) ‘Sri Harsha’
4. Chauklukya/Solanki of Anihalvada Mularaja I
Kathiyawar (942-1187)
5. Rastrakuta of Malkhand Malkhand/Manyakheta Dantidurg
(752-973) (Danti
Varman II)
6. Chandela of Jejakabhukti Khajuraho, Mahoba, Nannuk
(831-1202) Kalinjar Chandela
7. Kalchuri/Haihaya of Tripuri Kokkala I
Chedi (850-1211)
8. Gadhawal/Rathor of Kannauj Chandradeva
Kannauj (1090-1194)
9. Tomar of Surrounding Dhillika
areas of Haryana &
Dhillika Delhi
10. Guhilota/Sisodiya of Chittor Bappa Rawal,
Mewar (8th Century Hammir I
1930)

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Dynasty Founder
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The Chalukyas of Vatapi Jayasimha
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The Gangas of Talakad Konakanivarma
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The Guptas of Magadha Shri Gupta
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The Kadambas of Vanavasi Mayurasharman
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The Kingdom of Gaud Shashanka
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The Kingdom of Thaneswar Pushyabhuti
The Later-Guptas of Magadha-Malwa Krishnagupta
The Maitrakas of Vallabhi Bhattarka
The Maukharis of Kannauj Yajnavarman
The Pallavas of Kanchi Smihavarman
The pandyas of Madurai Kodungon
The Vakatakas Vindhyashakti
Tripartite Struggle
Towards the close of the 8th century AD, there were three great powers in
India-the Palas in the East, the Gurjar-Partihara in the North & the
Rashtrakutas in the Deccan.The tripartite struggle for the supremacy among
the palas, Parthiharas and the Rashtrakutas was the important event of these
centuries.The main cause for this struggle was the desire to possess the city
of Kannauj (Farrukhabad Distt., UP) which was then a symbol of sovereignty.
1. THE PALAS OF BENGAL (CAPITAL-MONGHYR)

 In the middle of the eighth century, the Pala dynasty came into power. Its
founder was Gopala (750AD) who was elected to the throne as he had
proved his valor and capability as a leader.
 Then came Dharmapala who won Kannauj.Dharampala founded Vikramsila
University & revived Nalanda University.Suleiman, an Arab merchant
visited them & was impressed.
 Then came Devapala who won Orissa and Assam. He defeated Pratihara
king Bhoja and Rashtrakuta king Amoghvarsha.
 Then came Mahipala who was attacked and defeated by Rajendra Chola.
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 The Palas were replaced by Senas in Bengal. Palas had trade with south
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east Asia.
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2. THE PRATIHARAS OR GURJARA PRATIHARA
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 The foundation of one branch of Pratiharas was laid down by Harichandra,
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near modem Jodhpur in the middle of the sixth century AD.
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 The foundation of another branch was at Malwa with its capital at Ujjain,
and the earliest known king of this branch was Nagabhatta I. He came into
prominence because of his successful resistance of the Arabs. He fought
against the Rashtrakuta ruler Dantidurga.
 The greatest ruler of this dynasty was Bhoja (also known as Mihir,
Adivaraha — for his devotion to Vishnu). He regained Kannauj.
 His successor was Mahendrapal I. His teacher was Rajashekar — a
celebrated poet, dramatist and critic, & author of Karpuramanjari, Kavya
Mimansa, Bal Ramayan, Bhuvankosh, Harvilas, Bal Bharat, Vidhsaal,
Bhrinjika, Prapanch Pandav, etc.
3. THE RASHTRAKUTAS
 Founder- Dantidurga.
 Their king, Krishna-I is remembered for constructing the famous rock-cut
Kailasha temple at Ellora. It was constructed in the Dravidian style and
elaborately carved with fine sculptures.
 Their king, Amoghvarsha, is compared to Vikramaditya in giving patronage
to men letters. He wrote the first Kannada poetry named Kaviraj marg and
Prashnottar Mallika. He built the city of Manyakheta as his capital.
 Their king, Krishna-III set up a pillar of victory and a temple at
Rameshwaram.
 Rashtrakutas are credited with the building of cave shrine of Elephanta. It
was dedicated to Shiva, whose image as Mahesh (popularly known as

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Trimurti), counts among the most magnificent art creations of India. The
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three faces represent Shiva as creator, Preserver and Destroyer.
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Parmaras of Malwa
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Greatest king was Bhoja (1010-55), also known as Kaviraj. He wrote
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Ayurvdasaravasva (work on medicine) and. Samaranganasutradhar (a rare
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work on architecture).
Cultural contribution of Rajput kings
TEMPLES OF INDIA
Temples Builder Dynasty
Jagganath Temple of Puri Anant Varman Ganga
Sun Temple of Konark Narshingh Dev Ganga
Kandari Mahadev Temple of Yasho Varman Chandela
Khajuraho
Kailash Temple of Ellora Krishna-I Rashtrakuta
Elephanta Rashtrakuta
Ratha temple of Sapta-Pagoda or Narsingh Pallava
Mammalpuram Temple Varman-I
Kailashnath Temple of Kanchi Narsingh Pallava
Varman-II
Baikuntha Perumal Temple of Narsingh Pallava
Kanchi Varman-II
Brihadeshwara Temple or Rajendra-I Chola
Rajarajeshwara Temple of Tanjore
Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple Rajendra-I Chola
Jain Temple of Dilwar (Gujarat) Vimala Dev Minister of Solanki
Ruler of Gujarat
Famous literary works of this period:

o Somadeva: Kathasaritasagar (The Ocean of the stream of stories)
o Bilhana: Vikramadeva Charita (Biography of Chalukya king Vikramdeva-VI)
o Kalhana: Raitarangini (history of Kashmir)

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o Jayadeva: Gita Govinda (in Sanskrit).
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o Chachnama: Work on the history of Sind.
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SOME OTHER POINTS
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 In Cambodia, Suryavarman —II constructed the Angkorvat temple,
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dedicated to Lord Vishnu. It was built on Dravidian model. It is the greatest
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religious monument of the world.
 Shailendra Empire used to rule over Sumatra, Java and Malaya peninsula.
They were Buddhists. They built the largest Buddhist stupa in the world in
Borobudur.
Old Names New Name
 Suvamabhumi : Myanmar
 Suvamadwipa : Malaya
 Kamboja : Cambodia
 Yavadwipa : Java
Foreign invasion
Arab Conquest of Sind:
Sind was then ruled by Dahir, Md.-bin-Qasim (of Iraq) defeated Dahir in 712
AD. This is considered to be the first invasion of India by-the Arabs.
MAHMUD OF GHAZNI
 Mahmud began a series of seventeen raids into northwestern India at the
end of the 10th century. Nonetheless, he did not attempt to rule Indian
Territory except for Punjab, which was his gateway to India. The objective
of Mahmud’s expeditions was to plunder the riches of temples and palaces.
 His first expedition was directed against the frontier towns in 1000 AD.
 His second expedition was against Jaipala, the Hindushahi king of Punjab
whom he defeated in the First Battle of Waihind. Jaipala could not survive
the shock of humiliation and he burnt himself to death. He was succeeded
by his son, Anandpala in 1002 AD.

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
  


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 In his sixth expedition, Mahmud defeated Anandpala in the II Battle of
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Waihind (1008). Anandpala had organized a confederacy of rulers of Ujjain,
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Gwalior, Kalinjar, Kannauj, Delhi and Ajmer, but the alliance was defeated.
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 His sixteenth expedition was the plunder of Somnath temple (dedicated to
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Shiva) in 1025AD, situated on the sea coast of Kathiarwar.
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He patronized 3 persons
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a. Firdausi (Persian poet, known as Homer of the east) who wrote Shahnama.
b. Alberuni (a brilliant scholar from Central Asia) who wrote Tahqiq-I-Hind
c. Utbi (court historian), who wrote Kitab-ud-Yamni.
MUHAMMAD GHORI
The real founder of the Muslim Empire in India was Shihab-ud-Din
Muhammad Ghori or Muhammad of Ghur. It is true that Muhammad bin
Qasim was the first Muslim invader of India but he failed to carve out a
Muslim empire in India. Mahmud also failed to set a Muslim empire in India
and the only permanent effect of his invasions was the annexation of Punjab.
It was left to Muhammad Ghori to build up a Muslim Empire in India on a
secure footing.
 Prithviraj Chauhan, who was the king of Delhi at that time, received
contingents from other Rajput kings and defeated him in the First Battle of
Tarain (1191).
 But he defeated Prithviraj in the Second Battle of Tarain in 1192. Captured
Delhi and Ajmer and thus laid the foundation of Muslim Rule in India.
 Also defeated Jaichandra (Gahadval Rajput, ruler of Kannauj) at the Battle
of Chhandwar in 1194 AD.
 Ikhtiyar-ud-din Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji, one of Ghori’s
commanders, annexed Bihar and Bengal and destroyed Nalanda and
Vikramshila University.
 Died in 1206 AD, leaving Qutab-ud-Din Aibak the charge.

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1. Sangam Age
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Kingdom Emblem Capital First Ruler Famous
Ruler
The Bow Vanjji/Karayur; Main Udiyangeral Senguttuvan
Chera Ports: Muzris & Tondi (Red
Chera)
The Tiger Uraiaur-Inland capital Elara Karikala
Chola famous centre for cotton
trade;
Puhar/Kaveripattanam-
coastal capital/main port
The Fish Madurai-Inland capital Mudukudumi Nendujeliyan
Pandya venue of 1st& 3rd sangam;
Korkai/Colchoi-coastal
capital-famous for pearls.
THE PANDYAS
 First mentioned by Megasthenes, who says that their kingdom was famous
for pearls and was ruled by a woman.
 The Pandya kings profited from trade with the Roman empire and sent
embassies to the Roman emperor Augustus.
THE CHOLAS
 A Chola king named Elara conquered Sri Lanka & ruled it over for 50 years.
 Main source of wealth was trade in cotton cloth. They also maintained an
efficient navy.

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THE CHERAS
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 It owed its importance to trade with the Romans. The Romans set up two
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regiments there to protect their interests.
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 Fought against the Cholas about 150 AD.
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IMPORTANT FACTS OF THE 3 KINGDOMS
 All the gathered information is based on Sangam literature. Sangam was a
college or assembly of Tamil poets held probably under Royal Patronage
(esp. Pandyas)
 Sangam age corresponds to the post-Maurya and the pre-Gupta period.
S. No. Venue Under the Surviving Texts

Chairmanship of
1st Madurai (Old Capital Agastasya ×
Sangam of Pandyas,
engulfed in sea)
2nd Kapatapuran/Alvai Agastaya (Founder Only ‘Tolkappiyam’
Sangam (engulfed in sea) Chairman);
Tolakapiyyar
(later chairman)
3rd North Madurai Nakkirar Ettutogai,
Sangam Pattupattu,
Patinenkilakanak
ku etc.

 Silappadikaram by Ilano Adigal (story of a married couple) and
Manimekalai by Sattanar are the famous epics of this time.
 Other books are Tolkappium by Tolkappiyar, Jivikachintamani by
Tirutakkdewar and Kurool (called the ‘fifth veda’ or ‘the Bible of the Tamil
Land’) by Tiruvalluvar.

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 The chief local god was Murugan, wtlo was also called Sabramaniya.
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THE VAKATAKAS
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 The founder of this Brahmin dynasty was Vindhyasakti.
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 Most important king was Pravarsen-I who performed 4 Ashwamedha
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 Chandragupta-II married his daughter Prabhawati to the Vakataka king,
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Rudrasena-II.
CHALUKYAS OF VATAPI (BADAMI)

 Founder- Pulakesin-I.
 Established their kingdom at Vatapi (modern Badami, Karnataka).
 Pulakesin-II was their most famous king, who was a contemporary of
Harsha. He sent an embassy to the Persian king, Khusro-II. His court poet,
Ravikirti, wrote Aihole inscription. Hiuen Tsang visited his kingdom.
 Much of the paintings and sculptures of the Ajanta and Ellora caves were
completed during the Chalukyan reign. They built several magnificent
temples in Aihole and other places. Aihole is called the cradle of Indian
temple architecture.
There were two more Chalukya dynasties which were separate entities. They
were Eastern Chalukvas of Vengi and Western Chalukvas of Kalvani.
 Vengi dynasty was founded by Pulakesin II’s brother, Vishnu Vardhana. The
power of Eastern Chalukyas was-weakened in the tenth century and they
became the allies of Cholas,
 The greatest ruler of Kalyani Chalukyas was Vikramaditya II. He was the
hero of Bilhana’s Vikramankadeva Charita. He introduced the
ChalukyaVikrama era (1076 AD).
THE GANGAS
 Their king Narsimhadeva constructed the Sun Temple at Konark.
 Their king Anantvarman Ganga built the famous Jagannath temple at Puri.

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 Kesaris, who used to rule Orissa before Gangas built the Lingaraja temple at
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Bhubhaneshwar.
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THE PALLAVAS
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 Founder- Simhavishnu. They set up their capital at Kanchi (south of
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Chennai).
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 Narsimhavarman was their greatest king. He founded the town of
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Mamalapuram (Mahabalipuram) which he adorned with beautiful rock-cut
Raths or Seven Pagoras. Hieun Tsang visited Kanchi during his reign.
THE CHOLAS (AD 846-1279)

 Founder- Vijayalaya. Capital was Tanjore.
 Parantaka I captured Madurai but was defeated by Rashtrakuta ruler,
Krishna III at the Battle of Takkolam. Although the Rashtrakutas were later
defeated.
 The greatest Chola rulers were Rajaraja-I (985-1014) and his son Rajendra
I (1014-1044). Rajaraja founded the largest dominion in south India.
 He lead a naval expedition against the Shailandra empire (Malaya
peninsula) and expanded Chola trade with China. He annexed northern Sri
Lanka and named it Mummadi-Cholamandalam. Also conquered Maldives
islands.
 He constructed Rajrajeshwari temple (also called Brihadeshwar Shiva
temple) at Thanjavur.
 His son Rajendra-I annexed the whole of Sri Lanka. In the North, went as
far as Ganga and the dominions of the Pala king Mahipala. He took the title
of ‘Gangaikonda’ after that and founded a capital-Gangaikonda
Cholapuram. An even more remarkable exploit in his reign was the naval
expedition against the revived Sri Vijaya (Sumatra) empire. The Chola navy
was the strongest in the area for some time.
 Kulottunga III (1178-1210) was the last great Chola monarch.
Their empire was divided into 6 mandalams or provinces administered by

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Nadus and Nadus into Taniyars. Ur was a type of assembly of common
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villages. All members of the village could become the member of ur.
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Dancing figure of Shiva called Nataraja belong to this period only.
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Cholas temples had massive ‘Vimanas’ or towers and spacious courtyards.
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Other Kingdoms of South India
Kingdom Capital Real Founder
Western/Later Chalukyas Kalyani, Karnataka Tailap II
(973-1200)
Kakatiyas (1110-1326) Warangal, Andhra Prolaraja II
Pradesh
Yadavas (1187-1312) Devagiri, Bhillam V
Maharashtra
Hoyasalas (1173-1342) Dwarasamudra, Vittigadev
Karnataka 'Vishnuvardhan'
The temple of Hoyasaleshwara at Dwarasamudra (Modern Halebid) is the
greatest achievement of Hoyasala art.
PART C: Medival India

This part is divided in to Delhi Sultanate, Regional states and Mughal
Empire.In the 10th century Turks from central Asia conquered Afghanistan.
Under their ruler Mahmud Ghaznavi (971-1030) they conquered Punjab.The
Turks returned in 1191, this time they were led by Sultan Muhammad Ghori.
He was defeated in 1191 at the battle of Tarain but he returned in 1192. This
time he prevailed. The Turks were able to conquer large parts of Northern
India and they created a powerful state - the Delhi Sultanate
Under the Sultans Qutubuddin 1206-1211 and Iltumish 1211-1236 the

Sultanate flourished. However Iltumish was succeeded by his daughter
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murdered. The Sultanate reached a peak under Alauddin 1296-1316.He
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conquered Gurjarat & invaded Southern India. He looted southern cities and
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Muhammad Tughluq 1324-1351 extended the Sultanate still further. He
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decided he wanted a new, more central capital and he moved it to Daulatabad
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(Aurangabad, Maharashtra). However he was later forced to move his capital
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back to Delhi. The Sultanate of Delhi declined rapidly in the late 14th
century.The final blow came in 1498 when Timur, a great mongol leader of
Central Asia sacked Delhi and massacred many of the inhabitants. In the early
15th century independent Sultanates appeared and the Delhi Sultanate
became one of several. Under Sultans Bhalul Lodhi 1451-1489 and Sikander
Lodhi 1489-1517 Delhi revived to a certain extent but it never regained its
former importance. Meanwhile another empire arose in the South - the
Vijayangar and Bahmani kingdom.
This great empire was founded by Babur in 1526. Babur crushed the army of
Ibrahim Lhodi (the last Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate) at the battle of
Panipat.He was succeeded by his son Humayan 1508-1556. However in the
1530s an Afghan ruler named Sher Shah attacked the empire. By 1540 Sher
Shah prevailed and made himself ruler of much of Northern India. Humayan
went into exile and wandered from place to place. In the meanwhile Sher
Shah died in battle in 1545 and his empire split up. Humayan was then able,
with Persian help to re-conquer the Mughal empire.Unfortunately he died
after falling down some stairs.However his son Akbar 1556-1605 was,
perhaps, the greatest Mughal ruler. Akbar reorganised the government and
he created an efficient civil service. Akbar was a Muslim but he was tolerant
in matters of religion. He abolished jaziyah a tax previous rulers levied on
non-Muslims. He also gave Hindus high office.Akbar admired Persian culture
and promoted it in India. Persian and Hindu styles of painting merged to form
a new style of Mughal painting.Akbar was succeeded by his son Selim, who
called himself Jahangir. During the reign of Jahangir the arts continued to
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The Mughal Empire reached its zenith in the 17th century its only weakness
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being powers struggles among the ruling family and occasional rebellions.
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Shah Jahan became ruler in 1627. Under him the empire prospered. He is
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famous for building the Taj Mahal, one of the most beautiful buildings in the
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world. Aurngzeb (1658-1707) greatly expanded the empire. He conquered
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almost all of southern India by 1687. Under him the empire became so vast it
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was difficult for one man to rule. However he undid the religious toleration of
his predecessors. After the death of Aurngzeb Mughal Empire remained till
1858 but was invisibly weak.Aurangzeb's greatest enemy was Shivaji, leader
of the Marathas in southern India. Shivaji led a form of guerrilla warfare.
Shivaji was succeeded by his son Sambhaji. He was captured by the Mughals
and executed in 1689 but the guerrilla war went on.
In this part we will also read about some small kingdoms such as vijayanagar
and Bahamani, which do not contributed much politically but there
contribution to art and culture is more impressive.

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Mohammed Ghori's conquests became the nucleus of a new political entity in
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India-the Delhi Sultanate. This period can be divided into 5 distinct periods
viz.
(a) The Slave Dynasty (1206-90)
(b) The Khilji Dynasty (1290-1320)
(c) The Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414)
(d) The Sayyid Dynasty (1414-51)
(e) The Lodhi Dynasty (1451-1526).
A.The Ilbari dynasty or Slave dynasty

Out of all the kings belonging to the so-called Slave Dynasty, only three, viz.,
Qutab-ud-din Aibak, Iltutmish and Balban were slaves and even they were
manumitted by their masters.The dynasty is called Ilbari dynasty because all
rulers of this dynasty except Aibak, belonged to the Ilbari tribe of Turks.
1. QUTAB-UD-DIN AIBAK (1206-1210)

 Md. Ghori left his Indian possessions in his hands. He ruled on the death of
his master and founded this dynasty. Lahore was his capital.
 Famous for his generosity and earned the sobriquet of lakh-baksh (giver of
Lakhs).
 Laid the foundation of Qutab Minar after the name of famous Sufi saint,
Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki.
 Died of a horse fall at Lahore, while playing Chaugan (polo). The Turks
introduced polo in India.
 Built the first mosque in India — Quwwat-ul-Islam (at Delhi) and Adhai Din
Ka Jhonpara (at Ajmer).

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 He was a great patron of learning and patronized writers like Hasan
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Nizami, who wrote Taj-ul-Massir, and Fakhr-ud-din, writer of Tarikh-i-
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Mubarakshahi.
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2. ARAM SHAH (1210)
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 He was a weak and worthless young man and was rejected by the people of
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Delhi. Iltutmish, who was the Governor of Badaun at that time, defeated
him and acquired the throne.
3. ILTUTMISH (1210-36)
 Shams-ud-din Iltutmish was the son-in-law of Aibak. He is considered the
greatest of the slave kings and the real consolidator of the Turkish
conquest in India.
 Prevented Chengiz Khan’ attack by refusing to give refuge to an enemy of
Khan, Jalaluddin Mangabarani (a ruler from Iran). Thus, due to his
diplomatic skill he prevented Mongol attack.
 He got his authority (Sultanate of Delhi) recognized by the Caliph of
Baghdad (Khalifa), as a member of world fraternity of Islamic states.
 He formed Turkan-i-Chahalgani or Chalisa (a group of 40 powerful Turkish
nobles to suppress nobles).
 Divided his empire into IQTAS, an assignment of land in lieu of salary,
which he distributed to his officers. Every Iqtadar had to maintain law and
order and collect revenue. After deducting his salary and the expenses of
the government, he sent the surplus revenue to the Central Government.
Iqtadars were transferable.
 He introduced the silver tanka and the copper jital —2 basic coins of the
Sultanate.
 He patronized Minhaj-ul-Siraj, the author of Tabaqat-i-Nasiri.
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 He is called the Father of Tomb Building (built Sultan Garhi in Delhi).
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 As his successor, declared Razia, thus deviating from the normal practice.
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4. RUKNUDDIN FIRUZ SHAH (1236)
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 The nobles of the court who considered themselves too proud to bow their
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heads before a woman, put on the throne Ruknuddin Firuz Shah who was
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the eldest son of Iltutmish. But he was an utterly worthless person.
 He left the works of the government in the hands of his ambitious mother,
Shah Turkan. Finally Ruknuddin and her mother were put to death and
throne was given to Raziya.
5. RAZIYA (1236-1240)
 She was the first and the last Muslim woman ruler of Delhi Sultanat. She
disregarded purdah, began to adorn male attire and rode out in public on
elephant back.
 She promoted Jamaluddin Yaqut, an Abyssinian, to the important office of
superintendent of the stables. It provoked the Turkish nobles. There were
simultaneous revolts in the various parts of the kingdom. The Governor of
Lahore was the first to create trouble but he was defeated.
 There was a serious rebellion in Bhatinda. Malik Ikhtiyaruddin Altunia,
Governor of Bhatinda, refused to acknowledge the suzerainty of Raziya.
Raziya, accompanied by Yaqut marched against Altunia. On the way, the
Turkish followers of Altunia murdered Yaqut and imprisoned Raziya. She
had to marry Altunia to get out of the situation.
 But she was killed, along with her husband, by Bahram Shah, a son of
Iltutmish, on their way back to Delhi.
 After Razia, the battle of succession continued in which the following rulers
ruled in significantly:
6. Muizuddin Bahram Shah (1240— 1242)
7. Alauddin Masud Shah (1242 — 1246)
8. Nasiruddin Mehmud (1246— 1265)

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9. BALBAN (1266-1286)
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 He himself was a member of Chalisa. To guard himself, he got every
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member of Iltutmish family killed arid gave a death blow to the Turkish
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nobility (Chalisa).
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 He ordered the separation of military department from the finance
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department (diwan-i-wizarat), and the former was placed under a ministry
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for military affairs (diwarz-i-ariz).
 The declared the Sultan as the representative of God on earth. He
impressed upon the people that king was the deputy of God (niyabat-i-
khudai) and the shadow of God (zil-i-ilahi). Introduced Sijdah or Paibos
practice, in which the people were required to kneel and touch the ground
with their head to greet the Sultan. He also started the festival of Nauroz.
 In order to win the confidence of the public, he administered justice with
extreme impartiality He employed an efficient spy system.
 He was a liberal patron of Persian literature and showed special favour to
the poet, Amir Khusro.
 He was deeply racist and excluded non-Turks from the administration.
 He strengthened the frontiers against Mongols.
 But his son, Muhammad’s death was a smashing blow to Balban and the
death-knell to his dynasty.
 After Balban’s death, Kaiqubad (1287-1290) sat on throne but he was an
inefficient and fun-loving person.
B. THE KHALJI DYNASTY

Coming of Khaljis marked the end of monopolization of power by the Turkish
nobility and racial dictatorship. And this incident is known as Khilji
revolution.
1. JALALUDDIN FIRUZ KHALJI (1290-1296)
 He was the first ruler to put forward the view that since a large majority of
people in India are Hindus, the state in India could not be a total Islam
state.

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2. ALAUDDIN KHALJI (1296-1316)
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 He assassinated his uncle and proclaimed himself Sultan .After coming to
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power, he massacred the old Balbani and Jalali nobles and the Mongols who
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had settled in Delhi, and some of his own family members.
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 His first conquest was of the rich kingdom Gujarat, (ruled by the Vaghela
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king, Rai Karna Dev II). This conquest is notable for two reasons — first, he
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married the Raja’s wife, Kamla Devi; and secondly, there only he acquired
Malik Kafur, a eunuch, who later on rose to become a great military general.
 Then he captured Ranthambhor, Chittor and Malwa. Chittor was ruled by a
Gahlot king, Ratna Singh whose queen Padmini committed jauhar when his
husband was defeated. Mauddin named Chittor as Khizrabad, after his son.
 After his conquest of north India, he sent Malik Kafur towards South.
 Malik defeated Yadavas of Devagiri (king was Ram Chandra Deva), Kakatiya
king Pratap Rudra Deva I of Warangal, Hoysalas of Dwarsamudra (king was
Vira Ballala III) and Pandyas of Madurai (king was Maravarman
Kulasekhara). He is said to have reached as far as Rameshwaram where he
built a mosque. Thus, the whole of Deccan was subjugated.
 He adopted Balban’s policy of ‘Blood and Iron’ in tackling the Mongol
menace.
 Added an entrance door to Qutab Minar, Alai Darwaza and built his capital
at Sin.
 Also built Hauz Khas, Mahal Hazaar Satoon and Jamait Khana Mosque in
Delhi.
 Adopted the title Sikandar-i-Sani.
ALAUDDIN’S ADMINISTRATIVE MEASURES

 First Sultan to have permanent army — paid soldiers in cash, imported
horses, detailed description of each soldier (Chehra) and each horse (Dagh)
was kept (first time).
 He took radical preventive measure to prevent rebellion
 Revenue Reforms:

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a. Measured the cultivable land and fixed land revenue accordingly; Biswa
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was declared to be the standard unit of measurement.
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b. The state demand was half of the produce/Biswa.
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c. House tax (ghari) and pasture tax (chari) were imposed.
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d. A special post Mustakhraj was created for the purpose of collection of
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revenue.
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 Market control/Economic regulations
a. The price was fixed by the state of commodities.
b. Four separate markets were established for various commodities- Central
grain market, market for manufactured goods, market for general items
and market for horses, cattle and slaves.
c. The Sultan received daily reports of these from independent sources
(spies).
d. Strict punishment for cheating and underweightment.
 First Turkish Sultan of Delhi who separated religion from politics. He
proclaimed — “Kingship knows no kinship”.
 Though Alauddin was illiterate, he was a patron of learning and art. There
were many great poets in his court. Both Anjir Khusro and Mir Hasan
Dehivi enjoyed his patronage.
3. Malik Kafur
He was an Indian eunuch and slave who became a general in the army of
Alauddin Khilji. In 1297, he was purchased for 1,000 Dinars by Nusrat Khan.
That is the reason why Malik Kafur is sometimes called Hazer Dinari. Kafur’s
invasion of Pandya was the farthest south that any Muslim invasion would
ever reach in India. Kafur’s success in the Deccan made him so powerful that
Alauddin became merely a puppet in his hands. After the death of Alauddin he
placed, Kafur was responsible for the execution of all those princes of royal
blood who had any claim to the throne. Thirty six days after the death of
Alauddin, Kafur and his associates were killed.

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4. QUTBUDDIN MUBARAK SHAH (1316-1320)
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 He was one of the sons of Alauddin who, somehow, escaped the preying
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eyes of Malik Kafur. After the death of Kafur he became the king.
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5. NASIRUDDIN KHUSRO SHAH (1320)
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 He killed Mubarak Shah and usurped the throne. But like his mentor, he
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too was an incapable ruler.
 He was defeated and killed by Ghazi Malik. With him, the thirty year rule of
Khalji dynasty also came to an end.
C. THE TUGHLAQ DYNASTY

1. GHASUDDIN TUGHLAQ (1320-25)
 Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq or Ghazi Malik was the founder of the Tughlaq
Dynasty. He was the first Sultan of Delhi who took up the title of Ghazi or
slayer of the infidels.
 He liberalized Alauddin’s administrative policies and took keen interest in
the construction of canals and formulated .a famine policy
 Built the fortified city of Tughiaqabad and made it his capital.
 Had troublesome relationship with the Sufi saint, Shaikh Nizamuddin Aulia.
 Died in 1325, after a fall from a high-raised pavilion. Ibn Batuta, the
Moroccon traveller, who was in Delhi at that time, opined that his death
was due to sabotage arranged by his son, Jauna Khan.
2. MUHAMMAD BIN TUGHLAQ (1325-1351)

 Real name was Jauna Khan.
 Regarded as the most controversial figure in Indian history, because of his
five ambitious projects
o Increase in the land revenue in the Doab, between Ganga and Yamuna in
north India. The measure proved to be ill-timed, as Doab was passing
through famine which was followed by plague.
o Muhammad moved the capital from Delhi to Devagiri in the Deccan,
renaming that city Devagiri as Daulatabad. Instead of moving just his
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government offices there, he forcibly moved the entire population of Delhi
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to the new capital. The capital had to be shifted back again to Delhi after
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two years.
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India, modelled after the Chinese example, using copper coins, backed by
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silver and gold kept in the treasury. However, very few people exchanged
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their gold/silver coins for the new copper ones and the tokens were easy to
forge, which led to heavy losses. Later, the Sultan repealed his verdict and
all the copper coins were redeemed in silver or gold from the treasury,
making it empty.
o Muhammad Tughlaq planned an expedition for the conquest of Khurasan
and Iraq. But the scheme was abandoned as conditions in Iraq improved
(paid the extra army for one full year).
o The plan for the conquest of Karajal (Kumaon hills) also met with a
disastrous end.
 During his last days, the whole of S. India became independent and three
major independent states—The Empire of Vjaynagar, The Bahmani
kingdom and Sultanate of Madura were founded.
 A new department for agriculture Dewan-i-Kohi was setup.
 He knew Arabic and Persian languages. He was also an expert in
philosophy, astronomy, logic and mathematics. He was also a good
calligrapher.
 He built the fortress of Adilabad and the city of Jahanpanah.
 The famous traveller, Ibn Batuta came to Delhi during 1334. He acted as the
Quazi of the capital for 8 years. He has recorded the contemporary Indian
scene in his ‘Safarnamah’ (called Rehia).
3. FIROZ SHAH TUGHLAQ (1351-1388)

 He was Muhammad’s cousin. He was chosen the Sultan by the nobles.
 He tried to appease everybody. He cancelled the loans of peasants which
had been advanced by his predecessor. He did not give any harsh
punishment and banned the inhuman practices like cutting hands, nose,

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etc. Agriculture was developed by the reclamation of wastelands and by
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providing irrigation facilities. He constructed four canals for irrigation. -
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 He made iqtadary system hereditary. The principle of heredity was
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recognised not only in civil offices, but also in army. Soldiers were given
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land assignments instead of cash payment.
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 Took steps to translate Hindu religious texts & Sanskrit books on music
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into Persian.
 Built new towns — Hissar, Firozpur, Fatehabad, Firozabad (the present day
Firoz Shah Kotla in Delhi) and Jaunpur.
 Set up hospitals, dug a number of canals, dams, mosques.
 Repaired Qutab Minar when it was struck by lightening.
 Built his capital Firozabad and to beautify it, brought 2 Ashoka Pillars, one
from Topara in Ambala & the other from Meerut.
 Was fond of slaves (had around 1, 80,000 slaves).
 Wrote a book ‘Fatuhat Firozshahi’.
 Gained notoriety for temple breaking and Mathura was destroyed during
his period.
 Barani, the historian was in his court. He wrote two well known works of
history: Tarikh-i-Firozshahi and Fatwa-i-Jahandari.
 Khwaja Abdul Malik Isami wrote Futuh-us-Sulatin.
 He formed Diwan-i-Khairat and built Dar-ul-Shafa or a charitable hospital
at Delhi. Also introduced 2 new coins—Adha (50% jital) and bikh (25%
jital).
4. THE LATER TUGHLAQS
 Firoz Tughlaq was succeeded by his grand son who took up the title of
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq Shah II. Ghiyasuddin was replaced by Abu Bakr Shah
in 1389.
 Abu Bakr was replaced by Nasiruddin Muhammad in 1390, who ruled till
1394.
 The vacant throne now fell to Nasiruddin Mahmud Tughlaq. In his reign,
Timur invaded India.

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Timur’s Invasion
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 He was a great Mongol leader of Central Asia. He reached Delhi in Dec.
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1398. At that time, Nasiruddin Mahmud was the ruler.
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 The Tughlaq Empire could never recover from such a terrible blow and
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came to an end.
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D. THE SAYYID DYNASTY
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Khizr Khan (1414-1421) founded the dynasty and claimed to have descended
from the prophet of Islam. He helped Timur in his invasion, so he was given
the governorship of Lahore, Multan & Dipalpur. When Khizr Khan got
possession of Delhi, his position was very weak and he didn’t take up the
title of king and contended himself with that of Rayat-i-Ala. The coins were
struck and Khutba was read in the name of Timur and after his death in the
name of his successor, Shah Rukh.
 Khizr Khans 3 successors — Mubarak Shah (1421-33), Muhammad Shah
(1434-43) and Alauddin Alam Shah (1443-51) were incapable leaders.
 Sayyid dynasty’s 37 years remained troubled with external invasions,
internal chaos, etc.
 Provided opportunity to Bahlul Lodhi.
 Yahya-bin-Ahmed-bin-Abdullah-Sirhindi wrote Tarikh-i-Mubarakshahi
(history from Mahmud to Muhammad Shah of Sayyid Dynasty).
E. THE LODHI DYNASTY

They were Afghans by race (considered the first Afghan dynasty of India).
They were ruling over Sirhind when Sayyids were in India.
1. BAHLUL LODHI (1451-1489)
2. Conquested Jaunpur by ousting Sharqui dynasty.
3. SIKANDAR LODHI (1489-1517)
 Introduced the Gaz-iSikandari (Sikandar’s yard) of 32 digits for measuring
cultivated fields.
 In 1504, he founded the city of Agra and made it his capital.
 Was a poet himself and wrote verses in Persian under the pen-name of
Gulrukhi.
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 Repaired Qutab Minar.
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4. IBRAHIM LODHI (1517-1526)
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 Repressive ruler. Was defeated and killed by Babur in the I Battle of
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Panipat in 1526.
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 With this the Sultanate of Delhi ended.
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F. ADMINISTRATION
The country was divided into iqtas which was distributed among the nobles,
officers and soldiers for the purpose of administration and revenue collection.
Iqtadars could also be transferred. Iqtadars maintained the iqtas, kept a
certain sum for the cost of administration and their personal expenses, and
sent the rest to the Sultan.
Central Administration
Department Head (Founded by)
Diwan-i-Wizarat (Department of Wazir
Finance)
Diwan-i-Ariz (Military Department) Ariz-i- Mumalik
Diwan-i-Insha (Department Dabir-i-Mumalik
Correspondence)
Diwan-i-Risalat (Department of Dabir-i-Mulq
Appeals)
Diwan-i-Mustakharaj (Department of (Founded by Alauddin Khilji)
Arrears)
Diwan-i-Riyasat (Department of Rais-i-Mumalik (Founded by
Commerce) Alauddin Khilji)
Diwan-i-Kohi (Department of (Founded by Md-bin-Tughlaw)
Agriculture)
Diwan-i-Bandgan (Department of (Founded by Firoz Tughlaw)
Slaves)
Diwan-i-Khairat (Department of (Founded by Firoz Tughlaq)
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Charity)
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Diwan-i-Isthiaq (Department of (Founded by Firoz Tughloq)
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Pensions)
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 Civil administration was headed by Wazir (Chief Minister) who supervised
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the collection of revenue, the checking of the accounts and the regulation of
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expenditure. His office was known as Diwan-i-wizarat.
 The next important department was diwan-i-arz headed by arts-i -
mumalik, who was responsible for the recruitment, payment and
inspection of troops.
 Diwan-i-Insha headed by dahir-i-mumalik managed the royal
correspondence.
 Religious matters and endowments were dealt with by the diwan-i-rasalat
headed by sadr-us-sadur.
 Barid-i-mumalik was the head of the state news agency.
 The provinces were divided into shiqs under the control of shiqdors. The
next unit was parganas, groups of hundred villages, headed by chaudhary.
The village was the smallest unit of administration.
Provincial Administration

Iqta (i.e. Province) Muqti or Wali or Iqtadar
Shiq (i.e. District) Siqdar
Paragana (i.e. Taluka) Chaudhary & Amil
Gram (i.e. Village Muqaddam, Khut
Revenue System
Kharaj : a land tax equal to 1/10 of the produce of the land (by Hindus
only)
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Jaziya : a tax by non-muslims (even by Brahmins in the period of
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F.S.Tuglak)
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Zakat : tax on property (@ 2.5%, by Muslims only)
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Khams : 1/5th of booty captured in war
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G.ART AND CULTURAL
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1. ARCHITECTURE
The use of arch and the dome is the special feature of the Muslim
architecture. As the arch and dome needed strong cement finer quality of
mortar became wide-spread in north India.
 For decoration, the Turks used geometrical and floral designs (instead of
human and animal figures in Hindu temples), with verses from Quran. They
also used some Hindu motifs like bel motifs, lotus, swastik, etc.
 The Tughlaq built sloping walls called batter combining the principles of
arch and the lintel and beam.
2. MUSIC
 New musical modes and instruments like rabab and sarangi were
introduced.
 Amir Khusro introduced many Persian Arabic ragas. Also invented the
sitar.
3. PAINTING
 Paper was introduced by the Arabs in the 15th century and this patronized
painting.
4. LITERATURE
 Udayaraja wrote Raja Vinoda on Mahmud Begarha.
 Merutanga’s Prabandha Chintamani.
 A no. of Sanskrit works — Rajatarangani, Mahahharata, Koko Shastra —
were translated into Persian.
 Zai Nakshabi’s Tuti Nama (a translation of Sanskrit stories into Persian)
was very popular.

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Book Literature of Historical Importance
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Delhi Sultanate
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Author
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Tahqiq-i- Hind Alberuni Alberuni was an Arabian
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scholar who wrote about the
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Slave dynasty
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Tabaqaut-i-Nasiri Minhaj-us-Siraj Gives an account of Iltutmish's
reign
Laila-Manju Amir Khusrau Court poet of Alauddin Khilji
Khazain-ul-Futuh Amir Khusrau Describes conquests of
Alauddin Khilji
Tughlaq-Nama Amir Khusrau Gives account of Ghiyasuddin's
reign
Nuh-Siphir Amir Khusrau Poetic description of Indian
Culture
Fatawa-i-Jahandari Ziauddin Barani Gives an account of the Tughlaq
dynasty
Tarikha-i-Firoz Ziauddin Barani Gives an account of Firoz
Shahi Shah’s reign
Futuhate-i-Firoz Firoz Shah Gives an account of his reign
Shahi
Kitab-fi-Tahqiq Alberuni About Indian sciences
Qanun-e-Masudi Alberuni About astronomy
Jawahar-fil-Jawahir Alberuni About Mineralogy
Qamas Firozabadi Arabic words dictionary
Taj-ul-Maathir Hasan Nizami History of Ilbaris, the slave
dynasty
Chach Namah Abu Bakr History of Sindh region
Lubab-ul-Alab Bhukhari Persian anthology
Khamsah Amir Khusrau Literature and Poems
Shah Namah Firdausi About Mohmud Ghazni’s reign
Kitab-ul-Rehla Ibn Battuah A travelogue with stories.
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Miftah-ul-Futuh Amir Khusrau Jalaluddin's conquest and life
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Multa-ul-Anwar Amir Khusrau Literary masterpieces
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Ayina-i-Sikhandari Amir Khusrau Literary Masterpieces
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Hasht Bihisht Amir Khusrau Literary Masterpieces
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Shirin Khusrau Amir Khusrau Literary masterpieces
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Tarik-i-Firoz Shahi Shams-i-Shiraj History of tughlaqs
Afif
Futuh-us-Salatin Isami About Bahmani Kingdom

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Chapter
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Regional State
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Provincial Kingdoms
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Kingdoms Capital Founder
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Jaunpur Jaunpur Malik Sarwar (Khwaja Jaha)
(Sharqui)
Malwa Dhar, mandu Dilawar Khan Ghori
Gujarat Ahmadabad Ahmad Jafar Khan Muzaffar
Shah
Bengal Lakhnauti, Pandua, ekdala Shamsuddin Iliyas Shah
Khandesh Burhanpur &Asirgadh Malik Raza Faruqui
1. BENGAL
 Broke away from Delhi under the reign of Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
 In 1342, Ilyas Khan founded a new dynasty.
 Famous sultan was Ghiyas-ud-din Azam. Shankaradeva and Chaitanya
belonged to this time.
2. GUJARAT
 Broke away from Delhi in 1397, under Zafar Khan who assumed the title of
Sultan Muzaffar Shah.
 His grandson Ahmed Shah-I, built a new city, Ahmedabad.
3. MALWA
 Malwa was annexed by Alauddin Khalji in 1305 and remained a part of
Sultanate until its Governor; Dthawan Khan Ghuri asserted his
independence in 1435.
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 It became powerful under the reign of Hushang Shah. He beautified the city
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Mandu with Jama Masjid, Hindol Mahal and Jahaz Mahal.
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4. KASHMIR
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 Kashmir continued to be under its Hindu rulers up to 1339 its first Muslim
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ruler was Shamsuddin Shah.
 The greatest Muslim ruler was Zainul Abidin (1420-70). Accepted the
policy of broad tolerance, introduced the art of shawl-making in Kashmir,
built Zaina Lanka and artificial island in the Wular Lake. Called the
“Badshah” (the great Sultan) and “Akbar of Kashmir” by the Kashmiris.
5. MEWAR
 The greatest ruler of this house was the famous Rana Kumbha Karan
(1538-68). Rana Kumbha built the famous victory tower or ‘Vjaya Stambh’
at Chittor to commemorate his victory over Mahmud Khalji of Malwa.
 Another important king was Rana Sangram Singh (1509-28), who defeated
Mahmud-II of Malwa and Ibrahim Lodhi. But he was defeated by Babur at
Khanua in 1527.
6. VIJAYNAGAR KINGDOM (1336-1580)
 Founded in 1336 as a result of the political and cultural movement against

the Tughluq authority in the south.
Dynasty Period Founder

Sangama 1336-1485 Harihar & Bukka

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Saluva 1485-1505 Saluva Narsimha
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Tuluva 1505-1570 Veer Narsimha
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Aravidu 1570-1650 Tirumala
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THE SANGAMAS (1336-1485)
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The empire of Vijaynagar was founded by Harihara-I and Bukka, two of the
five sons of Sangama. They were originally feudatories of Kakatiyas.
Harihara-I was the first ruler. A Bhakti saint Vidyaranya motivated them.
 The next ruler was Deva Raya-I. He constructed a dam across the river
Tungabhadra to bring the canals into the city to relieve the shortage of
water. Italian traveler Nicolo Conti visited during his reign (Also a Russian
merchant, Nikitin). His court was adorned by the gifted Telegu poet
Srinatha, the author of Haravilasam.
 Devaraya-II (1423-46) was the greaiest Sangama ruler. The inscriptions
speak of his title ‘Gajabetekara’ i.e., the elephant hunter. He wrote
‘Mahanataka Sudhanidhi’ and a commentary on the Brahma Sutras of
Badaryana (Both in Sanskrit). Persian ambassador Abdur Razzaq visited
his court.
 Sangama dynasty was replaced by Saluva dynasty, which lasted for 2
decades. Ultimately, a new dynasty called the Tuluva dynasty (1503-69)
was founded by Vira Narsimha.
THE TULUVAS
 Krishnadeva Raya (1509-29) was their greatest ruler. Portuguese traveller,

Domingo Paes, writes high about him. Berbosa also came as a traveler.
 His political ideas are contained in his Telegu work ‘Amuktamalyada’ (also
Jambavati Kalyanam in Sanskrit). As a great patron of literature, he was
known asAbhinava Bhoja, Andhra Pitamaha and Andhra Bhoja.

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 Eight great poets of Telegu, known as ‘Ashta Diggaja’ adorned his court.
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Pedanna wrote Manucharitam, while Tenalirama was the author of
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Panduranga Mahamatyam.
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 Built a new city ‘Nagalapuram’ and decorated it with Hazura temple and
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Vithalswamy temple.
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 The successors of Krishnadeva Raya were weak and incompetent rulers.
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Achyuta Raya followed him. A Portuguese traveler Fernoa Nuniz came
during his reign.
 Sadasiva, the last ruler of the dynasty, was a puppet in the hands of his PM,
Rama Raya, who was an able but arrogant man. In 1565, Battle of Talikota
was fought between an alliance of Abmednagar, Bijapur, Golkonda and
Bidar on one side and Sadasiva on the other side. Sadashiv was defeated.
Caesor Fredrick (1567-68 AD) visited Vijaynagar after the Battle of
Talikota.
Administration
A.The Nayakar and Ayagar Systems
The Nayakar and Ayagar systems were the backbones of the Vijayanagar
administration.
The Nayakar System

Under this system, military chiefs were assigned certain pieces of land called
amaram. These chiefs, known as nayaks, had revenue and administrative
rights on their lands. They were required to maintain elephants, horses and
soldiers in certain numbers which were included in the royal army during
wars. They also had to pay a sum of money to the central exchequer. In course
of time, nayaks began to assert their military, administrative and economic
powers which later became a major cause of the decline of the Vijayanagar
Empire.
The Ayagar System
It involved the constitution of a 12-member officials group by the Centre to
maintain administration at the village level. These officials, called the ayagars,
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were village functionaries and constituted of groups of families. They were
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given, for their service, a portion of or plot in the village, which were tax-free.
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The ayagars were hereditary officials and there was to be no sale or purchase
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of land without their permission.
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Administrative Unite Head
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Mandalam (i.e. Province) Mandaleswar
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Nadu (i.e. District) Naduprabhu
Gram (i.e. Village) Gauda
BAHMANI KINGDOM
The Bahmani Kingdom of the Deccan was the most powerful of all the
independent Muslim kingdoms that arose on account of the disintegration of
the Delhi Sultanate. Alauddin Hasan, who took the title of Abul Muzaffar
Alauddin Bahman Shah, was the first king of Bahmani Kingdom in 1347.
 Bahman Shah selected Gulbarga as his capital and gave it the name of
Ahsanabad.
 Humayun (1458-61) succeeded his father Alauddin II. He was so cruel that
he got the title of “Zalim” or the tyrant.
 He was succeeded by Muhammad Shah III (1463-82). During his reign, his
minister Mahmud Gawan was practically the king. Mahmud won Konkan,
Goa, Orissa, Kanchi, etc. Nikitin, a Russian merchant, visited Bidar during
his reign.
 The last ruler of the Bahmani Kingdom was Kalim Ullah Shah (1524-27).
 After the break up of the Bahmani Kingdom, five separate States of the
Muslims came into existence:
Break up of Bahmani Empire into 5 Kingdoms
S. No. Kingdoms Year Founder Dynasty
1. Berar 1484 Fataullah Imad Shah Imad Shahi
2. Bijapur 1489 Yusuf Adil Shah Adil Shahi
3. Ahmadnagar 1490 Malik Ahmad Nizam Shahi
4. Golconda 1518 Quli Qutub Shah Qutub Shahi
5. Bidar 1526-27 Amir Ali Barid Barid Shahi
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The Mughal Empire
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1. BABAR (1526—1530)
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Was a descended of Timur on his father’s side and Chengiz Khan on his
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mother’s side. His family belonged to the Chaghtai section of the Turkish race
and were commonly known as Mughals.Originally ruled over Ferghana
(Afghanistan). He became the Sultan at the early age of 12, when his father
Sultan Umar Shaikh Mirza died.
He was invited to attack India by Daulat Khan Lodhi (Subedar of Punjab),
Alam Khan (uncle of Ibrahim Lodhi) and Rana Sanga.
 Defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat in 1526.
 Defeated Sangram Singh (Rana Sanga) of Mewar in the Battle of Khanua in
1527. This weakened the Rajput confederacy and strengthened Babar’s
position. Babar took the title of “Ghazi” after that. Defeated another Rajput
ruler, Medini Rai (of Chanderi) in the Battle of Chanderi in 1528.
 Defeated the Afghan chiefs under Mahmud Lodi (brother of Ibrahim Lodi)
in the Battle of Ghagra in 1529.
 His victories led to rapid popularization of gunpowder and artillery in
India.
 Died in 1530. Buried at Ararn Bagh in Agra; later his body was taken to
Aram Bagh, Kabul.
 His memoir, the Tazuk-i-Baburi in Turki language is a classic of world
literature. It shows his humane outlook and sensitivity to the beauty of
nature. Also wrote ‘Masnavi’.
 After the Kushans, Babur was the first to bring Kabul and Kandahar into
the Indian Empire, which provided stability since it was the staging post of
invasions of India. This helped in promoting trade.
2. HUMAYUN (1530-40)
 The throne inherited by Humayun was not a bed of roses. Babar had
practically got no time to consolidate his position and authority. Before he
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could put the whole country on a stable basis, he was gone. He did a
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blunder by dividing his empire among his three brothers — Kamran,
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Hindal and Askari.
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 Built Dinpanah at Delhi as his second capital.
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 Defeated the Afghan forces at Daurah in 1532.
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3. Sher Shah Suri (1540-1545): The afghan interlude
 Real name was Farid. Given the title Sher Khan by Babar Khan Lohani
(Governor of Bihar). Became the master of Delhi after the exit of Humayun.
Sher Shah Suri gradually gained power during Humayun’s time. He
attacked him at Chausa (Battle of Chausa) in 1539, but Humayun escaped.
Here Humayun was saved by Nizam, a water carrier (saqqa). But in the
Battle of Cannauj (also called Battle of Bilgrama) in 1540, he finally
defeated him and he had to flee. Died in 1545 while campaigning against
Kalinjar Fort.
Shershah’s Administration
For administrative convenience, Shershah divided his whole empire into 47
divisions called sarkars, and sarkars into smaller parganas. In the field of
central administration, Shershah followed the Sultanate pattern. There were
four main central departments, viz, Diwan-i-wizarat, Diwan-i-arz; Diwan-i-
insha and Diwan-i-rasalat.

Iqta (i.e. Province) Haqim & Amin
Sarkar (i.e. District) Shiqdar-i-Shiaqdaran & Munsif-i-Munsifan
Pargana (i.e. taluka) Shiqdar & Munsif
Gram (i.e. Village) Muqaddam & Amil
 His Land Revenue System is noteworthy as he classified his land under 3
heads – good, middle and bad, and claimed 1/3rd of the produce.Todarmal
contributed greatly in the development of revenue policy of Shershah.

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Akbar also adopted the same revenue policy, albeit with some
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amendments.
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 Shershah personally supervised the recruitment of the soldiers and paid
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them directly. He revived Alauddin’s system of branding the horses (daag)
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and keeping a descriptive roll of soldiers (chehra).
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 Shershah introduced a regular postal service. He also attempted to fix
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standard weights and measures.
 Introduced the silver ‘Rupaya’ and the copper ‘Dam’ and abolished all old
and mixed metal currency. He promoted the cause of trade and commerce
by reducing the number of the customs duty collection points to just two;
a. Goods produced in Bengal or imported from outside had to pay customs
duty at Sikrigali (at the border of Bengal and Bihar).
b. For the goods coming from West and Central Asia at the Indus.
 Shershah improved communication by building roads. Sarais were built on
roads. He restored the old imperial road called Grand Trunk road, from the
Indus River to Sonargaon in Bengal.
 Built his tomb at Sasaram in Bihar. Built a new city on the bank of Yamuna
river (present day Purana Qua).
 Malik Mohammad Jaisi composed Padmavat (in Hindi) during his reign.
 Abbas Khan Sarwani was his historian, who wrote Tarikh-i-SherShahi.
4. HUMAYUN (1555-56)
 Passed nearly 15 years (1540-1555) in exile.
 Had the chance to return in 1555. Sher Shah, the victor of Kannauj, died in
1545. He was succeeded by his son Islam Shah, who ruled up to 1553. He
was succeeded by Muhammad Adil Shah. He was very fond of pleasures
and left the affairs of his government in the hands of Hemu, his minister.
Bairam Khan, his most faithful officer, helped him in to regain the Indian
Kingdom.
 Died in 1556, due to a fall from his library building stairs (Sher Mandal,
Delhi) seven months after he captured Delhi. It is said about him that
“Humayun tumbled through life and he tumbled out of it”.
 Gulbadan Begum, his half-sister, wrote Humayun-nama.
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5. AKBAR (1556-1605)
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Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar was the son of Humayun and Hamida Banu
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Begam. He was born at Amarkot in 1542. Bairam Khan coronated him at
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Kalanaur when he was 14 years old.
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Bairam Khan represented him in the Second Battle of Panipat in 1556 against
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Hemu Vikramaditya. Hemu, the PM of Muhammad Shah Adil of Bengal, was
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defeated. Hemu is considered the last Hindu king of Delhi.
Akbar is considered 'the real founder of the Mughal empire' in India.He was
the first Mughal ruler who divorced religion from politics.
 Between 1556-1560, Akbar ruled under Bairam Khan’s regency. (Bairam
Khan was assassinated at Patan, Gujarat, on his way to Mecca by one of his
old Afghani enemies).
Akbar's Conquests
Year Province From
1560-62 Malwa Baz Bahadur
1564 Gondwana (Gadh Rani Durgawati (regent of Bir
Katanga) Narayan)
1568 Chittor Rana Uday Singh
1569 Ranthambor Surjan Hada
1569 Kalinjar Ram Chandra
1572 Gujarat Bahadur Shah
1576 Haldighati Rana Pratap
1581 Kabul Mirza Hakim
1591 Khandesh Ali Khan
1595 Baluchistan Yusufzai Tribes
1597-1600 Ahmadnagar Chand Bibi (regent of
Bahadur Shah)
1601 Asirgarh (Last war of Miran Bahadur Khan
Akbar)
 Akbar followed a policy of reconciliation with the Rajputs. Some of the
Rajput princes entered into matrimonial alliances with him. In 1562, he
married the eldest daughter of Raja Bharmal of Jaipur. In 1570, he married
princesses from Bikaner and Jaisalnier. In 1584, Prince Salim was married
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to the daughter of Raja Bhagwan Das. All these activities paved the way for
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friendship between Rajputs and Mughals (except Mewar).
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 Won Gujarat in 1572. It was in order to commemorate his victory of
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Gujarat that Akbar got the Buland Darwaza constructed at Fatehpur Sikri.
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 At his death in 1605, his empire included Kashmir, Sind, Kandhar and
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extended as far as the Godavary in the Deccan.
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IMPORTANT FACTS OFAKBAR’S RULE
Important Years of Akabar
Important Years of Akbar
1562 Visited Ajmer first time
1562 Ban on forcible conversion of war-prisoners into slaves
1563 Abolition of Pilgrimage Tax
1564 Abolition of Jaziya
1571 Foundation of Fatehpur Sikri
1574 Mansabadari System introduced
1575 Ibadatkhana was built
1578 Parliament of Religions in Ibadatkhana
1579 Proclamation of 'Mazhar' (Written by Faizi)
1580 Dahsala Bandobast introduced
1582 Din-i-Ilahi/Tauhid-i-Ilahi
1584 Ilahi Samvat i.e. Calender was introduced
1587 Ilahi Gaz i.e. Yard was introduced
 He was patron of the art and in his court many persons flourished.
Akbar’s Navratas
i. Abu’l-Fazl, the Wazir of Akbar, and author of the Akbarnama, an account of
Akbar’s reign. He also led the Mughal imperial army in its wars in the
Deccan. He was assassinated in plot contrived by Akbar’s son, Salim by Bir
singh Bundela (1601)
ii. Faizi was historian Abul Fazl’s brother in Akbar’s court. He was a poet
composing in Persian and an all-round genius. Akbar highly recognized the

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genius in him and appointed him teacher for his son. He translate Lilabati
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(mathematics) in farsi.
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iii. Tansen, believed to be one of the greatest musician of alt times, was born
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in a Hindu family in Gwalior. He served as the court musician to King
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Ramachandra of Muwar and later to Althar. Tansen accepted Islam at the
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hands of the great Sufi mystic and saint— Shaykh Muhammad Ghaus of
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Gwalior. It was believed that Tansen made miracles such as bringing rain
and fire through singing the ragas Megh Maihar and Deepak, respectively.
iv.Raja Birbal, alias Mahesh Das, was a courtier in the administration of
Akbar. Birbal II was referred to as a court wit as a result of the fact that he
frequently had witty and humorous exchanges with Akbar. Akbar also
conferred on him the title of “Raja”. He was the only person to accept “Din-
e-illahi” Birbar was killed in the battle with Yusufzai Tribe (1586).
v. Raja Todar Mal was Akbar’s finance minister, who overhauled the revenue
system in the kingdom. He introduced standard weights and
measurements, revenue districts and officers. His systematic approach to
revenue collection became a model for the future Mughals as well as the
British. He had developed his expertise while working under Sher Shah. In
1582, Akbar bestowed on the raja the title Diwan-i-Ashraf.
vi.Raja Man Singh was the Kacchwaha raja of Amber.
vii. Abdul Rahim Khan-e-Khana was a poet and the son of Akbar’s trusted
caretaker, Bairam Khan. After Bairam Khan was murdered, Bairan Khan’s
wife became the second wife of Akbar, which made Abdul Rahim Khan-e-
Khan his stepson. He had a high place among Akbar’s Navratnas. Although a
Muslim by birth, he was a devotee of Lord Krishna.
viii. Faqir Aziao Din was one of Akbar’s chief advisors.
ix. Mullah Do Pyaza was among the Mughal emperor Akbar’s chief advisors.
Akbar regarded his advice in high esteem.
 Regularly visited the shrine of Sheikh Muinuddin Chishti at Ajmer.
 Believed in Sulh-i-Kul or peace to all.
 Built Ibadatkhana (Hall of prayers) at Fatehpur Sikri. He used to conduct
religious discussions there with: Purshottam Das (Hindu), Maharaji Rana
(Parsi), Harivijaya Sun (Jam), Monserate and Aquaviva (Christian).
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 Formulated an order called Din-i-Ilahi or Tauhid-i-Ilahi in 1581. Birbal,
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Abul Fazl and Faizi joined the order.
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 His Land Revenue System was known as Todar Mal Bandobast or Zabti
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System. Three salient features of Zabti system were — measurement of
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land, classification of land and fixation of rates. Todar Mal and Muzaffar
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Khan Turbati were the important revenue officers.
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 Also introduced the Mansabdary System to organise the nobility as well as
the army. Mansabdar meant holder of a rank. There were two ranks: Zat
and Sawar. Zat fixed the status and standing in the administrative
hierarchy while sawar fixed the number of troopers held by the
Mansabdar. It wasn’t a hereditary system.
 Tulsidas ('Ramcharitamanas') also lived during Akbar's period.
 Ralph Fitch (1585) was the first Englishman to visit Akbar’s court.
 When Akbar died, he was buried at Sikandara near Agra.
 Akbar gave Mughal India one official language (persian).
6. JAHANGIR (1605-1627)
 Akbar’s eldest son Salim assumed the title of Nur-ud-din-Muhammad
Jahangir and ascended the throne.
 His eldest son Khusro revolted, which was suppressed.
 The fifth Sikh guru, Guru Arjun Dev, had helped Khusro. So he was also
executed after 5 days of torture.
 Rana Amar Singh (son of Maharana Pratap) of Mewar submitted before
Jahangir in 1615. Rana’s son Karan Singh was made a mansabdar in the
Mughal court.
 Faced a formidable opponent in Malik Amber in his expedition to
Ahmednagar.
 His greatest failure was the loss of Kandahar to Persia in 1622.
 The most important event in Jahangir’s life was his marriage to Mehr-un-
Nisa, the widow of Sher Afghani in 1611. The title of Nur Jahan was
conferred on her.

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 She had great influence on Jahangir’s life, as she was given the status of
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Padshah Begum, coins were struck in her name and all royal farmans
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beared her name.
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 Had a chain of justice outside his palace in Agra (called Zanzir-i-Adil). He
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also laid a number of gardens, such as the Shalimar and Nishat gardens in
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Kashmir.
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 Captain Hawkins (1608-fl) and Sir Thomas Roe (1615-1619) visited his
court. Due to the efforts of Sir Thomas Roe English factories were
established at Surat and some other places,
 Pietra Valle, famous Italian traveler came during his reign.
7. SHAHJAHAN (1628—1658)
 Able general and administrator.
 Had to face revolts in Bundelkhand (Jujjhar Singh Bundela of Orchcha) and
in the Deccan (Khan-i-Jahan Lodi) in the initial years.
 Shahjahan’s policy of annexing the Deccan was quite successful.
Ahmednagar was annexed while Bijapur and Golconda accepted his
overlordship.
 Shahjahan also expelled the Portuguese from Hughli, as they were abusing
their trading privileges.
 Made his son, Aurangzeb, the Viceroy of Deccan in 1636. Aurangzeb first
tenure was till 1644. Aurangzeb’s second term as Viceroy in Deccan began
in 1653 and continued till 1658. Aurangzeb built an effective Revenue
System there (Murshid Kuli Khan was his dewan there).
 Last 8 years of his life were very painful, as there was a brutal war of
succession among his four sons — Dara, Shuja, Aurangzeb and Murad.
 Dara was his favourite but Aurangzeb was the ablest.
 Ultimately, Aurangzeb took control and he was made the prisoner in the
Agra Fort, being looked after by his daughter, Jahan Ara, till his death in
1666.
 His reign is considered the ‘Golden Age’ of the Mughal Empire.

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 2 Frenchmen, Bemier and Tavernier, and an Italian adventurer Manucci,
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visited during his reign.
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War of Succession
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War of Bahadurpur, near Banaras Feb. 1658 Dara & Shah Shuja
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War of Dharmat, near Ujjain April 1658 Dara & Aurangzeb-
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Murad
War of Sumugarh, near Agra May 1658 Dara & Aurangzeb-
Murad
War of Khajua, near Allahabad Dec. 1658 Aurangzeb & Shah
Shuja
War of Deorai March 1659 Aurangzeb & Dara
8. AURANGZEB ALAMGIR (1658-1707)

 Aurangzeb first defeated the Imperial army in the Battle of Dharmatt and
then defeated a force led by Dara in the Battle of Samugarh. Thereafter, he
entered Agra and crowned himself with the title of ‘Alamgir’ (conqueror of
the world).
 Under him, the Mughal Empire reached its greatest extent, and the largest
single state ever known in India from the dawn of history to the rise of
British Power was formed.
 His reign can be broadly divided into two 25 year periods: first in the
affairs of N.India when the Maratha power under Shivaji emerged, and
second marked by his preoccupations about the affairs of Deccan.
 In his rule, various rebellions took place — Jat peasantry at Mathura,
Satnami peasantry in Punjab and Bundelas in Bundelkhand.
 He caused serious rift in the Mughal-Rajput alliance by his policy of
annexation of Marwar in 1639 after the death of Raja Jaswant Singh.
 In 1675, he ordered the arrest and execution of ninth Sikh gum, Gum Tegh
Bahadur.

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 In 1679, he reimposed juziyah. Also, Nauruj, singing in the court, and the
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practice of ‘jharokha-darshan’ were banned. Also forbade inscription of
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Kalima (the Muslim credo) on the coins.
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 The Mughal conquests reached the territorial climax during his teign, as
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Bijapur (1686) and Golconda (1687) were annexed to the Mughal empire.
 Patronized the greatest digest of Muslim law in India, Fatwa-i-Alamgiri.
 Mutasib (regulator of moral conduct) was appointed.
 He was called a ‘Darvesh’ or a ‘Zinda Pir’.
 He also forbade Sati.
Revolts during Aurangzeb's Reign

Revolts Year of Leaders Causes
Beginning
Jat 1669 Gokula, Rajaram, Agrarian policy
Churamani
Bundela 1671 Champat Ria, Chhatrasal Political &
relgious
Satnami 1673 Followers of Satnami Religious
Sect suppression
Sikh 1675 Teg Bahadur, Gobind Religious
Singh
Rajput: 1678 Durgadas(General of Succession to
Rathor Ajit Singh) throne of
(Marwar) Marwar
Titles given by Mughal Ruler

Title Person Field Ruler
Jagat Guru Harivijay Suri Jain Religion Akbar
Zari Kalam Mohammad Literature Akbar
Hussain
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Sirin Kalam Abdus Samad Literature Akbar
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Raj Kavi Faizi Literature Akbar
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Kavi Priya Birbar LIterature Akbar
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Nadir-ul-Asra Ustad Mansur Painting Jahangir
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Nadir-uz-Zaman Adbul Hassan Painting Jahangir
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Guna Samudra Lal khan Music Shahjanan
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Raj Kavi Kalim Literature Shahjahan
Mahakaviray Sundardas Literature Shahjahan
Mughal Administration
The entire kingdom was divided into suba or pranta, suba into sarkar, sarkar
into pargana and the pargaria into villages. During Akbar’s reign the empire
was divided into 15 subas. The number reached 21 during Aurangzeb’s reign.
Babar and Humayun had a Prime Minister known as Vakil. The office of Vakil,
was, however, discontinued after Bairam Khan. Wazir was the Prime
Minister.Dewan was the head of the revenue department.
 Mir Bakshi: Military Department.
 Khan-i-Saman: Royal house-hold.
 Qazi-ul-quzat: Judicial Department. The qazis were helped by the muftis.
 Sadr-us-Sadr: Charitable and religious endowments.
 Mustaufi: Auditor-General.
 Amil: Judicial officer in civil and judicial disputes.
 Quanungo: Head accountant.
 Lambardar: Village headman.
 Patwari: Village accountant.
 The territory of the empire was divided into khalisa (crown lands), jagirs
(land granted to nobles) and inam (land granted to religious and learned
men).
Administrative Unit Incharge

Suba (i.e. Province) Sipahsalar/Subedar/Nizam-The Head Executive
Diwan-Incharge of revenue department
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Sarakar (i.e. District) • Fauzdar-Administrative Head
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Pargana (i.e. Taluka) • Siqdar-Administrative Head
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Gram (i.e. Village) • Muqaddam-Headman,
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ART & CULURE
I) ARCHITECTURE
Babar
 Built two mosques: one at Kabulibagh in Panipat and the other in Sambhal
in Rohilkhand.
Humayun
 Laid the foundation of the city Din Panah at Delhi.
 Built Jamali Mosque and the Mosque of Isa Khan at Delhi.
 Humayun’s tomb is called the prototype of Taj Mahal. It was built by his
widow Haji Begum.
Akbar
 Built Agra fort (in red sandstone).
 He also built Fatehpur Sikri (city of victory) near Agra. In Fatehpur Sikri are
the Panch Mahal, Diwan-1-Khas; Diwan-I-Khas, Jodhabai’s palace and
Sheikh Salim Chishti’s tomb. Buland Darwaza (53 m high) is located here,
commemorating the emperor’s conquest of Gujarat.
 Built his own tomb at Sikandra, near Agra.
 Built the temple of Govindadeva at Vrindavan.
Jahangir
 With Jahangir’s reign, the practice of putting up buildings in marble and
decorating the walls with floral designs made of semi-precious stones
started. This method of decoration was known as Pietra Dura.

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 Nurjahan built the tomb of Itmad-ud-Daula at Agra.
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 Jahangir built Moti Masjid at Lahore and his own mausoleum at Shahdara
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(Lahore).
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Shahjahan
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 Built Taj Mahal, Mod Masjid at Agra, Jama Masjid and Red Fort at Delhi,
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ShalimurBagh at Lahore and city of Shahjahanabad.
 Also built Mussaman Burz at Agra (where he spent his last years in
captivity), Sheesh Mahal, etc.
 He got the peacock throne built by Bebadal Khan on which Amir Khusrau’s
couplet — ‘If there is a paradise on earth, it is here’, inscribed on it.
Aurangzeb
 Built Mod Masjid at Delhi and Badshahi Mosque at Lahore.
 Built Bibi ka Makbara in Aurangabad.
Mughal Painting
Humayun
 He invited 2 Persian artists, Mit Sayyid Mi and Abdus Samad, who became
his court painters.
Akbar
 Organised painting in imperial karkhanas and also introduced European
style.
 Abdus Samad, Farrukh Beg, Khusro Kuli, Jamshed, Basawan, Daswanth, etc
were the prominent painters.
 Daswanth painted the Razm Namah (Persian Mahabharat).
Jahangir
 Painting reached its zenith under Jahangir. Special progress was made in
portrait painting and painting of animals. Bishan Das was a master of

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portraits while Ustad Mansur specialised in animal painting. Use of ‘Halo’
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or Divine Lights started under Jahangir.
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Literature of Mughal Period
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Book Author Book Author
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Tuzuk-i- Babur Massir-i-Alamgiri Saqi Mustaind
Baburi Khan
Qanuni- Khwand Amair Ain-i-Akbari Abul Fazl
iHumayun
Humayun Gulbadan Begum Muntakhab-ul- Badauni
Nama Tawarikh
Akbar Nama Abul Fazl Tawarikh-i-Alfi Mulla Daud
Tobaquat-i- Khwajah Nuriyya-i- Abdul Haq
Akbari Nazamuddin Ahmad Sultaniyya
Baksh
Tuzuk-i- Jahangir Waqt-i-Hyderabad Nimat Khant Ali
Jahangiri
Iqbalnama-i- Muhammad Khan Futuhat-i-Alamgiri Ishwar das
Jahangiri Nagar
Chahar Chandra Bhan Nuskha-i-Dilkusha Bhimsen Saxena
Chaman Brahman
Alamgir-nama Munshi Mirza Khulasat-ul- Sujan Rai Khatri
Muhamma Kazin Tawarikh
Hamlai-Haidri Muhammad Rafi Sirr-i-Akbar Dara Shikoh
Khan
Namah-e- Aquil Khan Zafar Safinat-ul-Auliya -do-
Alamgiri
Raqqat-e- Aurangzeb Majma-ul-Bahrain -do-
Alamgiri
Hasmat-ul- Dara Shikoh
Arifin
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15 uprisings
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A. THE SIKHS
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 Belong to a religious sect founded by Guru Nanak (1469-1539). His main
teachings were the faith in one true Lord, the worship of the Name and the
necessity of a Guru in the worship of the name.
 After his death, Guru Angad (1539-52) became his successor. He invented
the Gurumukhi script for the Punjabi Language.
 Guru Amardas (1552-74) was the next guru. He reformed the institution of
Langar and gave more importance to it.
 IVth guru, Guru Ramdas (1575-81) had very cordial relations with Akbar.
He laid the foundation of Amritsar city. He dug a tank (sarovar) and it
exists at Amritsar. In the midst of the tank, the Harmandir Sahib (Temple of
God) was constructed.
 Vth guru, Guru Arjun Dev (1581-1606) compiled the Adi Granth. He also
completed the construction of Aniritsar and founded other cities like Taran
Taran and Kartarpur. He was executed by Jahangir for helping his
rebellious son, Khusro.
 VIth guru, Guru Har Govind Rai (1606-44) defeated a Mughal Army at
Sangrama. He transformed the Silths into military community, estd. Akal
Takhtat the Golden Temple and held court there to conduct secular
matters. He himself took up the title of Sachcha Padshah. He also fortified
Aniritsar.
 Guru Har Rai (1644-61) and Guru Har Kishan (1661-64) were the VII and
VIII gurus respectively.
 IXth guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur (1664-75) revolted against Aurangzeb but
was executed by him. He was beheaded at Delhi’s Chandni Chowk in
November 1675. The Sis Ganj Gurudwara marks the site of his martyrdom.

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 Xth and last guru, Guru Gobind Singh (1675-1708) (born in Patna)
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organised Sikhs as a community of warriors and called them as Khalsa
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(1699). The Sikhs were given a distinct dress and they were required to
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keep on their person five things beginning with K, viz., Kesh, Kripan,
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Kachha, Kanga and Kara. He compiled a supplementary granth called
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‘Daswen Padshah ka Granth’. After the death of Aurangzeb, Guru Gobind
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Singh had cordial relations with his son. Bahadur Shah I. He even agreed to
accompany the new king to Deccan. But the Guru was stabbed to death by a
Pathan in 1708. At his death, he declared that henceforth, the Guru shall be
in the Khalsa and the Khalsa in the Guru. He declared that from now on
Granth Sahib should be treated as the Guru.
B. THE MARATHAS
 Rose to prominence under Shivaji.
 He was born to Shahji Bhonsle and Jijabai in 1627 at fortress of Shivner in
Poona. He was highly impressed by his mother, Dadaji Kondadeo (his
guardian), Guru Ramdas Samarth and Tuka Ram, both Bhakti saints.
 From 1656, he started capturing many forts from the local officers of
Bijapur. Ali Adil Shah, sultan of Bijapur sent Afzal Khan to teach Shivaji a
lesson in 1659. But Shivaji killed him in a meeting with his tiger claws.
Ultimately, in 1662, the Sultan of Bijapur made peace with Shivaji and
acknowledged him as an independent ruler of his conquered territories.
 Aurangzeb got worried by Shivaji’s extensive conquests. He sent Shaista
Khan (Viceroy of Mughal Deccan) to kill him. Here again, in a daring
manner, Shivaji attacked Shaista Khan’s camp in night, injuring him.
 Then Aurangzeb sent Raja Jai Singh (of Amber) who forced him to sign the
Treaty of Purandar in 1665. Under the treatç Shivaji had to surrender 23 of
his major forts out of the total 35 forts. Shivaji also agreed to help the
Mughals in their attack of Bijapur.
 Shivaji visited Agra with his son Sambhaji in 1666. There he was put on a
house arrest. But he escaped from there, concealing in a basket of sweets.
He very soon conquered all the forts which he had surrendered to the
Mughals.
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 He was crowned in 1674 at Raigarh and assumed the title of Chhatrapati.
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He became the sovereign ruler of Maharashtra.
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Marathas After Shivaji
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 After Shivaji, his son Sambhaji (1680-89) succeeded throne (although a lot
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many supported his step-brother, Rajaram). When Sambhaji gave shelter to
Aurangzeb’s rebel son, Akbar he was executed and his infant son, Shivaji II,
better known as Shahu, was taken captive by Aurangzeb.
 Sambhaji was succeeded by Rajaram in 1689. Rajaram also lacked the
qualities of his father. Initially, he was successful against the Mughals. But
he was killed in 1700 when Aurangzeb himself conducted an expedition
against him. After Raja Ram’s death, his widow Tarabai put her infant son,
Shivaji III on the throne.
 After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, the Mughals tried to divide the
Marathas. Shahu was released by Aurangzeb’s successor, Bahadur Shah I.
Now he claimed the government. His release led to the Maratha civil war
between Shahu and Tarabai. In the civil war Shahu emerged victorious
(Battle of Kheda) with the help of Balaji Vishwanath, the founder of the line
of Peshwas. After the battle, Tarabai retired to Kothapur with her son.
 In the reign of Shahu, the Peshwa or Prime Minister, Balaji Vishwanath,
virtually became the ruler of the state. From now onwards began the rule
of the Peshwas who had their seat of power at Poona. (Shahu’s capital was
Satara). In all, there were seven Peshwas, namely
o Balaji Vishwanath (1713-20)
o Balaji Baji Rao I (1720-40)
o Balaji Baji Rao (1740-61)
o Madho Rao (1761-72)
o Narayan Rao (1772-73)
o Madho Rao Narayan (1773-95)
o Baji Rao II (1795-1818)

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Of these seven Peshwas, the ablest was Baji Rao I and the weakest and most
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incompetent was Baji Rao II. Baji Rao II signed the Treaty of Bassein in 1802
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with the British, which gave the British effective control of not only the
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Maratha region but also of the Deccan and western India.
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Under Peshwas, Maratha kingdom transformed into an empire based on the
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principle of confederacy, in which prominent Maratha chiefs were assigned a
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territory as their ‘sphere of influence’, which they were supposed to conquer
on their own and which they can administer autonomously. Consequently,
several Maratha families became prominent in different parts of India:
o Gaekwad in Baroda
o Bhonsle at Nagpur
o Holkar at Indore
o Scindia at Gwalior
o Peshwa at Poona.
MARATHA ADMINISTRATION
 Besides the land revenue, Chauth or 1/4th land revenue was the main
revenue.
 Sardeshmukhi was an additional levy of 10% on those lands of
Maharashtra over which the Marathas claimed hereditary rights, but which
formed part of the Mughal Empire.
 Shivaji was helped by 8 ministers or Ashta Pradhana
S.No. Shivaji's Ashtapradhan
1. Peshwa (Mukhya Finance and general administration, later

Pradhan) he became Prime Minister and assumed
great importance.
2. Majumdar (Amatya) Revenue & Finance Minister
3. Waqenavis (Mantri) Home Minister
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4. Dabir (Sumant) Foreign Minister
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5. Surnavis (Sachiv) Head of Royal correspondence
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6. Pandit Rao (Sadar) Head of religious affairs
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7. Sar-i-Naubat (Senapati) Military commander. This is an honorary
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post with no real military powers.
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8. Nyayadhish Justice
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 With the exception of Nyayadhish and Pandit Rao, all other ministers were
required to command armies and lead expeditions.
 Later, Rajaram created a new post of Pratinidhi, thus taking the total
ministers to nine.
C. The Jats
 First revolted in 1669 under Gokla.
 Second uprising in 1685 under Rajaram and Churaman. After Aurangzeb’s
death, they set up separate Jat state at Bharatpur (Churaman and Badan
Singh).
 Suraj Mal (1756-63) took their state to glory. He is known as plato of the Jet
tribe.
D. MYSORE
 In the second half of the 18th century, the rise of Mysore under Haider Ali
and Tipu Sultan and their alliance with the French, was seen as a danger to
the British power in India.
 Mysore emerged as a powerful throne under Haider Ali who became the
king in 1761. He used western military training to strengthen his army.
 In the I Anglo-Mysore war (1767-1769), Haider Ali faced the triple alliance
of the English, the Nizam and the Marathas. As Raider Ali was a great

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diplomat, he bought off the Marathas and won over the Nizam and thus
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broke the alliance. The war was brought to an end by signing of the Treaty
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of Madras (1769).
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 Hyder Ali died in 1782 during the II Anglo-Mysore war. His son Tipu Sultan
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carried on the war till 1784 when the two sides concluded peace by signing
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the Treaty of Mangalore.
 Tipu planted a tree of liberty at Srirangapatnam. He employed French
officers to train his army and showed a keen interest in French Revolution
and became a member of the Jacob in Club. He assumed the title of Padshah
in 1797.
 In the III Anglo-Mysore war (1789-1792), he was defeated by the triple
alliance of British, Nizam and the Marathas and had to sign the Treaty of
Srirangapatnam. By this treaty Tipu ceded half of his territory to the
English and paid a large amount as war indemnity
 He was defeated and killed in the IV Anglo-Mysore war (1799) by Lord
Wellesley.
Kingdom Year Founder Annexation

Nawab of Bengal 1713 Murshid Quli 1765 (treaty of Allahabad)
Jafar Khan
Maratha- 1720 Baji Roa I 1801 (Subsidiary Alliance)
confederacy
Nawab of 1720 Saadatulla Khan 1801 (Subsidiary Alliance)
Carnatic/Arcot

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Nawab of Avadh 1722 Mir Muhammad 1801 (Subsidiary Alliance),
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Amin Saadat 1856 (dalhousie)
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Khan 'Burhan-
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Nizam of 1724 Mir Qamruddin 1798 (Subsidiary Alliance)
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Hyderabad Chin Kilich Khan
'Nizam-ul-Mulk'
Mysore 1761 Haidar Ali 1799 (Subsidiary Alliance)
Punjab 1792 Ranjit Singh 1849 (Dalhousie)

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Chapter
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LATER MUGHALS / FALL OF THE MUGHALS
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Bahadur Shah (1707-1712)
 Assumed the title of Shah Alum I. Was also known as Shah-i-Bekhabur. He
made peace with Gum Gobind Singh and Chhatrasal. He granted
Surdeshmukhi to Marathas and also released Shahu.
Jahandar Shah (1712-13)

 First puppet Mughal emperor. He abolished jaziya.
Farrukhsiyar (1713-19)
 Ambitious nobles became direct contenders of power. The Sayyid brothers
(also. known as King Makers) put three princeson the throne. Ultimately
these brothers were murdered by a conspiracy between Mohammad Shah
and Chin Kilich Khan (Nizam-ul-Mulk).
 Ascended the throne with the help of Sayyid brothers. He executed Banda
Bahadur. Farrukhsiyar himself was murdered by the Sayyid brothers with
Maratha help in 1719.
Momuhammad Shah “Rrangila” (1719-48)

 Nadir Shah (of Iran) defeated him in the Battle of Karnal (1739) and took
away Peacock throne and Kohinoor diamond. During his tenure, Chin Kilich
Khan (Nizam-ul-Mulk) founded Hyderabad, Murshid Quli Khan founded
Bengal and Saddat Khan laid down the foundation of Awadh out of the
realms of Mughal Empire. He was a pleasure-loving king and was nick-
named Rangeela.
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Ahmad Shah (1748-54)
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 During his period, Safdarjung, the nawab of Awadh, was the Wazir or Prime
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Minister of the empire.
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Alamgir II (1754-59)
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Shah Alam II (1759-1806)
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 Shah Alam-II joined hands with Mir Qasim of Bengal and Shuja-ud-Daula of
Awadh in the Battle of Buxar against the British in 1764. They were
defeated.
 One of the generals of Nadir Shah, Ahmed Shah Abdali, invaded India
repeatedly between 1748-1767. He defeated the Marathas in the Third
Battle of Panipat in 1761. In this battle, Marathas were led by Sadashiv Rao
Bhau, while the Peshwa at that time was Balaji Bajirao.
Akbar II (1806-37)
 He gave Rammohan the title ‘Raja’. He sent Raja Ram Mohan Roy to London
to seek a raise in his allowance.
Bahadur Shah (II) “Zafar” (1837-57)
 He was confined by the British to the Red Fort. During the revolt of 1857,
he was proclaimed the Emperor by the rebels. He was deported to Rangoon
after that.

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Movements
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A. THE SUFIS
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 There were 3 chief orders of Sufis in India: The Chishti, The Suharawadi
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and the Silsilah of Firdausi.
 The link between the teacher or pir and his disciple or Murid was a vital
part of Sufi system. Every pir nominated a successor or Wali to carry out
work. Khanqah was the place where Sufi mystics lived.
1. THE CHISHTI
 The Chisti order was established by Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti (Ajmer). His
two main disciples were Bakhtiyar Kaki and Shaikh Hamiduddin Sufi.
 Others were Nizamuddin Auliya, Nasiruddin Chiragh-i-DehM, the historian
Barani and the poet Amir Khusro.
 It was popular in Delhi and the Doab region.
2. THE SUHRAWARDI
 It was popular in Punjab and Sindh.
 Popular saints were Shaikh Shihabuddin Suhrawardi and Hamid-Ud-din
Nagory.
 Saints of this order had big jagirs and had close contact with the state.
3. THE FIRDAUSI ORDER

 It was a branch of the Suhrawardi order and its activities were confined to
Bihar. It was popularized by Shaikh Sharfuddin Yahya who was a disciple of
Khwaja Nizamuddin Firdausi.

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4. QADIRI ORDER
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 It was founded by Shaikh Abdul Qadir Jilani of Baghdad. It was popularized
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in India by Shah Niamatullah and Makhdum Muhammad Jilani.
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 Dara Shikoh, the eldest son of Shah Jahan, was a follower of this order.
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5. NAKSHABANDI ORDER
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 It was founded in India by the followers of Khwaja Pir Muhammad. It was
popularized in India by Khwaja Baqi Billah who came to India from Kabul
in the last years of the reign of Akbar.
 Of all the Sufi orders, it was nearest to orthodoxy and it tried to counteract
the liberal policies of Akbar who was considered by them as heretic.
6. SHATTARI ORDER
 Shah Abdullah brought the Shattari order to India during the Lodhi
Dynasty. Muhammad Ghhauth of Gwalior was the most important saint of
this order.
 Tansen was the follower of this order.
B. THE BHAKTI MOVEMENT
 Among the Hindus, the Bhakti movements preached religion which was
non-ritualistic and open to all without any distinction of caste or creed.
 The real development of Bhakti took place in south India between 7th and
12th century. The bhakti saints came usually from lower castes. They
disregarded castes, encouraged women to join in the gatherings and taught
in the local vernacular language.
Philosophy Founder
Vishishtadvaita Ramanuj Acharya
Dvaitadvaita/Bhedabhed Nimbark Acharya
Dvait Madhva Acharya
Shuddhadvaita Vishnu Swami

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1. Ramanuja (12th century)
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 Earliest exponent of Bhakti Movement. According to him, the way of
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Moksha lies through Karma, Gyan and Bhakti. The performance of duty
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without any selfish motive purifies the mind. He gave the concept of
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Vishishtadvaita.
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 The next leader of the bhakti movement was Nimbarkara, a younger
contemporary of Ramanuja. He was a worshipper of Krishna and Radha.

3. Madhavacharya (1238-1317)
 He ranks with Ramanuja in the Vedanta system. He said that release from
transmigration can be secured only by means of knowledge and devotion.
His successor was Jayatirtha.
4. Ramanand (15th century)

 First great Bhakti saint of north India. Worshipper of Lord Ram. He put
emphasis on Bhakti and avoided both Gyan marg and Karma marg. His
followers were Ravidas, Kabir, Dhanna, Sena, etc.
o Namadeva — Tailor
o Ravidas — Cobber (His 30 hymns are in Guru Granth Sahib)
o Kabir — Weaver
o Sena — Barber
o Sadhana — Butcher
5. Nanak
 Nanak (1469-1539) was born in the village of Taiwandi (now called
Nankana in present day Pakistan). He undertook wide tours all over India
and then to Sri Lanka, Mecca and Medina. His concept of God was Nirguna
(attributeless) and Nirankar (formless), He didn’t believe in the Vedas and
the Quran.

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6. Kabir
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 Kabir (1440-1518) was not only concerned with religious reform but also
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wished to change the society. He emphasized the unity of God and
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expressed his ideas in dohas or couplets. He composed Bijak, Sabads,
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Sakhis, Mangal, Basant, Holi. Rekhtal, etc. He did not make any distinction
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 The followers of Kabir and Nanak founded independent religious
communities, the Kabirpanthis and the Sikhs.
C. Vaishnavism
 Popular in north India. They can be distinguished from other Bhakti saints
as their teachings were not influenced by Islamic ideas.
 Chaitanya (1485-1534) of Bengal traveled throughout India and
popularized Krishna cult, ‘Kirtan system’ was given by Chaitanya only.
 Meerabai (1498-1546) of Rajasthan was the follower of Lord Krishna; She
was married to Rana Sanga’s eldest son and heir-apparent Bhojraj. But
Bhojraj died in the lifetime of his father leaving Mira a widow in her youth.
After the death of her husband, she devoted herself completely to religious
pursuits. She wrote some poetic stanzas on Lord Krishna.
 Surdas (1479-1584) of western UP wrote lyrical poems on Radha and
Krishna. Wrote Sur-Sarawali, the Sahitya Lahari and the Sur-Sagar.
 Vallabhacharya (1479-1531), a Tailanga brahmana, advocated the worship
of Krishna and dedication of everything to Him alone.
 Tulsidas (1532-1623) was born in a Brahmin family in Varanasi. On
account of a taunt of his wife, he is said to have to the life of a religious
hermit. Wrote Ram Chant Manas, Gitawali, Kavitawali, Vinay Patrika, etc.
He also used Arabic and Persian words in his writings.

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 Narsingh Mehta was a saint from Gujarat who wrote songs in Gujarati
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depicting thelove of Radha-Krishna, He is the author of Mahatma Gandhi’s
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favourite bhajan‘vishnava jan ko’
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Part D: Modern India
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The decline of the Mughal Empire caused a vacuum into which the Europeans
moved. The first Europeans to reach India by sea were the Portuguese who
arrived in 1498 and began importing spices from India. However in the 17th
century the Portuguese declined and the English and Dutch took their place.
The English East India Company was formed in 1600 to trade with India. It
grew into Madras. In 1662 the English king married a Portuguese princess
and he was given Bombay. In 1668 it was sold to the East India Company. In
1690 the English established a base in Bengal, which grew into Calcutta. In
the late 17th century the Dutch also declined and the French replaced them.
In 1673 the French established a base at Pondicherry.In the 18th century
French and English became bitter rivals and they both began to interfere in
Indian politics. The Seven Years war between Britain and France began in
1756.
With the outbreak of war the Nawab (ruler) of Bengal, Siraj-ud-Daula

captured the British base at Calcutta.The East India Company sent a force led
by Robert Clive (1725-1774) to recapture Calcutta. They soon did so.However
Clive was not satisfied and he decided to take the whole of Bengal. Clive won
a great victory at Plassey in June 1757.Clive then overthrew the ruler of
Bengal, Siraj-ud-Daula and replaced him with Mir Jafar. However Mir Jafar
was only a puppet.

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In 1765 the company began to rule Bengal directly. Clive's victory at Plassey
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ensured that India would eventually become a British colony not a French
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one.
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British imperialism was bitterly resisted by the state of Mysore under the two
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rulers Haidar Ali 1761-1782 and Tipu Sultan 1782-1799.The resistanc e of
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Mysore finally ended in 1799 and Mysore was forced to hand over half its
territory.
In 1803 war broke out between the British and the Marathas.Another war
broke out in 1817. This time the Maratha chiefs were all defeated and they
were forced to accept British rule. By 1819 the East India Company was in
control of most of India except the North West.
Outside British control was a powerful Sikh kingdom. However the leader of
the Sikhs, Ranjit Singh, died in 1839 and fighting began over the succession.
In 1845-46 the British fought a war against the Sikhs.The Sikhs were forced
to surrender Kashmir and parts of the Punjab. However a second war was
fought in 1848-49. The fighting was bitter but in March 1849 the East India
Company took control of all of Punjab.
Britishers had to face first real challenge in 1857, where an uprising took
place, but was unfortunately ruthlessly suppressed by Britishers. However
the desire for independence did not die. On the contrary it slowly grew. The
Indian National Congress was founded in 1885. The Muslim League was
founded in 1906.
Educated middle class Indians became flag-bearers of the mass-movement in
the later part of the 20th century. This mass movement was given a real
meaning by Mahatma Gandhi who was instrumental in getting the country
free through his methods of non-violence and civil disobedience.

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The Advents of Europeans
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Company Foundation Head Quarter/Capital
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Portugese East 1498 Cochin (1510-30), Goa (1530-1961)
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India company
English East India 1660 West coast Surat (1608-87), Bombay
Company (from 1687)
Koromandal (East coast): Masuli-
attanum (1611-41), Madras (from
1641)
Calcutta
Dutch East India 1602 Koromandal (East coast) : Pulicut (up
Company to 1690), Negapattanum (From 1690);
Bengal Hugli (from 1655)
Danish East India 1616 Serampur (Bengal) : 1676-1845
Company
French East India 1664 Surat (1668-73), Pondicherry (1673-
Company 1954)
A. PORTUGUESE
 The Portuguese voyager Vasco da Gama reached Calicut on May 17, 1498.
At that time Calicut was ruled by a king named Zamorin. Vasco da Gama’s
voyage was successful in establishing a sea route from Europe to India that
would pennit trade with the Far East, without the use of the costly and
unsafe Silk Road caravan routes, of the Middle East and Central Asia. In
1502, he established a factory at Cochin.
 The first Governor of Portuguese in India was Francisco Almeida.
 He was followed by Alfonso d’ Allbuquerque in 1503. He gave them new
heights. He captured Goa in 1510 from the Bijapur ruler. He also abolished
Sati.
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 Nino-da-Cunha transferred the Portuguese capital in India from Cochin to
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Goa in 1530 and acquired Diu (in 1535) and Daman (in 1559).
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 Portuguese lost Hugly in 1631 during the reign of Shahjahan.
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 In 1661, the Portuguese king gave Bombay to Charles II of England as
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dowry, for marrying his sister.
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 Gradually, their Indian territories were taken away from them by various
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sources. The Dutch played an important role to oust them.
B. DUTCH
 Dutch East India Company was formed in 1602.
 They set-up their first factory at Masulipatnam in 1605. Their other
factories were at Pulicat, Chinsura, Patna, Balasore, Nagapattanam, Cochin,
Surat, Karikal, and Kasimbazar.
C. ENGLISH
 The English East India Company was formed in 1599, and was given the
royal Charter by Queen Elizabeth I in 1600 to trade in the east.
 Captain William Hawkins stayed in Jahangir’s court from 1609-1611. But
he failed to get the king’s permission to erect a factory at Surat. Captain
Middleton succeeded in this effort in 1611.
 An imperial Farman allowed the Company to set up a permanent factory at
Surat in 1613. Sir Thomas Roe played an important role in this.
 In 1616, the Company established its first factory in the south in
Masulipatnam. In 1633, it established its first factory in east India in
Hariharpur, Balasore (Orissa).
 The Company got the lease of Madras in 1639 and built Fort St. George in
Madras, which acted as it’s headquarter on the Coromandal coast.
 Bombay was made the Company’s main settlement on the west coast in
1668.
 Aurangzeb gave the Company the Farman in 1667 to trade in Bengal. In
1690, a factory was setup at Sutanuti village. In Sutanati and nearby
villages of Kalikata and Gobindpur, grew the city of Calcutta (now Koilcata).
In 1696, the Company fortified the Calcutta factory into Fort William.

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 In 1717, John Surman obtained a farman from Farrukhsiyar which gave
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large concessions to the Company. This farman is called the ‘Magna Carta’
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of the Company.
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D. DANES
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 The Danish East India Company was formed in 1616.
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 They established settlements at Serampur (Bengal) and Tranquebar (Tamil
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Nadu).
 The Danes sold their settlements to the English in 1845.
E. FRENCH
 The French East India Company was set in 1664, at the instance of a
minister, Colbert, in the reign of Louis XIV.
 The French Company was created, financed and controlled by the State and
it differed from the English Company which was a private commercial
venture.
 They established their first factory at Surat in 1668 and at Masulipatnam in
1669.
 The foundation of Pondicherry was laid in 1673 which, afterwards, became
its capital. They also developed a factory in Chandernagar.
THE BRITISH CONQUEST OF BENGAL

The Mughal governor of Bengal, Murshid Quli Khan, made Bengal virtually
independent of the Mughal Empire during his reign (1717-1727).
 His son Shuja-ud-daulah succeeded him and ruled for 12 years.
 After his death, Alivardi Khan ruled till 1756.
 These three rulers gave Bengal a long reign of peace and orderly
administration.
 They suppressed the East India Company, but never crushed it. On the
other hand, the Company constantly increased its power taking advantage
of the corrupt officers.
 The result was the defeat of Siraj-ud-daulah (grandson and successor of
Alivardi Khan) in the Battle of Plassey in 1757. In this battle major part of
the Nawab’s army (led by Mir Jafar and Rai Durlabh) didn’t take part in the
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battle. The Nawab was defeated and killed. The Battle of Plassey had great
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political significance as it laid the foundation of the British Empire in India.
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It is regarded as the starting point of British Rule in India. A great
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transformation came about in the position of the English Company in
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Bengal. Before Plassey, the English Company was just one of the European
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companies trading in. After Plassey the English Company virtually
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monopolized the trade and commerce of Bengal.
 The alleged Black Hole Tragedy happened during the reign of Siraj-ud-
daulah in 1757.
 Mir Jafar was made the next Nawab of Bengal. The Company was granted
undisputed right to free trade in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. It received the
Zamindari of 24 Parganas.
 Next came Mir Qasim. He revolted against the British as he was angry that
the British were misusing the dastaks (free duty passes). The Battle of
Buxar was fought in 1764 between the British forces (led by Major Munro)
on one side, and the triple alliance of Nawab Mir Qasim of Bengal, Nawab
Shuja-ud-Daula of Awadh and Mughal emperor Shah Alam, on the other
side. But the triple-alliance was defeated. The importance of this battle lay
in the fact that not only the Nawab of Bengal but the Emperor of India Was
also defeated.
 The Treaty ofAllahabad followed (August 1765) in which the English got
the Diwani (or right to collect revenue) of Bengal and thus became the
master of the whole of Bengal (i.e. Bengal, Bthar and Orissa). The Dual
Government of Bengal system followed wherein the Company acquired the
real power, while the responsibility of administration rested on the Nawab
of Bengal.
 The Muhal emperor was virtually Company’s prisoner at Allahabad.
 Raja Sawai Jai Singh ruled Amber from 1681-1743. He was the most
outstanding Rajput king of this period. He built the city of Jaipur and set up
observatories at Delhi, Jaipur, Ujjain, Mathura and Varanasi. He drew up a
set of tables, titled Zij Muhammadshahi, for astronomical observations.

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Governor Generals
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1. ROBERT CLIVE
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Robert Clive is regarded as the true founder of British Political Dominion in
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India. He outdid his French adversary Duplex and achieved more permanent
results. He was made the Governor of Bengal twice form 1757-60 and then
from 1765-67. He administered Bengal under the Dual government. With the
resources of Bengal, the English conquered South India and routed their only
political rival in India, the French. Above all, he transformed a mere trading
body that the east India Company was into a territorial power with the role of
‘king-maker’ in Bengal. On his return to England, he committed suicide in
1774.
2. WARREN HASTINGS (1772-1785)

 Brought the Dual Govt. of Bengal to an end by the Regulating Act, 1773.
 Deprived zamindars of their judicial powers and Civil and Criminal
courts were established.
 The First Anglo-Maratha War (1776-82), which ended with the Treaty of
Salbai (1782), and the Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-84), which
ended with the Treaty of Mangalore (1784), were fought during
Hasting’s period.
 As a great patron of oriental learning, he founded the Asiatic Society of
Bengal with William Jones in 1784. He wrote introduction to the first
English translation of ‘The Gita’ by Charles Wilkins.
 Impeachment proceedings started against him when he returned on the
charges of taking bribe. After a trial of 7 years, he was finally acquitted.
3. LORD CORNWALLIS (1786-1793)

 Did the Permanent Settlement of Bengal (also called Zamindary System).

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 First person to codify laws. The code separated the revenue
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administration from the administration of justice.
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 Police Reforms: Each district was divided into 400 sq. miles and placed
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under a police superintendent assisted by constables.
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 The civil service was brought into existence.
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4. SIR JOHN SHORE (1793-1798)
5. LORD WELLESLEY ( 1798-1805)

 Adopted the policy of Subsidiary Alliance a system to keep the Indian
rulers under control and to make the British the paramount power.
 He defeated the Mysore force under Tipu Sultan in the Fourth Anglo-
Mysore War in 1799.
6. GEORGE BARLOW (1805-1807)
7. LORD MINTO (1807-1813)

 Concluded the treaty of Amritsar with Maharaja Ranjit Singh (1809).
 Charter Act of 1813 was passed.
8. LORD HASTINGS (1813-1823)

 The Anglo-Nepal War (181416) was fought during his reign which ended
with the Treaty of Sagauli (1816).
9. LORD AMHERST (1823-1828)
10. LORD WILLIAM BENTINCK (1828-1835)

 Carried out the social reforms like Prohibition of Sari (1829) and
elimination of thugs (1830).
 Made English the medium of higher education in the country (After the
recommendations of Macaulay).
 Suppressed female infanticide and child sacrifice.

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 Charter Act of 1833 was passed; made him the first Governor General, of
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India. Before him, the designation was Governor General of Bengal.
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11. SIR CHARLES METCALFE (1835-1 836)
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 Abolished all restrictions on vernacular press (called Liberator of the
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Press).
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12. LORD AUCKLAND (1836-1842)
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 The most important event of his reign was the First Afghan War,
which proved to be a disaster for the English.
13. LORD ELLENBOROUGH (1842-1844)
14. LORD HARDINGE I (1844-1848)
15. LORD DALHOUSIE (1848-1856)

 Opened the first Indian Railway in 1853 (from Bombay to Thane):
 Laid out the telegraph lines in 1853 (First was from Calcutta to Agra).
 Introduced the Doctrine of Lapse and captured Satara (1848), Jaipur
and Sambhalpur (1849), Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1854) and Nagpur
(1854) through it.
 Established the postal system on the modern lines through the length
and breadth of the country which made communication easier.
 Started the Public Works Department. Many bridges were constructed
and the work on Grand Trunk Road was started. The harbors of
Karachi, Bombay and forestry, commerce, mineraloy and industry
 In 1854, Wood’s Dispatch’ was passed, which provided for the
properly articulated system of education from the primary school to
the university.
 Due to Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar’s efforts, remarriage of widows
was legalized by Widow Remarriage Act, 1856)
Calcutta were also developed.
 Made Shimla the summer capital.
 Started Engineering College at Roorkee.
 Encouraged science,
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VICEROYS OF INDIA (1858—Aug 14, 1947)
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16. LORD CANNING (1856—1862)
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 The last Governor General and the first Viceroy.
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 Mutiny took place in his time.
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 On Nov.1858, the rule passed on to the crown.
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 Withdrew Doctrine of Lapse.
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 The Universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras were established in
1857.
 Indian Councils Act was passed in 1861.
17. LORD ELGIN (1862-1863)
18. LORD LAWRENCE (1864-1869)
 Telegraphic communication was opened with Europe.
 High courts were established at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras in
1865.
 Expanded canal works and railways.
 Created the Indian Forest Department.
19. LORD MAYO (1869-1872)
 Started the process of financial decentralization in India.
 Established the Rajkot College at Kathiarwar and Mayo college at
Ajmer for the Indian princes.
 For the first time in Indian history, a census was held in 1871.
 Organised the Statistical Survey of India
 Was the only Viceroy to be murdered in office by a Pathan convict in
the Andamans in 1872.
20. LORD NORTHBROOK (1872-1876)
21. LORD L.YTTON (1876-1880)
 Known as the Viceroy of reverse characters.
 Organised the Grand ‘Delhi Durbar’ in 1877 to decorate Queen
Victoria with the title of ‘Kaiser-i-Hind’.
 Arms Act (1878) made it mandatory for Indians to acquire license for
arms.
 Passed the infamous Vernacular Press Act (1878).
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22. LORD RIPON (1880-1884)
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 Liberal person, who sympathized with Indians.
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 Vernacular Press Act (1882)
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 Passed the local self— government Act (1882).
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 Took steps to improve primary & secondary education (on William
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Hunter Commission’s recommendations).
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 The I Factory Act, 1881, aimed at prohibiting child labour was passed.
 Passed the Ilbert Bill (1883) which enabled Indian district
magistrates to try European criminals. But this was withdrawn later.
23. LORD DUFFERIN (1884-1888)
 Indian National Congress was formed during his tenure.
24. LORD LANSDOWNE (1888-1894)
 II Factory Act (1891) granted a weekly holiday and stipulated
working hours for women and children, although it failed to address
concerns such as work hours for men.
 Categorization of Civil Services into Imperial, Provincial and
Subordinate.
 Indian Council Act of 1892 was passed.
 Appointment of Durand Commission to define the line between
British India and Afghanistan.
25. LORD ELGIN II (1894-1899)
 Great famine of 1896-1897. Lyall Commission was appointed.
26. LORD CURZON (1 899-1 905)
 Passed the Indian Universities Act (1904) in which official control
over the Universities was increased.
 Partitioned Bengal (October 16, 1905) into two provinces
o Bengal (proper)
o East Bengal & Assam.
 Appointed a Police Commission under Sir Andrew Frazer to enquire
into the police administration of every province.
 The risings of the frontier tribes in 1897-98 led him to create the
North Western Frontier Province (NWFP).
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 Passed the Ancient Monuments Protection Act (1904), to restore
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India’s cultural heritage. Thus the Archaeological Survey of India was
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established.
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 Passed the Indian Coinage and Paper Currency Act (1899) and put
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India on a gold standard
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 Extended railways to a great extent.
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27. LORD MINTO (1905-1910)
 There was great political unrest in India. Various acts were passed to
curb the revolutionary activities. Extremists like Lala Lajpat Rai and
Ajit Singh (in May, 1907) and Bal Gangadhar Tilak (in July, 1908) were
sent to Mandalay jail in Burma.
 The Indian Council Act of 1909 or the Morley-Minto Reforms was
passed.
28. LORD HARDINGE (1910-1916)
 Held a durbar in Dec, 1911 to celebrate the coronation of King George
V.
 Partition of Bengal was cancelled (1911); capital shifted from Calcutta
to Delhi (1911).
 Delhi was made capital in place of Calcutta.
 A bomb was thrown at him, but he escaped unhurt (Dec,23 1912).
 Gandhiji came back to India from South Africa (1915).
 Annie Besant announced the Home Rule Movement.
29. LORD CHELMSFORD (1916-1921)
 August Declaration of 1917, whereby control over the Indian
government would be gradually transferred to the Indian people.
 The government of India Act in 1919 (Montague-Chelmsford reforms)
was passed.
 Rowlatt Act of 1919; Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919).
 Non — Cooperation Movement.
 An Indian Sir S.F Sinha was appointed the Governor of Bengal.
 A Women’s university was founded at Poona in 1916.

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 Saddler Commission was appointed in 1917 to envisage new
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educational policy.
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30. LORD READING (1921-1926)
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 Rowlatt Act was repealed along with the Press Act of 1910.
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 Suppressed non-cooperation movement.
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 Prince of Wales visited India in Nov, 1921.
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 Moplah rebellion (1921) took place in Kerala.
 Ahmedabad session of 1921.
 Formation of Swaraj Party.
 Vishwabharati University started functioning in 1922.
 Communist party was founded in 1921 by M.N. Roy.
 Kakory Train Robbery on Aug 9, 1925.
 Communal riots of 1923-25 in Multan, Amritsax Delhi, etc.
 Swami Shraddhanand, a great nationalist and a leader of the Arya
Samajists, was murdered in communal orgy.
31. LORD IRWIN (1926-1931)
 Simon Commission visited India in 1928.
 Congress passed the Indian Resolution in 1929.
 Dandi March (Mar 12, 1930).
 Civil Disobedience Movement (1930).
 First Round Table Conference held in England in 1930.
 Gandhi — Irwin Pact (Mar 5, 1931) was signed and Civil Disobedience
Movement was withdrawn.
 Martyrdom of Jatin Das after 64 days hunger strike (1929).
32. LORD WILLINGDON (1931-1936)
 Second Round Table Conference in London in 1931.
 On his return Gandhiji was again arrested and Civil Disobedience
Movement was resumed in Jan. 1932.
 Communal Awards (Aug 16, 1932) assigned seats to different
religious communities. Gandhiji went on a epic fast in protest against
this division.
 Third Round Table Conference in 1932.
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General Awareness
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 Poona Pact was signed.
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 Government of India Act (1935) was passed.
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33. LORD LINLITHGOW (1936-1944)
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 Govt. of India Act enforced in the provinces. Congress ministries
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formed in 8 out of 11 provinces. They remained in power for about 2
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years till Oct 1939, when they gave up offices on the issue of India
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having been dragged into the II World War. The Muslim League
observed the day as ‘Deliverance Day’
 Churchill became the British PM in May, 1940. He declared that the
Atlantic Charter (issued jointly by the UK and US, stating to give
sovereign rights to those who have been forcibly deprived of them)
does not apply to India.
 Outbreak of World War II in 1939.
 Cripps Mission in 1942.
 Quit India Movement (August 8, 1942).
34. LORD WAVELL (1944-1947)
 Arranged the Shimla Conference on June 25, 1945 with Indian
National Congress and Muslim League; failed.
 Cabinet Mission Plan (May 16, 1946).
 Elections to the constituent assembly were held and an Interim Govt.
was appointed under Nehru.
 First meeting of the constituent assembly was held on Dec. 9, 1946.
35. LORD MOUNTBATTEN (MAR.1947-AUG.1947)
 Last Viceroy of British India and the first Governor General of free
India.
 Partition of India decided by the June 3 Plan.
 Indian Independence Act passed by the British parliament on July 4,
1947, by which India became independent on August 15, 1947.
 Retired in June 1948 and was succeeded by C. Rajagopalachari (the first
and the last Indian Governor General of free India).

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Chapter The Revolt of 1857
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i. Political Causes
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 Nana Sahib was refused pension, as he was the adopted son of Peshwa Baji
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Rao II.
 The policy of Doctrine of Lapse.
ii. Economic Causes

 Heavy taxation, evictions, discriminatory tariff policy against Indian
products and destruction of traditional handicrafts that hit peasants,
artisans and small zamindars.
iii. Military Discrimination

 Indian soldiers were paid low salaries, they could not rise above the rank of
subedar and were racially insulted.
 They were also grieved because of the refusal of British to pay foreign
service allowance (batta) while fighting in remote regions such as Punjab
and Sindh.
iv. Religious Discrimination

 British social reforms (widow remarriage, abolition of Sari, education for
girls, Christian missionaries).
 The introduction of Enfield rifle, the cartridge of which was greased with
animal fat, provided the spark.
 Inventions like railway and telegraphs, spread of Western education also
promoted the cause.

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2. OUTBREAK
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On March 29, 1857, a soldier named Mangal Pandey attacked and fired at his
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senior at Barrackpur in Bengal (in 19th and 34th Native infantry). On May 10,
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there was a mutiny of sepoys at Meerut (3rd native cavalry).
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 Mutiny spread throughout UP along with some other parts of the
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country.‘March to Delhi’ became the battle cry of the rebels. At Delhi, the
Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah II was proclaimed the Emperor of India.
 Where the rulers were loyal to the British, the soldiers revolted as in
Gwalior and Indore. In some places, the people revolted before the sepoys
did.
 In the beginning, the rebels were successful. Europeans were killed, law
courts and police stations were attacked and revenue records were
destroyed. But reverses soon began to occur.
3. IMPORTANT PERSONS
 Bakht Khan (captured Delhi, was from the Barreily unit of the army).
 Nana Sahib alias Dhondhu Pant (from Kanpur, along with Tantia Tope and
Azimullah) Begum Hazrat Mahal of Awadh (declared her son as the Nawab
of Awadh).
Centre Indian Leader British
Suppressor
Delhi Bahadur Shah II 'Zafar' & Bakht John Nicholson
Khan (Commanding General)
Kanpur Nana Sahib & his loyal Colin Campbell
commander tantiya Tope

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Lucknow Begum Hazrat Mahal Colin Campbell
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Jhansi Rani Laxmi Bai Huge Rose
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Allahabad Liyaqat Ali Colonel Neil
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Jagdishpur (Bihar) Kuer Singh & Amar Singh William Taylor &
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Vincet Eyre
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FATE OF THE LEADERS
 Bahadur Shah II: Deported to Rangoon, where he died in 1862. his sons
were shot dead.
 Nana Sahib and Begum Hazrat Mahal: Escaped to Nepal.
 Rani Jhansi: Died in the battle field.
 Tantia Tope: Was captured and executed in 1859.
CAUSES OF FAILURE
 Scindia of Gwalior, the Holkar of Indore, the Nizam of Hyderabad, the Raja
of Jodhpur, the Nawab of Bhopal, the rulers of Patiala, Sindh and Kashmir
and the Rana of Nepal provided active support to the British.
 The military equipment of the rebels was inferior.
 Comparative lack of efficient leadership.
 The modern intelligent Indians also didn’t support the cause.
4. IMPACT OF THE REVOLT
 The revolt was mainly feudal in character carrying with it some nationalist
elements.
 The control of Indian administration was passed on to the British crown by
the Govt. of India Act, 1858.

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 The army was carefully reorganized to prevent the recurrence of such an
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event
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Peasant Movement
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Movement Place Year Leaders
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Indigo Revolt Bengal 1859 Bishnu and Digambar Biswas
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Pabna Bengal 1870 Ishwar Roy, Sabu Pal, Khoodi
Mollah
Deccan Riots Maharashtra 1875 -------
Ramosi Maharashtra 1879 Vasudev Balwant Phadke
Movement
Bijolia Rajasthan 1913 Sitaram Das, Vijay Pathik Singh
Champaran Bihar 1917 Gandhiji

Kheda Gujrat 1918 Gandhiji & Vallabh Bhai Patel
Moplah Kerala 1921 Sayyad Ali and Sayyid Fazl
Bordoli/Borsad Gujarat 1928 Vallabh Bhai Patel
Tebhaga Bengal 1946 Kamparan Singh, Nyamat Ali
Punnapra- Kerala 1946 ---------
Waylar
Telengana Andhra 1946 Kumaraiya & Sundaraiya
Pradesh
UP Kisan Sabha UP 1918 Indra Narayan Dwivedi and
Gaurishankar Mishra
Avadh Kisan UP 1920 Baba Ramachandra
Sabha
Eka Movement Avadh 1921 Madari Pasi
Forest Satyagrah South India 1931 NV Rama Naidu, N G Ranga
All India Kisan Lucknow 1936 Sahajanada Saraswati
Sabha

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Chapter
Social & Cultural Uprising
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Socio-Religious Movements and organizations
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Year Place Name of the Founder
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Organization
1815 Calcutta Atmiya Sabha Rammohan Roy
1828 Calcutta Brahmo Samaj Rammohan Roy
1829 Calcutta Dharma Sabha Radhakant Dev
1839 Calcutta Tattvabodhini Sabha Debendranath Tagore
1840 Punjab Nirankaris Daya Das, Darbara Singh,
Rattan Chand etc.
1849 Bombay Paramhansa Mandli Dadobna Pandurang
1857 Punjab Namdharis Ram Singh
1861 Agra Radha Swami Tulsi Ram
Satsang
1866 Calcutta Brahmo Samaj of Keshab Chandra Sen
India
1866 Deoband Dar-ul-Ulum Maulana Hussain Ahmed
1867 Bombay Prarthna Samaj Atmaram Pandurang
1875 Bombay Arya Samaj Swami Dayanand Saraswati
1875 New york Theosophical Society Madam H.P. Blavatsky and Col
(USA) H.S. Olcott
1878 Calcutta Sadharan Brahmo Anand Mohan Bose

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Samaj
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1884 Pune Deccan Education G.G. Agarkar
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(Poona) Society
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1886 Aligarh Muhammadan Syed Ahmad Khan
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Education
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Fonference
1887 Bombay Indian National M.G. Ranade
Conference
1887 Lahore Deva Samaj Shivnarayan Agnihotri
1894 Lucknow Nadwah-ul-Ulama Maulana Shibli Numani
1897 Belur Ramakrishna Swami Vivekanand
Mission
1905 Bombay Servents of Indian Gopal Krishna Gokhale
Society
1909 Pune Poona Seva Sadan Mrs. Ramabai Ranade and G.K.
(Poona) Devedhar
1911 Bombay Social Service N.M. Joshi
League
1914 Allahabad Seva Samiti H.N. Kunzru
Movements/Organization Year Place Founder

Satya Shodhak Samaj 1873 Maharashtra Jyotiba Phule
Aravippuram Movement 1888 Aravippuram, Shri Narayan
Kerala Guru

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Shri Narayan Dharma 1902-03 Kerala Shri Narayan
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Paripalana Yogam Guru, Palpu &
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Kumaran Asan
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Shri Narayan Dharma 1902-03 Kerala Shri Narayan
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Paripalana Yogam Guru, Palpu &
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The Depressed Class Mission 1906 Bombay V.R. Shinde
Society
Bahujan Samaj 1910 Satara, Mukundrao Patil
Maharashtra
Justice (Party) Movement 1915-16 Madras, Tamil C.N. Mudaliar,
Nadu T.M. Nair & P.
Tyagaraja Chetti
Depressed Class Welfare 1924 Bombay B.R. Ambedkar
Institute (Bahiskrit Hitkarini
Sabha)
Self-Respect Movement 1925 Madras, Tamil E.V. Ramaswami
Nadu Naiker 'Periyar'
Harijan Sevak Samaj 1932 Pune Mahatma Gnadhi

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The Indian National Congress
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A. PRE CONGRESS ORGANISATION
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Organization Place Year Founder (s)
Landholders Society Calcutta 1837 Dwarka Nath Tagore
British Indian Society London 1839 William Adam
British Indian Association Calcutta 1851 Devendra Nath Tagore
(Result of the merger of 1 &
2)
Madras Native Association Madras 1852 C.Y. Mudaliar
Bombay Association Bombay 1852 Jagannath Shanker Sheth

East India Association London 1866 Dadabhai Naoroji
Poona Sarvajanik Sabha Poona 1870 S.H. Chiplunkar, G.V. Joshi,
M.G. Ranade
Indian Society London 1872 Anand Mohan Bose
Indian League Calcutta 1875 Shishir Kumar Ghosh
Surendra Nath Bannerji &
Indian Association Calcutta 1876 Anand Mohan Bose
-do-
Indian National Conference
Calcutta 1883
Madras Mahajan Sabha Madras
1884 P. Rangia Naydu, V.
Raghavachari, Anand
Charlu, G.S. Aiyer
Bombay Presidency Bombay 1885 Ferozshah Mehta, K.T.
Association Tailang & Badruddin
Tyebji
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B. THE INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS
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 Formed in 1885 by A.O. Hume, an Englishman and a retired civil servant.
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 Hume’s main purpose was probably to provide a “safety valve” to the
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growing discontent among the educated Indians.
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 Other important leaders during foundation were Dadabhai Naoroji,
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Badrudin Tyabji, Anand Mohan Bose, R.C.Dutt, Ferozshah Mehta, G.K.
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Gokhale, G. Subramaniyam Aiyyar, DinshawVacha, Bal Gangadhar Tilak,
Mahadev Govind Ranade, Madan Mohan Malviya.
 First session in Bombay under WC.Banerjee in 1885 (72 delegates attended
it).
 In the first two decades (1885-1905), quite moderate in its approach and
confided in British justice and generosity.But the repressive measures of
the British gave rise to extremists within Congress like Bipin Chandra Pal,
Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Lala Lajpat Rai (Lal, Bal, Pal), along with
Aurobindo Ghosh.
Select Opinions about INC

INC represents only microscopic Lord Dufferin (1884-88)
minorities.' (Cotemporary Viceroy)
'The congress is tottering to its fall, Lord Curzon (1899-1905)
and one of my great ambitions, while (Viceroy)
in India, is to assist it to a peaceful
demise.'
'INC is a begging institute.' Aurobindo Ghosh
(Extremist leader)
INC should distinguish between Bal Gangadhar Tilak (Extremist
begging and claiming the rights.' Leader)
'INC playing with bubbles.' Bipin Chandra Pal (Extremist
Leader)

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VENUE, YEAR AND PRESIDENTS OF INC
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Year Venue President
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1885, 1892 Bombay W.C. Bannerji
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1886 Calcutta Dodabhai Naoroji
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1893 Lahore Dodabhai Naoroji
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1906 Calcutta Dodabhai Naoroji
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1887 Madras Badruddin Tyyabji (first Muslim Presi
dent)
1888 Allahabad George Yule (first English President)
1889 Bombay Sir William Wedderburn
1890 Calcutta Sir Feroze S.Mehta
1895, 1902 Poona, Ahmedabad S.N. Banerjee
1905 Banaras G.K. Gookhale
1907, 1908 Surat, Madras Rasbehari Bose
1909 Lahore M.M. Malviya
1916 Lucknow A.C. Majumdar (Re-union of the
Congress)
1917 Calcutta Annie Besant (first woman President)
1919 Amritsar Motilal Nehru
1920 Calcutta (sp. Lala Lajpat Rai
session)
1921, 1922 Ahmedabad, Gaya C.R. Das
1923 Delhi (sp. session) Abul Kalam Azad (youngest President)
1924 Belgaon M.K. Gandhi
1925 Kanpur Sarojini Naidu (first Indian woman
resident)
1928 Calcutta Motilal Nehru (first All India Youth
Congress formed)
1929 Lahore J.L. Nehru (Pooma Swaraj resolution
was passed)
1931 Karachi Vallabhbhai Patel
(Here, resolution on Fundamental
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rights and the Notional Economic
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Program was passed)
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1932, 1933 Delhi, Calcutta (session banned)
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1934 Bombay Rajendra Prasad
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1936 Lucknow J.L. Nehru
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1937 Faizpur J.L. Nehru (first session in a village)
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1938 Haripura S.C. Bose (a National Planning
Committee set-up under J.L. Nehru)
1939 Tripuri S.C. Bose was re-elected but had to
resign due to protest by Gandhiji (as
Gandhiji supported Dr. Pattabhi
Sitaramayya). Rajendra Prasad was
appointed in his place.
1940 Ramgarh Abul Kalam Azad
1946 Meerut Acharya, J.B. Kriplani
1948 Jaipur Dr. Pattabhi Sitaramayya
C. POST-CONGRESS NATIONALIST ORGANISATIONS

Organisation Year Founder
Anti-Non Cooperation Association 1920- Purshottam Das and
21 Thakurdas
Jorhat Sarvajanik Sabha 1893 Ras Behari Ghosh
Raja Muridari Social Reform 1878 Virsalingam
Association
Anti-Circular Society - K.K. Mitra
Lok Sewa Mandal - Lala Lajpat Rai
Independent Congress Party 1926 Madan Moan Malviya
United India Patriotic Association - Sayyid Ahmed Khan
British Association of Awadh - Raja Shiv Prasad Sahu
Liberal Association - Sapru, Jayakar and
Chintamani
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Indian Liberal Federation 1919 S.N. Banerji
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Federation of Indian. Chambers of 1927 G.D. Birla and Thakurdas
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Commerce and Industry (FICCI)
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Hindustan Sewa Dal - N.G. Hardikar
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Independence of India League 1928 J.L Nehru and S.C. Bose
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Praja Party - Akram Khan, Fazuil Haq and
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Abdur Rahman
Hindu Association - Annie Besant
South India Federation of Peasants 1935 N.G. Ranga and
and Agricultural Labour Namboodiripad
Labounist Party - Fazl Hussain
Rashtriya Swayamsewak Sangh 1925 Hedgewar
All India Untouchability League 1932 M.K. Gandhi
Hindu Mahasabha 1917 Revived by M.M. Malviya
Jana Sangh - Shyama Prasad Mukherji
National Mohammadan 1878 Amir Ali
Association
Mohammadan Literacy Society 1863 Abdul Latif
Deccan Educational Society - Tilak & Agarkar
LEFTIST ORGANISATIONS
Organisation Year/Place Founder
Communist Party of 1920/Tashkent M.N. Roy
India
Labour Kisan Party 1923/Madras Singaravelu
Labour Swaraj Party - Qazi Nazrul and
(later renamed as Muzaffar Ahmed

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Peasants & Worker’s
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Party)
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Kirti Kisan Party - Soham Singh Josh
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Workers and 1927/Bombay S. Mirajkar, K.N. Joglekor
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Peasants Party and S.V. Ghate
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Bihar Socialist Party 1931 J.P. Narayarn, Phulan
Prasad Verma
Congress Socialist 1934 Narendra Dev, J.P.
Party Narayan and Minoo
Masani
Forward Block 1939 S.C. Bose
Congress Labour 1926/Bombay -
Party
The Bolshevik Party 1939 N.D. Mazumdar
of India
Radical Democratic 1940 M.N. Roy
Party
Independence Labour - B.R. Ambedkar
Party

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National Freedom Struggle
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PARTITION OF BENGAL
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 By Lord Curzon on Oct 16, 1905, through a royal Proclamation, reducing
the old province of Bengal in size by creating East Bengal and Assam out of
rest of Bengal.
 The objective was to setup a communal gulf between Hindus and Muslims.
 A mighty upsurge swept the country against the partition. National
movement found real expression in the movement against the partition of
Bengal in 1905.
 Rabindranath Tagore composed the national song ‘Amar sonar Bangla’ for
the occasion which was sung by people everywhere. This song was adopted
as national anthem by Bangladesh in 1971 after liberation from Pakistan.
 The ceremony of Raksha Band was observed on Oct. 16, 1905. Hindus and
Muslims tied rakhis on each other’s wrist showing solidarity.
 The newspapers played a significant role in the movement. The main
newspapers were K.K. Mitra’s Sanjeevani, S.N. Banerjee’s Bengali, Motilal
Ghosh’s Amrit Bazar Patrika, B.B. Upadhyaya’s Yugantar, Bipin Chandra
Pal’s New India, Aurobindo Ghosh’s Bande Mataram, Aji Singh’s Bharat
Mata, etc.
SWADESHI MOVEMENT (1905)

 Had its origin in the anti-partition movement of Bengal. The leaders of
Bengal felt that mere demonstrations, public meetings and resolutions
were not enough and something more concrete was needed and the
answer felt was Swadeshi and Boycott.
 An important aspect of the Swadeshi movement was emphasis placed on
self-reliance.
 Lal, Bal, Pal, and Aurobindo Ghosh played the important role.

General Awareness
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 INC took the Swadeshi call first at the Banaras Session, 1905 presided over
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by G.K. Gokhale.
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 A resolution to boycott British goods was adopted on August 7, 1905 at a
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 Bonfires of foreign goods were conducted at various places.
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MUSLIM LEAGUE (1906)
 Setup in 1906 under the leadership of Aga Khan, Nawab Salimullah of
Dhaka and Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk.
 It was a loyalist, communal and conservative political organization which
supported the partition of Bengal, opposed the Swadeshi movement,
demanded special safeguards of its community and a separate electorate
for Muslims.
SWARAJ
 In Dec. 1906 at Calcutta, the INC under Dadabhai Naoroji adopted ‘Swaraj’
(Self- govt) as the goal of Indian people.
SURAT SESSION OF INC

 The INC split into two groups —The extremists and The moderates, at the
Surat session in 1907. Extremists were led by Bal, Pal, Lal while the
moderates by G.K. Gokhale.
 Controversy rose over the elected president, Ras Bihari Ghosh, as
extremists didn’t accept him. Extremists wanted Lala Lajpat Rai to be
chosen.
 The government after this launched a massive attack on extremists by
suppressing their newspapers and arresting their leaders.
INDIAN COUNCILS ACT OR MORLEY REFORMS (1909)

 Besides other constitutional measures, it envisaged a separate electorate
for Muslims.

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 Aimed at dividing the nationalist ranks and at rallying the Moderates and
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the Muslims to the Government’s side.
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GHADAR PARTY (1913)
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 Formed by Lala Hardayal, Taraknath Das and Sohan Singh Bhakna.
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 The name was taken from a weekly paper, Ghadar. H.Q. was at San
om
Francisco.
KOMAGATA MARU INCIDENT (1914)

 Komagata Maru was the name of a ship which carried a shipload of Sikh
and Muslim immigrants from Punjab to Vancouver, Canada.
HOME RULE MOVEMENT (1916)

 After Tilak’s return, having served sentence of six years in Mandalay (in
Burma), he tried securing the readmission of himself and other extremists
into the INC. With the need being felt for popular pressure to attain
concessions, disillusionment with Minto-Morley reforms and war-time
miseries, Tilak and Annie Besant readied to assume leadership.
 Started by B.G. Tilak (April, 1916) at Poona and Annie Besant and S.
Subramania Iyer at Adyar, near Madras (Sept, 1916).
 Tilak’s league was to work in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Central Province
and Berar and Annie Besant’s in the rest of India.
 Objective: Self-government for India in the British Empire.
 Tilak linked up the question of Swaraj with the demand for the formation of
linguistic states and education in vernacular language. He gave the slogan:
Swaraj is my birth right and I will have it.
 The Mahratta and Kesari of Tilak and Annie Besant’s New India,
Commonwealth and Young India became the organs of the Home Rule
movement.
 Muslim league also supported it.
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LUCKNOW PACT (1916)
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 Both INC and ML concluded this (Congress accepted the separate
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electorates and both jointly demanded for a representative government
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and dominion status for the country).
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AUGUST DECLARATION (1917)
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 After the Lucknow Pact, a British policy was announced called the August
Declaration.
 The Montague-Chelmsford reforms or the Act of 1919 was based on this
declaration.
ROWLATT ACT (MARCH 18, 1919)

 This gave unbridled powers to the govt. to arrest and imprison suspects
without trial for two years maximum. Caused a wave of anger in all
sections. It was the first country-wide agitation by Gandhiji and marked the
foundation of the Non Cooperation Movement.
 During March and April 1919, the country witnessed a remarkable political
awakening in India. There were hartals, processions and demonstrations
everywhere.
JALLIANWALA BAGH MASSACRE (APRIL 13, 1919)
 People were agitated over the arrest of Dr. Kitchlu and Dr. Satyapal on
April 10, 1919.
 General O’ Dyer fired at people who assembled in the Jallianwala Bagh,
Amritsar.As a result hundreds of men, women and children were killed and
thousands injured.
 Rabindranath Tagore returned his Knighthood in protest. Sir Shankaran
Nair resigned from Viceroy’s Executive Council after this.
 Hunter Commission was appointed to enquire into it.
 On March 13, 1940, Sardar Udham Singh killed O’Dyer when the latter was
addressing a meeting in Caxton Hall, London.

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KHILAFAT MOVEMENT (1920)
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 Muslims were agitated by the treatment done with Turkey by the British in
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the treaty that followed the First World War.
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 Two brothers, Mohd. Mi and Shaukat Mi started this movement, alongwith
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Maulana Azad, Hakim Ajmal Khan and Hasrat Mohani. It was jointly led by
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the Khilafat leaders and the Congress.
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 Gandhiji viewed the Khilafat agitation as a golden opportunity for bringing
the Hindus and Muslims together.
 On August 31, 1920, the Khilafat Committee launched a non-cooperation
movement:
 Gandhiji now pressed the Congress to adopt a similar plan of action.
Although it was initially opposed by C.R. Das, but was later passed
unopposed.
NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT (1920)

 It was the first mass-based political movement under Gandhiji.
 Congress passed the resolution in its Calcutta session in September, 1920.
 The movement envisaged:
o Surrender of titles and honorary offices.
o Resignation from nominated offices and posts in the local bodies.
o Refusal to attend govt. darbars and boycott of British courts by the lawyers.
o Refusal of general public to offer themselves for military and other govt.
jobs, and boycott of foreign goods etc.
 C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru gave up their legal practice and Subhash
Chandra Bose resigned from the Civil Service.
 The Prince of Wales visited India during this period. But he was greeted
with empty streets and downed shutters when he came (Nov. 17, 1921).
CHAURI — CHAURA INCIDENT (1922)
 The Congress session at Allahabad in Dec. 1921, decided to launch a Civil
Disobedience Movement. Gandhiji was appointed its leader.

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 But before it could be launched, a mob of people at Chauri-Chaura (near
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Gorakhpur) clashed with police and burnt 22 police men on February 5,
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Feb. 12, 1922.
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SWARAJ PARTY (1923)
 Motilal Nehru, C.R. Das and N.C. Kelkar (called Pro-changers) demanded
that the nationalists should end the boycott of the legislative councils, enter
them and expose them. But the no-changers like Rajendra Prasad and
Rajgopalachari adhered to the Gandhian program of boycott of legislatures.
The pro-changers formed the Swaraj party on Jan.1, 1923, contested the
elections and embarrassed the government by opposing its measures.
 In the 1923 elections, the Swarajists got a majority in Bengal and Central
Province.
 The two sections were reunited in 1930 after the Lahore session.
SIMON COMMISSION (1927)
 Constituted under John Simon, to review the political situation in India and
to introduce further reforms and extension of parliamentary democracy.
 Indian leaders opposed the commission, as there were no Indians in it.
Congress turned the boycott into the movement.
 Simon and his colleagues landed in Bombay on Feb.3, 1928, and were
greeted with hartals and black-flag demonstrations.
 The Government used brutal repression and police attacks to break the
popular opposition. At Lahore, Lala Lajpat Rai was severely beaten in a
lathi-charge. He succumbed to his injuries on Nov. 17, 1928.
 Rai Sahib Harvilas Sarda put forth a bill in the Legislative Assembly in 1928
with a view to secure prohibition of child marriage. The bill became an Act
in 1929 and is called the Sarda Act of 1929. According to this Act, a girl
below 14 or a boy below 18 cannot contract marriage.

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THE NEHRU REPORT (1928)
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 After boycotting the Simon commission, all political parties constituted a
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committee under the chairmanship of Motilal Nehru to evolve and
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determine the principals of a constitution for India. It remains memorable
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as the first major Indian effort to draft a constitutional framework for India,
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complete with lists of Central and Provincial subjects and fundamental
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rights. It suggested dominion status for the country
 The committee comprised Tej Bahadur Sapru, Ali Imam, M.S. Aney, Mangal
Singh, Sohaib Qureshi, G.R. Pradhan and Subhash Chandra Bose.
 Bardoli Movement (1928) was a movement against the payment of land
tax, led by Vallabh Bhai Patel. He got the name ‘Sardar’ from here.
LAHORE SESSION (1929)
 On Dec.19, 1929, under the President ship of J.L.Nehru, the INC, at its
Lahore session, declared Poorna Swaraj (Complete Independence) as its
ultimate goal.
 On Dec.31, 1929, the newly adopted tri-colour flag was unfurled and Jan 26,
1930 was fixed as the First Independence Day, which was to be celebrated
every year.
DANDI MARCH (1930)
 Also called the Salt Satyagraha.
 Along with 78 followers, Gandhiji started his march from Sabarmati
Ashram on March 12, 1930 for the small village Dandi to break the salt law.
 He reached the sea shore on Apr. 6, 1930.
 He picked a handful of salt and inaugurated the Civil Disobedience
Movement.
 The salt Satyagraha movement was taken up by C. Rajgopalachani in Tamil
Nadu and the hero of the Vaikom Satyagraha, K. Kalappan, in Malabar.
 The salt Satyagraha sparked off other forms of defiance. In the north-west,
the Pathans under Than Abdul Ghaffar Than, popularly known as the
Frontier Gandhi, organized the society of ‘Khudai Khidmadgars’ (Servants
of God), also known as Red Shirts. This movement even sparked off

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atriotism among the Indian soldiers in the British Army. The Garhwal soldiers
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refuse to fire on the people at Peshawar.
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FIRST ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE (1930)
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 It was the first conference arranged between the British and Indians as
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equals. It was held on Nov.12, 1930 in London to discuss Simon
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commission report.
 Boycotted by INC. Muslim League, Hindu Mahasabha, Liberals and some
others were there.
 Postponed to Jan.2, 1931, in the absence of any major political party.
GANDHI IRWIN PACT

 Moderate statesman, Sapru, Jaikar and Srinivas Shastri initiated efforts to
break the ice between Gandhiji and the government.
 The two (government represented by Irwin) signed a pact March.5, 1931.
 In this the INC called off the civil disobedience movement and agreed to
join the second round table conference.
 The government on its part released the political prisoner and conceded
the right to make salt for consumption of villages along the coast.
 The Karachi session of 1931 endorsed the Gandhi-Irwin Pact. The Karachi
session is also memorable for its resolution on Fundamental Rights and the
National Economic Program.
SECOND ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE (1931)

 Gandhiji represented the INC and went to London to meet British PM.
Ramsay Macdonald.
 In the Conference, Gandhiji demanded immediate establishment of a full
responsible government at the Centre as well as in the Provinces with
complete control over defence, external affairs and finance.
 However, the session was soon deadlocked on the minorities issue and this
time separate electorates was demanded not only by Muslims but also by
Depressed Classes, Indian Christians and Anglo-Indians.

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 MacDonald ended the session with an address which announced the
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creation of two new Muslim majority provinces, North West Frontier
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Province and Sindh, the dangerous prospect of a unilateral British
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Communal Award if the Indians failed to agree among themselves.
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 On Gandhiji’s arrival in Bombay, the Congress Working Committee decided
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to resume the Civil Disobedience Movement. In 1932, INC was declared an
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illegal organization and all its leaders were arrested. Gandhiji was sent to
Yeravada jail in Poona.
 The Civil Disobedience Movement was withdrawn in 1934, because after
that Gandhiji decided to make Harijan work the central plank of his new
rural constructive program.
THE COMMUNAL AWARD (AUG. 16, 1932)
 Announced by Ramsay McDonald. It showed divide and rule policy of the
British.
 Envisaged representation of Muslims, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo
Indians, women and even Backward classes.
 Gandhiji, who was in Yeravada jail (Poona) at that time, started a fast unto
death against it.
POONA PACT (SEPTEMBER 25, 1932)
 After the announcement of communal award and subsequent fast of
Gandhiji, mass meeting took place almost everywhere. Political leaders like
Madan Mohan Malviya, B.R. Ambedkar and M.C. Rajah became active.
 Eventually Poona pact was reached and Gandhiji broke his fast on the sixth
day (Sept 25, 1932)
 In this, the idea of separate electorate for the depressed-classes was
abandoned, but seats reserved to them in the provincial legislature were
increased. Thus, the Poona pact agreed upon a joint electorate for upper
and lower castes.
 Harijan upliftment now became the principal concern of Gandhiji. An All-
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Harijan in Jan, 1933. On May 8, 1933, Gandhiji decided to begin a 21 day
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fast for the purification of himself and his associates for the Harijan cause.
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 He started the Individual Civil Disobedience on Aug 1, 1933.
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THIRD ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE (1932)
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 Proved fruitless as most of the national leaders were in prison. The
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discussions led to the passing of the Government of India Act, 1935.
 The meeting of All-India Kisan Congress was held in 1934 in Lucknow
under the Presidentship of Sahajanand Saraswati.
THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT, 1935

 Based on the Simon commission report. (The recommendations are
mentioned separately in the Charter Acts at the end).
 The Congress rejected the 1935 Act and demanded the convening of a
Constituent Assembly elected on the basis of adult franchise to frame a
constitution for an independent India. J.L. Nehru described it as “we are
provided with a car, all breaks and no engine”.
 Yet, INC fought the election in 1937, when the constitution was introduced
and formed ministries in seven out of eleven provinces. Later, Congress
formed coalition governments in two others, only Bengal and Punjab had
non-Congress ministries. Punjab was under the Unionist Party and Bengal
under the Krishak Praja Party-Muslim League coalition.
SECOND WORLD WAR AND THE NATIONAL MOVEMENT

 The Congress ministries coming to power did wonders to the morale of the
people. They continued to function till the coming of the Second World War
in 1939. When the war broke out, Lord Linlithgow declared India to be at
war without prior assent of the Central Legislature.
 The Congress agreed to support Britain only in return of independence
being granted. The Viceroy could promise this only after the war. In
October-November 1939, the Congress ministries resigned in protest. The
Muslim League observed this as the Deliverance Day (Dec. 22, 1939).

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 The Viceroy refused to accept preconditions set by the Congress-
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Constituent Assembly for establishment of genuine responsible
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government at the Centre. Eventually, however, the British Government
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was eager for the INC to support their war efforts. Subsequently, it tried to
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pacify the Congress and the Indian leaders by a series of offers through
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August Offer and Cripps Mission.
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DEMAND FOR PAKISTAN
 In 1930, Iqbal suggested that the Frontier Province, Baluchistan, Sindh and
Kashmir be made the Muslims state within the federation.
 Chaudhary Rehmat Ali gave the term Pakistan in 1933.
 Mohd. Ali Jinnah of Bombay gave it practicality.
 Muslim League first passed the proposal of separate Pakistan in its Lahore
session in 1940 (called Jinnah’s Two-Nation Theory). It was drafted by
Sikandar Hayat Khan, In December, 1943, the Karachi session of the
Muslim League adopted the slogan- ‘Divide and Quit’.
AUGUST OFFER-AUG 8, 1940
 It offered (i) Dominion status in the unspecified future; (ii) post-war body
to enact the constitution; (iii) to expand the Governor-General’s Executive
Council to give full weightage to minority opinion.
 Rejected by the INC and was accepted by the Muslim League.
THE CRIPPS MISSION-1942
 In Dec. 1941, Japan entered the World War — II and advanced towards
Indian borders. By March 7, 1942, Rangoon fell and Japan occupied the
entire S E Asia.
 The British govt. with a view to get co-operation from Indians sent Sir
Stafford Cripps, leader of the House of Commons to settle terms with the
India leaders.
 He offered a draft which contained the following proposals;
o Dominion status to be granted after the war.

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o Setting up a constitution-making body for India after the war whose
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members would be elected by the Provincial assemblies and nominated by
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the rulers in case of the Princely States.
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 Rejected by the Congress as it didn’t want to rely upon future promises.
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 Gandhiji termed it as a post dated cheque in a crashing bank
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THE REVOLT OF 1942 & THE QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT
 Called the Vardha Proposal and Leaderless Revolt.
 The resolution was passed on Aug. 8, 1942, at Bombay. Gandhiji gave the
slogan Do or die’.
 On Aug 9, the Congress was banned and its important leaders were
arrested. Gandhiji was kept at the Aga Khan Palace, Pune.
 The arrests provoked indignation among the masses and, there being no
program of action, the movement became spontaneous and violent.
Violence spread throughout the country Several govt. offices were
destroyed, telegraph wires were cut and communication paralyzed.
 The trend of underground revolutionary activities also started during the
phase. J.P Narayan, R.M. Lohia and Aruna Asaf Ali started consolidating
underground networks. The most dating act of the underground movement
was the establishment of Congress Radio with Usha Mehta as its
announcer.
 Parallel govts. were set-up at various places. The first one was in Ballia in
eastern UP under the leadership of Chittu Pande. Others were in Satara,
Talcher, parts of eastern UP and Bihar.

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 The Muslim League kept aloof and the Hindu Mahasabha condemned the
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movement. The Communist Party of India also didn’t support the
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movement.
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NAVAL MUTINY (1945)
 A revolt took place in HMS Talwar on Feb 18, 1945 in Bombay due to racial
discrimination, unpalatable food and abuse after the arrest of B C Dutta
who had written ‘British Quit India’ on the wall.
 It was suppressed after persuasion by the Indian leaders.
RAJAGOPALACHARI FORMULA (1945)

 He proposed that plebiscite should be held in contiguous districts of North
West and East where Muslims were in absolute majority.
 If the majority decides in favour of forming a separate sovereign state, such
decision could be accepted.
 Jinnah objected as he wanted only Muslims of North West and East of India
to vote in the plebiscite.
THE INDIAN NATIONAL ARMY: Subhash Chandra Bose

 The idea of the Indian National Army (INA) to liberate India was originally
conceived by Rasbehari Bose, who had fled to Japan in 1915 and had
become a Japanese citizen, with the help of Mohan Singh, an Indian officer
of the British Indian army in Malaya.
 S.C. Bose secretly escaped from India in Jan1941, and reached Berlin. In
July 1943, he joined the INA at Singapore. There, Rasbehari Bose handed
over the leadership to him.
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 The soldiers were mostly raised from Indian soldiers of the British army
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who had been taken prisoners by the Japanese after they conquered S.E.
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Asia. Two JNA headquarters were Rangoon and Singapore (formed in
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 INA had three fighting brigades named after Gandhi, Azad and Nehru. Rani
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Jhansi Brigade was an exclusive women force.
 The INA launched an attack on India and penetrated Into the Indian
territory.
 It annexed Andaman and Nicobar with Japanese help and named, them as
‘Shaheed’ and ‘Swaraj’.
 But, it couldn’t face the British army and surrendered.
 In this, S.C. Bosegave the call ‘Dilli Chalo’.
 INA trials were held at Red Fort, Delhi, RK Sehgal, Shah Nawaz
(comman4er of the INA battalion that had reached the Indo-Burma front)
and Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon were put on trial. The Congress took up their
defence, with Bhulahhai Desai, Tejbahadur Sapru, Jawaharlal Nehru K.N.
Katju and Asaf All defending them. Muslim League also joined for the
country wide protest.
 Nov.12, 1945 was celebrated as the INA Day.
WAVELL PLAN (JUNE-JULY 1945)

 Given by Lord Wavell.
 The plan was that the Viceroy’s Executive Council should be so
reconstituted that its members, except the Governor General and the
Commander-in-Chief, were to be Indians (from various parties). Simla
conference was convened in this regard, but was rejected by Jinnah.

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THE CABINET MISSION PLAN (1946)
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 The struggle for freedom entered a decisive phase in the year 1945-46. The
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new Labour Party PM, Lord Attlee, made a declaration on March 15, 1946,
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that British Cabinet Mission (comprising of Lord Pethick Lawrence as
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Chairman, Sir Stafford Cripps and A.V. Alexander) will visit India.
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 The mission held talks with the INC and ML to bring about acceptance of
their proposals.
 On May 16, 1946, the mission put forward its proposals :-
o Rejected the demand for separate Pakistan and instead a federal union
consisting Princely States was suggested. The union would deal into the
following subjects:
o Foreign affairs, Defence and Communication and would have the powers to
raise the finances required for the above subjects. Full autonomy would be
enjoyed by the provinces in respect of all subjects other than the union
subjects.
o There were to be three- groups of Provinces: Group A with six Hindu
majority provinces (Bombay, United Province, Bihar, Central Province,
Orissa, Madras); Group B with three Muslim majority provinces (Sind,
NWFP, Punjab) and Group C (Assam and Bengal). After the first general
elections, a province could come out of the group and after 10 years a
province could call for reconsideration of the group or union constitution.
o The Union would consist of an executive and a legislature. The legislature
would not be directly elected by the people but by the provincial
legislatures on the basis of communal electorates. Members of the Princely
States would be appointed by the rulers of the Princely States.
 Both Congress and Muslim League accepted it.

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 The elections of the Constituent Assembly were held in July 1946. The
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Congress got 209 of the ‘total 273 seats.
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INTERIM GOVT.
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 Based on Cabinet Mission Plan, an interim government consisting of
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Congress nominees was formed on Sept. 2, 1946. J.L. Nehru was its Vice-
President and the Governor-General remained as its President. Muslim
League did not join it initially but finally Wavell succeeded in having five
members of the League join the government on Oct. 26, 1946.
JINNAH’S DIRECT ACTION RESOLUTION

 Jinnah was alarmed at the results-of the elections because the Muslim
League was in danger of being totally eclipsed in the constituent assembly.
 Therefore, Muslim League withdraw its acceptance of the Cabinet Mission
Plan on July 29, 1946.
 It passed a ‘Direct action’ resolution, which condemned both the British
Government and the Congress (Aug 16, 1946).
 It resulted in heavy communal riots.
 Jinnah celebrated Pakistan Day on Mar 27, 1947.
FORMATION OF CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY

 The constituent assembly met on Dec 9, 1946 and Dr. Rajendra Prasad was
elected as its president.

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MOUNTBATTEN PLAN
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 On June 3, 1947, Lord Mountbatten put forward his plan which outlined the
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steps for the solution of India’s political problem. The outlines of the Plan
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o India to be divided into India and Pakistan.
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o Bengal and Punjab will be partitioned and a referendum in NEFP and
Sylhet district of Assam would be held.
o There would be a separate constitutional assembly for Pakistan to frame its
constitution.
o The Princely states would enjoy the liberty to join either India or Pakistan
or even remain independent.
o Aug. 15, 1947 was the date, fixed for handing over power to India and
Pakistan.
 The British govt. passed the Indian Independence Act of 1947 in July 1947,
which contained the major provisions put forward by the Mountbatten
plan.
PARTITION AND INDEPENDENCE

 All political parties accepted the Mountbatten plan.
 Two Commissions were appointed by the British Government with Sir Cyril
Redcliffe as chairman of both to see through the partition and fix the
international boundaries of the two nations-to-be.
 At the time of independence, there were 562 small and big Princely states
in India.
 Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel, the first home minister, used iron hand in ‘this
regard. By August 15, 1947, all the States, with a few exceptions like

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Revolutionary Activities
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Kashmir, Hyderabad and Junagarh had signed the Instrument of Accession.
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 The first political murder of a European was committed in 1897 at Poona
by the Chapekar brothers, Damodar and Balkishan. Their target was Mr.
Rand, President of the Plague Commission, but Lt. Ayerst was accidentally
shot.
 In 1907, Madam Bhikaiji Cama, a Parsi revolutionary unfurled the flag of
India at Stuttgart Congress (of Second Inernational).
 In 1908, Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki threw a bomb on the carriage
of Kingford, the unpopular judge of Muzaffarpur. Khudiram, Kanhaiyalal
Dutt and Satyendranath Bose were hanged. (Alipur Case).
 In 1909, M L Dhingra shot dead Col. William Curzon Whyllie, the political
advisor of ‘India Office’ in London.
 In 1912, Rasbihari Bose and Sachindra Nath Sanyal threw a bomb at Lord
Hardinge at Delhi. (Delhi Conspiracy Case).
 In Oct, 1924, a meeting of revolutionaries from all parts of India was called
at Kanpur.
 The meeting was attended by old revolutionary leaders like Sachindra Nath
Sanyal, Jogesh Chandra Chatteijee and Ram Prasad Bismil and some young
revolutionaries like Bhagat Singh, Shiv Verma, Sukhdev, Bhagwati Charan
Vohra and Chandrashekhar Azad.
 They setup Hindustan Socialist Republic Association/Army (HSRA). Their
three objectives were:
o To raise the consciousness of people against the futility of Gandhian
movement of non-violence.
o To perform direct action and revolution to attain complete independence.

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o To set up a republic of the United States of India on the federal structure.
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 They carried out a dacoity on the Kakori bound train on the Saharanpur-
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Lucknow railway line on International). Aug. 9, 1925. The conspirators
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were later arrested and hanged (Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaqulla, Roshan Lal
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and Rajendra Lahiri).
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 Bhagat Singh, with his colleagues shot dead Saunders (Asstt. S.P of Lahore,
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who ordered lathi charge on Lala Lajpat Rai) on Dec.17, 1928.
 Then Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw a bomb in the Central
Assembly on Apr. 8, 1929. Thus, he, Rajguru and Sukhdev were hanged on
March.23, 1931 at Lahore Jail (Lahore Conspiracy Case) and their bodies
cremated at Hussaimwala near Ferozepur.
 In 1929 only Jatin Das died in Lahore jail after 63 days fast to protest
against horrible conditions in jail.
 Meerut Conspiracy Case started in 1929 and continued for four years
against 31 communists accused of conspiracy against the British sovereign.
In this, Muzaffar Ahmed received transportation for life.
 Surya Sen, a revolutionary of Bengal, formed the Indian Republic Army in
Bengal. In 1930, he mastermined the raid on Chittagong armoury He was
hanged in 1933.
 In 1931, Chandrashekhar Azad shot himself at Alfred Park in Allahabad.
REVOLUTIONARY ORGANISATIONS IN INDIA

Organisation Year Founder Place
Mitra Mela 1899 Savarkar Brothers Poona
Anushilan Samiti (I) 1902 Gyanendranath Rose Midnapur
Abhinav Bharat 1904 V.D. Savarkar Poona
Swadesh Bandhav 1905 Ashwini Kumar Dutt Barisal
Samiti Anushilan Samiti 1907 Birendra Kumar Ghosh and Dhaka

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(II) Bhupendra Dutt
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Bhart Mata Society 1907 Ajit Singh & Amba Prasad Punjab
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Hindustan Republican 124 Jogesh Chandra Chatterji Kanpur
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Association Sachindranath Sanyal
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Naujavan Sabha 1926 Bhagat Singh Lahore
Hindustan Socialist 1928 Chandrashekhar Azad Delhi
Republican Association
REVOLUTIONARY ORGANISATIONS FORMED OUTSIDE INDIA

Organisation Year Founder Place
India House 1905 Shyamil Krishna Verma London
Abhinav Bharat 1906 V.D. Savarkar London
Indian Independence 1907 Tarak Nath Das USA
League Ghadar Party 1913 Lala Hardayal, Tarak San
Nath Das & Sohan Singh Francis
Bhakna co
Indian Independence 1914 Lala Hardayal and Berlin
Birendra
League Nath Chattopadhyaya - 1915 Raja Mahenctra Pratap Kabul
Indian Independence
League & Government Indian 1942 Ras Behari Bose Tokyo
Independence
League Indian National Army 1942 Ras Behari Bose Tokyo
 (In 1943, INA was reorganized by Subhash Chandra Bose in Singapore.)

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Press & Education
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A. EDUCATION
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Educational Commissions
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Viceroy Commission Yea Chairman Objectives
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Loord Ripon Hunter 188 William To study the
(1880-1884) Commission 2 Hunter development in
education.
Lord Curzon University 190 Thomas To study the
(1899-1905) Commission 2 Raleigh Universities and
introduce reforms.
Lord Calcutta 191 Michael To study the condition
Chelmsford University 7 Sadler of University
(1916-1921) Commission
Lord Reading Indian 192 Lord To discuss the Central
(1921-26) Disbandment 3 Itchcap Committee of
Education
Lord Wavell Sargeant Plan 194 John To raise the standard
(1943-1947) 4 Sargeant of Education like
Britain
FIRST PHASE (1758-1812)

 The British East India Co. showed very little interest in the education of
its subjects during this period, the 2 minor exceptions being:
a. The Calcutta Madrsa set up by Warren Hastings in 1781 for the study and
teaching of Muslim law and subjects.
b. The Sanskrit college at Varanasi by Jonathan Duncan in 1792 for the
study of Hindu Law and Philosophy.
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Both were designed to provide a regular supply of qualified Indians to
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 Due to the strong pressure exerted on the Co. by the Christian
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encourage and promote modern education in India, The Charter Act of
1813 required the Co. to spend rupees 1 lakh annually for encouraging
learned Indians and promoting the knowledge of modern sciences in
India.
 Two controversies about the nature of education arose during the I part
of this phase. They were
o Whether to lay emphasis on the promotion of modern western studies or
on the expansion of traditional Indian learning?
o Whether to adopt Indian languages or English as the medium of
instruction in modern schools and colleges to spread western learning?
 These 2 controversies were settled in 1835 when Lord William Bentinck
(with the support of R.M. Roy) applied English medium.
 In 1844, Lord Hardinge decided to give govt. employment to Indians
educated in English Schools. The success was thus assured (of English
education). It made good progress in the 3 presidencies of Bengals
Bombay and Madras where the number of schools and colleges increased.
 The Govt. policy of opening a few English schools and colleges instead of
a large number of elementary schools led to the neglect of education of
masses.
 To cover up this defect in their policy the British took recourse to the so-
called ‘Downward Filtration Theory’ which meant that education and
modern ideas were supposed to filter or radiate downward from the
upper classes.

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THIRD PHASE (1854-1900)
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Sir Charles Wood, the then President of Board of Control, who became the
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first Secretary of State for India).
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landmark in the history of modern education in India).It rejected the
‘filtration theory’ and laid stress on mass education, female education and
improvement of vernaculars, favoured secularism in Education.
 Creation of Education Deptts. in the provinces of Bombay, Madras, Bengal,
N.W. Provinces and Punjab in 1855; Organizations of Indian Education
Service in 1897 to cover the senior most posts.
 Establishment of universities of Calcutta (Jan. 1857) Bombay (July 1857),
Madras (Sept. 1857), Punjab (1882) and Allahabad (1887).
 Lord Ripon appointed Hunter Commission (under Sir WW. Hunter)
o It recommended that local bodies (distt. boards and municipalities) should
be entrusted with the management of primary schools.
o Also said that govt. should maintain only a few schools and colleges; others
to be left to private hands.
FOURTH PHASE (1901-1920)

 Lord Curzon appointed a Universities Commission under Thomas Raleigh
(Law member of the Viceroy’s Executive Council) in 1902, and based on his
recommendations Indian Universities Act of 1904 was passed.
 In 1910, a separate deptt. of Education was established at the Centre.

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 The Saddler Commission was appointed by Lord Chelmsford to review the
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working of Calcutta University (2 Indians: Sir Ashutosh Mukherji and Dr.
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Ziauddin Ahmed.). Main recommendations were
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HARTOG COMMITTEE (1929)
 Recommended the policy of consolidation and improvement of Primary
education.
 Wardha scheme of Basic Education (1937), worked out by the Zakir
Hussain Committee after Gandhiji published a series of articles in the
Harijan.
SARGEANT PLAN OF EDUCATION (1944)

B. NEWSPAPERS AND JOURNALS
Bengal Gazette (1780) J.K. Hikki
(India’s first newspaper)
Kesari B.G. Tilak
Maharatta B.G. Tilak
Sudharak G.K. Gokhale
Amrita Bazar Patrika Sisir Kumar Ghosh and Motilal Ghosh
Vande Mataram Aurobindo Ghosh
Native Opinion V.N. Mandalik
Kavivachan Sudha Bhartendu Harishchandra
Rast Goftar (first newspaper Dadabhai Naoroji
in Gujarati)

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New India (Weekly) Bipin Chandra Pal
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Statesman Robert Knight
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Hindu Vir Raghavacharya and G.S. Aiyar
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Sandhya B.B. Upadhyaya
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Vihar Lahiri Krishnashastri Chiplunkar
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Hindu Patriot Girish Chandra Ghosh (later Harish
Chandra Mukherji)
Som Prakash Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
Yugantar Bhupendranath Datta And Barinder
Kumar Ghosh
Bombay Chronicle Firoze Shah Mehta
Hindustan M.M. Malviya
Mooknayak B.R. Ambedkar
Comrade Mohammad Ali
Tahzib-ul-Akhlaq Sir Syyed Ahmed Khan
Al-Hilal Abul Kalam Azad
Al-Balagh Abul Kalam Azad
Independent Motilal Nehru
Punjabi Lala Lalpat Rai
New India (Daily) Annie Besant
Commonweal Annie Besant
Pratap Ganesh Shankar Vidyarthi
Essays in Indian Economics M.G. Ranade
Samvad Kaumudi (Bengal) Ram Mohan Roy

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Mirat-ul-Akhbar (first Ram Mohan Roy
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Persian newspaper)
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Indian Mirror Devendra Nath Tagore
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Nav Jeevan M.K. Gandhi
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Young India M.K. Gandhi
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Harijan M.K. Gandhi
Prabudha Bharat Swami Vivekananda
Udhadhana Swami Vivekananda
Indian Socialist Shyamji Krishna Verma
Talwar (in Berlin) Birendra Nath Chattopadhyaya
Free Hindustan (in Tarak Nath Das
Vancouver)
Hindustan Times K.M. Pannikar
Kranti Mirajkar, Joglekar, Ghate
C. BOOKS
Causes of the Indian Mutiny Sir Syyed Ahmed Khan
Ghulam Giri Jyotibha Phule
To all fighters of freedom, Why Socialism? J.P. Narayan
Pakhtoon Khan Abdul Ghaffar

Khan
Problems of the East Lord Curzon
My Indian Years Lord Hardinge
Economic History of India R.C. Duff

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Pather Panchali Bibhuti Bhushan
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Banerji
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The Spirit of Islam Syyed Ameer Ali
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Precepts of Jesus Ram Mohan Roy
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A Gift of Monotheists Ram Mohan Roy
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Satyarth Prakash Swami Dayanand
Anand Math Bankim C. Chatterji
Devi Chaudharani Bankim C. Chatterji
Sitaram Bankim C. Chatterji
The Indian Struggle S.C. Bose
Poverty & Un-British Rule in India Dadabhai Naoroji
The Spirit of Islam Syyed Ameer Ali

A Nation in the Making S.N. Banerji
Unhappy India Lala Lajpat Rai
The Indian War of Independence V.D. Savarkar
India Divided Rajendra Prasad
The Discovery of India J.L. Nehru
Neel Darpan Dinbandhu Mitra
Hind Swaraj M.K. Gandhi
What Congress and Gandhi have done to the B.R. Ambedkar
untouchables

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Miscellaneous Information
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Important Foreign Tgravellers/Envoys
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• Megasthenes (302-298 BC): An ambassador of Selecus Nikator, who
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visited the court of Chandragupta Maurya. He wrote an interesting book
'Indica' in which he gave a vivid account of Chandragupta Maurya's reign.
• Fa-Hien (405-411 AD) :He came to India during the reign of Chandragupta
II Vikramaditya. The object of his visit was to see the holy places of
Buddhism and to collect Buddhist books and relics. He was the first Chinese
pilgrim to visit India.
• Hiuen-Tsang (630-645 AD) : He visited India during the reign of
Harshavardhana.
• I-tsing (671-695 AD) : A Chinese traveller, he visited India in connection
with Buddhism. His work Biographies of Eminent Monks.
• Al-Masudi (957 AD): An Arab traveller, he has given an extensive account
of India in his work 'Muruj-ul-Zahab.'
• Al-beruni (1024-1294 AD): his real name was Abu Rehan Mahamud and
he came to India along with Mahmud of Ghazni during one of his India
raids. He travelled all over India and wrote a book 'Tahqiq-i-Hind'. The
book deals with the social, religious and political conditions in India.
• Marco Polo (1292-1294 AD) : A Venetian traveller, he visited South India
in 1294. A.D. his work The Book of Sir Marco Polo gives an invaluable
account of the economic history of India.
• Ibn Batuta (1333-1347 AD) : A Morrish traveller, he visited India during
the reign of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq. His book 'Rehla' (the Travelogue)
throws a lot of light on the reign of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq and the
geographical, economic and social conditions in India.
• Nicolo Conti (1420-1421 AD) : A Venetian traveller, he gives a
comprehensive account of the Hindu kingdom of Vijaynagar.
• Abdur Razzaq (1443-1444 AD) : He was a Persian traveller, who came to
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India and stayed at the court of the Zamorin at Calicut. He has given a vivid
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account of the Vijayanagar empire, especially of the city. He describes the
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wealth and luxurious life of the king and the nobles.
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• Athanasius Nikitin (1470-1474 AD) : He was a Russian merchant, who
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visited South India in 1470. He describes the condition of the Bahmani
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kingdom under Muhammad III (1463-82).
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• Duarte Barbosa (1500-1516 AD) : He was a Portuguese traveller. He has
given a valuable narrative of the government and the people of the
Vijayanagar empire.
• Dominigo Paes (1520-1522 AD) : He was Portuguese traveller, who
visited the court of Krishnadeva Raya of the Vijayanagar empire.
• Fernao Nuniz (1535-1537 AD) : A Portuguese merchant, who visited the
Vijayanagar empire. He wrote the history of the empire from its earliest
times of the closing years of Achyutdeva Raya's reign.
• William Hawkins (1608-1611 AD) : He was an English ambassador of the
British King James I to the court of Jahangir (1609).
• Sir Thomas Roe (1615-1619 AD) : He was an ambassador of James I, King
of England, at the court of Jahangir, the Mughal emperor.
• Peter Mundy (1630-34 AD) : He was an Italian traveller to the Mughal
empire in the reign of Shahjahan. He gives valuable information about the
living standard of the common people in the Mughal Empire.
• Jeen Baptiste Tavernier (1638-63 AD) : He was a French traveller, who
visited India six times. His account covers the reign of Shahjahan and
Aurangzeb.
• Nicolao Manucci (1653-1708 AD) : He was an Italian traveller, who got
service at the court of Dara Shikoh.
• Francois Bernier (1656-1717 AD) : He was French physician and
philosopher. Danishamand Khan, a noble of Aurangzeb, was his partron.
What is Geography
Geography is an extremely broad discipline that seeks to map and describe
both the physical features of the Earth, like mountains, and its human
features, such as the borders of countries or distributions of religions.
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Chapter
Universe
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“Geography,” a term first used by Eratosthenes (Father of Geography),
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literally means “writing about the Earth.” Geography is sometimes called “the
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bridge between the physical and human sciences,”
Universe
Existing matter and energy are together known as universe. The study of
universe is known as Cosmology. Universe includes all the universal bodies
and the complete solar family which comprises the sun, moon, planets,
comets, planetoids etc. According to the modern thought, universe can be
classified into two parts namely—(a) Atmosphere and (b) Space.
Origin of the universe is explained by the Big Bang Theory, formulated and
proposed by the Belgian astronomer and cosmologist Georges Lemaitre, after
his becoming acquainted with the findings of the American astronomers
Edwin P. Hubble and Harlow Shapley on the expanding universe.
The Big Bang Theory:

 All the matter in the universe was originally one concentrated lump called
primeval atom.
 Big Bang was an explosion that occurred 15 billion years ago, leading to the
formation of galaxies of stars and other heavenly bodies.
 Since then, all the galaxies have been flying away from one another causing
expansion of the universe.
Galaxy
A large group of stars, dust and light gases, bound together by their own
gravity is called a galaxy. It contain billions of stars, which also contains a
large number of gas clouds (mainly of hydrogen gas) and dust, isolated in
space from similar systems.
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 There are about 100 billion galaxies in the universe, and each galaxy has,
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on an average, 100 billion stars.
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 The Milky Way Galaxy is the home of the Earth and our Solar System. It is
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spiral in shape.
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 Latest known galaxy is the Dwarf Galaxy.
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 We live on the outer edge of a spiral type of galaxy called the Milky Way,
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which is about 100,000 light years in diameter and is rotating slowly.
Earth’s Galaxy: The Milky Way

 The Milky Way is a large spiral-shaped galaxy.
 It is called the Milky Way because it appears as a soft glowing light of
billions of stars. These stars are so far that they can be seen only in
constellation; not separately.
 Galileo discovered that this band of light was produced by countless
individual stars which a naked eye cannot see.
 It takes about 250 million years to complete one revolution.
Andromeda: Earth’s closest Galactic neighbour

 Andromeda is a spiral galaxy and also our closest neighbour.
 It is the farthest object that can be seen with the naked eye.
 Like stars, galaxies are grouped into clusters. Some clusters contain
thousands of galaxies.
 About 30 galaxies, along with the Milky Way and the Andromeda are
grouped together in one cluster called the Local Group.
Nebulae
 Nebulae are huge interstellar clouds of gas and dust that appear as faint,
misty patches of light scattered all over the sky.
 They appear either as bright luminous clouds or as dark patches against a
brighter background.
 A nebula depends for its luminosity upon the presence of stars that have
either arisen from it or are contained in it.
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STARS
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 Clumps of dust and gas in a nebula come together due to their own gravity
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and form stars.Stars are made of hot burning gases. They emit light of their
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 Stars seem to be fixed with respect to each other. In fact they are in rapid
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motion but they are at such great distance that relative changes in position
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become noticeable only over the centuries.
 The star Alpha Centaury (also called Proxima Centauri) is the closest star to
the Earth after the Sun. It is about 4.3 light years away
Light year
 Vast distances in outer space are measured in light years.
 A light year is the distance light travels in one year at the speed of 300,000
km per second.
 One light year is equal to 9,461,000,000,000 km.
 No star, apart from the Sun, is close enough to Earth to appear as anything
but a point of light.
Constellations
To enable astronomers to roughly identify the position of the stars, the sky
has been divided into units. These units are known as Constellations
THE SOLAR SYSTEM

 The solar system consists of the sun, the eight planets and their satellites
(or moons), and thousands of other smaller heavenly bodies such as
asteroids, comets and meteors.
 The sun is at the centre of the solar system and all these bodies are
revolving around it.
 The gravitational pull of the sun keeps all the planets and other objects
revolving round it. Thus, the motion of all the members of the solar system
is governed mainly by the gravitational force of the sun.

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 In the solar system the planet nearest to the sun is Mercury and the planet
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farthest from the sun is Neptune (not Pluto).
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 The size of solar system has been estimated to at about 105 A.U.
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 The solar system is dominated by the sun which accounts for almost 99.9%
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 The sun is also the source of all the energy in the solar system.
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The Sun
 Members of the Solar System
 The Sun is at the centre of the Solar System.
 Its size is thirteen lakh times as that of the Earth.
 It is the nearest star to the Earth.
 It is an ultimate source of energy for life on Earth.
 Its diameter is 14 lakh kms.
 It is composed of 71% Hydrogen, 26.5% Helium and 2.5% other elements.
 Hydrogen and Helium are the main gases present in the Sun.
 Within the Sun, hydrogen is converted to Helium due to nuclear fusion
releasing a tremendous amount of heat and light.
 It has a surface temperature of about 6000°C.
 The temperature at the centre is around 15,000,000°C.
 Shining surface of the sun is called photosphere, it appears like a disc,
radiates energy and acts as a source of energy.
 The outer layer of sun’s atmosphere made up of thin hot gases, is called
Corona. Corona is visible only during a total eclipse of the sun (or with a
special solar telescope called Coronagraph).
 The planet travels with the sun through millions of stars in our galaxy at a
speed of about 70,000 km per hour.
 The Sun is about 150 million kms away from the Earth.
 Light (at the speed of 300,000 km per second) takes about 8.5 minutes to
reach the Earth from the Sun.

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The Planets
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 These are opaque bodies which continuously revolve around and are
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 There are eight planets in the Solar system.
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 A ninth planet has been recently discovered by NASA named as Carla.
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 The sequence of planets according to their distance from the Sun is
Mercury Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune.
 The sequence of planets according to their size (in descending order i.e.
from big to small) is Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Earth, Venus, Mars,
Mercury
 Jupiter is the biggest and mercury is the smallest planets of our solar
system.
Classification of Planets:
 The eight planets have been divided into two groups. All the planets of a
particular group have some common features. ‘Terrestrial planets’ and
‘Jevian planets’ are the two groups of planets.
 The four planets nearest to the Sun — Mercury Venus, Earth and Mars are
called terestrial planets, because their structure is similar to the earth.
 Other four planets — Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are called Jevian
planets.
 Planets are classified into the following two groups inner and outer planets
Inner Planets Outer Planets

They include Mercury, Venus, They include Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus
Earth, Mars. Neptune etc.
They are nearer to the sun. They are far away from the sun.

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They are made up of dense metallic They are made up of hot gases,
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minerals. mainly hydrogen and helium.
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They move faster and have a They move rather slowly and have a
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magnesium.
They have a core of molten metals. They have ring systems around them.
They have thin atmosphere.
They have very few natural They have a large number of natural
satellites (or moons) or no satellites (or moons).
satellites.
Planets and satellites: a fact file
Mercury:
 Mercury is the planet closest to the Sun.
 Mercury is an extremely hot planet.
 The planet has no water on it.
 Mercury planet has no gases like CO, N2, H2 and O2 which can ad as building
blocks of life.
 Mercury planet has no protective blanket like Ozone around it to prevent
us from harmful radiations.
Venus:
 Venus is the second planet in distance from the Sun. This planet is nearest
to the Earth and is also the brightest planet.
 Venus is known as the “Evening Star”.

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 Venus is surrounded by a thick cloud cover, hence known as the “Veiled
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Planet” (‘veil’ means unclear / cover).
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 Venus is like the Earth in size and mass, and hence also known as the
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 Venus is a very hot planet.
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 There is no sufficient oxygen on the Venus.
The Earth:
 Earth is the largest of the inner planets.
 The Earth is 23½° tilted on its axis and thus makes 66½” angle.
 It takes 23 hours 56 minutes and 4.091 seconds to rotate on its axis.
 It takes 365 days, 5 hours and 48 minutes to revolve around the Sun.
 Earth is known as the “watery planet” or the “blue planet” due to the
presence of huge amount of water on it.
 Earth is the only known planet which provides sustenance or life on it. It
has a large quantity of oxygen which supports life.
 The earth has all the essential elements like carbon (in the form of CO2),
hydrogen (H2), nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2) which act as building blocks
for the origin of life.
 The earth is neither too hot nor too cold. It has the right range of
temperature for carrying out the life-sustaining chemical reactions.
 The earth has a lot of water in the form of lakes, rivers and oceans for the
growth and survival of life.
 The earth has enough oxygen gas in its atmosphere for the survival of living
beings through breathing.
 The earth has a protective blanket of ozone layer high up in its atmosphere
to save life from the harmful ultraviolet radiations coming from the sun.

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The Moon:
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 The Moon is the only satellite of the earth.
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 It has a diameter of 3475 km. and its orbit is elliptical.
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 The maximum distance (apogee) of the moon from the earth is 4,06,000
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 It takes 27 days, 7 hours and 43 minutes to rotate on its axis (this period of
about 27½ days is called the sideral month) and approximately the same
period of time it takes to revolve around the earth. The moon’s period of
revolution with reference to the sun is about 29.53 days (29 days, 12 hours,
44 mintues and 2.8 seconds). This period is called a synodic month.
 Only 59 per cent of the total surface of the moon is visible from the earth.
 The bright part of the moon is full of mountains whereas the dark patches
are low lying plains.
 ‘Sea of tranquility’, made of the plain of dust particles, is on the rear side of
the moon, which always remains dark.
 The highest mountain on the moon is liebuity mountain, which is 10,660
meter high.
 The moon has no atmosphere, no twilight and no sound.
 The temperature during daytime is about 100°C and during night it drops
down to about —180°C.
 The light from the moon takes 1.3 seconds to reach the earth.
 The size of the Moon is one-fourth (1/4th) the size of the Earth.
 Gravitational pull of Moon is one-sixth (1 / 6th) that of the Earth.
 Mainly silicon, iron, magnesium etc. elements are found on the Moon’s
surface.
 The study of the Moon is called “Selenology”.

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 Moon is also known as the fossil planet.
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Mars:
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 Iron-rich red soil and pink sky of Mars give it the name, “Red Planet”.
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 Phobes and Demos are two satellites of Mars.
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Jupiter:
 Jupiter is the largest planet of the Solar System.
 Jupiter is also known as winter planet as its average temperature is very
low (148° C).
Saturn:
 Saturn is the second largest planet in the Solar System.
 Saturn has bright concentric rings which are made up of ice and ice-
covered dust particles which revolve around it.
 Titan, the satellite of Saturn, is the largest satellite in the Solar System.
Uranus:
 Uranus is about four times the size of the Earth. This planet appears
greenish in colour because of methane gas present in its atmosphere.
 Uranus was discovered in 1781 by Sir William Hersiel.
 Uranus is the 7th planet from the Sun.
 Uranus is the first planet to have been discovered by the use of a telescope.
 Uranus is the third biggest planet of the Solar System.


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 Uranus is extremely cold, having surface temperature —190°C.
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 Uranus is surrounded by 5 rings namely, alpha, beta, gamma, delta and
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epsilon.
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 Uranus rotates from east to west on its axis, which is opposite to other
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planets.
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 The axis of Uranus has large inclination so that it appears to be lying down,
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hence it bears the name “A Planet on its Side”.
Neptune:
 Neptune is the 8th planet of the Solar System.
 The temperature on the surface of Neptune remains low.
 Neptune is very similar to Uranus and can be considered as its twin.
 Neptune is surrounded by methane rings of sub zero temperature.
Pluto is not a Planet now

 On the basis of the new definition of planet given by the IAU (International
Astronomical Union), the world’s top institution on space science research,
leading astronomers participating in IAU’s meet at Prague (Czech Republic)
on August24, 2006, declared that Pluto would no longer remain a planet.
 Under the IAU’s new guidelines, the number of planets in the Solar System
has thus been reduced from nine to eight. Its merits mentioning here that,
prior to this decision, Pluto had been holding the planetary status since its
discovery in 1930 by Clyde Tombaugh.
 Now, with the omission of Pluto from the Solar System, its membership has
been restricted to the eight “classical” planets, namely Mercury Venus,
Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.
Pluto Gets a Numerical Denomination

Weeks after it was demoted to a sub—planetary status, Pluto was given a new
name to reflect its new status as a dwarf planet in September 2006. The
former 9th planet was assigned the asteroid number 134340 by the Minor

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Planet Centre (MPC), the official organisation responsible for collecting data
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about asteroids and comets in our Solar System.
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Pluto’s companion satellites, Charon, Nix and Hydra are considered part of
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the same system and will not be assigned separate asteroid numbers. Instead,
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they will now be called 134340 I, II and III respectively.
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 Before loosing its planetary status on 24th August, 2006 Pluto was the
outermost planet of the Solar System.
Some Facts and Figures about the Planets

Name of Time Time Diameter of Mass of No of
planet Taken for Taken to planet planet satellites
one turn once compared (or
revolution on its axis to earth moons)
around taken as 1
Sun
1. Mercury 88 days 58.6 days 4,878 km 0.055 None
2. Venus 224.7 days 243 days 12,100 km 0.8 None
3. Earth 365.26 23.9 hours 12,760 km 1 1
days (23 hours
56 min 04
sec.)
4. Mars 687 days 24.6 hours 6,780 km 0.1 2
5. Jupiter 11.9 years 9.9 hours 1,42,800 km 318 16
6. Saturn 29.5 years 10 hours 1,20,00 km 95 21
7. Uranus 84 years 162. hours 50,800 km 15 15
8. Neptune 164.8 years 18.5 hours 48,600 km 17 8

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Asteroids (or Planetoids)
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 Asteroids are the also known as minor planets.
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 They are objects that revolve around the Sun.
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 They are mostly found between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. They are a
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belt of debris which failed to assemble into planets and keeps on revolving
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around the Sun. This has come to be called as ‘asteroid belt’.
 More than 5000 asteroids have been identified.
 Asteroids may be spherical, elongated or irregular in shape.
 All asteroids rotate on their axis, every 5 to 20 hours. Certain asteroids may
have satellites.
 Trojan asteroids are found in two clouds moving in the orbit of Jupiter, one
moving ahead of it and the other moving behind it.
 Scientists believe that these asteroids occupy a place where a planet could
have existed but was prevented from its formation by the disruptive
gravitational force of the nearby giant planet, Jupiter.
Meteors and Meteorites

 Meteors and Meteorites are also called shooting stars.
 Meteors are fragments of rocks coming towards the earth, formed due to
the collision of asteroids with one another.
 Meteors are usually small, and due to the heat produced by air resistance,
burn up before they reach the Earth’s surface.
 When meteors are large and do not burn up completely, they land on the
Earth’s surface and are known as Meteorites.
 All meteorites are believed to originate in the asteroid belt, where a sudden
collision may send them towards the Earth and the Earth’s gravity attracts
them towards its surface.
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Comets
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 Visitors of the Solar System.
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 Comets (the name derived from the Latin words stella cometa meaning
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“hairy star”) are among the most spectacular and unpredictable bodies in
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the Solar System.
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 Comets move around the Sun in regular orbits, but their orbits are
elongated ellipses that it takes them hundreds and, sometimes, even
thousands of years to complete one revolution around the Sun.
 Comets are made up of frozen gases which hold together rocky and metallic
materials.
 A comet becomes visible only when it travels close to the Sun.
 Its ice melts and the gas and dust is swept back into a tail.
 The tail always points away from the Sun. So when it is travelling away
from the Sun it is led by its tail.
Features of a Comet:
 A comet is characterised by a long luminous tail, which emits light.
 But this is visible only when the comet’s orbit passes close to the Sun.
 When the comet travels close to the Sun, the ice melts to a head of gas
called a Coma.
 The Sun’s radiation sweeps this into a gas tail.
 Dust particles are also swept back to form a dust tail.

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The Earth
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Shape of the Earth
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 Pythagoras (572-500 B.C.), a Greek philosopher and mathematician, was
among the first to suggest that the Earth was shaped like a globe.
The Earth is not flat:

 If the Earth were a flat disc, then the rising Sun would have been seen at all
places at the same time. But this does not happen. Places in the east see the
rising Sun earlier.
 When a ship approaches land, its funnel or mast is seen first and then the
hull. If the Earth had been flat, the whole ship would have been seen at the
same time.
The Earth is a sphere:

 The Earth is rarely oriented in the same position during successive eclipses
but it always casts a circular shadow, thus proving that the Earth is a
sphere. A sphere is the only solid body that will always cast a circular
shadow.
 At the North Pole, the Pole Star can always be observed at 90 degrees in the
sky, since the star lies in the line with the axis of the Earth.
 As one travels southwards, the angle of Pole Star decreases.
 At the Equator the angle becomes zero degree.
 This observation proves that the path of travel is an arc of a circle.
The Earth as an Oblate Spheroid:
 Refined measurements of the Earth have proved that the true form of the
Earth resembles a sphere that has been compressed at the poles and made
to bulge at the Equator. This form is known as an oblate spheroid.

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The various factors which make the earth suitable for life to evolve and
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survive are:
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 The earth has all the essential elements like carbon (in the form of CO2),
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hydrogen (H2), nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2) which act as building blocks
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for the origin of life.
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 The earth is neither too hot nor too cold. It has the right temperature range
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for carrying out the life-sustaining chemical reactions.
 The earth has a lot of water in the form of lakes, rivers and oceans for the
growth and survival of life.
 The earth has enough oxygen gas in its atmosphere for the survival of living
beings through breathing.
 The earth has a protective blanket of ozone layer high up in its atmosphere
to save life from harmful ultraviolet radiations coming from the sun.
STATISTICAL DATA OF THE EARTH
The Earth is the fifth largest planet in the Solar System.
Age 4,550 million years

Mass 5.976 x 1024 kg.
Volume 1.083 x 1024 litres
Mean Density 5.518 kg/litre
Diameter
 Equatorial diameter : 12,756 km
 Equatorial radius : 6,377 km

 Polar diameter : 12,714 km
 Polar radius : 6,375 km

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Circumference
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 Equatorial circumference : 40,077 km
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 Polar circumference : 40,009 km
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 Highest land point (Mt. Everest) : 8,848 m.
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 Lowest land point (Dead Sea) : 397 m.
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 Greatest ocean depth (Mariana Trench) : 11,033 m.
 Maximum distance from the Sun (At Aphelion) : 152 million km.
(approx.)
 Minimum distance from the Sun (At Perihelion) : 147 million km.
(approx.)
 Total Surface area : 510,065,700 sq.km.
 Total Land area : 148,647,000 sq.km.
 Total Water area : 361,150,000 sq.km.
 Average Density : 5.52 (corresponding to the destiny of water)
Composition of Whole Earth

1. Oxygen : 46.5%
2. Silicon : 27.72%
3. Aluminium : 8.13%
4. Iron : 5.01%
5. Calcium : 3.63
6. Sodium : 2.9%
7. Potassium : 2.1%
8. Magnesium : 2.09%
9. Others : 0.5%
Total : 100%
29.2% of the total surface area of Earth is covered by continents (land), while
70.8% is covered by oceans (water). The total water area of the earth
including the oceans, lakes, rivers, ice sheets and the water in the atmosphere
is called hydrosphere and it covers about 71% of the earth’s surface Using
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Newton’s law of gravitation, Mass of the Earth is calculated from the orbit of
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the Moon.
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Motion of the Earth-Rotation and Revolution
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 Rotation is the turning around of the Earth on its axis, from west to east.
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 As the Earth rotates in west-east direction, we see the Sun rising every day
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in the east and setting in the west.
 The Earth spins (rotates), west to east approximately on its axis once in 24
hours.
 The North Pole and South Pole lie at the ends of the axis.
 The Earth’s axis is not vertical. It makes an angle of 23°30’ with the vertical
or 66°30’ with the plane of the Earth’s orbit.
 The Earth’s axis always remains pointed in the same direction (towards the
Pole Star) as the Earth moves around the Sun.
 The tilt of the Earth’s axis is known as the inclination of the Earth’s axis.
Effect of the Titled Axis on Day and Night

 Rotation of the Earth on its tilted axis causes days and nights to be of
different length in different parts of the Earth.
 Since the Earth’s axis is tilted in the same direction, the orientation of the
Earth’s axis to the Sun’s rays is constantly changing as the Earth moves
around the Sun. This results in a continuous change in the length of days
and nights throughout the year.
Perihelion:
 The position of the earth or any other planet in its orbit when it is at its
nearest point to the sun.
 The earth reaches its perihelion about 3rd January at a distance of about
147 million kilometer near one extremity of the major axis of the earth’s
elliptical: orbit, the axis being called Apsides line.

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Aphelion:
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 The position of the earth or any other planet in its orbit when it is at its
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greatest distance from the sun.
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 The earth reaches its aphelion on 4th July when the earth is at a distance of
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152 million kilometer near the other extremity of the major axis.
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Solstice:
 Solstice is one of the two dates in the year on which the sun reaches
greatest altitude north or south of the equator and is directly overhead
along one of the lines of the tropics.
Summer Solstice:
 On June 21, the earth is so located in its orbit that the sun is overhead on
the Tropic of Cancer (23½°N).
 On this date the northern hemisphere is tipped towards the sun having the
longest day, while the southern hemisphere is tipped away from the sun
having the shortest day.
Winter Solstice:
 On December 22, the earth is in an equivalent position on the opposite
points in its orbit, so the southern hemisphere is tipped towards the sun
and the northern hemisphere away from it.
 The sun is overhead on the Tropic of Capricorn (23½°S), resulting in the
shortest day in the northern hemisphere.
Equinoxes:
 Two days in a year when day and night are equal throughout the world are
equinoxes.
 Falling midway between the dates of soistices, on these dates, the earth’s
axis lies at 90° to the line joining the centres of the earth and the sun and
neither the northern nor the southern hemisphere is inclined towards the
sun.

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 The ‘vernal equinox’ occurs on March 21 and it is also called the spring
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equinox in the northern hemisphere.
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 The ‘autumnal equinox’ occurs on September 23.
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Midnight Sun:
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 This phenomenon is observed in the Arctic and Antarctic zones around
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mid-summer, when the sun does not sink below the horizon throughout 24
hours of the day and therefore, may be seen at midnight.
 This is the direct consequence of the inclination of the axis of the earth to
the plane of the orbit.
 Norway is the place of midnight sun where the sun is continuously visible
between May and July.
 In the southern hemisphere, the phenomenon is seen in the Antarctica
continent.
Eclipses:
 An Eclipse occurs when the sun, moon and earth are in a straight line.
 A ‘solar eclispe’ occurs between sunrise and sunset on new moon when the
moon passes directly in front of the sun so that its shadow lies on the earth.
In other words, the moon lies between the sun and the earth.
 The ‘lunar eclipse’ takes place when the earth comes in between the sun
and the moon so that the shadow of the earth is cast on the moon.
 A lunar eclipse takes place on a full moon.
 Generally a total of seven eclipses, including solar and lunar eclipses, take
place every year.
Latitudes and Longitudes

 The north-south lines are known as meridians of longitude and extend
from the North Pole to the South Pole. All meridians are halves of great
circles
 The east-west lines (circles) are known as parallels of latitude.

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 All parallels of latitudes are not parts of the great circle. Only one latitude,
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the Equator, is a great circle.
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 Relative location specifies a particular position or place relating it to
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another known position or place.
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 Absolute location indicates position based on the coordinates of a grid
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system (such as latitude and longitude).
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 Latitude also accounts for temperature differences on the surface of the
earth. The latitude of a place provides a good idea about its climate and
vegetation.
 Longitude causes time to differ at different places on the earth.
 Latitude is the angular distance of a place north or south of the Equator.
 Usually distance is measured in kilometres or miles but Angular distance is
measured and expressed in degrees.
 Latitude of a place tells us about the climate of the place in general terms,
and the related vegetation and animal life.
 Latitude along with longitude enables us to find the exact location of places
on the earth.
Points to Note:
 A latitude is the angular distance of a place north or south of the Equator.
 There are 180 parallel latitudes.
 Each parallel of latitude is a circle.
 All the parallels of latitude are not of equal length.
 The circles become smaller towards the pole.
 The Equator at 00 is the most important latitude and the largest circle that
can be drawn on the globe.
 It divides the earth into the Northern Hemisphere and the Southern
Hemisphere.
 The distance between any two parallels of latitude is always equal.
 The North Pole and the South Pole are fixed points and serve as basic
points of reference.

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 The zenith distance is the angle that the Sun makes at noon with the zenith
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(the point in the sky which is vertically above the observer). This can be
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obtained with the help of instruments.
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Longitudes and Time Zones
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 Longitude is the angular distance of a place east or west of the Prime
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Meridian.
 There are 360 meridians of longitude.
 The Prime Meridian is a longitude of 0°.
 Each meridian of longitude is a semi-circle.
 All meridians are of equal length.
 The distance between any two meridians is not equal. They get closer
(converge) from the Equator to the poles.
Longitude and Time

 When the sun is at its highest point in the sky, it is noon. The shadow is
shortest at noon. This highest position of the Sun in the sky, at noon, is
called zenith.
 The time of a place reckoned by the mid-day Sun is called the local time.
 The Earth takes approximately 24 hours to complete one rotation, i.e., it
takes 24 hours to complete 360° of its rotation.
 Places in the east see the Sun first. Places in the west see the Sun later.
 For each 1° of longitude towards the east, a time of four (4) minutes has to
be added.
 For each 1°of longitude towards the west, a time of four (4) minutes has to
be subtracted.
 When the local time of a central place is taken as the time for the whole
country (or a large area), it is called the Standard Time of that country or
area.
 In India, the longitude of 82°30’ E, passing through the area near Allahabad
is considered the Standard Meridian. This is known as the Indian Standard
Time (1ST).
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 IST is 5 hours 30 minutes ahead of GMT.
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 A Time Zone is an area in the world where clocks record the same time.
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 Since it takes 24 hours for the earth to make one rotation, Standard
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Fleming, a Canadian, suggested dividing the earth into 24 time zones.
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 In 1884, a group of countries established standard time zones for the whole
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 Each time zone is almost 15° wide, with adjustments made In some places
so that a city or country may not be divided into two time zones.
 A separation of one time zone indicates a difference of one hour between
two places.
 Clocks to the east of a time zone are set for one hour later; clocks to the
west, one hour earlier.
 Greenwich Mean Time : In order to maintain an International uniformity,
one uniform time, corresponding to the Prime Meridian, has been adopted
by all countries. This is called Greenwich Mean Time (G.M.T).
International Date Line

 The line at which a day is lost or gained is called the International Date
Line.
 It is an imaginary zigzag line on the globe, approximately along the 180°
meridian of longitude.
 If you are travelling eastward from Greenwich to a place A on longitude
180°, the time will be 12 hours ahead of Greenwich time, e.g. 06:00 a.m. on
Tuesday.
 If you are travelling westward from Greenwich to the same place A on
longitude 180°, the time will be 12 hours behind Greenwich time, i.e. 6:00
p.m. but on the previous day, Monday.
Declination of the Sun: This is the angle that the Sun makes north or south
of the Equator on a particular day.

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Different Heat Zones of The Earth
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Torrid Zone:
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 The region between the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn receives
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direct rays of the Sun practically throughout the year.
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 This area receives maximum heat and is called the Torrid (hot) Zone.
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Frigid Zone:
 Near the polar regions, the rays of the Sun are very slanting and so it is very
cold.
 The region/area between the Arctic Circle and the North Pole in the
Northern Hemisphere is called the Frigid Zone.
 There are similar regions in the Southern Hemisphere between the
Antarctic Circle and the South Pole, also called the Frigid Zone (frigid
means cold
.
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The Lithosphere
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The part of the Earth where life exists is called the Biosphere (‘bios’ means
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life). The Earth is the only planet of the solar system that supports life. Life is
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possible because of its unique lithosphere hydrosphere and atmosphere.
Lithosphere
The uppermost layer of the Esarth’s crust which is capable of supporting life
is called Lithosphere. The Lithosphere (or land) covers two-sevenths or
29.22% (14,90,41,182 sq. km.) of the total surface area of the earth.
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH AND ROCKS

The Earth’s Crust
 The outermost solid cover or shell of the earth is known as the earth’s
crust.
 The thickness of the crust is about 30 km.
 It is thicker in the region of the continents and thinner in the region of the
ocean floors.
 The density of the rocks in the earth’s crust ranges from 2.7 to 3 g/c.c
(grams per cubic centimeter).
 The upper part of the crust consists of silica and aluminium in greater
proportions. That is why, it is called ‘SIAL’.
 Whereas the lower part of the crust is called ‘SIMA’ because the proportion
of silica and magnesium is higher in this part.
Mantle
 This layer lies below the crust.
 Its thickness is about 2900 km and the density of substances in the mantle
ranges from 3.0 to 4.7.

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Core
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 The earth’s core lies below the mantle.
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 Its thickness may be about 3400 km.
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 It is divided into two parts — the outer core and the inner core. The outer
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core is probably in a liquid state and the inner core in a solid state.
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 The core mainly consists of iron with some amount of nickel and sulphur.
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 After the mantle, the earth’s density goes on increasing rapidly towards its
centre and finally is more than 13.
 The temperature of the central part of the earth may be about 5000°C.
 The study of the earth’s interior helps us to understand the original rocks
in the earth’s crust and their later transformation.
Rocks
 The solid parts of the earth’s crust are called rocks. Most of the rocks’ are
made up of two or more minerals.
 In the same type of rocks, the proportions of minerals may be different in
different areas.
 Rocks may not always necessarily be hard.
 Minerals are obtained from rocks and soil.
 Rocks are classified in three main types depending on the process of their
formation: (a) Igneous, (b) Sedimentary, (c) Metamorphic.
Igneous rocks:
 Hot lava pours out at the time of volcanic eruptions and cools down later
on, forming rocks.
 The molten materials known as magma, sometimes cool down beneath the
earth’s crust, again forming rocks.
 Both these types of rocks are known as Igneous rocks.
 When the earth’s surface first became solid after it cooled down from its
hot liquid state, the original rocks of the earth’s crust were formed. They
are the Primary Igneous rocks, which are usually not found today.
 Igneous rocks are generally harder and granular.
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 There are no layers in Igneous rocks.
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 Fossils are not found in Igneous rocks.
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 The formation of Igneous rocks takes place beneath and above the surface
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 Rocks formed by the cooling of molten matter beneath the earth’s surface
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are called intrusive igneous rocks. ‘Granite’ and ‘Gabbro’ are the main
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examples of these rocks.
 The intrusive rocks are thus crystalline rocks.
 Sometimes, the molten matter oozes out through cracks in the earth’s crust
and spreads on the surface, forming extrusive igneous rocks.
 Gabbro, Obsidian, Basalt etc. are examples of extrusive igneous rocks.
 A very large area of the Deccan Plateau consists of basalt rocks.
 These rocks contain silica from 40 to 80%, others are magnesium and iron
etc.
 Other examples of Igneous rocks are—Granite, Pumic stone, Basalt and
Gabbro.
Igneous Rocks Metamorphic rocks
Mica Schist
Granite Gneiss
Bituminous Anthracite
Sedimentary rocks:
 They are formed by the deposition of small pieces of rock and soil in layers
one above the other over a period of time.
 As layers over layers get deposited, over a period of time, unified
sedimentary rocks are formed on account of the tremendous pressure
exerted by the layers above.

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 Sometimes the remains of plants, dead animals etc. are found in the
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deposited material. Such fossil containing sedimentary rocks are useful for
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studying life on earth.
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 Sandstone, limestone, shale are some examples of sedimentary rocks.
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 Limestone is white as well as black.
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 Sandstone is dull white, pink, bright red or sometimes black.
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Sedimentary rocks Metamorphic rocks
Limestone Marble
Sandstone Quartzite
Shale Slate
Peat Coal
Metmaorphic rocks:
 The nature of igneous and sedimentary rocks changes due to the effects of
tremendous heat or pressure, and new, transformed rocks, called
metamorphic rocks, are formed.
 Minerals in the rocks get restructured on account of heat and pressure.
This brings about a change in the original formation of the rocks.
Some examples of metamorphic rocks formed from igneous and

sedimentary rocks:
Name of the
Name of the
Type of rock metamorphic
original rock
rock
Igneous granite gneiss
Igneous basalt homblend, schist
Sedimentary limestone marble
Sedimentary coal graphite coal

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Sedimentary sandstone quartzite
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Sedimentary shale slate, mica schist
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CONTINENTS
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 Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Europe, Australia, Antarctica.
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Continent’s Earth Area
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Continent % of Continent % of
Earth Area Earth Area
1. Asia 29.5 2. Africa 20.0
3. North America 16.3 4. South America 11.8
5. Europe 6.5 6. Australia 5.2

7. Antarctica 9.6
Continent’s Highest & Lowest Points
Continent Highest Point Lowest Point

1. Asia Everest (8848 m) Dead Sea (-396.8 m)
2. Africa Kilimanjaro (5894 m) Lake Assai (—156.1 m)
3. North America Mckinley (6194 m) Death Valley (-85.9 m)
4. South America Aconcagua (6960 m) Valdis Penin (-39.9 m)
5. Europe Elbrus (5663m) Caspian Sea (-28.0 m)
6. Australia Koscisko (2228 m) Lake Eyre (-15.8 m)
7. Antarctica Vinson Massif (5140 m) (Unexplored)

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Facts about Asia
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 The word ‘Asia’ is derived from the word ‘Asu’ (of Hibru language), which
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literally means ‘the rising sun’.
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 Asia is the largest of all the seven continents of the world.
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 With 44.6 million sq. km. area, it covers about one-third of the land surface
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of the world.
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 With 3686 million people, it contains about 60% of the world population
and emerges as the most populous continent of the world.
 This vast continent comprises the greatest diversity in terms of physical
features, climate, vegetation, wildlife and people.
 It has the highest mountain peak on the Earth, Mount Everest (8848 m) and
the lowest point, the Dead Sea (400 m below sea level).
 It has the coldest place. Verkhoyansk in Siberia has winter temperature of -
70°C. Jacobabad in Sindh is the hottest place on the Earth.
 Mawsynram, Cherrapunji (India) has the world’s highest average rainfall of
2600 cm. Simultaneously, it has desert areas of central asia.
 Asia has the world’s deepest fresh water lake, i.e. Baikal Lake which is 1637
meters deep.
 It has the largest delta ‘Sunderbans’, the most fertile river valleys (Ganga,
Indus, Brahmaputra, Yangtze Kiang and Hwang Ho etc.) and the extensive
barren lands of Baluchistan.
 It has rich and varied wildlife which is peculiar to this continent.
 Asia has been the cradle of ancient civilizations like the Mesopotamian
Civilization, the Indus Civilization and the Chinese Civilization which
sustained in the fertile river valleys of Asia.
 Asia has the privilege of being the birthplace of major religions of the world
Judaism, Hinduism, Christianity, Islam, Taoism, Shintoism, Jainism, Sikhism,
Buddhism and Zoroastrianism etc.
 Asia wholly lies in the Northern Hemisphere.
Latitude : It lies between 10°S to 80°N latitudes, i.e. it spans over 90° of
latitudes.

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Longitude : It lies almost entirely in the Eastern Hemisphere.
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 It extends from 25°E to 170°E. This large longitudinal extent brings about a
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difference of 11 hours between the local times of the easternmost part and
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the westernmost part of Asia.
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Boundaries : The continent is bounded by oceans on three sides — Arctic
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ocean in the north, Pacific Ocean in the east and the Indian Ocean in the south.
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 In the west, Asia is separated from Europe by the low Yural Mountains, the
Yural river and the Caspian Sea. The Red Sea and Suez Canal separate it
from Africa.
 In the north-east, the Bering strait separates it from North America.
 Latitude : 10°S and 80°N
 Longitude : 25oE and 170oW
 Area : 44,485,900 sq. km. (approx.)
 Population : 3,823 million (est. 2003)—60.7% of world population.
 Ocean and Seas : Arctic Ocean, Pacific Ocean, Indian Ocean, Red Sea,
Gulf of Aden, Persian Gulf, Gulf of Oman, Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, China
Sea, Yellow Sea of Okhotsk, Bering Sea.
 Highest and Lowest Points : Everest (8,848 metres) and Dead Sea
(396.8 m) respectively.
 Straits : Strait of Malacca, Bering Strait.
 Lakes : Caspian Sea, Aral Sea, Lake Baikal, Lake Balkhash.
 Islands : Kurile, Sakhalin, Honshu, Hokkaido, Taiwan, Borneo,
Sumatra, Java, Celebes, New Guinea, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Bahrain,
Cyprus.
 Mountains : Pamir Knot, Himalayas, Karakoram, Kunlurt, Tien
Shan, Altai, Hindu Kush, Elbruz, Pontic, Sulaiman, Zagros, Taurus, Urals,
Yablonovoi, Stanovoi.
 Plateaus : Anatolia Plateau, Plateau of Iran, Plateau of Arabia,
Plateau of Tibet, Tarim Basin, Plateau of Mongolia, Plateau of Yunnan,
Decan Plateau.
 Peninsulas : Kamchatka Peninsula, Peninsula of Korea, Peninsula
of Indo-China, Malay Peninsula, Indian Peninsula, Arabian Peninsula.
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 Deserts
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: Arabian Desert, Thar Desert, Gobi Desert.
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 Rivers : Eupharates, Tigris, Indus, Ganga, Brahmaputra,
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Hwang—Ho, Yang-tse, Si-kiang, Amur, Lena Yenisei, Ob, Irrawady, Salween,
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Mekong.
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 Important cities : Aden, Karachi, New Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Colombo,
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Yangon (former Rangoon), Kuala Lurnpur, Bangkok, Ho Chi Mirth City
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(former Saigon), Singapore, Manila, Guangzhou (former Canton), Hong
Kong, Shanghai, Tokyo.
Facts about Africa

1. Latitude: 35° S and 37° N
2. Longitude : 50° E and 17° W
3. Population : 851 million (est. 2003) —13.5% of world population.
4. Area: 30,259,680 sq. km (approx.) (20.4% of the world).
5. Oceans and Seas : Indian Ocean, Red Sea, Atlantic Ocean, Gulf of Guinea,
Mediterranean Sea.
6. Highest and Lowest Points : Kilimanjaro (5,894 m.) and Lake Assai (-156.1
m.) respectively.
7. Straits : Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, Straits of Gibraltar.
8. Lakes : Victoria, Tanganyka, Malawi, Chad, Rudolf, Albert.
9. Islands : Madagascar, Cape Verde Islands, The Comoros, Mauritius,
Seychelles.
10. Mountains : Atlas, Drakensberg, Kilimanjaro.
11. Plateaus : Plateau of Africa — the entire continent is a plateau.
12. Deserts : Sahara, Kalahari, Namib.
Facts about North America

North America, northern continent of Western Hemisphere, comprising
U.S.A., Canada, Central America and the Caribbean, on west high chain of
mountains, lower range in east and central plains. Climate varies
considerably owing to wide range of latitude and altitude.
1. Latitude: 7° N and 84° N
2. Longitude : 20° W and 180° W
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3. Area : 24,235,280 sq. km (approx.) (16.3%).
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4. Population: 326 million (est. 2003)—5.2% of world population.
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5. Major Deserts : Chihuahuan, Colorado, Mujave, Sonoran.
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6. Major Lakes Lake Superior (largest sweet water lake in the world), Huron,
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Michigan, Great Slave, Great Bear, Erie, Ontario, etc.
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7. Major Rivers : Mississippi, Missourie, St. Lawrence, Mackenzie, Colorado,
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Hudson, Potomac, Ohio etc.
8. Oceans and Seas : Atlantic Ocean, Pacific Ocean, Arctic Ocean, Gulf of
Mexico, Caribbean Sea, Gulf of California, Gulf of Alaska, Bering Sea, Hudson
Bay.
9. Highest and Lowest Points : Mckinley (6,194 m.) and Death Valley (-85.9
m.) respectively.
10. Straits : Bering Strait.
11. Islands : Greenland, Baffin, Victoria, Newfoundland, Cuba, Jamaica,
12. Mountains: Rockies, Appalachain, Brooks, Kuskolkwim, Alaska Range,
Cascade Range, Coastal Range, Sierra Nevada, Sierra Madre etc.
13. Plateaus : Columbia Plateau, Colorado Plateau, Mexican Plateau,
Canadian Shield.
14. Agriculture : Temperate and tropical products, cereals, tobacco,
sugarbeet, potatoes etc.
15. Minerals : Coal, petroleum, iron, manganese etc.
16. Industries : Ship building, occupied formerly by Red Indians; now mainly
by Whites with many Blacks in the south.
17. Important cities: New York, Washington D.C., Boston, Chicago, Dallas,
Detroit, San Francisco, Los Angeles, Seattle, Montreal, Toronto,
Vancouver, Mexico City Havana, Kingston, Ottawa etc.
18. Climate : Extending to within 100 of latitude of both the equator and the
North Pole, North America has every climatic zone, from tropical rain
forest and Savanna on the lowlands of Central America to areas of
permanent ice cap, besides Sub-arctic and Tundra climates and arid as
well as semi-arid zones.
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Facts about South America
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Latitude : 120 N and 550 N
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Longitude : 350 W and 81° W
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Area : 17,820,770 sq. km (12%).
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Population : 543 million (est. 2003)—8.6% of world population.
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Ocean and Seas : Atlantic Ocean, Pacific Ocean, Caribbean Sea.
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Highest and Lowest Points : Aconcagua (6,960 m) Valdes Penin (-39.9 m)
respectively.
Straits : Straits of Magellan
Lakes : Lake Maracaibo, Lake Titicaca
Islands : Galapagos, Falkland, Tierra del Fuego
Mountains : Andes
Plateaus : Plateau of Bolivia, Plateau of Equador.
Deserts : Atacama, Pantagonia
Rivers : Amazon, Orinoco, Paraguay, Parana, Uruguay
Important cities : Buenos Aires, Rio de Janeiro, Moritivideo, Quito,
Santiago, La Paz, Lima, Bogota, Valparaiso,Sao Paulo, Belem, Caracas, Manaus.
Facts about Europe
Latitude : 35° N and 73° N
Longitude : 25° W and 65° E
Area : 10,530,750 sq. km (approx.) (7.1%); greatest length
north to south 3,860 km; breadth east to west 5,300 km.
Population : 726 million (est. 2003)—11.52% of world population.
Ocean and Seas : Atlantic Ocean, Arctic Ocean, Mediterranean Sea,
Caspian Sea, Black Sea, White Sea, North Sea, Norwegian Sea, Baltic Sea, Gulf
of Bothnia. Gulf of Finland, Bay of Biscay, Aegean Sea, Adriatic Sea.
Highest and Lowest Points : Elbrus. (5,663 m.) and Caspian Sea (—28.0
m.) respectively.
Straits : Straits of Gibraltar
Lakes : Lake Ladoga, Onega, Peipus, Vanern, Vaitern.
Islands : British Isles, Iceland, Sardinia, Sicily, Crete.
Mountains : Alps, Pyrenes, Appenines, Dinaric Alps, Carpathins,
Transylvanian Mts., Balkans, Caucasus, Urals.
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Plateaus : Plateau of Bohemia, Plateau of Spain, Central Massif.
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Deserts : Volga, Danube, Rhine, Po, Dnieper, Don, Vistula, Elbe,
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Oder, Seine. Loire, Garrone, Douro, Tagus. Ural.
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Rivers : Volga, Danube, Rhine, Po, Dnieper, Don, Vistula, Elbe,
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Oder, Seine. Loire, Garrone, Douro, Tagus, Ural.
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Important cities : London, Paris, Madrid, Antwerp, Amsterdam, Bonn,
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Copenhagen, Oslo, Stockholm, Moscow, Frankfurt, Berlin, Warsaw, Venice,
Athens, Budapest, Belgrade, Munich, Rome, Prague, Vienna etc.
Facts about Australia

Australia is an island continent and a British Dominion.
Latitude : 12° S and 38° S
Longitude : 114° E and 154°F
Area : 7,830,682 sq. km (5.3%).
Population : 20.0 million (est. 2003)—0.5% of world population.
Ocean and Seas : Pacific Ocean, Indian Ocean.
Highest and Lowest Points : Tasman Sea, Timor Sea, Arafura Sea, Gulf of
Carpentaria, Coral Sea, Great Australian Bight.
Straits : Kosciusko (2,228 m.) and Lake Eyre (- 15.8 m.)
respectively.
Lakes : Bass Strait
Islands : Lake Eyre
Mountains : Tasmania
Plateaus : Great Dividing Range
Deserts : Western Plateau.
Rivers : Gibson Desert, Great Sandy Desert, Great Victoria
Desert, Simpson Desert.
Important cities : Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide, Perth, Darwin, Canberra,
Brisbane, Hobart.

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The Hydrosphere
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 Hydrosphere (or sea) covers five-sevenths or more accurately 70.78%
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(36,10,59,226 sq km ) of the total surface area of the earth.
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 Water is freely available in the gaseous, liquid and solid state.
 It is necessary for carrying out chemical reactions within the bodies of the
living organisms.
 Water also dissolves and transports nutrients from the soil to the plants.
 It is used by plants for making food.
OCEANS ON THE EARTH

 There are four oceans. In order of their size, they are: Pacific Ocean,
Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Arctic Ocean. –
Three Deepest Oceans

Name Greatest depth (in metres) Greatest depth
location
1. Pacific Ocean 11,776 Mariana Trench
2. Atlantic Ocean 9,460 Puerto Rico Trench
3. Indian Ocean 7,542 Java Trench
Pacific Ocean
 The explorer Ferdinand Magellan, who circumnavigated the Earth, named
the ocean “Pacific” meaning calm or peaceful.
 The Pacific Ocean (Area: 166,240,000 sq. km.) is the largest ocean of the
world.
 It is the deepest ocean with an average depth of 4,200 m.

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 The Mariana Trench is the world’s deepest trench with a depth of 11,776
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metres.
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 Most of the islands of this ocean are of volcanic or coral origin.
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Atlantic Ocean
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 The Atlantic Ocean (Area : 86,560,000 sq. km.) is the second largest ocean.
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 The Atlantic Ocean has the longest coastline.
 The Atlantic Ocean is the busiest ocean for trade and commerce since its
shipping routes connect the two most industrialized regions, namely
Western Europe and N.E. United States of America.
 The Atlantic Ocean was formed millions of years ago when a rift opened up
in the Gondwanaland and the continents of South America and Africa
separated. The separation continues even today and the Atlantic Ocean is
still widening.
 The continental islands of Newfoundland and British Isles are the major
ones.
 Volcanic islands are fewer and they include those of Cuba, Jamaica and
Puerto Rico. Iceland is the largest island of volcanic origin.
Indian Ocean
 The Indian Ocean (Area: 73,430,000 sq. km) is the only ocean named after a
country.
 The Indian Ocean is deeper than the Atlantic Ocean.
 It contains numerous continental islands, Madagascar and Sri Lanka being
the largest ones.
 Some of the islands of volcanic origin are those of Mauritius, Andaman and
Nicobar, Seychelles, Maldives and Lakshadweep are of coral origin.

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South Indian Ocean
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 Warm currents : 1. South Equatorial 2. Mozambique 3. Madagascar 4.
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Agulhas.
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 Cool Currents : 1. Antarctic drift 2. West Australian currents.
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Arctic Ocean
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 The Arctic Ocean (Area: 13,230,000 sq. km.) is the smallest of all the
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oceans.
 It lies within the Arctic Circle, hence the name Arctic Ocean.
 The North Pole lies in the middle ,f the Arctic Ocean.
 Most of the parts of Arctic Ocean remains frozen with thick ice for most of
the days every year.
 It is the shallowest of all oceans, with an average depth of 1,500 m.
 It has the least salinity of all the oceans. It has a salinity of 20 unit per
thousand.
Ocean Currents
 The flow of a large amount of water in a definite direction with a great
intensity is known as Ocean Current.
 Ocean Currents are of two types-Hot and Cold. Hot Currents
 The currents flowing from tropical zones of lower latitudes to higher
temperate and sub polar zones are known as hot water currents.
Cold Currents:
 The currents flowing from higher latitudes to lower latitudes are known as
cold water currents.
 The only exception to the conduction of ocean currents is found in the
Indian Ocean. The flow of currents changes here with a change in the
direction of the Monsoon Winds The hot currents flow towards cooler
oceans and the cold currents flow towards the warmer oceans

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The Atmosphere
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The envelope of air that completely surrounds the earth is known as
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atmosphere. The term atmosphere refers to the mass of air surrounding the
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earth up to a height of several hundred kilometres.It is this expanse of air that
has made life possible on earth.
 It maintains an even temperature on the earth.
 It protects organisms from ultraviolet radiations of the sun.
 The atmosphere is held close to earth because of the earth’s gravitational
force.
 The gases in the atmosphere support life.
 Oxygen helps in food manufacturing by green plants and nitrogen helps in
growth.
 The atmosphere extends to about 1000 km from the surface of the earth.
 But 99% of the total mass of the atmosphere is found within 32 km.
 This is because the atmosphere is held by the gravitational pull of the earth.
Composition of the Atmosphere

 78% of the air is made up of nitrogen and 21% of oxygen. The remaining
1% of dry air is made up of a number of gases.
Composition of the Atmosphere : (i) Nitrogen-78% (ii) Oxygen-21% (iii)

Argon-0.93% (iv) Carbondioxide-O.03% (v) Neon-0.0018% (vi) Helium-
0.0005% (vii) Ozone-0.0006% (viii) Hydrogen-0.00005%.
 Carbon dioxide is present in small quantity in the atmosphere.
 It is an important constituent of air because it has the ability to absorb heat
and thus keep the atmosphere warm, thereby, balancing the heat of the
earth.

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 Water vapour is the most significant component of the atmosphere as far as
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its effect on weather is concerned although its quantity varies considerably
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from practically none (0) to up to about 4% by volume.
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 Water vapour is the source of all clouds and precipitation (rain, hail, storm
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 Water vapour like carbon dioxide has the ability to absorb heat energy.
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 Water vapour also regulates the hydrological cycle
 Dust intercepts and reflect incoming insolation.
 The polluted particles present in the air not only absorb larger amount of
insolation but also greatly absorb the terrestrial radiation.
 Dust in the atmosphere contributes to the red and orange colour of sunrise
and sunset.
Layers of the Atmosphere

There are five distinct layers of the atmosphere—(a) Troposphere (b)
Stratosphere (c) Mesosphere (d) Thermosphere and (e) Exosphere.
Troposphere:
 This is the first layer of the atmosphere.
 It extends to a height of 18 km at the equator and 8 km. at the poles.
 In this layer temperature decreases with height. This is due to the fact that
the density of air decreases with height and so the heat absorbed is less.
 It contains more than 90% of gases in the atmosphere.
 Since most of the water vapour form clouds In this: layer, all weather
changes occur in the troposphere (“tropo” means change).
 The height at which the temperature stops decreasing is called tropopause.
Here the temperature may be as low as -58° C.
Stratosphere:
 This the second layer of the atmosphere.
 It extends from the tropopause to about 50 km above the surface of the
Earth.
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 Temperature increases due to the absorption of the ultraviolet radiation of
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the Sun by ozone present in this layer. The temperature slowly increases to
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4°C.
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 This layer is free from clouds and associated weather phenomena Hence it
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provides ideal flying conditions for large jet planes
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 At about 50 km the temperature begins to fall again. This marks the end of
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the stratosphere. The end of the stratosphere is called the stratopause.
Mesosphere:
 Above the stratosphere lies the mesosphere.
 The mesosphere extends to a height of 80 km.
 Here the temperature decreases again, falling as low as -90°C.
 The end of this layer is known as the mesopause.
Thermosphere:
 The thermosphere lies above the mesosphere.
 This layer extends to a height of about 90 km.
 In this layer temperature rises dramatically, reaching upto 1480°C.
 This increase in temperature is due to the fact that the gas molecules in
 this layer absorb the X-rays and the short wave ultraviolet radiation of the
Sun.
 This results in the break-up of the gas molecules into positively and
negatively charged particles or ions. Thus, this layer is also known as the
ionosphere.
 The electrically charged gas molecules of the thermosphere reflect radio
waves from the Earth back into space. Thus, this layer also helps in long
distance communications.
 The thermosphere also protects us from meteors and obsolete satellites,
because its high temperature burns up nearly all the debris coming
towards the Earth.
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Exosphere:
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 This layer lies above the thermosphere.
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 The exosphere extends beyond the thermosphere upto 960 km.
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 It gradually merges with interplanetary space.
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 The temperatures in this layer range from about 300°C to 1650°C.
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 This layer contains only traces of gases like oxygen, nitrogen, argon and
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helium because the lack of gravity allows the gas molecules to escape easily
into space.
Weather and Climate

 Weather is the description of the atmospheric conditions of a particular
place at a particular time for a short period of time.
 Climate is the composite or integrated picture of the weather conditions
over a long period of time such as a season or an year.
 Climatic data is based on calculated averages of data recorded over a
period of 35 years.
Atmospheric Pressure
 Atmospheric pressure is the pressure at any point on the surface of the
Earth due to the weight of the column of air above that point.
Measurement and Units of Atmospheric Pressure

 The mercury barometer is the standard instrument for measuring
atmospheric pressure.
 Pressure is expressed in centimeters or inches of mercury, a true measure
of the height of the mercury column.
 Standard sea level pressure is 76 cm or 29.92 inches on this scale.
 Another pressure unit used by meteorologists in drawing weather charts is
millibars (mb).
 One bar is divided into 1000 millibars.
 Millibars are now known as hectopascals.

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 One atmospheric pressure (76 cm of mercury) = 760mm of Hg. 1013.25
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milli bars (mb).
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WINDS
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 Wind is the movement of air caused by the uneven heating of the Earth by
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the Sun.
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Wind Speed:
 Sometimes wind blows gently, refreshing us. At other times, it blows
strongly creating storms that cause widespread damages.
 We need measurements of two quantities: direction and speed, to give a
description of the wind.
Trade Winds
 They blow from the Sub-tropical High Pressure Belt to the Equatorial Low
Pressure Belt in the tropics between 300 North and 30° South latitudes.
 They blow as the N.E. Trades in the Northern Hemisphere and as the S.E.
Trades in the Southern Hemisphere.
 The name “Trade” is derived from a nautical expression “to blow tread”
meaning to blow along a regular path or “tread.”
Westerlies
 They blow from the Sub-tropical High Pressure Belt to the Sub-polar Low
Pressure Belt in the temperate latitudes between 300 and 600, on either
side of the Equator.
 They are more constant and stronger in the Southern Hemisphere because
there are no large landmasses to interrupt them.
 In places they become so strong that these winds are known as the Roaring
Forties or the Brave West Winds and the Furious Fifties.
 The belts of the Westerlies move north and south following the Sun’s
movement. These are known as Westerlies because they blow out of the
west.

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Polar Winds
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 They blow from the Polar High Pressure Belt to the Sub-polar Low Pressure
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Belt between latitudes 60° and the poles on both sides of the Equator.
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 These winds blow from the east to form the Polar Easterlies.
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 They are more regular in the Southern Hemisphere.
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 Polar winds are extremely cold and dry as they come from the ice-cap
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region.
Climatic Winds or Periodic Winds

 These winds change their direction along with change in time or change in
climate. Land and sea breezes and the Monsoon winds are typical examples
of periodic winds.
Monsoon Winds
 Monsoon winds are seasonal winds characterised by a complete reversal in
their direction from one season to another.
 They blow from the sea to the land in summer.
 They blow from the land to the sea in winter.
Wind Measurement Instruments

 Windvane or Weather- cock measures the wind-direction.
 Anemometer measures the wind velocity.
Pressure Measuring Instruments

 Mercurial Barometer (or Fortin’s Barometer)
 Aneroid Barometer
 Altimeter or Altitude Barometer
 Barograph (automatic recording Aneroid Barometer)
 Microbarometer
How the Sun Creates Energy:
 Hydrogen and helium are the predominant gases that constitute the Sun.
 The proportion of hydrogen to helium is 3: 1.
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 The core of the Sun acts like a gigantic nuclear reactor and converts huge
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quantity of hydrogen into helium.
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 In this process of nuclear fusion, the Sun releases tremendous amount of
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energy in all directions.
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 The Sun radiates energy (both heat and light) in all directions.
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 Because of its small size in relation to the Sun, the Earth intercepts only a
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small part of the Sun’s radiant energy.
 Solar radiations are the primary source of heat and light to the Earth.
Insolation:
 The incoming solar radiation (energy intercepted by the Earth) is known as
insolation and it is received in the form of short waves.
Terrestrial Radiation:
 The Sun’s energy absorbed by the Earth’s surface when radiated out into
space is called terrestrial radiation.

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Chapter
Earthquakes and Volcanoes
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Earth Quakes:
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 The sudden tremors or shaking of the earth’s crust for a few seconds is
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called an earthquake.
 When a part of the earth’s surface moves backward and forward or up and
down, the earth’s surface ‘quakes’, and these are called the ‘earthquake’.
 The earth’s crust is made up of different parts of various sizes. They are
called plates.
 Most of the earthquakes in the world are caused by the movements of the
plates.
 ‘Seismology’ the special branch of Geology, It deals with the study of
earthquake.
 ‘Richter scale’ is the instrument to measure! record the intensity of an
earthquake.
Seismic Waves:
 The place where the seismic waves originate beneath the earth’s surface is
called the focus of the earthquake.
 The epicenter is that point on the ground surface which is closest to the
focus.
 Seismic waves are recorded on the. seismograph. Seismic waves mainly of
three types-(i) Primary waves (ii) Secon4ary waves (iii) Surface or Long
waves.
The earthquake zones in India:

 The Indian plate is moving from south to north. That is why there are
earthquakes in the Himalayan region.

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 Earthquakes occur in Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Tripura,
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Manipur, Mizoram, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Jammu and Kashmir, the
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north-western region of Uttar Pradesh, the northern region of Bihar etc.
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 During the last few years, there have been several earthquakes of varying
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intensities in Maharashtra and Gujarat.
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Volcanic Activity
 Magma or molten rock is formed beneath the ground surface due to various
reasons.
 This molten rock ruptures the ground and pours out. Sometimes, it cools
down beneath the ground surface instead of pouring out. All these activities
are called volcanic activities.
 Volcanic activities have been taking place since times immemorial.
 There are three types of Volcanoes: (i) Active Volcanoes (ii) Dormant
Volcanoes (iii) Extinct Volcanoes.
Volcanic eruptions:
 The pouring out of the magma or molten rock through ground surface is
called a volcanic eruption.
 At the time of eruption, the magma, steam, fragments of rock, dust and
gaseous substances are ejected with great force from under the ground
surface through a pipe like passage.
 The opening of this pipe on the earth’s surface is known as the vent which
forms a crater.
 The lava which is thrown into the sky during an eruption, falls to the
ground in the form of solid fragments. Dark clouds gather in the sky and it
begins to rain heavily.
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 The volcanic ash and dust mixes with the rainwater giving rise to hot mud
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flows.
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Types of Volcanic Eruptions:
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 Volcanic eruptions are classified into two types depending on the manner
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of ejection of the magma: (i) Central eruption, (ii) Fissure eruption.
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Central eruption:
 This type of eruption is sometimes very explosive, because lava, steam, gas,
dust, smoke, stone fragments are ejected from a narrow pipe from under
the ground. This type of eruption gives rise to conical or dome- shaped
hills.
 Some examples of volcanic mountains formed due to central eruption are
Mt. Kiimanjaro in Africa, the Fujiyama in Japan and the Vesuvius and Mount
Etna in Italy.
Fissure eruption:
 A very long fissure develops in the ground surface and so, the molten rock,
rock fragments, steam and gases within, pour out slowly.These eruptions
take place at a very slow speed.As this lava is more fluid, it spreads over
longer distances.
 The lava cools down on the ground surface over a period of time,
increasing the thickness of the ground surface in that area.Basalt plateaus
are formed from these eruptions.
 Basalt plateaus are also found in Brazil in South America and Saudi Arabia
in West Asia.
 In Maharashtra, the fertile black regur soil has been formed from basalt
rocks.

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Chapter
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Various Landforms
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Mainly there are three types of landforms-Mountains, Plateaus, Plains.
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Mountains:
 On the basis of origin there are four types of mountains : Block Mountains,
Residual Mountains, Accumulated Mountains and Fold Mountains.
Block Mountains:
 The middle part of such mountains is lower and the parts on both the sides
are higher. The middle lower portion is called as Rift valley. The longest rift
valley is the valley of the Jordan river.
 Black Forest (Germany), Vindhyachal and Satpura (India), Salt Range
(Pakistan) are some examples of block mountains.
Residual Mountains:
 Such mountains are formed as a result of weathering. e.g. Nilgiri, Parasnath,
Hills of Rajmahal (India), Siera (Spain).
Accumulated Mountains:
 These are formed due to accumulation of sand, soil, rocks, lava etc. on the
Earth’s Crust., e.g. Sand Dunes.
Fold Mountains:
 These are formed because of the folds in the rocks due to internal motions
of the earth. These are wavelike mountains which have numerous peaks
and lows, e.g. Himalayas, Ural, Alps, Rockies, Andes etc.
Plateaus
 Plateaus are extensive upland areas characterised by flat and rough top
surface and steep walls which rise above the neighbouring ground surface
at least for 300 m.

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 Generally the height of plateau ranges from 300 to 500 feet.
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Intermountainous Plateaus : Plateaus formed between mountain
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Mountainstep Plateaus : The flat region between a plain and the base of a
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mountain.
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Continental Plateaus : These are fcrmed when the Lacolith inside the Earth
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comes to the surface due to weathering. e.g. the Southern Plateau
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Bank Plateaus : These are the plateaus on the banks of the oceans.
Domelike Plateaus : These are formed due to the movement of man and
animals on the surface. e.g. Ramgarh Plateau.
 Some plateaus having more than average height are:
Tibetan Plateau 16000 ft
Bolivian Plateau 11800 ft
Columbian Plateau 7800 ft
Plains
 Plains can be defined as flat areas with low height (generally below 500 ft.)
 Weathered Plains : The plains formed due to weathering by rivers, glaciers,
winds etc.
 Loess Plains : These are formed by the soil and sands brought by winds.
 Karst Plains : Plains formed due to the weathering of limestone.
 Erosional Plains : Plains near the river banks, formed by river erosion.
 Glacial Plains: Marshy plains formed due to the deposition of ice.
 Desert Plains : These are formed as a result of the flow of rivers formed due
to rain.
 Deposition Plains : Large plains are formed due to the silt brought along by
the rivers. Such plains include the plains of Ganga, Sutlej, Mississipi, Hwang
Ho.
Pastures (or Grasslands)

 They can be divided into two types:
(i) Tropical Pastures and
(ii) Temperate Pastures

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Tropical Pastures They have different names in different countries. Savanna
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in Africa and Australia, Campos in Brazil, Lanos in Venezuela and Colombia.
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Temperate Pastures: They are known by the following names-Praries in USA
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and Canada, Pampas in Argentina, Veld in South Africa, Downs in Australia
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and Newzealand, Steppes in Asia (Ukraine, Russia and Manchuria region of
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China).
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Land Forms Created By The River System
V-shaped valley:
 A river flows with a greater velocity in the mountainous region and big,
pointed fragments of rock also flow with a great speed along with the
water.
 The riverbed is scoured and downcutting starts, ultimately giving rise to a
deep valley with steep sides. This valley is called a v-shaped valley.
 These valleys are found in mountainous regions.
 A deep and narrow valley with steep sides is called a gorge.
 The gorge of the river Ulhas in Thane district in Maharashtra and the gorge
of the river Narmada at Bhedaghat near Jabalpur in Madhya Pradesh are
well known.
 There are many gorges in the Himalayas.
Waterfall:
 If there are both hard (resistant) and soft (less resistant) rocks in the
course of the river, the less resistant rock is eroded faster.
 The resistant rock does not erode so easily. That is why, the river falls with
a great speed from a cliff-like part of hard rock. This is called a waterfall.
 The Niagara Falls on the Niagara river in North America are famous.

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Potholes:
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 In areas where the river bed consists of hard rock, the stones carried along
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with the river water due to the whirling impact of water.
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 That is why holes of various shapes are formed in the rocky river bed. Such
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holes are called potholes.
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 Many patholes are observed in the river bed of the Kukadi, Krishna,
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Godawari etc. in Maharashtra.
Meanders and ox-bow lakes:

 Meanders are formed by lateral erosion.
 As the erosion increases over a period of time, the meanders in the river
again starts flowing in a straight line.
 The loop previously formed then separates from the main course of the
river. Water accumulates in this separated part.
 As this loop resembles on ox-bow it is called ox-bow lake.
Fan-shaped plains:
 In the region near the source of a river the tributaries joining the main
river deposit materials carried by them on the banks of the main river.
 This deposition creates fan-like plains. They are called fan-shaped plains or
alluvial fans.
Flood plains:
 When, during the floods, the river-water overflows its banks and spreads in
the surrounding areas, the silt carried by the water gets deposited in those
areas. This creates flat plains on both the banks of the river. Plains created
by this depositional work done during floods are called flood plains.
 The Gangetic Plain is a flood plain.
Natural levees:
 When a river is over flooded, its water crosses its banks. At that time, the
speed of the water is reduced, and the pebbles and stones carried by the
river get deposited near the banks.

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 On account of frequent floods, the area where these sediments are
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deposited near the bank of the river rises higher than the flood plain.
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 This high wall is called a natural levee or natural embankment.
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 Such levees are found on the banks of the Mississippi, the Huang-ho etc.
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Delta
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 It is a triangular tract of land formed by the accumulation of silt at river’s
mouth near the sea.
Delta-region:
 A river meets a sea or a lake. The silt carried by the river is deposited on
the bed near its mouth.
 The area near the mouth of the river gets gradually filled up by this
deposition and gets raised causing an obstruction for the river to flow in a
single channel. It, therefore, splits into two branches and meets the sea.
 Over a period of time, there is deposition also at the mouth of these
branches. In this manner, the main course of the river gets split into a
network of small channels. These sub-channels are called distributaries.
 A triangular region of innumerable such distributaries is formed near the
mouth of the river. This region is called the delta region.
 There are delta regions near the vent (opening) of the rivers Godavari,
Ganga, Nile, Mississippi etc. Deltas are very fertile.
Land forms created by the actins of river

Erosion Erosion Deposition Depositon
V-shaped valley Meanders Fan-shaped plains
George Ox-bow Flood
Potholes Lakes Plains
Waterfall Delta
Natural
Levees

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Glacier
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 A mass of ice sliding down the slope from a snow-clad region is called a
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glacier.
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 On an average a glacier moves 1 to 15 metres a day.
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 While a glacier is moving, the friction of the ice at the bottom slows down
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the movement of the bottom layers.
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 There are two main types of glaciers : (i) Continental Glacier and (ii) Alpine
Glacier.
Continental Glacier:
 An extensive sheet of ice spreading across a vast region sometimes begins
to move due to the pressure of the ice.
 This moving sheet of ice is called a continental glacier.
 Such glaciers are seen in Antarctica and Greenland.
Alpine or mountain glacier:

 There are snow-field in the mountainous regions of the Himalayas, the
Alps, the Andes, the Rocky mountains etc.
 The ice accumulating in these areas starts sliding down the slopes.
 This mass of ice sliding down from the mountains is called a mountain
glacier or an alpine glacier.
Iceberg:
 Blocks of ice break off from the continental glaciers and float away into the
sea.
 A block of ice floating in the sea is called an iceberg. These icebergs are
huge in size.
 The density of ice being slightly less than that of water, a very little portion
of an iceberg is seen above the water and the rest of it is submerged under
water.

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Land forms of glaciation:
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 Various land forms are created on account of the transportation, erosion
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and depositional work of a glacier. Let us consider the major land forms
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thus created.
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Cirque:
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 When the snow from the mountain peaks slides, it gets deposited in a
hollow, if there is one on any side of the peak.
 The accumulated snow starts sliding down the slope. This causes friction at
the floor and at the sides of the hollow, thus enlarging it further. This is
called a cirque.
 The back wall of a cirque is like a high cliff and the floor is concave and
huge in size. The total shape resembles an armchair.
 When a glacier melts completely, water accumulates in the cirque and
forms a lake which is known as tarn.
Fiord:
 Where the lower end of the trough is drowned by the sea it forms a deep
steep-side inlet called ‘Fiord’ as on the Norwegian and South Chilean
Coasts.
U-shaped valley:
 When a glacier is flowing through a valley in a mountainous region, the
sides of the valley get eroded. Ice causes friction on the sides of the valley.
 As the erosion of the sides is greater than that of the floor, a valley is
formed with vertical sides and a wide floor. This valley is called a U-shaped
valley.
Hanging valley:
 In the mountainous region, many tributaries join the main glacier.
 The quantity of ice in a tributary is comparatively smaller. Hence, it causes
less friction.

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 The valley of a tributary is at a higher level than a valley of the main glacier,
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the valley of the tributary appears to be hanging. That is why, such a valley
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is called a hanging valley.
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Moraine:
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 The material transported and deposited by a glacier is known as moraine.
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 Moraines are made up of pieces of rocks that are shattered by frost action
and are brought down the valley.
Moraines are of the following types:

(1) lateral moraine, (2) medial moraine and (3) terminal moraine.
 After a glacier has melted, different land forms of deposition are seen. The
oval-shaped hills of lesser height are called drumlins.
 Zig-zag hills, with many steep slopes, made up of long stretches of sand and
gravel are called eskers.
Land forms created by the action of wind

Mushroom rock:
 The wind blowing in desert regions erodes the rock near the ground
surface to a great extent.
 At the same time, the upper part of the rock gets eroded to a lesser extent.
 As this is a continuous process, the foot of the rock becomes narrow.
 The top portion of the rock then looks like an umbrella. This land form is
called a mushroom rock.
Sand dunes:
 Sand gets transported from one place to another along with the wind.
 At a spot where the wind meets an obstruction or where the speed of the
wind reduces, dunes are formed out of the sand which gets deposited.
 The side of the dune facing the wind has a gentle slope and the opposite
side has a steep slope.

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 Because of the slow speed of the wind, the sand on the gentle slope gets
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carried to the top and comes down the steep slope on the other side. Sand
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dunes gradually move forward in this manner.
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Barkhan:
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 The fine sand particles carried by the wind get deposited when the speed of
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the wind is reduced forming crescent shaped dunes. Such hills are called
barkhans.
Loess:
 Loess is a soil finer than sand.
 Loess is a silt transported by the wind from the desert regions and
deposited much further way.
 Loess transported from the desert regions of Central Asia has been
deposited in layers in China. The plain they form is known as the Loess
plain.
Groundwater:
 Some water from the rainfall received on the earth’s surface seeps through
the ground.
 This water trickles down until it reaches an impervious rock.
 Water accumulated under the ground surface in this manner, is called
ground water.
 Some rocks on the earth’s surface are porous and some have cracks or
joints. Water seeps in through these pores or joints.
 Groundwater gushes out in the form of springs.
Land forms created by the actions of groundwater

Sink holes:
 Water on the ground surface seeps through limestone. Some portion of the
limestone dissolves in that water. If this process takes place continuously,
it makes holes in these rocks.

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 As this process continues over a number of years, these holes get enlarged.
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These holes are called sink holes.
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Caves:
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 In limestone region, water goes very deep through sink holes.
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 If there is a layer of impervious and hard rock underneath, water flows
horizontally on the impervious rock instead of going deeper.
 Hence, soft rocks get eroded and a cave is formed.
Stalactites and stalagmites:

 Inside the cave created by groundwater under the ground surface in a
limestone region, water is always seeping through the roof. This water
contains calcium carbonate.
 As the seeping water evaporates, some of the calcium carbonate, it
contains, is deposited on the cave’s roof. This deposition continues to grow
very slowly. Hence a column is seen growing from the roof towards the
floor. It is called a stalactite.
 The water dripping on the floor of the cave also evaporates leaving behind
calcium carbonate which accumulates over a period of time.
 A column then starts growing from the floor to the roof. This column which
grows upwards is called a stalagmite.
 Stalactites and stalagmites are observed in the Parner Taluka of
Ahmadnagar district, in Bastar District in Chhattisgarh and also in the Karst
region of former Yugoslavia now Serbia and Montenegro.
Land forms created by the actions of sea waves

Sea Cliff:
 The base of the rocks on the coast get eroded because of the impact of the
ocean waves and notches develop in these rocks.

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 The crest of the rock overhangs the notch. These notches in the rocks
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gradually extend landwards over a period of time. Then the crest falls and a
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steep cliff, which has receded away from the sea is formed.
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Sea cave:
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 Rocks on the coast have many cracks. They become wider and wider with
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the impact of the waves, creating small caves. They are called sea caves.
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 Such sea cliffs and sea caves are observed at Shrivandhan, Ratnagiri,
Malvan, Vengurle etc.
Beach:
 The fine sand and other material that flows along with the waves get
deposited in a direction parallel to the sea coast.
 This deposition of sand is called a beach.
 There are extensive beaches in the coastal regions of the stat of
Maharashtra, Goa, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Orissa and West Bengal in India and
in other countries like Bangladesh and Canada
Sand bar:
 A deposition of sand which results in a long, narrow embanknjent in the
sea near the coast is called a sand bar.
Lagoon:
 A shallow lake is formed between the sand and the sea coast. It is called a
lagoon.
 Such a lake is called Kayal in Kerala.
Forests
They are of the following types:

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a) Tropical Evergreen Rain Forests: Such forests are found in the equatorial
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and the tropical regions with more than 200 cms annual rainfall. The leaves
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of trees in such forests are very wide.
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b)Tropical Semi Deciduous Forests: Such forests receive rainfall less than 150
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cms. Saagwan, saal, bamboo etc. are found in such forests.
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c) Equatorial Forests: Such forests are a mixture of trees and shrubs. Corks,
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Oak etc. are the major trees of these forests.
d) Coniferous Forests or Taiga: These are evergreen forests. The trees, in
these forests, have straight trunk, conical shape with relatively short
branches and small needlelike leaves.
e) Tundra Forests : Such forests are covered with snow. Only Mosses, a few
shorubs and Lichens grow here in the summers. This type of vegetation is
chiefly confined to the northern hemisphere (e.g. in Eurasia, North
Americal and Greenland Coaste).
f) Mountainous Forests : Such forests have conical trees with broad leaves.

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Chapter
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The Indian Subcontinent
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Location of the Sub Continent
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Mainland of the Indian subcontinent, comprising India, Pakistan,
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Bangladesh, Nepal and Bhtitan extends between 8°4’N and 37°6’N latitudes
and between 68°7’E and 97°25’E longitudes.
 If the sixth country of this subcontinent Sri Lanka, is included, then it starts
from 6°N latitude.
 The Tropic of Cancer (23½° N) passes through the middle of India.
Size and Extent of Subcontinent

 Total area of the Indian subcontinent is 44.9 lakh sq. km i.e. India 32,87,263
sq. km. Pakistan 7,96,095 sq. km. Bangladesh 1,48,393 sq. km., Nepal
1,47,181 sq km., Bhutan 46,500 sq. km. and Sri Lanka 65,610 sq. km. From
North to South this subcontinent stretches over 3,200 km and from east to
west it is 3,000 km. 82°30’ E meridian helps in calculating the Indian
Standard Time (IST) which is 5 hours 30 minutes ahead of the Greenwich
Mean Time (GMT).
 This very meridian (82 ½° E) dictates time in Sri Lanka and Nepal also.
Geography of the Indian Subcontinent

(Pakistan and Bangladesh)
Introduction : India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar and Sri
Lanka, collectively constitute the Indian subcontinent.
These six countries are India’s closest and nearest neighbours and share a
common heritage of history and geography.
PAKISTAN
Location: Pakistan is our western neighbour.

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It is bordered by Iran in the north-west, India in the east and south-east, and
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the Arabian Sea in the south.
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Latitude: Pakistan lies between 24°N and 37°N latitudes.
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Longitude : It lies between longitudes 61°E and 75°E.
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Area and composition : Pakistan has an area of about 3,12,685 sq. km.
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It comprises of West Punjab, Sind, Baluchistan, N.W.F.P. and a few tribal
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areas.
Physical Divisions of Pakistan : Pakistan may be divided into following four
physical divisions:
The Northern and Western Highlands The Hindukush mountains which
extend from the Pamir Knot form a mountain wail in the north of Pakistan.
Tirich Mir (7690 in) is the highest peak of the Hindukush
 The famous Khyber pass lies in this region.
 Other important mountain ranges here are Sulaiman range and Kirthar
range
 These ranges spread in north-south direction.
The Baluchistan Plateau: Situated in the south-west of Pakistan.
 It is a dry and rocky plateau with little vegetation.
The Indus Plain: Without the Tridus, Pakistan would have been a complete
desert.
It is a 2700 km long fertile plain in the eastern Pakistan made by rich
alluvial soil brought down by Indus and its five tributaries.
The That Desert It is located in south-eastern part of Pakistan and
continues into India.
Climate of Pakistan : The climate of Pakistan is one of the extremes. ‘- It is
very hot in summer and very cold in winter.
 It gets little rainfall in summer.
 The average rainfall in Pakistan is less than 25 cm in a year.
 There is some rainfall in winter brought by the Western disturbances
coming from the Mediterranean Sea.

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Natural Vegetation:
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 In plateaus, plains and desert mostly bushes, shrubs and coarse grasses are
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found.
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 In mountainous area in the north and west temperate deciduous trees,
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coniferous trees and alpine vegetation is found.
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Language—Urdu, Currency—Rupee, Religion—Islam.
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Economic Development:
Agriculture : Rainfall in this agricultural country is very low and unreliable.
 Rivers and a developed network of canals make irrigation possible.
 Pakistan is known as the ‘Land of Canals’. Marigla Dam and Tarbila Dam in
Pakistan are very famous.
 Wheat, millets, cotton, rice, sugarcane and oil seeds are cultivated. Animal
Rearing : People of Pakistan rear milch cattle.
 Drought animals are also reared. Sheep and goats are reared in dry
Baluchistan Plateau and the mountainous areas.
Mining : Mineral position of Pakistan is not satisfactory.
 It has some deposits of petroleum coal iron and copper
 The gas fields of Sui is important
 Salt deposits near Khewra are well known
Industrial Development: Industrially Pakistan is flow well developed.
Cotton textile, woolen textile, chemicals, cement, sugar, paper, etc. are
important industries of Pakistan. Carpets, embroidered goods, pottery and
handicrafts are also manufactured here.
Population: Pakistan has a population of 153,960,000 (2005) excluding 4
million residents of Pakistan ruled Jammu and Kashmir and 01 million
Afghan refugees.
 The density of population is 170 persons per sq. km.
 90% people are Muslims, who follow Islam. Urdu is the state language

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BANGLADESH
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Bangladesh is our eastern neighbouring country.
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Location: It is bordered on the north, west and east by India and on the
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south by the Bay of Bengal.
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Latitude: Bangladesh lies between latitudes 21°N and 26°30’N. The Tropic
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of Cancer passes through the middle of it.
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Longitude : It lies between longitudes 88°E and 92°30’E.
Physical Division of Bangladesh : Nearly whole of Bangladesh lies in the
largest delta of the world.
 It is a vast flat alluvial plain. It is a land of big rivers, lakes, swamps and
marshes.
 A large part of Bangladesh is flooded every year during rainy season.
 It has an area of 1,47,570 sq. km.
 The Jamuna (Brahmaputra), Padma (Ganga) and Meghna are the important
rivers.
 A small hilly area in the south-east forms the Chittagong Hill tract.
Climate
 It has hot and humid climate.
 Rainfall varies from 250 to 40 cm. It has distinct dry and rainy season.
 In early summer, Bangladesh experiences cyclone storms.
Natural Vegetation
 In the fringes of delta Mangrove forests are found.
 Sundari and bamboo trees are found in these Sunderbans.
Agriculture
 Because of fertile alluvial soil and abundant water supply, rice is the main
crop of Bangladesh as it covers 85% of the cultivated area.
 Jute the main cash crop.
 Tea plantations are found in some areas in the north.
 Sugarcane, cotton and tobacco are also grown.
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Animal Rearing
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 Most of the animals reared in Bangladesh work as beasts of burden.
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 Bangladesh has become a leading supplier of animal hides and skins.
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Fishing
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 Large number of rivers and nearness to the sea make fishing an important
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activity in Bangladesh.
Language—Bangla, Currency—Taka, Religion—Islam
Minerals
 Bangladesh is not rich in mineral resources.
 Coal, natural gas and oil are mined in a small quantity.
Industries
 The important industries of Bangladesh include jute and cotton textiles,
cement, fertilizers, sugar, paper, glass etc.
Population, Language and Religion

 The population of Bangladesh is about 137,636,000 (2005).
 The density of population here is 763 persons per sq. km.
 Bengali is the official language of Bangladesh.
 Most of the people follow Islam.
 Dhaka, Chittagong, Khulna and Narayanganj are some of the important
cities of Bangladesh.
Political Divisions of India
 India is divided into 28 States and 7 Union Territories.
Position and Extent of India and its Locational Advantage
 India forms part of the large continental land mass of Eurasia.
 It is located on one of the peninsulas of Southern Asia. The country extends
from Kashmir in north to Kanyakumari in the south.
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 The Arabian sea and the Bay of Bengal are situated on western and eastern
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side of peninsular India respectively.
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 The latitudinal extent of the country is from 8°4’ North to 37°6’ North.
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 The Tropic of Cancer (23½° N) which passes through the middle of the
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 country measures from 68° 7’ E to 97°25’E. The location of the country is in
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the northern and the eastern hemispheres.
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 The importance of location of India is that it is located on the world’s major
sea routes.
 Due to its location, India has maritime contacts with south-west Asia and
Africa on the west and south-east Asia in the east. Its location has given
India an advantage of the route of the Suez Canal for trade with North
America and. Europe.
Size of India (in terms of area and population)

 India is the seventh largest country (in terms of area) in the world.
 The area of India is about 3.28 million sq. km.
 The area of India is nearly equal to the area of the continent of Europe
excluding Russia.
 India is eight times as large as Japan. India ranks as the second largest
country in terms of population (next only to China).
 No continent of the world except Asia has a largest population than that of
India.
 India contains about one-sixth of the total population of the world.
Capitals of Different States of India (Table on the next page)

 The state and union territory capitals are sorted according to the
administrative, legislative and judicial capitals.
 The administrative capital is where the executive government offices are
located.
 The legislative capital is where the state assembly convenes.
 The judicial capital is the location of the state or territorial High Courts of
India.
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 The date mentioned in the table refers to when the city became the capital
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of the state or territory.
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 In the following table S and W refers to the summer and winter sessions
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respectively. B refers to the budget session of the legislature.
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 The administrative capital is considered to be the main capital of the state.
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 The former capital refers to a city which was the capital from admission
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into the Indian Union.
 An absence of a legislative capital means that it is administered by the
Central government.
States And Their Capitals
State/UT Administrative Legislative Tudicial Since

Capital Capital Capital
Andaman and Port Blair - Kolkata 1956`
Nicobar
Islands
Arunachal Itanagar Itanagar Guwahati 1972
Pradesh
Andhra Hyderabad Hyderabad Hyderabad 1956
Pradesh
Assam Dispur Dispur Guwahati 1972
Former Capital: Shillong (1874-2972)
Bihar Patna Patna Patna 1936

Chhatisgarh Raipur Raipur Bilaspur 2000
Chandigarh Chandigarh - Chandigarh 1966
Dadra and Silvasa - Mumbai 1961
Nagar Haveli
Daman and Daman - Mumbai 1987
Diu
NCT-Delhi Delhi Delhi Delhi 1956

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Goa Panaji Porvorim Mumbai 1961
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Gujarat Gandhinagar Gandhinagar Ahmedabad 1970
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Former Capital : Ahmedabad (2960-1970)
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Haryana Chandigarh Chandigarh Chandigarh 1966
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Himachal Shimla Shimla Shimla 1948
Pradesh
Jammu and * Srinagar (S) * Srinagar (S) Srinagar 1948
Kashmir * Jammu (W) * Jammu (W)
Jharkhand Ranchi Ranchi Ranchi 2000
Karnataka Bangalore Bangalore Bangalore 1956
Kerala Thiruvanantha- T’puram Erakulam 1956
Puram
Former Capital : Kochhi (1949-1956)
Lakshadweep Kavaratti - Ernakulam 1956

Madhya Bhopal Bhopal Jabalpur 1956
Pradesh
Maharashtra Mumbai * Mumbai (S+B) Mumbai 1818
* Nagpur (W) 1960
Manipur Imphal Imphal Guwahati 1947
Meghalaya Shillong Shillong Guwahati 1970
Mizoram Aizawl Aizawl Guwahati 1972
Nagaland Kohima Kohima Guwahati 1963
Orissa Bhubaneshwar Bhubaneshwar Cuttack 1948
Former Capital : Cuttack (1936-1948)
Puducherry Pondicherry Pondicherry Chennai 1954
Punjab Chandigarh Chandigarh Chandigarh 1966

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Former Capital: Lahore (1936-2947) & Shimla (1947-1966)
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Rajasthan Jaipur Jaipur Jodhpur 1948
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Sikkim Gangtok Gangtok Gangtok 1975
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Tamil Nadu Chennai Chennai Chennai 1956
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Tripura Agartala Agartala Guwahati 1956
Uttarakhand Dehradun Dehradun Nainital 2000
Uttar Pradesh Lucknow Lucknow Allahabad 1937
West Bengal Kolkata Kolkata Kolkata 1905
Famous Sites (India)

Site Location
Ajanta Maharashtra
Akabar’s Tomb Agra (U.P.)
Amarnath Cave Kashmir
Ambar Palace Jaipur (Rajasthan)
Anand Bhawan Allahabad (UP)
Bhakra Dam Punjab
Birla Planetorium Kolkata (W.B.)
Island Palace Udaipur (Rajasthan)
Jagannath Temple Puri (Orissa)
Jai Stambha (Tower of Victory) Chittorgarh (Rajasthan)
Jama Masjid Delhi
Black Pagoda Konark (Orissa)
Brihadeeshwara Temple Tanjore (T.N.)
Brindaban Gardens Mysore (Karnataka)
Buland Drawaza Fatehpur Sikri (U.P.)
Char Minar Hyderabad (A.P.)
Chilka Lake Near Bhubaneswar (Orissa)
Dal Lake Srinagar (J & K)
Dilwara Temple Mt. Abu (Rajasthan)
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Elephanta Caves Mumbai (Maharashtra)
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Ellora Caves Aurangabad (Maharashtra)
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Gateway of India Mumbai (Maharashtra)
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Golden Temple Amristar (Punjab)
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Gol Gumbaz Bizapur (Karnataka)
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Hanging Garden Mumbai (Maharashtra)
Hawa Mahal Jaipur (Rajasthan)
Howarh Bridge Kolkata (W.B.)
Mt. Girnar (lain Temple) Junagarh (Gjuarat)
Nataraja Temple Chennai (T.N.)
Nishat Bagh Srinagar (J & K)
Padmanabha Temple Thiruvananthapuram (Kerala)
Palitana Temple Junagadh (Gujarat)
Panch Mahal Fatehpur Sikiri (U.P.)
Pichola Lake Udaipur (Rajasthan)
Prince of Wales Museum Mumbai (Maharashtra)
Qutab Minar Delhi
Raj Ghat Delhi
Rashtrapati Bhawan Delhi
Red Fort Delhi
Jantar Mantar New Delhi
Kailasa Temple Ellora (Maharashtra)
Kanyakumari Temple Tamil Nadu
Kirti Stambha (Tower of Fame) Chittorgarh (Rajasthan)
Sun Temple, Konark Puri (Orissa)
Lal Bagh Garden Bangalore
Lingaraj Temple Bhubaneshwar (Orissa)
Mahakaleshwar Ujjain (M.P.)
Temple Maheshmukh Elephanta Cave
Malabar Hill Mumbai
Man Mandir Palace In Gwailor Fort (M.P.)
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Site Location
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Marble Rocks Jabalpur (M.P.)
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Marina Beach Chennai (T.N.)
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Wildlife Sanctuaries and National Parks in India
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Name Location Important Species
Bandipur National Mysore, Karnataka Elepahant, Tiger, Bear,
Park Sambhar, Panther
Balpakram Sanctuary Garo Hills, Meghalya Tiger, Elephant, Bison
Chandraprabha Varanasi, UP Asiatic Lion, Tiger,
Sanctuary Panther, Indian Gazelle,
Sloth bear
Corbett National ParkNainital, Elephant, Tiger, Sloth bear,
Uttarakhand Nilgai, Panther, Sambhar
Dachigam Sanctuary Jammu and Kashmir Kashmir stag (Hangul)
Dudhwa National Park Lakhimpur Kheri, UP Tiger, Panther, Sambhar,
Nilgai
Ghana Bird Sanctuary Bharatpur, Siberian Crane, Spoonbill,
Rajasthan Heron teal, Stork
Gir National Park Junagarh, Gujarat Asiatic Lion, Panther,
Sambhar, Nilgai, Crocodile,
Rhinoceros
Hazaribagh National Hazaribagh, Tiger, Leopard, Sambher,
Park Jharkhand Chital
Jaldapara Sanctuary West Bengal Tiger, Leopard, Sambher,
Chital
Kanha National Park Mandla and Tiger, Panther, Antelope,
Balaghat, MP Barking Deer, Nilgai
Kaziranga National Jorhat, Assam Great Indian one homed
Park rhinoceros, Wild Buffalo,
Sambhar, Tiger

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Manas Barpeta, Assam Tiger, Elephant, Panther,
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Wild Buffalo, One homed
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rhinoceros
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Mudumalai Sanctuary Nilgiri Hills, Tamil Elephant, Dear, Pigs
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Namdapha National Tirap district, Tiger and Elephant
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Park Arunachal Pradesh
Palamau Daltonganj, Tiger, Elephant, Panther,
Jharkhand Leopard
Parkal Warangal, AP Tiger, Panther, Chital,
Nilgai
Periyar Idukid, Kerala Elephant,Tiger, Panther,
Wild boar, Gaur,
Sambhar
Ranganthitoo Bird Karnataka Birds
Sanctuary
Shivpuri National Park Shivpuri, MP Tiger, Birds
Sunderbans West Bengal Tiger, Wild boar, Crocodile,
Deer
Vedanthangal Bird Tamil Nadu Birds
Sanctury
Wild Ass Sanctuary Little Rann of Kutch, Wild Ass, Wolf, Nilgai,
Gujarat Chinkara
Physical Divisions of the Indian Subcontinent

 A chain of high mountains radiate out from the Pamir Knot which lies just
in the north of India
 In these mountains the Hindukush, the Sulaiman and the Kirthar in the east
and the Himalayas in the west separate the Indian subcontinent from rest
of Asia.
 Indian subcontinent can be divided into following physical divisions:
o The Great Mountain Wall of the North
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The Great Northern Plains
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o The Great Peninsular Plateau
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o The Coastal Plains
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o The Great Indian Desert
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The Island Groups.
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The Great Mountain wall of the North
 The Himalayas, the highest mountain wall of the world, are situated on the
northern boundary of India like an arc.
 From west to east the Himalayas are 2500 km long. The average breadth of
the Himalayas is between 250 km to 400 1cm.
 Mount Everest, the highest peak in the word, lies in these mountains in
Nepal.
Division of the Himalayas:

 The Himalayas consist of three parallel mountain ranges : (i) The Greater
Himalayas (ii) The Lesser Himalayas and (iii) The Outer Himalayas.
The Greater Himalayas:

 This is the loftiest of the three ranges of Himalayas. Mount Everest lies in
this range.
Important Passes
Kashmir : Burzi-La, Joji-La
H.P. : Bara La, Cha-La, Shipki-La
U.P. : Niti-La, Lipu-Lekh-La
Sikkim : Jelep-La, Nathu-La
Arunachal Pradesh : Bomdi-La
 These snow-covered mountains give birth to many glaciers.
 The Ganga originates from this glacier.
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The Lesser Himalayas (or the Himachal Himalayas):
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 South of the Greater Himalayas, the range also lies parallel to it from west
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 This ranges 60 to 80 km wide and its average height ranges between 3500
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to 4500 metres.
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 Tourist centres like Shimla, Mussorie and Nainital are situated in this
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range.
The Outer Himalayas (or Shivaliks):

 This is the southernmost and the third parallel range of the Himalayas with
an average height of 900 to 1200 metres.
 Its breadth is only 10 to 50 km. Shivalik range is broader in the west.
Heights of Major Mountain Peaks in India :

Peaks Elevation (in mts.)
Godwin Austin (K2) 8611
Kanchenjunga 8598*
Nanga Parvat 8126*
Gasherbrum 8068*
Broad Peak 8047*
Dastegil 7885*
Masherbrum (East) 7821*
Nanda Devi 7817
Masherbrum (West) 7806*
Rakoposhi 7788*
Kamet 7756
Saser Kangdi 7672
 Above mean sea level in metres.
o Situated in Pak occupied Kashmir (PoK)
The Great Northern plains
 The northern plains are divided into three sub-divisions. These are the
Punjab and Haryana plains. The Ganga plains and the Brahamaputra valley.

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 The Ganga plains form the largest lowland drained by the Ganga and its
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tributaries.
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 The Yamuna is the most important tributary of the Ganga.
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the Ganga.
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 The Sone and the Damodar are tributaries of the Ganga while the Chambal
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and the Betwa are tributaries of the Yamuna from the peninsular plateau.
 The Ganga plain has an extremely gentle slope.
 Parts of the plain are subject to floods in the rainy season. In the lower
course, the Ganga divides itself into tributaries to form a large delta along
with the Brahmaputra.
 The Punjab and Haryana plains represent a part of the Indus basin.
 A low watershed separates these plains from the Ganga plains.
The Great Pensinsular Plateau

 The Deccan plateau includes the area to the south of the Vindhyas.
 The western edge of the plateau rises steeply from the Arabian Sea to form
the Western Ghats (which includes the Shahyadri).
 The Deccan plateau slopes gently towards the east. The surface of the
plateau is dissected into a rolling upland by a number of rivers.
 The elevation ranges from 300 to 900 metres.
 The eastern edge of the plateau is known as the Eastern Ghats.
 The north-western region of the Deccan plateau is covered by nearly
horizontal sheets of lava.
 This region is called ‘Deccan trap region.’ The Deccan plateau is drained by
many long east flowing rivers. These rivers originate in the Western Ghats,
flow towards the east and enter the Bay of Bengal.
 The Godavari, the Mahanadi, the Krishna and the Cauvery are the major
rivers that have built deltas along the coast.
 The Narmada and the Tapti rivers are west flowing.
 Both the rivers enter the Arabian Sea along the Gujarat coast.
 These rivers do not have deltas.
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Major Plateaus : Marwar Upland, Central Highland, Bundelkhand, Malwa
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Plateau, Baghelkhand, Chhotanagpur Plateau (Hazaribagh Plateau, Ranchi
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Plateau and Raj Mahal Hills), Meghalaya Plateau, Deccan Plateau,
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The Coastal Plains
 Narrow strips of flat land on eastern and western coasts are known as the
East Coastal Plain and the West Coastal Plain respectively.
The West Coastal Plain:

 This plain which lies between the Arabian Sea and the Western Ghats
spreads from Gujarat in the north to Kanyakumari in the south.
 It is broader in the north and narrower in the south. This uneven plain has
been dissected by many fast flowing rivers.
 Its northen part from Gujarat to Goa is called Konkan, while southern part
from Goa to Kanyakumari is known as Malabar. Several lagoons (salt water
lakes separated from the main sea by sand bars and spits) are found on the
coastal plain.
 Important ports developed on its coast from north to south are : Kandla,
Mumbai, New Jawahar Port Mumbai, Marmagao, Mangalore and Cochin.
The East Coastal Plain:

 This broader coastal plain spreads along the Bay of Bengal from Orissa in
the north to Kaynakumari in the south.
 Its northern part is known as Northern Circar plains and the southern part
is called Coromandal Coast. Rivers like Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and
Cauvery form deltas on this plain.
 This coast is famous for rice cultivation.
 A large number of lagoons are also found here.
 Chilka and Pulicat lakes are fine examples of lagoons on our east coast.

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 It lies to the west of the Aravali range.
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 It extends over major part of Rajasthan and Sindh in Pakistan.
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 It is in the rain shadow area of the Bay of Bengal current.
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 Lake Sambhar is found here.
The Island Groups

 Lakshadweep is a group of 36 coral islands in the Arabian Sea.
 It is located 300 km to the west of the coast of Kerala.
 Andaman and Nicobar islands are a group of about 324 islands.
 Most of these islands are uninhabited.
 These islands are separated by a deep sea known as the Ten Degree
Channel because 10°N latitude passes through this place.
Climatic Diversity in the Indian Subcontinent

 Due to the vastness of the country and a variety of relief features there are
regional variations in the climate of India.
 The interior of the country, specially in the north, has a continental type of
climate.
 The coastal areas have a more equable climate. In mountainous areas,
altitude determines the climate. There is a great deal of variation in the
amount of annual rainfall.
 In June, the highest temperature in Rajasthan may go up to 55°C.
 But, in Drass and Kargil the night temperature in January may go down to -
45°C to -50°C.
 Mawsynram or Cherrapunji in Meghalaya has an annual rainfall of 2500
cm.
 But, in the Thar Desert the annual rainfall is less than 13 cm.
 Along the Malabar Coast (Kerala) the annual range of temperature is about
3°C.
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 But, it is 20°C in Hissar, Ambala and other parts of the interior.
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Soil Resources of the Indian Sub-continent
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 Soil forms the upper layer of the earth’s crust capable of supporting life.
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 The soil forming processes are mainly influenced by the parent rock,
climate, vegetation and animal life.
Importance of Soil Resources:

 Soil is an extremely important resource, especially in agricultural countries
like India, Pakistan and Bangladesh.
 Most food items, like rice, wheat, pulses, fruits and vegetables and much of
our clothing are derived from the soil directly or indirectly.
 Soil also gives us firewood, timber, rubber, fibers, etc. Food like milk, meat
and eggs are obtained indirectly from the soil. Flowers, grass, plants and
trees are also grown out of soil.
Soil Erosion and its types

 The soil that loses its plant cover becomes exposed to wind and rain, is
easily blown or washed away. This condition is known as soil erosion.
 Basically, soil cover is removed by two powerful agents — (i) Running
water, (ii) Wind.
Types of Soil found in India

 Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) divides Indian soils into
eight groups : (a) Alluvial soil (b) Black soil (c) Red soil (d) Laterites and
Lateritic soil (e) Arid and Desert soil (f) Saline and Alkaline soil (g) Forest
soil (h) Peaty and other organic soil. However, Indian soils are generally
divided into four broad types : (1) Alluvial soils; (2) Regur soils; (3) Red
soils and (4) Laterite sbus.

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Alluvial Soils
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 This is the most important and widespread category.
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 It covers 40% of the land area. In fact the entire Northern Plains are made
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 They have been brought down and deposited by three great Himalayan
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rivers- Sutlej, Ganga and Bráhmaputra and their tributaries.
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 Through a narrow corridor in Rajasthan they extend to the plains of
Gujarat.
 They are common in Eastern coastal plains and in the deltas of Mahanadi,
Godavari, Krishna and Cauveri.
 Crops Grown : Suitable for Kharif & Rabi Crops like cereals, Cottons,
Oilseeds and sugarcane. The lower Ganga-Brahmaputra Valley is useful for
jute cultivation.
Regur or Black Soils

 These soils are of volcanic origin.
 These soils are black in colour and are also known as black soils.
 Since, they are ideal for growing cotton, they are also called cotton soils, in
addition to their normal nomenclature of Regur soils.
 These soils are most typical of the Deccan trap (Basalt) region spread over
north-west Deccan plateau and are made up of lava flows.
 They cover the plateaus of Mahrashtra, Saurashtra, Malwa and southern
Madhya Pradesh and extends eastwards in the south along the Godavari
and Krishna Valleys.
 Crops Grown: Cotton, Jowar, Wheat, Sugarcane, Linseed, Gram, Fruit &
Vegetable.
Red Soils
 Formed by weathering of crystalline and metamorphic. Mixture of clay and
sand.
 These soils are developed on old crystalline rocks under moderate to heavy
rainfall conditions.
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 They are red in colour because of their high Iron-oxide (FeO) content.
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 They are deficient in phosphoric acid, organic matter and nitrogenous
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material.
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 They extend northwards in the west along the Konkan coast of
Maharashtra.
 Crops Grown : Wheat, Rice, Millets, Pulses.
Laterite Soils
 The Laterite soils are formed due to weathering of lateritic rocks in low
temperatures and heavy rainfall with alternating dry and wet period.
 They are found along the edge of plateau in the east covering small parts of
Tamil Nadu, Orissa and a small part of Chhotanagpur in the north and
Meghalaya in the north-east.
 Laterite soils are red in colour with a high content of iron-oxides; poor in
Nitrogen and Lime.
 Crops Grown : Unsuitable for agriculture due to high content of acidity and
inability to retain moisture.
Arid & Desert Soil

 Region : NW India. Covers entire area of the west Aravalis in Rajsthan and
parts of Haryana, Punjab & Gujarat.
 Characteristics: Rich in Phosphates but poor in Nitrogen.
 Corps Grown: Fertile if irrigated e.g. Ganga Nagar area of Rajasthan (Wheat
basket of Rajasthan).

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Agriculture in India
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 About 65-70% of the total population of the country is dependent on
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agriculture.
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Role of agriculture is paramount in the economy of India.
 About two-third of our population derives its livelihood from agriculture.
 It provides food to the second biggest population and the biggest
population of cattle in the world.
 Our agro-based industries are fully dependent on raw material provided by
agriculture.
 Agriculture with its allied activities accounts for 45% of our national
income.
Types of Agriculture in India
Subsistence Farming:
 In this type of agriculture, farmers work hard to grow enough food to
survive only.
 In this type of farming the produce is consumed mainly by farmer and his
family.
 There remains no surplus to sell in the market.
Mixed Farming:
 The combination of agriculture and pastoral farming is called mixed
farming.
 In this type of farming, cultivation of crops and rearing of animals are done
together on the same farm.
Shifting Cultivation:
 This is a primitive form of agriculture, in which a plot of land is cultivated
for a few years and then is deserted.

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 This slash and burn method of farming is carried on in jungles of
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northeastern part of India.
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 A plot of land is cleared for cultivation. As the yield decreases after two or
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three years, the plot is abandoned and a fresh clearing is made.
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Extensive Farming:
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labour and capital on relatively large area.
 This type of agriculture is practised in countries where population size is
small and land is enough.
 Here, per acre yield is low but overall production is in surplus due to less
population.
 Agriculture is done with the help of machines.
Intensive Farming:
 This is a system of farming in which the cultivator uses large amount of
labour and capital on a relatively small area.
 In countries where the size of population is big but land is less, this type of
farming is done.
 Annually two or three crops are grown due to the demand of food for the
large size of population.
 Agriculture is done with the help of manual labour.
Plantation Agriculture:
 In this type of agriculture, trees or bushes are planted on huge estates.
 A single crop like rubber, sugarcane, coffee, tea or banana is grown.
 These crops are major items of export.
Problems of Indian Agriculture
 The low productivity of our agriculture is mainly due to the difficulties
faced by our peasants.
 Indian agriculture is chiefly of subsistence type where a large manual
labour is employed to work on farms to grow just enough food for the
needs of the family and very little is left for marketing.
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 A major part of the Indian soil has been impoverished because it has been
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under plough for the last 4000 or 5000 years.
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 Deforestation, overgrazing and heavy rainfall have led to soil erosion.
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 Divisions of land have led to fragmentation.
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 The size of land holding is very small and uneconomic.
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 The farmers are poor, illiterate and ignorant.
 They use primitive tools and out-dated method.
 They lack financial credit and investment.
 Good seeds, fertilizers and improved technology are not available to them.
 They lack irrigation facilities and are still on the mercy of nature.
 Most of the farmers have no security against crop failure or loss caused by
nature.
 Generally farmers are uneducated and have no scientific approaches.
Different Crop Seasons in India

 There are three crop seasons in India : (i) Rabi (ii) Kharif and (iii) Zayad.
Rabi:
 This season starts after the rainy season.
 Sowing begins in September-October and harvesting takes place in
February-March.
 Rabi season is cooler and drier than the Kharif season.
 Wheat, barley, pulses and some oil seeds are grown in the Rabi season
Kharif:
 The Kharif season begins with the onset of the monsoons in June-July.
 The crop grows in the rainy season and harvesting takes place after the
retreat of monsoon in September-October. Rice, maize, millets, groundnuts,
cotton and jute are grown in the Kharif season.
Zayad:
 This is the summer season for growing crops which remain till April, May
and June.
 Products are mainly vegetables and fruits.
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Green Revolution
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 The increase in agriculture productivity of cereals that has taken place
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since the 1960s mainly as a result of introduction of high yielding varieties
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of wheat and rice and use of fertilizers, machines and irrigation etc., is
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known as green revolution.
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 Green revolution has made us self-sufficient in food production.
 This has not only saved our much precious foreign exchange but has also
made us self-reliant.
 But green revolution has proved more beneficial to rich farmers only,
because it involves a lot of investment.
Land use Paterri of India

 The total geographical area of India is 32.88 crore hectares.
 Of this, data is available for only 92.5% land area. Though land is put to
different uses, but cultivation of land is its most important use.
USES OF LAND
Uses of land % put to use of land
Cultivated land 51.00
Forested area 19.03
Wasteland (arid, rocky and sandy areas) 14.01
Cultivable waste 6.04
Fallow land 5.00
Pastures and meadows 4.00
Water resources and their utilization in India

 Water resources of India can be divided into two parts: (i) Surface Water
Resources and (ii) Underground Water Resources.
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Surface Water Resources:
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 According to the estimate, India receives an average of 109cm of rainfall
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annually.
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 This rainfall amounts to 37,000 million cubic metre. Out of this, 12,500
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million cubic metres evaporates and another 7,900 million cubic metres is
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absorbed by land. Only 16,600 million cubic metres water is available in
our rivers.
 Out of this, only 6,600 million cubic metres of water can be used for
irrigation.
Underground Water Resources:

 Out of total rainfall, only 7900 million cubic metres of water percolates
inside/beneath the earth.
 Out of this, only 4300 million cubic metres of water is able to reach the
upper layer of the soil.
 This water is more important for agricultural production.
 Rest 3600 million cubic metres reaches the impervious rocks which can be
used by digging wells or tubewells. Out of this only 2250 million cubic
metres of water is economically viable.
Sources of Irrigation in india

There are various sources of irrigation which are:
a) Wells & Tubewells : 46% of total irrigation
b) Canals : 39% of total irrigation
c) Tanks : 8% of total irrigation
d) Other Sources : 7% of total irrigation (Dongs, Kuhls, Springs etc.)

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Economic Geography of India
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Power Resources of India
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India uses a large amount of fossil fuels as a source of energy alongwith a
number of renewable sources of energy, viz., hydroelectric power, thermal
power, petroleum, nuclear or atomic power, solar energy, wind energy, tidal
energy, bio-gas etc.
Multipurpose Projects of India

Multipurpose river valley projects, once referred by Jawaharlal Nehru as
‘Temples of Modern India’, present an integrating system of controlling
floods, generation of hydroelectricity, irrigation, development of fishery and
tourists spots, boating, navigation, and draining away extra water. These
projects aim at all round development of river valleys.
MULTIPURPOSE RIVER VALLEY PROJECTS

Project/River Main aims/Purposes Name of Power
Houses
Bhakhra-Nangal Project: 1. Irrigation 1. Bhakhra
On river Sutlej 518 m long, 2. Hydroelectricity 2. Ganguwal
226 m high, highest dam in generation 3. Nangal
Asia. 3. Soil conservation 4. Kotla
Damodar Valley Project: 1. Irrigation 1. Maithon
On river Damodar, located 2. Generation of Hydro and 2. Tilaia
in West Bengal and Thermal power 3. Panchet Hill
Jharkhand 3. Navigation 4. Bokaro
4. Flood control (Damodar 5. Durgapur
has turned from a “Valley of 6. Chandrapura
Sorrow” “Valley of Plenty”)

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Hirakud Project: 1. Irrigation 1. Hirakud
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On Mahanadi river in 2. Production of Hydel 2. Chiplima
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Orissa; power.
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4800 m long. 3. Navigation for over 480
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Tungabhadra Project: 1. Irrigation 1. At Malappurm.
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At Malappuram on the 2. Generation of Hydro 2. At Hampi.
river Tungabhadra, it is electricity 3. On left side of
2441 m long and 49.3 m Malappuram
high; in Andhra Pradesh
and
Karnataka.
Rihand Project: On river Hydroelectricity Pimpri
Rihand. production.
Important Irrigation and Power Projects

S. Name of the Project Location State Purpose
1. Nagarjuna Sagar River Krishna AP Irrigation, Hydro
Multipurpose Project electricity
2. Pochampad Project River Godavari AP Irrigation
3. Lower Sileru Project River Sileru AP Hydro-electricity
(Godavari)
4. Kakarpara Project River Tapi Gujarat Irrigation
5. Kothagudam Project Singareni AP Thermal power
coalfields
6. Kosi Project River Kosi Bihar Flood control,
Irrigation
7. Gandak Project River Gandak UP, Bihar Irrigation, Hydro
electricity
8. Dhuvaran Power Kheda District Gujarat Thermal Power
Station
9. Sabarigiri (Pamba- River Pamba- Kerala Hydro-electricity

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Kakki) Project Kakki
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Idduki Project Rivers Periyar Kerala Hydro-electricity
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10. Chambal Project River Chambal Rajasthan, Irrigation,
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MP Hydro-electricity
11. Tawa Project River Tawa MP Irrigation
(Narmada)
12. Korba Project Near Korba Chhattisgarh Thermal Power
Coalfields
13. Satpura Power Patharkada MP Coalfield Thermal Power
Station
14. Koyna Project River Koyna Maharashtra Hydro-electricity
15. Nagpur Power Koradi, Near Maharashtra Thermal Power

Station Nagpur City
16. Tungabhadra River Tunga- Karnataka Irrigation,
Multipurpose bhadra Hydro-AP
Project electricity
17. Upper Krishna River Krishna Karnataka Irrigation
Project
18. Sharavati River Karnataka Hydro-electricity
Sharavati near Jog falls
Project
19. Hirakud Multi River Orissa Irrigation,
purpose Project Mahanadi Hydro-electricity
20. Mahanadi Delta River Orissa Irrigation
Project Mahanadi
21. Talcher Power Near Talcher Orissa Thermal Power
Station
22. Bhakra-Nangal River Satlej HP, Punjab Irrigation,

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Multipurpose Haryana Hydro-
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Project electricity
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23. Rajasthan Canal River Satlej in Rajasthan Irrigation
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Project Punjab Headworks
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24. Kundah Project River Kundah Tamil Nadu Hydro-electricity
25. Neyveli Power Neyveli Tamil Nadu Hydro-electricity

Station
26. Ramganga Multi- Chuisot stream Uttara Khand Irrigation,
Purpose Project near Kalagarh Hydro-electricity
27. Matatilla Multi- River Betwa UP, MP Irrigation, Hydro
Purpose Project electricity
28. Rihand scheme River Rihand UP Hydro-electricity
29. Obra Power Station Obra UP Thermal power
30. Damodar Valley River Jharkhand Flood control

Project Damodar shared with Hydro-electricity
W.B.
31. Ukai Project River Tapi Gujarat Irrigation
32. Mahi Project River Mahi Gujarat Irrigation
33. Ghataprabha Project River AP and Irrigation

Ghataprabha Karnataka
34. Bhima Project River Bhima Maharashtra Irrigation
35. Sadar Sarowar River Gujarat and Irrigation and

Project Narmada MP Hydro-electricity
36. BanaSsagar Project River Sone MP, Irrigation

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Chhattisgarh,
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UP and
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37. Dul Hasti Project River Chenab J&K Hydro-electricity
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38. Salal Project River Chenab J&K Hydro-electricity
39. Them Dam Project River Ravi Punjab Irrigation, Hydro

electricity
40. Malaprabha Project River Karnataka Irrigation
Malaprabha
41. Jaykwadi Project River Godavari Maharasthra Irrigation
42. Beas Project River Beas Punjab and Hydro-electricity

Haryana
43. Sharda Shayak River Ghaghra UP Irrigation
44. Mayurakshi Project River W. Bengal Irrigation,

Mayurakshi Hydro-electricity
45. Rana Pratap Sagar River Chambal Rajasthan Hydro-electricity
46. Suratgarh Super Suratgarh Rajasthan Thermal Power

Thermal Project
47. Mettur River Cauvery Tamil Nadu Hydro-electricity
48. Pallivasal River Kerala Hydro-electricity

Mundirapujha
49. Papanasam Project River Tamil Nadu Hydro-electricity
Tambiraparani
50. Loktak Project Lake Loktak Manipur Hydro-electricity

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51. Tehri Project River Uttarakhand Hydro-electricity
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(Ganga)
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52. Farakka Project Ganga West Bengal Irrigation
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TRANSPORT IN INDIA
 The present transport system of the country comprises several modes of
transport including rail, road, coastal shipping, air transport etc.
ROAD TRANSPORT
 The share of road in total traffic has been growing from 13.8% of freight
traffic and 15.4% of passenger traffic in 1950-51 to an estimated 61% of
freight traffic and 85% of passenger traffic by the end of 2003-04.
 The Tenth Plan (2002-07) outlay for the Central Sector Roads Programme
is Rs. 59,700 crore.
 India is one of the largest road transport systems in the world. The total
length of the roads in the country is 3.32 million kms.
 India’s road network consists of Expressways, National Highways, State
Highways, Major District Roads, Other District Roads and Village Roads.
 The National Highways and the State Highways together account for
1,95,000 km. length.
National Highways
 They are constructed and maintained by the central government.
 The National Highways has 65,559 km. length comprising only 1.94% of
the total length of roads, carries about 40% of the total traffic of India.
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 The central government has taken up a programme of 4 / 6 lanning of
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about 13,000 kms. of National Highways (NH) under the National
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Highways Development Programme (NHDP).
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 This programme includes the ‘Golden Quadrilateral’ (GQ) comprising the
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National Highways connecting the four metropolitan cities of Delhi,
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Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata.
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 The programme of development of National Highways also includes the
creation of the North-South Corridor connecting Srinagar to Kanyakumari
and East-West Corridor connecting Silchar to Porbander. This component
of the NHDP has a total length of about 7,300 kms. and is to be completed
by December, 2007.
 Total length of GQ is 5846 km.
 As on 31 May 2005, four lanning of about 4856 km length has already been
completed.
Some Important National Highways

According to the 2001 census, there are 219 National Highways in the
country. Some of them are:
N.H. 1: Delhi — Ambala — Amritsar — Indo-Pak Border (546 km)
N.H. 2: Delhi — Agra — Kanpur — Varanasi - Kolkata (1490 km)
N.H. 3 : Agra — Gwaliar — Indore — Nasik — Mumbai (1161 km)
N.H. 4: Junction with N.H. 3 near Thane — Belgaum — Bangalore — Ranipet -
Chennai (1235 km)
N.H. 7: Varanasi — Jabalpur — Nagpur — Hyderabad — Bangalore —
Madurai - Kanyakumari (2369 km).
N.H. 8: Delhi- Jaipur — Ahmedabad— Vadodara — Mumbai (1428 km)
N.H. 9: Pune - Solapur — Hyderabad — Vijayawada (791 km)
N.H. 15: Pathankot — Amritsar — Bhatinda — Ganganagar — Bikaner —
Jaisalmer — Kandla (1526 km).
N.H. 22: Ambala — Kalka — Shimla — Rampur — Indo — Tibet (China)
Border near Shipki La (459 km)
N.H. 24: Delhi — Bareilly — Lucknow (438 km)
N.H. 39: Numaligarh- Imphal — Palel — Indo — Myanmar Border (436 km)
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N.H. 44 : Shillong — Passi Badarpur — Agartala (495 km)
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N.H. 47: Salem — Coimbatore — Trichur Ernakulam Thiruvanantha-puram -
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Kanyakumari (640 km)
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N.H. 48: Bangalore — Hasan — Mangalore (328 km)
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N.H. 49: Kochi - Madurai - Dhanushkodi (440 km)
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N.H. 55: Siliguri — Darjeeling (77 km)
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N.H. 80: Makamah — Farakka (310 km.)
N.H. 102: Chapra — Muzaffarpur (80 km.)
N.H. 205 : Ananthpur — Chennai (442 km.)
 The longest National highway in India is NH-7; which has a length of 128
kms in Uttar Pradesh, 504 kms in Madhya Pradesh, 232 kms in
Maharashtra, 753 kms in Andhra Pradesh, 125 kms in Karnataka, 627 kms
in Tamil Nadu i.e. total 2369 kms.
State Highways
 They are constructed and maintained by the state government. The length
of roads in some states is:
State Metalled Roads Unpaved Roads Total
Bihar 32998 km. 55354 km. 88352 km.
Madhya Pradesh 88620 km. 111517 km. 200137 km.
Maharashtra 271684 km. 90209 km. 361703 km.
Orissa 86929 km. 175774 km. 26703 km.
Uttar Pradesh 148303 km. 107164 km. 255467 km.
 Maharashtra has the maximum length of roads.
 Maharashtra also has the maximum length of metalled roads.
 Orissa has the maximum length of unpaved roads.
 West Bengal has the maximum road density.
 Roads on the borders are constructed and maintained by the Border Roads
Organisation (BRO).
 BRO was established in May 1960.
 Today, the BRO is a premier construction agency not only of roads but also
airfields, bridges, buildings, hospitals and schools.
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 Since inception and upto March 2005, it has completed over 40,450 km of
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roads and constructed permanent bridges totaling a length of about 21,314
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running meters.
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 The BRO, through ‘Project Dantak’ is constructing and maintaining a large
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road infrastructure and executing other prestigious projects in Bhutan.
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 The BRO is doing highly commendable jobs of construction and
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maintenance in Myanmar and Afghanistan too.
RAIL TRANSPORT
 The Indian Railways have been a great integrating force for more than 150
years.
 From a very modest beginning in 1853, Indian Railways have grown into a
vast network of 7,031 stations spread over a route-length of 63,221 km.
with a fleet of 7,817 locomotives, 5,321 passenger service vehicles 4,904
other coaching vehicles and 2,28,170 wagons as on 31 March, 2004.
 Indian Railway network is the largest in Asia and second largest in the
World.
 The first rail in India started in 1853 between Mumbai and Thane (34 kms).
 Indian Railway Board was established in March 1905.
 Indian Railway was nationalised in 1950.
 There are three types of rail lines in India: (i) Broad Gauge (ii) Meter Gauge
and (iii) Narrow Gauge.
 The network runs multigauge operations extending over 63,221 route
kilomere.
Gauge Route Running Total
km. Track (km) Track (km)
(i) Broad Gauge (1.676 mts) 46,807 66,754 88,547
(ii) Meter Gauge (1.000 mts) 13,290 13,996 16,489
(iii) Narrow Gauge (0.762 and 3,124 3,129 3,450
0.610 mts)
Total (as on 31st March 63,221 83,859 1,08,486
2004)
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 The management and governance of the Indian railways is in the hands of
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the Railway Board.
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 Railways have been divided into 16 zones.
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Divisional Organization of the Zonal Railways
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New zones that started functioning on 1st April, 2003
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Zone Headquarters Divisions
East Coast Bhubaneshwar Khurda Road, Waltair and Sambalpur divisions
Railway of SER
South Hubli Bangalore and Mysore divisions of, of, SR
Western reorganized Hubli division of 5CR, including
Railway Hospet-Toraagal, (Earlier constituted to have
Gutakal division of SCR as well.)
Zone Headquarters Divisions

West Central Railway Jabalpur Jabalpur and Bhopal
divisions of CR, reorganized
Kota division of WR
North Central Railway Allahabad Reorganized divisions
Allahabad of NR, Jhansi of CR,
and new Agra division
South East Central Bilaspur Nagpur division and
Railway reorganized Bilaspur division
of SER, new Raipur division
New Zones that were created on 10th October, 2002

North Western Railway Jaipur Jodhpur division and
reorganized Bikaner division

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of NR, reorganized Jaipur and
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Ajmer division of WR
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East Central Railway Hajipur Sonepur and Smastipur
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divisions of NER, Danapur,
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Mughalsarai and Dhanbad
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divisions of ER, (was earlier
constituted to have Katihar
division of NFR as well.)
Old Zones as they are after April, 2003
Western Railway Mumbai Bhavnagar and Mumbai

divisions, reorganized
Ratlam, Rajkot and Vadodar
divisions, new Ahmedabad
division
Central Railway Mumbai Bhusawal and Nagpur
Mumbai CST and Solapur
divisions, new Pune division
(including Pune-Kolhapur)
Eastern Railway Kolkata Chennai Howrah, Malda, Sealdah and
Southern Railway Asansol divisions Chennai,
Palghat, Tiruchirapalli,
Thiruvanan thapuram and
Madurai divisions
Northern Railway New Delhi Ferozpur, Ambala, Lucknow

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and Moradabad divisions,
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reorganized Delhi division
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North Eastern Railway Gorakhpur Lucknow and Varanasi
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Izzatnagar division
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South Central Railway Secunderabad Reorganized Secunderabad,
Hyderabad, Guntakal
(including Bellary-Guntakal
(MG) and Bellary Rayadurg)
and Vijayawada divisions
new Guntur and Nanded
divisions.
South Eastern Railway Kolkata Kharagpur division,
reorganized Adra and
Chakradhar-pur divisions,
new Ranchi division
North-East Frontier Guwahati Katihar, Lumding, Tinsukia
Railway divisions, reorganized
Alipurduar division new
Rangiya division
AIR TRANSPORT
 Airways in India started in 1911.
 Indian National Airways Company was started in 1933.
 All the airway companies were nationalised in 1953 and were put under
two corporations namely — Indian Airlines and Air India.

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 Indian Airlines provides its services to the internal parts of India along
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with neighbouring countries of Nepal, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Afghanistan,
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Sri Lanka, Myanmar and Maldives.
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 Air India provides its services to the foreign locations.
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 Vayudoot was established in 1981 for domestic services, but was later
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merged in Indian Airlines.
Major International Airports of India

 Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport (Santa Cruz Airport)
Mumbai
 Subhash Chandra Bose Airport (DumDum Airport) Kolkata
 Indira Gandhi International Airport Delhi
 Meenambkam International Airport Chennai
 Thiruanathpuram Airport Thiruvananthpuram
 Rajasansi Airport Chandigarh
Merger of Air India and Indian Airlines

Indian Airlines operates to 54 domestic stations alongwith its subsidiary
Airlines ‘Alliance Air’. Besides it also operates to 18 international stations.
The Indian Airlines has a fleet of 75 aircraft. 41 aircraft are expected to be
added in its fleet by April 2010.
On the 1st March, 2007 the Union Cabinet approved the proposal to merge
Indian Airlines and Air India.
Accordingly, a new company, viz. National Aviation Company of India
Limited (NACL) has been incorporated on 30th March, 2007 with its
Headquarters at Mumbai.

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The brand name of the new airlines will be Air India (or Indian) and its logo
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will be Maharaja.
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WATER TRANSPORT
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 The Central Water Tribunal was established in 1887.
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 The waterways of the country have been divided into - Internal waterways
and Oceanic waterways.
Internal Waterway
 This transport is through rivers, canals and lakes.
 India has got about 14,500 km. of navigable waterways which comprise
rivers, canals, backwaters, creeks etc.
 About 44 million tonnes of Cargo is being moved annually by Inland Water
Transport (IWT).
 The waterway from Haldia to Allahabad was made a national highway in
1986.
 The Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI) came into existence on 27
October, 1986 for development and regulation of inland waterways in the
country.
Oceanic Waterway
The peninsular bank is very important for this purpose.
 There are 12 large and 39 small ports on the major bank of 5600 kms.
 Large ports are maintained by the central government whereas small ports
are included in the concurrent list and are managed by the state
government.


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

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 At the beginning of the Tenth Plan, the capacity of major ports was about
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344 MT. It is proposed to be increased to 470 MT by the end of the Tenth
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Plan.
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Name State River/Strait/Ocean
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Kolkata West Bengal Hoogly River
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Mumbai Maharashtra Arabian Sea
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Chennai Tamil Nadu Bay of Bengal
Kochhi Kerala Arabian Sea
Vishakhapatnam Andhra Pradesh Bay of Bengal
Paradip Orissa Bay of Bengal
New Tuticorin Tamil Nadu Bay of Bengal
Marmagao Goa Arabian Sea
Kandla Gujarat Arabian Sea
New Mangalore Karnataka Arabian Sea
Nhavasheva (Jawahar Lal Nehru Maharasthra Arabian Sea
Port)
Ennore Tamil Nadu Bay of Bengal
 Largest port of India is Jawaharlal Nehru Port in Mumbai.
 The largest natural port is in Vishakhapatnam.
 Kandla in Gujarat is a tidal port.
 It has been made into a free trade zone.

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Chapter
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Miscellaneous
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11
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COUNTRIES WITH THEIR CAPITAL & CURRENCY
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County Capital Currency
Afghanistan Kabul Afghani
Algeria Algiers Dinar
Angola Luanda Kwanza
Argentina Buenos Aires Argentino Sentavos
Australia Canberra Australian Dollar
Austria Vienna Shilling
Azerbijan Baku Manat
Bahrain Manama Bahrain Dinar
Bangladesh Dhaka Taka
Belgium Brussels Euro
Belarus Minsk Belaros Rubbe
Bhutan Thimphu Nugultram
Brazil Brasilia Real (BRC)
Brunei Bander Sen Brunei Dollar or Ringhit
Begawan
Bulgaria Sofia Lev
Cambodia Phnom Penh Rial
Chanada Ottawa Dollar
China, Peoples Republic Beijing Yuan
Cuba Havana Peso
Cyprus Nicosia Cyprus Pound
Denmark Copenhagen Danish Krone
Egypt Cairo Pound
Ethiopia Adis Ababa Birr
Fiji Suva Dollar
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Finland Helsinki Euro
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France Paris Euro
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Germany Berlin Euro
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Ghana Accra Cedi
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Greece Athens Euro
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Guatemala Guatemala City Quetzal
Hong Kong Victoria Dollar
Hungary Budapest Florint
Iceland Reykjavik Krona
India New Delhi Rupee
Indonesia Jakarta Rupiah
Iran Teheran Rial
Iraq Baghdad Iraqui Dinar
Ireland Dublin Euro
Israel Jerusalem New Shekel
Italy Rome Euro
Jamaica Kingston Dollar
Japan Tokyo Yen
Jordan Amman Dinar
Kazakhistan Almati Ruble
Kirghizistan Bishkek Ruble
Korea (North) Pyongyang Won
Korea (South) Seoul Won
Kuwait Kuwait Dinar
Laos Vientiane New Kiplao
Lebanon Beirut Pound
Libya Tripoli Dinar
Luxembourg Luxembourg Ville Euro
Macau Macau Pataka
Malaysia Kuala Lumpur Ringrit
Maldives, Republic of Male Rufla
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Mauritius Port Luis Rupee
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Mexico Mexico City New Peso
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Mongolia Ulan Bator Tugrik
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Myanmar Yangon Kyat
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Mozambique Maputo Metical
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Nauru Yaren Dollar
Nepal Kathmandu Rupee
Netherlands Amsterdam Euro
New Zealand Wellington Dollar
Nigeria Abuja Naira
Norway Oslo Kroner
Oman Muscat Rial
Pakistan Islamabad Rupee
Panama Panama City Balboa
Philippines Manila Peso
Poland Warsao Zloty
Portugel Lisbon Euro
Qatar Doha Riyal
Romania Bucharest Lau
Russia Moscow Rouble
Saudi Arabia Riyadh Riyal
Senegal Dakar CFA Franc
Serbia and Montenegro Belgrade Dinar
South Africa Cape Town Rand
Spain Madrid Euro
Singapore Singapore Dollar
Sri Lanka Colombo Rupee
Syria Damascus Pound
Syprus Nicosia Pound
Taiwan Taipei New Taiwan Dollar
Thailand Bangkok Baht
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Trinidad & Tobago Port of Spain Dollar
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Tunisia Tunis Dinar
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Turkey Ankara Lira
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United Arab Emirates Abu Dhabi Dirham
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Uganda Kampala Shilling
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Ukraine Kiev Karbovanets
U.K. London Pound Sterling
U.S.A. Washington D.C. U.S. Dollar
Venezuela Caracas Bolivar
Vietnam Ho Chi Minh City Dong
(Hanoi)
Yemen Sena’a Riyal
Zaire Kinshasa Zaire
Zambia Lusaka Kwacha
Zimbabwe Harar Dollar
Countries and their main Produces! Industries

Afghanistan Dry and fresh fruits, carpets, wool
Australia Wood, dairy products, wheat, meat, lead, zinc
Austria Machinery, textiles, leather goods
Brazil Coffee
Belgium Glass, textiles
Chile Copper Nitrate
Canada Wheat, newsprint, machinery
China Silk, tea, rice
Congo Copper, uranium, cobalt, ivory
Cuba Sugar, tobacco, cigar
Denmark Textiles, paper
France Textile, wine, silk
Germany Machinery, chemical, iron and steel equipments
Ghana Coco, gold, coffee
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India Jute, textiles, sugar, spices, tobacco, tea, cement, mica etc.
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Indonesia Sugar, spices, rubber, rice, cinchona, petroleum
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Iran Petroleum, carpets, dry fruits
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Iraq Dates, petroleum
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Italy Mercury, textiles
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Japan Machinery, textiles, toys, silk, automobiles
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Kenya Coffee, tea, meat, sisal, hides and skins, cement, soda ash
Kuwait Petroleum
Malaysia Rubber, tin
Netherlands Machinery, aircraft, electricals
Saudi Arabia Oil, dates
Spain Lead
Sweden Matches, timber
Switzerland Watches, chemicals, electricals
Taiwan Camphor, rice
UK Textiles, medicines, machinery, cars
USA Petroleum, wheat, machinery, coal, automobiles, iron etc.
Russia Petroleum, wheat, chemicals, heavy machinery etc.
Vietnam Tin, rice, rubber, teak etc.
Towns Associated with some important industries (India and World)

Town Industry
Ahmedabad (Gujarat) Cotton Textiles
Agra (U.P.) Leather, marble
Baku (Russia) Petroleum
Bangalore (Karnatka) Aircraft and telephones
Bhilai (Chhattisgarh) Steel Plant
Bangkok (Thailand) Ship-building, teak and wood
Bhagalpur (Bihar) Silk
Mumbai (Maharashtra) Film industries, atomic rector
Buenos Aires (Argentina) Dairy products, meat
Cadiz (Portugal) Cork
Kolkata (W. Bengal) Jute, paper, leather works
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Town Industry
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Chittaranjan (W. Bengal) Locomotives
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Cochin (Kerala) Ship-building
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Chicago (USA) Agricultural equipments, automobiles
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Dhaka (Bangladesh) Jute
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Daimianagar (Bihar) Cement
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Darjeeling (W. Bengal) Tea
Delhi (India) Textiles, chemicals, D.D.T., Small Scale Industrie
Detroit (USA) s (SSI)
Dhariwal (Punjab) Motor car
Digboi (Assam) Woolen goods
Ferozabad (U.P.) Oil refinery
Guntur (Andhra Bangles, Glass refinery
Pradesh) Tobacco
Havana (Cuba) Sugar, tobacco, cigars
Jamshedpur (Jharkhand) Steel
Tharia (Jharkhand) Coal mines
Khetri (Rajasthan) Copper mines
Johannesberg (South Afri Gold mines
ca) Gold fields
Kolar (Karnataka) Film Production
Los Angeles (USA) Hosiery
Ludhiana (Punjab) Silk Industry
Lyons (France) Leather, Integral Coach Factory
Chennai (Tamil Nadu) Brasswre, cutlery
Moradabad (U.P.) Oranges, Cotton mills
Nagpur (Maharashtra) Newsprint
Nepanagar (M.P.) Iron and steel, coal, petroleum
Pittsberg (USA) Integral Coach Factory
Perambur (Tamil Nadu) Coal mines
Raniganj (W.B.) Sports goods
Sialkot (Pakistan) Fertilizers and chemicals
Sindri (Jharkhand) Cutlery
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Town Industry
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Sheffield (UK) Paper and Jute
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Titagarh (W. Bengal) Ship-building
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Venice (Italy) Silk, Brocade Industry
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Varanasi (U.P.)
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RIVER SIDE CITIES
Afghanistan, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Myanmar
Town River Town River

Kabul (Afghanistan) Kabul Yangon (Myanmar) Irawady
Allahabad Confluence of Akyab (Myanmar) Irawady
Ganga, Vijayawada Krishna
Jamuna, China
Saraswati Shanghai Yang-tse
(invisible) Kiang
Varanasi Ganga Nanking Yang-tse-
Kiang
Nasik Godawari Chungking Yang-tse-
Kiang
Kolkata Hooghly Canton Si-Kiang
Cuttack Mahanadi Middle East and Africa
Patna Ganga Cairo (Egypt) Nile
Chittagong Maiyani Basra(Iraq) Tigris and
(Bangladesh) Euphrates
Lucknow Gomati Ankara (Turkey) Kizil
Jamshedpur Subarnarekha Baghdad (Iraq) Tigris
Haridwar Ganga Khartoum (Sudan) Blue &
White
Nile

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Delhi Jamuna Europe
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Kanpur Ganga Berlin (Germany) Spree
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Surat Tapti Belgrade Dunube
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Srinagar Jhelum Cologne (Germany) Rhine
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Ferozepur Sutlej
Ludhiana Sutlej
Karachi (Pak) Indus
Lahore (Pak) Ravi Lisbon (Portugal) Tangus
Paris (France) Seine Glasgow (Scotland) Clyde
Hamburg (Germany) Elbe USA

Budapest (Hungary) Danube New York Hudson
Rome (Italy) Tiber Philadelphia Delaware
Warsaw (Poland) Vistula New Orleans Mississippi
Bristol (U.K.) Avon Montreal (Canada) Ottawa
London (U.K.) Thames Quebec (Canada) St. Lawrence
New Castle (U.K.) Tyre
Famous Sites (India)

Site Location
Ajanta Maharashtra
Akabar’s Tomb Agra (U.P.)
Amarnath Cave Kashmir
Ambar Palace Jaipur (Rajasthan)
Anand Bhawan Allahabad (UP)
Bhakra Dam Punjab
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Site Location
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Birla Planetorium Kolkata (West Bengal)
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Island Palace Udaipur (Rajasthan)
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Jagannath Temple Pun (Orissa)
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Jai Stambha (Tower of Victory) Chittorgarh (Rajasthan)
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Jama Masjid Delhi
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Black Pagoda Konark (Orissa)
Brihadeeshwara Temple Tanjavur
Brindaban Gardens Mysore (Karnataka)
Buland Darwaza Fatehpur Sikri (U.P.)
Char Minar Hyderabad (Andhra Pradesh)
Chilka Lake Near Bhubaneswar (Orissa)
Dal Lak Srinagar (I & K)
Dilwara Temples Mt. Abu (Rajasthan)
Elephanta Caves Mumbai (Maharashtra)
Ellora Caves Aurangabad (Maharashtra)
Gateway of India Mumbai (Maharashtra)
Golden Temple Amritsar (Punjab)
Gol Gumbaz Bizapur (Karnataka)
Hanging Gardens Mumbai
Hawa Mahal Jaipur (Rajasthan)
Howrah Bridge Kolkata (W. Bengal)
Mt. Girnar (Jam Temple) Junagadh (Gujarat)
Nataraja Temple Chennai (Tamil Nadu)
Nishat Bagh Srinagar (J & K)
Padmanabha Temple Thiruvananthapuram (Kerala)
Palitana Junagadh (Gujarat)
Panch Mahal Fatehpur Sikni (U.P.)
Pichola Lake Udaipur (Rajasthan)
Prince of Wales Museum Mumbai (Maharashtra)
General Awareness
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Site Location
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Qutub Minar Delhi
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Raj Ghat Delhi
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Rashtrapati Bhawan Delhi
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Red Fort Delhi
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Jantar Mantar New Delhi
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Kailash Temple Ellora (Maharashtra)
Kanya Kumari Tamil Nadu
Kirti Stambha (Tower of fame) Chittorgarh (Rajasthan)
Lal Bagh Garden Bangalore (Karnataka)
Lingaraj Temple Bhubaneshwar (Orissa)
Mahakaleshwar Ujjain (M.P.)
Maheshmukh (Trimurti) Temple Elephanta Cave (Maharashtra)
Malabar Hills Mumbai (Maharashtra)
Man Mandir Palace Gwalior Fort (M.P.)
Marble Rocks Jabalpur (M.P.)
Marina Beach Chennai (T.N.)
Minakshi Temple Madurai (T.N.)
Santa Cruz Air Port Mumbai (Maharashtra)
Sidi Sayyid Masjid Ahmedabad (Gujarat)
Shalimar Bagh Srinagar (J & K)
Shahi Chashma Srinagar (J & K)
Shanti Van Delhi
Statue of Gomateshwara Mysore (Karnataka)
Sun Temple (Black Pagoda) Konark (Orissa)
Taj Mahal Agra (Uttar Pradesh)
Tower of Silence Mumbai (Maharashtra)
Victoria Memorial Kolkata (W. Bengal)
Victoria Garden Mumbai (Maharashtra)
Vijay Ghat Delhi
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Famous Sites (World)
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Site Location
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Al-Aqusa Mosque Jerusalem (Israel)
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Big Ben London (U.K.)
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Bradenberg Gate Berlin (Germany)
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Broadway New York (U.S.A.)
Brown House Berlin (Germany)
Buckingham Palace London (U.K.)
Colosslum Rome (Italy)
Downing Street London (U.K.)
Eiffel Tower Paris (France)
Fleet Street London (U.K.)
Harley Street London (U.K.)
Hyde Park London (U.K.)
India House London (U.K.)
Kaaba Mecca (Saudi Arabia)
Kremlin Moscow (Russia)
Leaning Tower Pisa (Rome)
Louvre Paris (France)
Merdeka Palace Jakarta (Indonesia)
Oval London (U.K.)
Pentagon Washington (U.S.A.)
Potala Nanking (China)
Pyramid Egypt
Red Square Moscow (Russia)
Scotland Yard London (U.K.)
Shwe Dragon Pagoda Yangon (Myanmar)
Sphinx Egypt
Statue of Liberty New York (U.S.A.)
General Awareness
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Vatican Rome (Italy)
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Wailing Wall Jerusalem (Israel)
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Wall Street New York (U.S.A.)
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Westminster Abbey London (U.K.)
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White Hall London (U.K.)
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White House Washington (U.S.A.)
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Changed Names of Cities, States and Countries
Old Name New Name Old Name New Name

Abyssinia Ethiopia Ceylon Sri Lanka
Angora Ankara Christina Oslo
Aurangabad Sambhaji Nagar Cochin Kochi
Banaras Varanasi Constantinople Istanbul
Bangalore Bangaluru Dacca Dhaka
Baroda Vadodara Dahomey Benin
Batavia Djakarta Dutch East Indies Indonesia
Basutoland Lesotho Dutch Guiana Surinam
Bechuanaland Botswana Ellice Islands Tuvalu
Bhatinda Bathinda Formosa Taiwan
Bombay Mumbai Gauhati Guwahati
British Guiana Guyana Gold Coast Ghana
Burma Myanmar Holland The Netherlands
Calcutta Kolkata Ivory Coast Cote D’Ivoire
Calicut Kozhikode Jubbulpore Jabalpur
Cape Canaveral Cape Kennedy Jullundur Jalandhar
Cawnpore Kanpur Leopoidville Kinshasa
Central Madhya Pradesh Madagascar Malagasy
Provinces
Madras Chennai Rhodesia Zimbabwe
Malaya Malaysia Saigon Ho Chi Minh
Manchukuo Manchuria Salisbury Harare
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Old Name New Name Old Name New Name
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Mesopotamia Iraq Sandwich Islands Hawaiian Islands
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New Hebrides Vanuatu Siam Thailand
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Nippon Japan Simla Shimla
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Northern Zambia South West Africa Namibia
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Rhodesia
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Nyasaland Malawi Spanish Guinea Equatorial Guinea
Ooty Udhagamandalam Stalingrad Volgograd
Tanganyika
and
Panjim Panaji Zanzibar Tanzania
Peking Beijing Tanjore Thanjavur
Petrograd Leningrad Trichur Thrissur
Persia Iran Trivandrum Thiruvanan-
Palghat Palakkad Thapuram
Pondicheri Puducheri United Provinces Uttar Pradesh
Poona Pune Upper Volta Burkina Faso
Pretoria Tshwane Uttaranchal Uttarakhand
Quilon Kollam Vizagapattam Visakhapatnam
Rangoon Yangon Zaire Republic of Congo
Geographical Epithets (Sobriquets)

Blue Mountains — Nilgiri Hills, India
City of Sky Scrapers — New York, USA
City of Seven Hills — Rome, Italy
City of Dreaming Spires — Oxford, England
City of Golden Gate — San Francisco, USA
Cockpit of Europe — Belgium

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China’s Sorrow — Hwang Ho
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Dark Continent — Africa
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Eternal City — Rome
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Forbidden City — Lhasa, Tibet
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Gate of Tears — Bab-el-Mandeb, Jerusalem
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Granite City — Aberdeen, Scotland
Herring Pond — Atlantic Ocean
Hermit Kingdom — Korea
Island Continent — Australia
Island of Cloves — Madagascar
Island of Pearls — Bahrain
Key to the Mediterranean — Gibraltar
Land of Golden Fleece — Australia
Land of Mid Night Sun — Norway
Land of Rising Sun — Japan
Land of White Elephant — Thailand
Never Land — Prairies of N. Australia
Pearl of Antilles — Cuba
Pillars of Hercules — Strait of Gibraltar
Pearl of the Pacific — Guyayaquil Port of Ecuador
Pink City — Jaipur, India
Queen of the Adriatic — Venice, Italy
Sugar Bowl of the World — Cuba
Venice of the East — Cochin, India
Venice of the North — Stockholm
Windy city — Chicago, USA
Yellow River — Hwango Ho

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Some Important Boundary Lines
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Durand Line - Between Pakistan and Afghanistan
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Hindenberg Line - between Germany & Poland
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49th Parallel - between USA & Canada
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Mac Mahon Line - between India & Tibet/China
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Maginot Line - between France & Germany
38th Parallel - between North & South Korea
Oder Neisse Line - between Germany and Poland
Radcliffe Line - between India & Pakistan
17th Parallel - between India & Pakistan (as claimed
by Pakistan)
Some Important Tribes and their Homeland (World)

Eskimos : Greenland, North Canada, Chukchi: N.E. Asia, U.S.S.R., North
Alaska, N. Siberia Siberia
Koryaks: N. Siberia, Eurassian Bedouin: Sahara and Middle East
Tunda, N.E. Asia Bindibu or Aborigins : Australia
Aleuts : Alaska Gobi Mongols Gobi
Bushman : Kalahari Orang Ash : Malaysia
Turregs : Sahara Masai: East & Central Africa
India Tribes : Amazon basin Aeta : Philippines
Pygmies : Congo basin, Zaire Tapiro: Papua New Guinea
Hausa : North Nigeria Fulani : Western Africa
Ainus : Japan Zulus : South Africa
Maoris : New Zealand Kirghiz : Asiatic steppes
Hoften tots : Hot tropical Africa Kazakhs : Kazakhistan
Ibans: Equatorial rain forest region Kalmuk : Central Asia
of South-East Asia. Buryak : Central Asia
Lapps : N. Finland, Scandinavian Yoakuts : Siberia
country Berbers : N. Africa
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Kareus or Meos : Myanmar Guicas : Amazon forest area
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Red Indian : N. America Semangs : East Sumatra
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Samoyeds : Siberia
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Highest Mountain Peaks (World)
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Name Height (in metres) Range
1. Mount Everest 8848 Himalayas

2. K2 (Godwin 8611 Karakoram
Austen)
3. Kanchenjunga 8598 Himalayas
4. Lhotse 8511 Himalayas
5. Makalu I 8481 Himalayas
6. Dhaulagiri I 8167 Himalayas
7. Manaslu I 8156 Himalayas
8. Cho Uyo 8153 Himalayas
9. Nanga Parvat 8126 Himalayas
10. Annapuranal 8091 Himalayas
WONDERS OF THE WORLD

Seven Wonders of the Ancient World
1. Hanging Garden of Babylon
2. Temple of Diana at Ephesus (Rome)
3. Statue of Jupiter at Olympia
4. Pyramids of Egypt
5. Mausoleum of Mausolus (Ruler of Halicarnasus)
6. Light house of Alexandria
7. Colossus at Rhodes (912 ft. high Statue of Helos, the Sun God)
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Seven Wonders of the Medical World
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1. Great Wall of China
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2. Porcelain Tower of Nanking (China)
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3. Colosseum of Rome (Italy)
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4. Stone henge of England
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5. Leaning Tower of Pisa (Italy)
6. Catacombs of Alexandria
7. Mosque at St. Sophia (Constantinople)
Other Wonders of the World
1. The Sphinx, near Gizeh (Ghiza) in Egypt
2. The Catacombs at Rome
3. The Circus Maximus at Rome
4. The Taj Mahal at Agra (India)
5. Angkor vat temple in Combodia
6. The Alhambra at Granada in S. Spain
7. Shew Dragon Pagoda or the Golden Pagoda at Yangon in Myanmar
New Seven Wonders of the World

As declared on July 7, 2007 by New Seven Wonders Foundation of
Switzerland, at a grand ceremony organised in Stadia da Lutz, Benefica
stadium in Lisban (Portugal).
1. The Taj Mahal (Agra, India)
2. The Great Wall of China (China)
3. The Pink Ruins of Petra (Jordan)
4. The Statue of Christ the Redeemer in Ris de Janerio (Brazil)
5. IncanRuins of Machu Pichu (Peru)
6. The ancient Mayan City of Chichen Itza (Mexico)
7. The Colosseum of Rome (Italy)
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Chapter Glossary of Geographical Terms
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 Ablation : Loss of ice in the body of a glacier through melting etc.
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 Abrasion : Erosion of rocks by water, wind or ice (glacier).
 Absolute humidity : Amount of water vapour present in a unit volume
of air; usually expressed as granimes per cubic metre.
 Advection : Transfer of heat through horizontal movement of air.
 Aeolian : Relating to or caused by wind, for example, aeolian landforms.
 Alluvium : The fine debris transported and deposited by a river.
Landforms formed by deposition of such material are called alluvial
landforms, for example, alluvial plains. Soils formed through river
deposition are called alluvial soils.
 Altimeter : A type of aneroid barometer for measuring height, used
mainly in aeroplanes.
 Anemometer : An instrument used for measuring wind velocity.
 Antipodes : The arch or crest of a fold in the rocks. Its opposite is a
syncline, the bottom of a fold.
 Aphelion : Two points diametrically 00ite each other on the surface of
the earth.
 Aphelion : The position of the earth in it orbit when it is at its greatest
distance from the sun. At its nearest distaf1 from the sun the earth is said
to be in perihelion.
 Apogee : The position of the moon or any 0ther heavenly body, when it
is at

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its greatest distance from the earth. At its shortest distance from the
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earth the moon is said to be in perigee.
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 Asteroids or planetoids : Minor planets revolving around the sun
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between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.
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 Atmosphere : The envelope of air surrounding the earth. The most
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abundant among its constituents are nitrogen and oxygen.
 Atoll : A ring or horseshoe-shaped coral reef.
 Attrition : Mutual wearing down of rock particles during transportation
by wind, water or ice.
 Aurora Australis and Aurora Borealies : The light phenomena seen in the
sky at night in the higher latitudes of the southern and northern
hemisphere respectively. Aurora comprises an electrical discharge and is
usually accompanied by a magnetic storm.
 Avalanche : A large mass of snow and ice at high altitude, sliding
downslope on a mountain. Usually a large amount of rock material is also
involved in an avalanche.
 Azonal soil : Soil which has not been subjected sufficiently to soil
forming processes and thus has changed little from the parent material.
Such soils do not have a mature profile.
 Barometer : Instrument used for measuring pressure. A self-recording
barometer giving a continuous record of pressure conditions in the form
of a line graph is called a barograph and the graph thus provided is called
a barogram.
 Barysphere, Bathysphere or Centrosphere : Inner portion of the earth
below the lithosphere or outer crust.

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Base level : The lowest level to which a river can deepen its valley. It is
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the level of the surface of the water body, a lake or sea, in which the
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stream finally falls.
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 Beach : A gently sloping strip of land along the coast. This lies between
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the high and low tide levels and is formed by depositional action of
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waves.
 Bearing : The horizontal angle between the direction of an object and
the meridian through the observer, measured in degrees (zero to 360)
clockwise from the north.
 Beufort scale : A scale identifying wind strength. The lowest point on
the scale is zero which refers to calm conditions and the highest is 12
referring to a hurricane.
 Biogeography: Study of geographical distribution of plants and animals.
 Biosphere : That portion of the earth and its environment occupied by
various forms of life.
 Blizzard : A storm of powdery snow in the polar regions.
 Bog : An area of soft, wet, spongy ground consisting mainly of decayed or
decaying moss and other vegetable matter.
 Bora : A cold and often dry wind experienced along the eastern coast of
the Adriatic Sea.
 Bore : A high tidal wave causing backflow of water in the mouth of a
river.
 Caatinga: Thorn-forest of Brazil.
 Canyon : A narrow, deep, steep-sided river valley cut in the soft rocks.
 Cape : A headland, a more or less pointed piece of land jutting out into
the sea.

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Cardinal points : The four main directions or points of the compass-
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north, south, east and west.
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Cartography : The art of drawing maps and charts.
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 Celestial equator : The imaginary circle formed by the intersection of a
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plane through the centre of the earth perpendicular to its axis and the
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celestial sphere.
 Celestial sphere : A sphere of infinite radius having its centre at some
point in the solar system, for example, at the centre of the earth, on to
which all members of the solar system may be projected.
 Chaparral : The low, dense scrub, characteristic of Mediterranean type
of climatic regions.
 Chronometer : An accurate timekeeping instrument.
 Climate The average weather conditions of a place or region throughout
the seasons.
 Climatology : The science studying climates and their influence on other
components of the environment.
 Clinometer : An instrument used for determining the difference in
levation between two points.
 Cloud : A mass of tiny water droplets or ice crystals formed by
condensation of water vapour in the atmosphere. Condensation : The
process by which a substance changes from vapour to liquid.
 Condensation nuclei : Microscopic particles having an affinity for water.
These serve as the nuclei for the formation of raindrops. The presence of
these particles in the atmosphere is necessary for condensation to occur.
Coniferous : Cone-bearing plants with needle-shaped leaves.
 Connate water : Water entrapped in the interstices of rocks during their
formation; also called fossil water.

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Convection : The uplift of air as a result of surface heating or instability
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due to other reasons. Generally this term refers to vertical movement of
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gases in contrast to advection.
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 Convection currents : Due to instability in air some vertical motions in
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the atmosphere are set up which are more or less in the form of currents.
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 Coral : A kind of rock formed of polyps forming reefs in the oceans.
 Colour of the sky : Seems blue because of the selective scattering of light
in the atmosphere by gases and dust particles.
 Deciduous forest: Consists of trees that shed their leaves in the dry
season.
 Downs : Grasslands of Australia.
 Denudation : Wearing away of rocks by various agencies like wind,
water and ice (glaciers).
 Eclipse : Partial or full obscuring of the moon when the earth comes
between the sun and the moon is called lunar eclipse. It occurs usually on
the day of the full moon.
 A partial or complete obscuring of the sun because of the presence of the
moon between the sun and the earth is called the solar eclipse and it
occurs on the day of the new moon, that is, on the day the moon is not
visible.
 Ecliptic : The apparent track of the sun throughout the year as a result of
the motion of the earth around it. The plane of the ecliptic is the plane
passing through this path and is coincident with the plane of the earth’s
orbit.
 Ecology : The science that studies organisms in relation to their
environment.
 Edaphic : Relating to soil.

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Eluviation : Removal of material in solution or suspension from the
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upper horizons of the soils to the lower.
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Epicentre : Point on the surface of the earth vertically above the seismic
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focus or deep focus, that is, the point where an earthquake originates.
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 Equinox : The time of the year when the sun appears vertically overhead
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at noon at the equator and days and nights are equal on all points on the
earth surface.
 Estuary: Mouth of a river where tidal effects are evident and where fresh
water and sea water mix. The term also refers to river valleys which have
been flooded by sea due to coastal subsidence.
 Eustatic movement : A large scale rise or fall of sea level.
 Evapotranspiration : The term signifies total loss of water (moisture)
from soil in the form of water vapour, including that lost by evaporation
from open water bodies, the surface of rocks and also that lost by
transpiration from growing plants.
 Fathometer : Instrument used for
 measuring the depth of the ocean.
 Fauna : The animal life of a region or a geological period.
 Fiord : A glacial valley or part there of now under the sea.
 Flood-Plain: A plain bordering a river and formed by river deposition.
 Flora : The plant life of a region or geological period.
 Fluvial : Belonging or relating to a river.
 Fog : A dense mass or small water drops or smoke or dust particles in
the lower layers of the atmosphere.
 Front : The line of separation at the earth’s surface between cold and
warm air masses. Like the air masses, the fronts can also be cold and
warm.

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Geosyncline : A large depression or trough in the earth’s crust, that is a
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syncline on a large scale.
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Geyser : A thermal spring which throws up a jet of hot water and steam
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intermittently.
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 Glacier : A moving mass of ice. Gorge A narrow and deep valley of a
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river.
 Great circle : A circle on the earth’s surface whose plane passes through
its centre and thus bisects it into two hemispheres.
 Great circle route : A route between any two points on the earth’s
surface which follows the great circle between them.
 Gulf : A large, deep bay.
 Habitat: Natural environment of a plant or animal.
 Halophyte : A plant which grows naturally in saline environment.
 Hemisphere: One half of the earth’s surface, formed when a plane
passing through its centre bisects it.
 Hinterland : Area from which a port gets most of its exports.
 Horse latitudes: Subtropical belt of high pressure over the oceans.
 Humidity: State of the atmosphere with respect to the water vapour it
contains.
 Humus : Decomposed and partly decomposed organic matter in the soil.
 Hydrology : The study of the water content on the earth.
 Hyetograph : A self-recording rain- gauge.
 Hygrometer : Instrument used for measuring humidity in the
atmosphere.
 Hygrophyte : Plant growing in wetlands.
 Iceberg : A mass of land ice which has been broken off or carved from
the end of a glacier and is afloat in the sea.

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Illuviation: Deposition, in the lower soil horizon, of material removed by
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eluviation from the upper horizons of the soil.
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Insolation : Energy radiated from the sun received by the earth.
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 International date line : The line approximating to 1800 East or West
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longitude, where the date changes by one day as it is crossed. The date is
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one day earlier east of this line.
 Intertropical convergence zone or inter-tropical front : Zone of low
atmospheric pressure near the equator where the northeast and
southeast trade winds converge.
 Intrazonal soil : Soil which has been influenced in its development, less
by climate and vegtation than by factors like parent material and
drainage.
 Isopleth: Line drawn on the map along which the value of a particular
phenomenon or product is uniform.
 Isanomal : Isopleth of anomaly.
 Isarithm : Any line representing xntinuous value on maps. Isobars: Lines
of equal pressure.
 Isobaths : Lines of equal depth in sea.
 Isobronts : Lines joining places experiencing a thunderstorm at the
same time.
 Isochrones : Lines joining places located at equal travel time from a
common centre.
 Isogonals : Lines joining places with same magnetic declination.
 Isohalines : Isopleths of salinity. Isohels: Isopleths of equal amount of
sunshine.
 Isohyet : Isopleth of rainfall.
 Isohypse or contour lines : Isopleths of elevation above sea level.

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Isonif : Isopleth of amount of snow.
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 Isophene : Isopleth of seasonal phenomena, for example, flowering
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dates of plants.
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 Isopotential : Surface to which artesian water can rise.
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 Isorymes : Lines of equal frost.
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 Isoseismals : Lines of equal seismic activity.
 Isotherms: Isopleths of temperature.
 Isthmus : A narrow strip of land joining two land masses, viz.—the
isthmus of Panama joining North and South America.
 Karst region or Karstiand: Limestone region in which most of the
drainage is underground, the surface being dry and barren.
 Katabatic wind : Local wind caused by the flow of air down mountain
slopes and valleys.
 Lagoon : Part of sea partially cut off from it by deposits of sand or coral
reefs, viz. Chilka Lake in Orissa.
 Lapse rate : The rate of change of temperature in atmosphere with
height; it is said to be positive when temperature decreases with height,
as it normally does, and negative when temperature increases with
height, as in temperature inversion.
 Latitude : The angular distance of a point on the earth’s surface north or
south of the equator, as measured from the centre of the earth.
Latitudinal lines are also called parallels of latitude.
 Leaching : The process by which soluble substances are washed out of
the upper layers of the soils into lower layers by percolating rainwater.
 Leeward : The side or direction sheltered from the wind.

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Light year : Distance travelled by light in one year, the speed being
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1,86,000 miles per second. The unit is used for measuring the distance of
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stars from the earth.
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 Lithosphere : The solid crust of the earth.
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 Loess : A deposit of fine silt or dust generally held to have been
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transported to its present situation by wind.
 Longitude : The angular distance measured along the equator, between
the meridian through a given point and a standard or prime meridian.
 Lunar month : The interval of time in which the moon makes one
complete revolution around the earth-about 29.5 days.
 Magnetic storms : Large, irregular variations or disturbances in the
earth’s magnetic field.
 Meridian : A line of longitude, or half of one of the great circles that pass
through the poles and cut the equator at right angles.
 Mesophyte : A plant that requires a moderate amount of moisture. Most
common trees and shrubs are mesophytes.
 Mestizo: Offspring of a European and an American Indian-the term is
used mostly in South America.
 Meteors : Small pieces in the atmosphere appearing as shooting stars.
 Midnight sun : A phenomenon observed in high latitudes around
midsummer when the sun does not sink below the horizon throughout
the 24 hours of a day and night cycle and may thus be visible even at
midnight.
 Monsoon : A type of wind system in which there is complete reversal or
almost so, of prevailing wind direction from season to season.
 Moraine : The debris or fragments of rock material brought down with
the movement of glacier.

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Mulatto : The offspring of a white and a black person, commonly used in
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America.
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Nivation : Erosion due to action of snow.
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 Nomadism : The practice, among certain primitive people, of frequently
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changing their habitation. These people keep moving residence in search
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of food and fresh pasture for animals. People following this mode of life
are called nomads.
 asis : Area in the desert where water is available.
 Ocean Current : Movement of the surface water of the ocean.
 Opisometer: Instrument used for measuring distances on a map.
 Orbit : Path of a heavenly body through space in relation to some
selected point.
 Orographic rain : Rain caused by mountains standing in the path of
moisture-laden winds.
 Outwash Plain : Alluvial plain formed by streams originating from the
melting ice of a glacier.
 Pampas : The mid-latitude grasslands of South America.
 Pastoralism : Practice of breeding and rearing cattle. Some pastoral
communities may be nomadic in their habits.
 Pedology: The science of the study of soils.
 Pelagic : Belonging to the open sea. Peninsula A stretch of land almost
surrounded by water.
 Perigee : The point in the orbit of moon or a planet or in the apparent
orbit of the sun, nearest to the earth.
 Perihelion : The position of the earth in its orbit or any other heavely
body, nearest to the sun.
 Permafrost : Ground that is permanently frozen.

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Petrology : The study of the composition, structure and history of rocks
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forming the crust of the earth.
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Phenology : Science dealing with the effects of seasonal changes upon
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animal and plant life.
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 Phytogeography : The study of the distribution of plants, on the earth, in
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relation to environment.
 Piedmont : Belonging to or related to the foot of a mountain.
 Planetary winds : The general distribution of winds throughout the
lower atmosphere which is determined by differences in insolation and
would be set up similarly on any rotating planet possessing an
atmosphere.
 Planimeter : Instrument for measuring irregular plane areas on maps.
 Plateau : Extensive level or near level area of elevated land.
 Prairies: Mid-latitude grasslands of North America.
 Precipitation: Falling water (in liquid or solid form, as the case may be)
from the atmosphere to the earth.
 Pressure gradient : Rate at which pressure declines horizontally on the
earth’s surface.
 Psychrometer : Instrument used for measuring humidity of the
atmosphere.
 Radiation : Process by which a body emits radiant energy, viz.— in the
form of heat.
 Rain shadow : Area having relatively lower average rainfall because it is
sheltered from the prevailing rain-bearing winds by a range of
mountains or hills.
 Reef : Ridge of rocks lying near the surface of the sea, which may be
visible at low tide, but usually covered by water.

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Reg : A stony desert. A sandy desert is called an erg.
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 Rhumb line of loxodrome : Line on the earth’s surface which cuts all
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meridians at the same angle.
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 Saprophyte : A plant which lives on decaying organic matter. Most such
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plants are fungi.
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 Satellite : A relatively small body revolving around a planet.
 Savanna : An area of tropical grassland with scattered trees.
 Seismic focus or deep focus : Point below the earth’s surface where an
earthquake originates.
 Seismograph : Instrument used for measuring and recording
earthquake shocks.
 Seismology : Science of the study of earthquakes.
 Selvas : Dense equatorial forests of the Amazon basin in South America.
 Sericulture: The culture of silkworms for production of raw silk.
 Sidereal day : The period of time during which a star describes a
complete circle in its apparent journey around the pole star,
representing the period of one rotation of the earth on its axis and equal
to 23 hours 56 minutes 4 seconds. It is thus about 4 minutes shorter than
the mean solar day.
 Sleet : Precipitation consisting of a mixture of snow and rain.
 Smog : Fog heavily laden with smoke.
 Snow-line : Lower limit of perpetual snow. The snow above this line
does not melt completely even in summer.
 Soil erosion : The wearing away and loss of soil mainly by the action of
wind and water.
 Solar constant : Intensity of the sun’s radiation in space at the mean
distance of the earth from the sun.

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Solar day : The average period taken by the earth in making one otation
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on its axis in relation to the sun-24 hours.
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Solstice : The time during summer or winter when the sun is vertically
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above the point which represents its farthest distance north or south of
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the equator-the two tropics.
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 Steppe : Mid-latitude grasslands of Eurasia.
 Strait : Narrow stretch of sea connecting two extensive areas of sea.
 Syncline : Trough or inverted arch of a fold in rock strata.
 Sublimation : Change of state of water from solid to vapour directly or
vice versa.
 Taiga : Coniferous forestland of Siberia.
 Temperature inversion : Condition when the temperature is found to
be increasing instead of decreasing with height.
 Theodolite : Instrument used for measuring angular distances in the
vertical plane (elevation) and the horizontal plane (azimuth).
 Thermograph : Self-recording thermometer-an instrument for
measuring temperature.
 Tidal range : Average difference in water level between hight and low
tide at one place.
 Topographic map : Map on sufficiently large scale to show the detailed
surface features of an area.
 Trans-humance : Practice among pastoral communities to move their
animals seasonally between two regions of different climate.
 Tributary: Smaller river which joins a larger river.
 Tropics : The Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn located at
degrees N and S, respectively, are the northward and southward limits
up to which the sun’s vertical rays can reach.

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Tropical Zone: The area bounded by the two tropics is called the
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tropical zone. Tropophyte : A plant which acts as hygrophyte in one
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season and xerophyte in the other.
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 Tsunami : A large sea wave caused by an earthquake originating on the
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seabed.
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 Van Allen’s Radiation Belts: Named after the physicist who discovered
them, these are two bands of the outermost layer of the atmosphere
(magnetosphere), at heights of 3000 km and 16000 km above the earth’s
surface. Here the ionized particles trapped by the earth’s magnetic field
from the solar radiation, concentrate.
 Viticulture : The culture of grape vine.
 Volcano : Vent in the earth’s crust caused by magma forcing its way to
the surface through which molten or solid rock flow from the interior of
the earth.
 Watershed : Elevated boundary line separating headstreams which are
tributaries to different river systems or basins.
 Weather: Condition of the atmosphere at certain time or over a certain
period of time as described by meteorological phenomena including
temperature, atmospheric pressure and humidity.
 Weathering: Decay and disintegration of rocks of the earth’s crust by
exposure to the atmosphere; it is one of the main processes of
denudation.
 Willy-willy : Tropical cyclone in the Pacific near the east coast of
Australia.
 Wind vane : Instrument used to indicate the direction of the wind.
 Xerophyte: Plant which is adapted, to living in a region where little
moisture is available.
 Yazoo river : Tributary which is prevented from joining the main river
because the latter has built up high natural levees; it thus runs parallel to

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the main stream for a considerable distance before joining it
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downstream.
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 Zenith : Point in the celestial sphere vertically above one’s head.
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 Zodiac : Zone of the heavens in which lie the paths of the sun, the moon
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and the chief planets.
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 Zonal soil : A soil which owes its well developed characteristics largely
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to the influence of climate and vegetation. They are characterised by
well-developed soil profiles.
 Zoogeography : Study of the distribution of animals on the earth’s
surface.
 Zoophyte : An animal which resembles a plant, viz.-a coral polyp, a
sponge.

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Chapter
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Unit of Measurement
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What is Science?
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Science is the systematic observation of natural events and conditions in
order to discover facts about them and to formulate laws and principles
based on these facts. Its procedures are systematic and reproducible and its
hypotheses are tested using the scientific method.
What Is Physics?
Physics is a natural science that involves the scientific study of matter and
energy and how they interact with each other, along with related concepts
such as force and motion. More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature. It
deals with matter on scales ranging from sub-atomic particles (i.e. the
particles that make up the atom and the particles that make up those
particles) to stars and even entire galaxies.
Units are of two types —(i) Fundamental Unit; (ii) Derived Unit
System of Units — Units depend on choice. Each choice of units leads
to a new system (set) of units. There are various conventions, as follows:
(i) CGS system : Centimeter – Gram - Second
(ii) MKS System : Meter – Kilogram - Second
(iii) FPS System : Foot – Pound - Second
(iv) SI Units : système International which evolved from the MKS
system;
In SI Units, there are seven fundamental units given in the following table:
S.No. Physical Quantity SI Unit Symbol
1. Length meter m
2. Mass kilogram kg

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3. Time second s
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4. Electric Current ampere A
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5. Temperature Kelvin K
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6. Luminous intensity candela Cd
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7. Amount of substance mole mol
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Besides these seven fundamental units, two supplementary units are also
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defined, viz., radian [rad] for plane angle and steradian (sr) for solid angle.
Derived units: All the units which are defined / expressed in terms of
fundamental units are called derived units. Some important derived units.
S.No. Physical Quantity cgs units SI unit Relation
1. Force dyne Newton 1 Newton = 105 dyne

2. Work erg Joule 1 joule = 107 erg
Some practical units of length mass and time
Length Mass Time
1 Light year = distance 1 quintal = 102 kg 1 solar day = 86400
travelled by light in 1 metric ton = 103 kg sec.
one year in vacuum. 1 atomic mass unit 1 year 365½ solar
1L.Y. = 9.46 x 1015 m (amu) or Dalton = 1.66 days
2. 1 astronomical x 10-27 kg 1 lunar month = 27.3
unit (A.U.) = 1.5 x 1011 solar days.
m 1 pound = 0.4537 kg Tropical year = It is the
3. 1 parsec= 326 L.Y. = 1 Chandrasekhar limit year in which total
3.08 x 1016 m = 1.4 times the mass of solar eclipse occurs.
4. 1 nautical mile or sun = 2.8 x 1030 = kg Leap year = It is the
seainile. = 6020 ft. year in which the
5. 1 micron.= 1 m = month of February is of
10-6 m 29 days.
6. 1 angstrom (A°) =
10-15 m

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Motion
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Vector Quantities
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Physical quantities which have magnitude and direction both and which obey
triangle law are called vector quantities. Example: Displacement, velocity
acceleration, force, momentum, torque etc. Electric current, though has a
direction, is a scalar quantity because it does not obey triangle law.
Moment of inertia, pressure, refractive index, and stress are tensor

quantities.
Scalar Quantities
Physical quantities which have magnitude only and no direction are called
scalar quantities. Example: Mass, speed, volume, work, time, power, energy
etc.
Distance
Distance is the length of actual path covered by a moving object in a given
time interval. It is a scalar quantity. It is always positive.
Displacement
Shortest distance covered by a body in a definite direction is called
displacement. It is a vector quantity. It may be positive, negative or zero. Both
having the same unit (meter)
Speed
Distance travelled by the moving object in unit time interval is Distance called
Dis tan ce
speed i.e. speed =
Time
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It is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is meter / second (m / s).
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Velocity
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Velocity of a moving object is defined as the displacement of the object in unit
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Displacement
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time interval i.e. velocity =
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It is a vector quantity and its SI unit is meter / second.
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Acceleration
Acceleration of an object is defined as the rate of change in velocity of the
Change in Velocity
object i.e. acceleration =
Time
It is a vector quantity and its SI units is meter / second2 (m/s2)
If velocity decreases with time then acceleration is negative and is called
retardation.
Circular Motion
It an object describes a circular path (circle) its motion is called circular
motion. If the object moves with uniform speed, its motion is uniform circular
motion.
Uniform circular motion is an accelerated motion because the direction of
velocity changes continuously.
Angular Velocity
The angle subtended by the line joining the object from the origin of circle in
unit time interval is called angular velocity.

It is generally denoted by =
t
Newton’s laws of motion

Sir Isaac Newton, the father of physics established the laws of motion in his
book “principia” in 1667. He developed the three law of motion which
describes basic rules about how the motions of physical objects change.
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Newton was able to define the fundamental relationship between the
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acceleration of an object and the total forces acting upon it.
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Newton’s first law of motion
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Every body maintains its initial state of rest or motion with uniform speed on
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a straight line unless an external force acts on it. It is also called law of Galileo
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or law of inertia.
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Inertia
Inertia is the property of a body by virtue of which the body opposes change
in its initial state of rest or motion with uniform speed on a straight line.
Inertia is of two types (i) Inertia of rest (ii) Inertia of motion
Some examples of Inertia:
(i) When a car or train starts suddenly, the passengers bends backward.
(ii) When a running horse stops suddenly, the rider bends forward.
(iii) When a coat / blanket are beaten by a stick, the dust particles are
removed.
First law gives the definition of force.

Newton’s second law of motion
The rate of change in momentum of a body is directly proportional to the
applied force on the body and takes place in the direction of force.
If F = force applied, a = acceleration produced and m = mass of body then F =
ma.
Newton’s second law gives the magnitude of force.Newton’s first law is
contained in the second law.
Newton’s Third Law of Motion
To every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Examples of third law

(i) Recoil of a gun (ii) Motion of rocket (iii) Swimming (iv) While drawing
water from the well, if the string breaks up the man drawing water falls back.

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Principle of conservation of linear momentum
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If no external force acts on a system of bodies, the total linear momentum of
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the system of body’s remains constant. As a consequence, the total
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momentum of bodies before and after collision remains the same.
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Impulse
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When a large force acts on a body for very small time, then force is called
impulsive force. Impulse is defined as the product of force and time.
Impulse = force x time change in momentum.
It is a vector quantity and its direction is the direction of force. Its SI unit is
Newton per second (Ns).
Centripetal Force
When a body travels along a circular path, its velocity changes continuously.
Naturally an external force always acts on the body towards the centre of the
path. The external force required to maintain the circular motion of the body
is called centripetal force.
If a body of mass m is moving on a circular path of radius R with uniform
m 2
speed , then the required centripetal force, F 
R
Centrifugal Force
In applying the Newton’s laws of motion, we have to consider some forces
which can not be assigned to any object in the surrounding. These forces are
called pseudo force or inertial force. Centrifugal force is such a pseudo force.
It is equal and opposite of centripetal force. Centrifugal force should not be
confused as the reaction to centripetal force because forces of action and
reaction act on different bodies.
Cream separator, centrifugal drier work on the principle of centrifugal force.

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Moment of force
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The rotational effect of a force on a body about an axis of rotation is described
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in terms of moment of force. Moment of a force about an axis of rotation is
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measured as the product of magnitude of force and the perpendicular
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distance of direction of force from the axis of rotation.
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i.e. Moment of force = Force x moment arm
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It is a vector quantity. It is SI unit is Newton meter (Nm)
Centre of Gravity
The centre of gravity of a body is that point through which the entire weight
of body acts. The centre of gravity of a body does not change with the change
in orientation of body in space. The weight of a body acts through centre of
gravity in the downward direction. Hence a body can be brought to
equilibrium by applying a force equal to its weight in the vertically upward
direction through centre of gravity.
Equilibrium
If the resultant of all the forces acting on a body is zero then the body is said
to be in equilibrium. If a body is in equilibrium, it will be either at rest or in
uniform motion. If it is at rest, the equilibrium is called static, otherwise
dynamic.
Conditions for stable Equilibrium

For stable equilibrium of a body, the following two conditions should be
fulfilled.
(i) The centre of gravity of the body should be at the minimum height.
(ii) The vertical line passing through the centre of gravity of the body should
pass through the base of the body.

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Work, Energy and Power
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Work
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If a body gets displaced when a force acts on it, work is said to he done. Work
is measured by the product of force and displacement of the body along the
direction of force. It is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is joule. If a body gets
displaced by S when a force F acts on it,
Then the work W = F S cos 
Where  = angle between force and displacement
If both force and displacement are in the same direction, then W = FS
Energy
Capacity of doing work by a body is called its energy. Energy is a scalar
quantity and its SI unit is joule.
Mechanical energy
Energy developed in a body due to work done on it is called mechanical
energy. Mechanical energy is of two types:
(i) Potential Energy (ii) Kinetic Energy
Potential Energy
The capacity of doing work developed in a body due to its position or
configuration is called its potential energy. Example
 Energy of stretched or compressed spring
 Energy of water collected at a height
 Energy of spring in a watch.
PE of a body in the gravitational field of earth is mgh.
Where m = mass, g = acceleration due to gravity, h = height of the body from
surface of the earth.

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Kinetic Energy
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Energy possess by a body due to its motion is called Kinetic Energy of the
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body.
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If a body of mass m is moving with speed v, then kinetic energy of the body is
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Relation between Momentum and Kinetic Energy
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where p = momentum = m
p
K.E =
2m
Clearly when momentum is doubled, kinetic energy becomes four times
Principle of Conservation of Energy

Energy can neither be created nor can be destroyed. Only energy can be
transformed from one form to another form. Whenever energy is utilized in
one form, equal amount of energy is produced in other form. Hence total
energy of the universe always remains the same. This is called the principle of
conservation of energy.
Some Equipment used to transform Energy
S. No. Equipment Energy Transformed

1. Dynamo Mechanical energy into electrical energy
2. Candle Chemical energy into light and heat energy.
3. Microphone Sound energy into electrical energy.
4. Loud Speaker Electrical energy into sound energy.
5. Solar Cell Solar energy into electrical energy.
6. Tube light Electrical energy into light energy.
7. Electric Bulb Electrical energy into light and heat energy.
8. Battery Chemical energy into electrical energy.
9. Electric motor Electrical energy into mechanical energy.
10. Sitar Mechanical energy into sound energy.

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Power
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Rate of doing work is called power.If an agent does W work in time t, then
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SI unit of power is watt named as a respect to the scientist James Watt.W, kW,
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MW & H.P. are the other units of power whereas Ws, Wh, kwh are units of
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work and energy.
Watt = joule/sec, 1kW = 103 watt, 1 MW = 106 watt
Horse power is a practical unit of power. 1 H.P. = 746 watt.
1 watt second = 1 watt x 1 second = 1 joule.
1 watt hour (Wh) = 3600 joule
1 kilowatt hour (kwh) — 3.6 x 106 joule.

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Gravitation
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Every body attracts other body by a force called force of gravitation.
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Newton’s law of Gravitation
One of the most powerful ideas in Physics, Newton’s revelation of gravity still
stands centuries after it was formed .The notion supposedly came to him
after seeing an apple fall from a tree, whether this is true or not we will never
know but he came to the conclusion that all objects are attracted to each
other through gravity which is affected by mass.
The strength of the force is affected by the mass of the objects involved, and
both objects are attracted to each other – the apple is pulled towards the
Earth but at the same time the Earth is pulled towards the apple. It is only
because the Earth’s mass is so much greater that we do not notice the latter.
His ‘Inverse square law’ explains how the strength of the gravity decreases by
the square of the distance from the object. So if you were twice the distance
from the Earth, gravity would be 4 time weaker. His theory suddenly
explained the motion of the planets and tides
The force of gravitational attraction between two point bodies is directly
proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them. Consider two point bodies of masses m1
and m2 are placed at a distance r. The force of gravitational attraction
m1m2
between them, F  G
r2
Here G is constant called universal gravitational constant. The value of G is
6.67 x 10-11 Nm2/kg2.

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Gravity
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The gravitational force of earth is called gravity i.e. gravity is the force by
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which earth pulls a body towards its centre.
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The acceleration produced in a body due to force of gravity is called
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acceleration due to gravity (denoted as g) and its value is 9.8
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m/s2.Acceleration due to gravity is independent of shape, size and mass of
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the body.
Variation in g
(i) Value of g decreases with height or depth from earth’s surface.
(ii) g is maximum at poles.
(iii) g is minimum at equator.
(iv) g decreases due to rotation of earth.
 g decreases if angular speed of earth increases and increases if angular
speed of earth decreases.
 If angular speed of earth becomes 17 times its present value, a body on
the equator becomes weightless.
Weight of a body in a lift

(i) If lift is stationary or moving with uniform speed (either upward or
down war(d) , the apparent weight of a body is equal to its true weight.
(ii) If lift is going up with acceleration, the apparent weight of a body is more
than the true weight.
(iii) If lift is going down with acceleration, the apparent weight of a body is
less than the true weight.
(iv) If the cord of the lift is broken, it falls freely. In this situation the weight
of a body in the lift becomes zero. This is the situation of weightlessness.
(v) While going down, if the acceleration of lift is more than acceleration due
to gravity, a body in the lift goes in contact of the ceiling of lift.
Kepler’s Laws of planetary motion

A crux of this law is that the all planets move around the sun in elliptical
orbits, with the sun being at rest at one focus of the orbit. Speed of planet
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increases when the planet is closer to the sun and decreases when the planet
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is far away from sun. Speed of a planet is maximum when it is at perigee and
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minimum when it is at apogee.
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Clearly distant planets have larger period of revolution. The time period of
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Nearest planet Mercury is 88 days where as time period of farthest planet
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Pluto is 247.7 years.
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Satellite
Satellites are natural or artificial bodies revolving around a planet under its
gravitational attraction. Moon is a natural satellite while INSAT-IB is an
artificial satellite of earth.
Orbital speed of a satellite:

(i) Orbital speed of a satellite is independent of its mass. Hence satellites of
different masses revolving in the orbit of same radius have same orbital
speed.
(ii) Orbital speed of a satellite depends upon the radius of orbit (height of
satellite from the surface of earth). Greater the radius of orbit, lesser will be
the orbital speed.
The orbital speed of a satellite revolving near the surface of earth is 7.9
km/sec.
Period of Revolution of a satellite

Time taken by a satellite to complete one revolution in its orbit is called its
period of revolution.
circumference of orbit
i.e. period of revolution =
orbital speed
(i) Period of revolution of a satellite depends upon the height of satellite
from the surface of earth. Greater the height more will be the period of
revolution.
(ii) Period of revolution of a satellite is independent of its mass.
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The period of revolution of satellite revolving near the surface of earth is
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1 hour 24 minute (84 minute)
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Geo-Stationary Satellite
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If a satellite revolves in equatorial plane in the direction of earth’s rotation i.e.
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from west to east with a period of revolution equal to time period of rotation
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of earth on its own axis i.e. 24 hours, then the satellite will appear stationary
relative to earth. Such a satellite is called Geo-stationary satellite. Such a
satellite revolves around the earth at a height of 36000 km. The orbit of Geo-
stationary satellite is called parking orbit. Arthur C. Clarck was first to predict
that a communication satellite can be stationed in the geosynchronous orbit.
Escape velocity
Escape velocity is that minimum velocity with which a body should be
projected from the surface of earth so as it goes out of gravitational field of
earth and never return to earth.
Escape velocity is independent of the mass, shape and size of the body and its
direction of projection.Escape velocity is also called second cosmic velocity.
For earth, escape velocity = 11.2 km/s.
For moon, escape velocity = 2.4 km/s.
Orbital velocity of a satellite V0 = gR and
Escape velocity Ve = gR
where R = Radius of earth. i.e. Ve = 2V0 i.e. escape velocity is 2 times the
orbital velocity.
Therefore if the orbital velocity of a satellite is increased to times (increased

by 41%), the satellite will leave the orbit and escape.

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Chapter
Pressure
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Pressure is defined as force acting normally on unit area of the surface. SI unit
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of pressure is N / m2 also called pascal (P(a). Pressure is a scalar quantity.
F Normal force on the surface

=
A Area of the surface
Atmospheric Pressure
Atmospheric pressure is that pressure which is exerted by a mercury column
of 76 cm length at 0°C at 45° latitude at the sea-level. It is equal to weight of
76 cm column of mercury of cross- sectional area 1 cm2. Generally it is
measured in bar. 1 bar = 105 N/m2
Atmospheric pressure 1 atm = 1.01 bar = 1.01 x 105 N/m2 = 760 torr
One torr is the pressure exerted by a mercury column of 1 mm length.
Atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude (height from earth’s surface).
This is why
(i) It is difficult to cook on the mountain
(ii) The fountain pen of a passenger leaks in aeroplane at height.
Atmospheric pressure is measured by barometer. With the help of barometer,
weather forecast can be made. Sudden fall in barometric reading is the
indication of storm. Slow fall in barometric reading is the indication of rain.
Slow rise in the barometric reading is the indication of clear weather.
Pressure in liquid
Force exerted on unit area of wall or base of the container by the molecules of
liquid is the pressure of liquid. The pressure exerted by liquid at depth h
below the surface of liquid is given as p = hdg where d is the density of liquid.
Regarding pressure in liquid, the following points are worth noting:

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(i) In a static liquid at same horizontal level, pressure is same at all points.
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(ii) Pressure at a point in a static liquid has same value in all directions
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(iii) Pressure at a point in a liquid is proportional to the depth of the point
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from the free surface.
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(iv) Pressure at a point in a liquid is proportional to the density of the liquid.
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Pascal law for pressure of liquid.
(i) If gravitational attraction is negligible, in equilibrium condition, pressure
is same at all points in a liquid.
(ii) If an external pressure is applied to an enclosed fluid, it is transmitted
undiminished to every direction.
Hydrolic lift, hydrolic press, Hydrolic brake work on Pascal law.
Effect of pressure on Melting Point and Boiling Point
(i) The M.P. of substances which expands on fusion increases with the
increase in pressure; for example - wax.
(ii) The M.P. of substances which contracts on fusion decreases with the
increase in temperature for example - ice.
(iii) Boiling point of all the substances increases with the increase in
pressure.

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Floatation
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Buoyant Force
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When a body is immersed partly or wholly in a liquid, a force acts on the body
by the liquid in the upward direction which is called buoyant force or force of
buoyancy or up thrust. It is equal to the weight of liquid displaced by the body
and acts at the centre of gravity of displaced liquid. Its study was first made
by Archimedes.
Archimedes Principle
When a body is immersed partly or wholly in a liquid, there is an apparent
loss in the weight of the body which is equal to the weight of liquid displaced
by the body.
Law of Floatation
A body floats in a liquid if
(i) Density of material of body is less than or equal to the density of liquid.
(ii) If density of material of body is equal to density of liquid, the body floats
fully submerged in liquid in neutral equilibrium.
(iii) When body floats in neutral equilibrium, the weight of the body is equal
to the weight of displaced liquid. The centre of gravity of the body and centre
of gravity of the displaced liquid should be in one vertical line.
1
When ice floats in water, it’s the part remain outside the water.
10
If ice floating in water in a vessel melts, the level of water in the vessel does
not change.

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Purity of milk is measured by lactometer
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Centre of Buoyancy
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The centre of gravity of the liquid displaced by a body is called centre of
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buoyancy.
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Meta Centre
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When a floating body is slightly tilted from equilibrium position, the centre of
buoyancy shifts. The point at which the vertical line passing through the new
position of centre of buoyancy meets with the initial line is called meta centre.
Conditions for stable equilibrium of Floating body:

(i) The meta-centre must always be higher than the centre gravity of the
body.
(ii) The line joining the centre of gravity of the body and centre of flotation
should be vertical.
Density
Density is defined as mass per unit volume. Its SI unit is kg / m3.
mas
Density =
volume
density of material
Relative density =
density of water at 4°C
Since relative density is a ratio, it is unit less. Relative density is measured by

Hydrometer. The density of sea water is more than that of normal water. This
explains why it is easier to swim in sea water.

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Chapter
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Surface Tension
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Surface tension is the property of a liquid by virtue of which it has the
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tendency to have the area of its free surface minimum as if it were under
tension like a stretched elastic membrane. Surface tension of a liquid is
measured by the normal force acting per unit length on either side of an
imaginary line drawn on the free surface of liquid and tangential to the free
surface.
So, if a force F acts on an imaginary line of length 1, then surface tension,

T=F/l.
Work done in increasing the surface area of a liquid by unity under

isothermal condition is equal to surface tension of liquid. According to this
definition, unit of surface tension is joule / meter
Surface tension of a liquid decreases with the increase of temperature and
becomes zero at critical temperature.
Application of surface tension

If a clean and dry needle is very slowly kept on the surface of water, it floats
due to surface tension. The addition of detergent or soap decrease the surface
tension of water and thus increases the cleaning ability. Bubbles of soap
solution are big because addition of soap decreases the surface tension of
water. When kerosene oil is sprinkled on water, its surface tension decreases.
As a result the larva of mosquitoes floating on the surface of water die due to

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sinking. Warm soup is tasty because at high temperature its surface tension is
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low and consequently the soup spreads on all parts of the tongue.
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Capillarity
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If a capillary tube is dipped in a liquid, liquid ascends or descends in the
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capillary tube. This phenomenon is called capillarity
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Capillary tube
A tube having very narrow (fine) and uniform bore is called a capillary tube.
The height by which liquid ascends or descends in a capillary tube depends
upon the radius of the tube.
The capillarity depends on the nature of liquid and solid both. The liquid
which wets the wall of tube rises in the tube and the liquid which does not
wet the wall of tube descends in the tube. For example, when a glass capillary
tube is dipped in water, water rises in the tube and shape of water meniscus
is concave, similarly when a glass capillary tube is dipped in mercury,
mercury descends in the tube and shape of mercury meniscus is convex.
Illustrations of capillarity
(i) A piece of blotting paper soaks ink because the pores of the blotting
paper serve as capillary tubes.
(ii) The oil in the wick of a lamp rises due to capillary action of threads in the
wick.
(iii) The root hairs of plants draw water from the soil through capillary
action.
(iv) To prevent loss of water due to capillary action, the soil is loosened and
split into pieces by the farmers.

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(v) If a capillary tube is dipped in water in an artificial satellite, water rises
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up to other end of tube because of its zero apparent weight, how long the
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tube may be.
ob
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(vi) Action of towel in soaking up water from the body is due to capillary
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action of cotton in the towel.
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(vii) Melted wax, in a candle rises up to wick by capillary action.
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Cohesive Force
The force of attraction between the molecules of same substance is called
cohesive force. Cohesive force is maximum in solids. This is why solids have a
fixed shape. Cohesive force is negligible in case of gases.
Adhesive Force
Force of attraction between the molecules of different substances is called
adhesive force. Due to adhesive force, one body sticks to other.

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Viscosity
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The force which opposes the relative motion between different layers of
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liquid or gases is called viscous force. Viscosity is the property of liquids and
gases both.
In liquid Viscosity is by virtue of the relative motion between its different

layers. In other words viscosity of a liquid is due to cohesive force between its
molecules. The viscosity of a gas is due to diffusion of its molecules from one
layer to other layer. Viscosity of gases is much less than that of liquids. There
is no viscosity in solids. Viscosity of an ideal fluid is zero.
With rise in temperature, viscosity of liquids decreases and that for gases
increases.
Viscosity of a fluid is measured by its coefficient of viscosity. Its SI unit is
decapoise (kg/ms) or pascal second. It is generally denoted by  .
Bernoulli’s Theorem
According to Bernoulli’s theorem, in case of streamline flow of
incompressible and non viscous fluid (ideal flui(d) through a tube, total
energy (sum of pressure energy, potential energy and kinetic energy) per unit
volume of fluid is same at all points. Venturimeter, a device used to measure
rate of flow of fluid, works on Bernoulli’s theorem.

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Elasticity
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Elasticity is the property of material of a body by virtue of which the body
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acquires its original shape and size after the removal of deforming force.
Elastic Limit: Elastic limit is the maximum value of deforming force up to

which a material shows elastic property and above which the material looses
its elastic property.
Stress: The restoring force per unit area set up inside the body subjected to
deforming force is called stress.
Strain: The relative change in dimension or shape of a body which is

subjected to stress is called strain.It is measured by ratio of change in length
to the original length (longitudinal strain), change in volume to original
volume (volume strain).
Hooke’s law
Under elastic limit, stress is proportional to strain
stress
i.e. stress strain or = E (constant)
strain
E is called elastic constant or modulus of elasticity. Its value is different for
different material. Its SI unit is Nm-2 also called pascal.

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Chapter
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Simple Harmonic Motion
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Periodic Motion
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Any motion which repeats itself after regular interval of time is called
periodic or harmonic motion. Motions of hands of a clock, motion of earth
around the sun, motion of the needle of a sewing machine are the examples of
periodic motion.
Oscillatory Motion
If a particles repeats its motion after a regular time interval about a fixed
point, motion is said to be oscillatory or vibratory. i.e. oscillatory motion is a
constrained periodic motion between precisely fixed limits. Example :
Motion of piston in an automobile engine, motion of balance wheel of a watch
is the examples of oscillatory motion.
Time period
Time taken in one complete oscillation is called time period Or, Time after
which motion is repeated is called time period.
Frequency
Frequency is the no. of oscillations completed by oscillating body in unit time
interval. Its SI unit is Hertz.
If n = frequency, T time period, then nT = 1

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Simple Pendulum
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If a point mass is suspended from a fixed support with the help of a mass less
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and inextensible string, the arrangement is called simple pendulum. The
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above is an ideal definition. Practically a simple pendulum is made by
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suspending a small ball (called bo(b) from a fixed support with the help of a
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light string.
If the bob of a simple pendulum is slightly displaced from its mean position
and then released, it starts oscillating in simple harmonic motion. Time
period of oscillation of a simple pendulum is given as
1
T = 2 where l is the effective length of the pendulum and g is the
g
acceleration due to gravity.

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Wave
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 A wave is a disturbance which propagates energy from one place to the
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other without the transport of matter.
Waves are broadly of two types
(i) Mechanical Wave (ii) Non-mechanical wave
 Mechanical Wave—The waves which require material medium (solid,
liquid or gas) for their propagation are called mechanical waves or
elastic wave.
Mechanical wave are of two types
(i) Longitudinal wave—If the particles of the medium vibrate in the
direction of propagation of wave, the wave is called longitudinal
wave.
Waves on springs or sound waves in air are examples of
longitudinal waves.
(ii) Transverse Wave—If the particles of the medium vibrate
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of wave, the wave is
called transverse wave.
Waves on strings under tension, waves on the surface of water are
examples of transverse waves.
 Non-mechanical waves or electromagnetic waves—The waves which do
not require medium for their propagation i.e. which can propagate even
through the vacuum are called non mechanical wave.

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
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Light, heat are the examples of non-mechanical wave. In fact all the
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electromagnetic waves are non-mechanical.
ah
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 All the electromagnetic wave consists of photon.
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 The wavelength range of electromagnetic wave is 10’4m to 104m.
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Properties of electromagnetic waves
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(i) They are neutral.
(ii) They propagate as transverse wave.
(iii) They propagate with the velocity of light.
(iv) They contains energy and momentum.
(v) Their concept was introduced by Maxwell.
Following waves are not electromagnetic
(i) Cathode rays (ii) Canal rays (iii)  rays (iv)  rays (v) Sound wave (vi)
Ultrasonic wave
Some Important Electromagnetic Waves

Electro-magnetic Discoverer Wavelength Frequency
Waves range (in meter) range
Y Rays Henry 10-14 to 10-10 1020 to 1018
Becqueral
X Rays W. Rontgen 10-10 to 10-8 1018 to 1016
Ultra-violet rays Ritter 10-8 to 10-7 1016 to 1014
Visible radiation Newton 3.9 x 10-7 to 7.8 x 1014 to 1012
10-7
Infra-red rays Hershel 7.8 x 10-7 to 1012 to 1010
7.8 x 10-3
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Short radio waves or Heinrich 10-3 to 1 1010 to 108
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Hertz Hertzian
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Waves
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Long Radio Waves Marcony 1 to 10-4 108 to 106
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Note: Electromagnetic waves of wavelength range 10-3 m to 10-2 m are called
microwaves.
Phase of vibration—Phase of vibration of a vibrating particle at any instant is

the physical quantity which express the position as well as direction of
motion of the particle at that instant with respect to its equilibrium (mean)
position.
Amplitude—Amplitude is defined as the maximum displacement of the
vibrating particle on either side from the equilibrium position.
Wavelength—Wavelength is the distance between any two nearest particle of
the medium, vibrating in the same phase. It is denoted by the Greek letter
lembda. (  )
In transverse wave distance between two consecutive crests or troughs and
in longitudinal wave, distance between two consecutive compressions or
rarefaction is equal to wavelength.
Relation between wavelength, frequency and velocity of wave
Velocity of wave = frequency x wavelength or, v = n  .

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Chapter
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Sound Wave
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Sound waves are longitudinal mechanical waves.
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 According to their frequency range, longitudinal mechanical waves are
divided into the following categories:
1. Audible or Sound Waves—The longitudinal mechanical waves which lie
in the frequency range 20 Hz to 20000 Hz are called audible or sound
waves. These waves are sensitive to human ear. These are generated by
the vibrating bodies such as tuning fork, vocal cords etc.
2. Infrasonic Waves—The longitudinal mechanical waves having
frequencies less than 20 Hz are called Infrasonic. These waves are
produced by sources of bigger size such as earth quakes, volcanic
eruptions, ocean waves and by elephants and whales.
3. Ultrasonic Waves - The longitudinal mechanical waves having
frequencies greater than 20000 Hz are called ultrasonic waves. Human
ear can not detect these waves. But certain creatures like dog, cat,. bat,
mosquito can detect these waves. Bat not only detect but also produce
ultrasonic.
Ultrasonic waves can be produced by Galton’s whistle or Hartman’s
generator or by the high frequency vibrations of a quartz crystal under
an alternating electric field (Piezo - electric effect) or by the vibrations of
a ferromagnetic rod under an alternating magnetic field
(Magnetostriction)
Applications of Ultrasonic Waves
1. For sending signals.
2. For measuring the depth of sea.
3. For cleaning cloths, aeroplanes and machinery parts of clocks.
4. For removing lamp-shoot from the chimney of factories.
5. In sterilizing of a liquid.
6. In Ultrasonography.
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Speed of Sound:
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 Speed of sound is different in different mediums. In a medium, the speed
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of sound basically depends upon elasticity and density of medium.
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 Speed of sound is maximum in solids and minimum in gases.
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Speed of sound in different mediums
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Medium Speed of sound (In Medium Speed of sound
m/s) (in m/s)
Air (0°(c) 332 Sea water 1533
Air (20°(c) 343
Hydrogen 1269 Mercury 1450
Carbondioxide 260 Glass 5640
Steam (at 100°(c) 405 Aluminium 6420
Helium 965 Copper 3560
Water (20°(c) 1482 Iron 5130
Alcohal 1213 Granite 6000
 When sound enters from one medium to other medium, its speed and
wavelength change but frequency remains unchanged.
 In a medium, the speed of sound is independent of frequency. Effect of
pressure on speed of sound—The speed of sound is independent of
pressure i.e. speed remains unchanged by the increase or decrease of
pressure.
Effect of Temperature on speed of sound—The speed of sound increases with

the increase of temperature of the medium. The speed of sound in air
increases by 0.61 m/s when the temperature is increased by 1°C.
Effect of humidity on speed of sound—The speed of sound is more in humid

air than in dry air because the density of humid air is less than the density of
dry air.

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Characteristics of Sound—Sounds have the following three characteristics.
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(i) Intensity—Intensity of sound at any point in space is defined as amount
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of energy passing normally per unit area held around that point per unit
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time. SI Unit of Intensity is watt/rn2.
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Intensity of sound at a point is:
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 inversely proportional to the square of the distance of point from the
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source.
 directly proportional to square of amplitude of vibration, square of
frequency and density of the medium.
Due to intensity, a sound appears loud or faint to the ear. Actually, the
sensation of a sound perceived in ear in measured by another term called
loudness which depends up intensity of sound and sensitiveness of the ear.
Unit of loudness is bel. A practical unit of loudness is decibel (d(b) which of
equal to 1 / 10th of bel. Another unit of loudness is phon.
(ii) Pitch—Pitch is that characteristic of sound which distinguishes a sharp
(or shrill) sound from a grave (dull or flat) sound. Pitch depends upon
frequency. Higher the frequency, higher will be the pitch and shriller will
be the sound. Lower the frequency, lower will be the pitch and grave will
be the sound.
(iii) Quality—Quality is that characteristic of sound which enables us to

distinguish between sounds produced by two sources having the same
intensity and pitch. The quality depends upon number, frequency and
relative intensities of overtones.
Echo—The sound waves received after being reflected from a high tower
or mountains is called echo.
 To hear echo, the minimum distance between the observer and reflector
should be 17 m (16.6 m)
 Persistence of ear (effect of sound on ear) is 1/10 sec.
 Due to refraction, sound is heard at longer distances in nights than in
day.
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Resonance—If the frequency of imposed periodic force is equal to the natural
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frequency of a body, the body oscillates with a very large amplitude. This
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phenomenon is called resonance.
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Interference of sound—The modification or redistribution of energy at a
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point due to superposition of two (or, more) sound waves of same frequency
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is called interference of sound.
If the two waves meet at a point in same phase, intensity of sound is

maximum at that point. Such type of interference is called constructive
interference. Similarly, if the two waves meet at a point in opposite phase,
intensity of sound at that point is minimum. Such type of interference is
called destructive interference.
Diffraction of sound—Wavelength of sound is of the order of 1 m. If an

obstacle of that range appears in the path of sound, sound deviates at the
edge of obstacle and propagates forward. This phenomenon is called
diffraction of sound.
Doppler’s Effect—If there is a relative motion between source of sound and

observer, the apparent frequency of sound heard by the observer is different
from the actual frequency of sound emitted by the source. This phenomenon
is called Doppler’s effect. When the distance between the source and observer
decreases, the apparent frequency increases and vice-versa.
Mach Number—It is defined as the ratio of speed of sound source to the

speed of sound in the same medium under the same condition of temperature
and pressure.

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
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If Mach number> 1, body is called supersonic.
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 If mach number > 5, body is called hypersonic.
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 If mach number <1, the body (source) is said to be moving with subsonic
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speed.
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Shock waves—A body moving with supersonic speed in air leaves behind it a
conical region of disturbance which spreads continuously. Such a disturbance
is called shock wave. This wave carries huge energy and may even make
cracks in window panes or even damage a building.
Bow Waves—When a motor boat in a sea travels faster than sound, then
waves just like shock-waves are produced on the surface of water. These
waves are called bow waves.

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Chapter
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Heat
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Heat is that form of energy which flows from one body to other body due to
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difference is temperature between the bodies. The amount of heat contained
in a body depends upon the mass of the body.
 If W work is performed and heat produced is H then W
= J or, W = JH
H
where J is a constant called Mechanical Equivalent of Heat. Its value is
4.186 joule/Calorie. It means if 4.186 joule of work is performed, 1
calorie of heat is consumed.
Units of Heat:
C.G.S unit = calorie = It is the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 g of pure water through 1°C.
International calorie — It is the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 g of pure water from 14.5°C to 15.5°C.
F.P.S. system = B.Th.U (British Thermal Unit) = It is the amount of heat
required to raise the temp. of 1 pound of pure water through 1°F.
Relations between different units.

1 B.Th.U = 252 calorie 1 calorie = 4.186 joule
Some other units of heat:

1 Therm = 105 B.Th.U. 1 pound calorie = 453.6 calorie.
 Temperature : Temperature is that physical cause which decides the
direction of flow of heat from one body to other body. Heat energy
always flows from body at higher temperature to body at lower
temperature.

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Measurement of Temperature
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Thermometer: The device which measures the temperature of a body is
ah
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called thermometer.
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Scales of temperature measurement
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To measure temperature two fixed points are taken on each thermometer.
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One of the fixed points is the freezing point of water or ice point as lower
fixed point (LFP). The other fixed point is the boiling point of water or steam
point as upper fixed print (UFP).
The temperatures of these fixed points, the no. of fundamental interval
between the two fixed points on different temperature scales have been
shown by the table given below:
Celsius Fahrenheit Reaumur Kelvin Rankine

UFP 100°C 212°F 80°F 373.15K 672°Ra
no. of fundamental 100 180 80 100 180
interval
LFP 0°C 32°F 0°R 273.15K 492°Ra
absolute zero -273.15°C -459.6°F -218.4°R 0K 0°Ra
Relation between Temperature on different scales
C - 0 F - 32 R - 0 K - 273 Ra - 492
   
100 180 80 100 180
 Celsius was initially known as centigrade.

 While expressing temperature on kelvin scale ° (degree) is not used.
 Freezing point (F.P.) of mercury is —39°C. Hence to measure
temperature below this temperature, alcohal thermometer is used. F.P.
of alcohal is —115°C.

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Range of different thermometers.
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1. Mercury Thermometer: from —30°C to 350°C
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2. Constant volume gas thermometer: from —200°C to 500°C (with H2),
ob
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below — 200°C upto —268°C (with He) above 1000°C upto 1600°C
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(with N2 gas and bulb of glazed porcelain)
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3. Platinum resistance thermometer: from — 200°C to 1200°C
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4. Thermocouple thermometer : from — 200°C to 1600°C
Total Radiation Pyrometer

When a body is at high temperature, it glows brightly and the radiation
emitted by the body is directly proportional to the fourth power of absolute
temperature of the body. Radiation pyrometer measures the temperature of a
body by measuring the radiation emitted by the body.
This thermometer is not put in contact with the body. But it can not measure
temperature below 800°C because at low temperature emission of radiation
is very small and can not be detected.
Specific Heat Capacity : Specific heat capacity of a material is the amount of

heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of substance through 1°.
Its SI unit is Joule / kilogram kelvin (J / kg.k)
 One calorie of heat is required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of
water through 1°C. Hence specific heat capacity of water is 1 cal / gram
°C.
1 calorie / gram °C = 4200 Joule/kg kelvin.
Specific Heat Capacities of different materials (J/kg K)

Ice 2100 Mercury 140
Lead 130 Iron 460
K.Oil 210 Water 4200

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Thermal Expansion
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When a body is heated its length, surface area and volume increase. The
ah
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increase in length, area and volume with the increase in temperature are
ob
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measured in terms of coefficient of linear expansion or linear expansivity (),
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coefficient of superficial expansion or superficial expansivity () and
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coefficient of cubical expansion or cubical expansivity ().
om
Relation between and .
= 1 : 2 : 3 or, = 2and = 3 
Anomalous expansion of water: Almost every liquid expands with the

increase in temperature. But when temperature of water is increased from
0°C to 4°C, its volume decreases. If the temperature is increased above 4°C, its
volume starts increasing. Clearly, density of water is maximum at 4°C.
Transmission of Head : The transfer of heat from one place to other place is
called transmission of heat. There are three modes of heat transfer—(i)
conduction, (ii) convection and (iii) radiation.
Conduction : In this process, heat is transferred from one place to other place
by the successive vibrations of the particles of the medium without bodily
movement of the particles of the medium. In solids, heat transfer takes place
by conduction.
Convection : In this process, heat is transferred by the actual movement of

particles of the movement from one place to other place. Due to movement of
particles, a current of particles set up which is called convection current.
In liquids and gases, heat transfer takes place by convection.

 Earth’s atmosphere is heated by convection.
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Radiation : In this method transfer of heat takes place with the speed of light
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without affecting the intervening medium.
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Newton’s law of cooling : The rate of loss of heat by a body is directly
or
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proportional to the difference in temperature between the body and the
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surrounding.
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Kirchhoff’s law According to Kirchhoff’s law, the ratio of emissive power to
absorptive power is same for all surfaces at the same temperature and is
equal to emissive power of black body at that temperature. Kirchhoff’s law
signifies that good absorbers are good emitter. If a shining metal ball with
some black spot on its surface is heated to a high temperature and seen in
dark, the shining ball becomes dull but the black spots shines brilliantly,
because black spot absorbs radiation during heating and emit in dark
Stefan’s law The radiant energy emitted by a black body per unit area per unit
time (i.e. emissive power) is directly proportional to the fourth power of its
absolute temperature.
i.e. E T4 or, E=T4
where o is a constant called Stefan’s constant.
Change of State
Any material can remain in any of its three states (solid, liquid and gas). To
change the substance from one state to other state is called change of state.
For this either substance is heated or heat is extracted from the substance.
Change of state takes place at a fixed temp.
Fusion : The process by which a substance is changed from solid state to
liquid state is called fusion. Fusion takes place at a fixed temperature called
melting point (M.P.)
Freezing The process by which a substance is changed from liquid state to
solid state is called freezing. Freezing takes at a fixed temperature called
freezing point. (F.P.) For a substance M.P. = F.P.

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
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M.P. of a substance changes with the change in pressure. Melting point of
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substances which contracts in the process of fusion (as ice) decreases
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with the increase in pressure. Melting point of substances which expands
ob
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in the process of fusion (as wax) increases with the increase in pressure.
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 With the addition of impurity (as salt in ice), melting point of a substance
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decreases.
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Vapourisation : The process by which a substance is changed from liquid
state to vapour state is called vapourisation.
Vapourisation takes place by two methods : (i) Evaporation & (ii) Boiling or
Ebullition
Evaporation : The process of vapourisation which takes place only from the
exposed surface of liquid and that at all temperatures is called evaporation.
Evaporation causes cooling. This is why water in a earthed pot gets cooled in
summer.
Boiling : The process of vapourisation which takes place at a fixed

temperature and from whole part of liquid is called boiling.
The temperature at which boiling takes place is called boiling point.
Condensation : The process by which a substance is changed from vapour

state to liquid state is called condensation.
 Boiling point of a liquid increases with the increase in pressure.
 Boiling point of a liquid increases with the addition of impurity.
Latent heat or heat of transformation:

The amount of heat required to change the state of unit mass of substance at
constant temperature is called latent heat.
If Q heat is required to change the state of a substance of mass m at constant
temperature and L is the latent heat, then Q = mL.
S.I. unit of latent heat is Joule / kilogram.
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Any material has two types of latent heat.
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(i) Latent heat of fusion : It is the amount of heat energy required to convert
ah
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unit mass a substance from solid state to liquid state at its melting point.
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It is also the amount of heat released by unit mass of liquid when
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changed into solid at its freezing point.
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(ii) Latent heat of vapourisation : It is the amount of heat required to change
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unit mass of a substance from liquid state to vapour state at its boiling
point. It is also the amount of heat released when unit mass of a vapour
is changed into liquid.
Latent heat of water

Latent Heat in Cal/g J/kg
of fusion 80 336 x 103
of vapourisation 540 2256 x 103
Sublimation : Sublimation is the process of conversion of a solid directly into

vapour.
 Sublimation takes place when boiling point is less than melting point.
 Sublimation is shown by camphor or ice in vacuum.
Hoar Frost : Hoar frost is just the reverse process of sublimation i.e. it is the
process of direct conversion of vapour into solid.
 Steam produces more severe burn than water at same temperature
because internal energy of steam is more than that of water at same
temperature.
Relative Humidity : Relative humidity is defined as the ratio of amount of
water vapour present in a given volume of atmosphere to the amount of
water vapour required to saturate the same volume at same temperature.
The ratio is multiplied by 100 to express the relative humidity in percentage.
 Relative humidity is measured by Hygrometer.
 Relative humidity increases with the increase of temperature.

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Air conditioning: For healthy and favourable atmosphere of human being, the
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conditions are as follows
ah
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(i) Temperature: from 23°C to 25°C.
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or
(ii) Relative humidity: from 60% to 65%.
dp
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(iii) Speed of air: from 0.75 meter/minute to 2.5 meter/minute.
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Thermodynamics
First law of thermodynamics: Heat energy given to a system is used in the
following two ways:
(i) In increasing the temperature an
d hence internal energy of the system.
(ii) In doing work by the system.
If Q = heat energy given to the system
Y = Increase in the internal energy of the system.
W = work done by the system
Then, Q = U + W is the mathematical statement of first law of
thermodynamics.
 First law of thermodynamics is equivalent to principle of conservation of
energy.
Isothermal Process : If the changes are taking place in a system in such a

way that temperature of the system remains constant throughout the change,
then the process is said to be an isothermal.
Adiabatic Process: If the changes are taking place in a system in such a way
that there is no exchange of heat energy between the system and the
surrounding, then the process is said to be an adiabatic process.

General Awareness
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
yo
If carbon dioxide is suddenly expanded, it is changed into dry ice. This is
ur
sm
an example of adiabatic process.
ah
bo
ob
.w
Second Law of Thermodynamics: The first law of thermodynamics
or
dp
re
guarantees that in a thermodynamic process, energy will be conserved. But
ss
.c
this law does not tell whether a given process in which energy is conserved
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will take place or not. The second law of thermodynamics gives the answer.
Through this law can be stated in many forms, the following two forms are
worth mentioning
Kelvin’s statement: Whole of the heat can never be converted into
Clausius statement: Heat by itself can not flow from a colder body to a hotter
body.
Heat Engine : Heat energy is a device which converts heat energy into
mechanical work continuously through a cyclic process. Every heat engine
basically consists of the three parts: (i) source (a hot body) (ii) sink (a cold
body) and (iii) a working substance.
Heat engine may be divided into two types:
(i) Internal Combustion Engine : In this engine, heat is produced in the
engine itself. Example : Otto engine or petrol engine (efficiency = 52%),
Diesel engine (efficiency = 64%)
(ii) External Cumbustion Engine : In this engine heat is produced outside the
engine. Steam engine is an example of external cumbustion engine.
(efficiency = 20%)
Refrigerator or Heat Pump : A refrigerator is an apparatus which transfers

heat energy from cold to a hot body at the expanse of energy supplied by an
external agent. The working substance here is called refrigerant. In actual
refrigerator, vapours of freon (CC12F2) acts as refrigerant.
General Awareness
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Chapter
ah
Light
bo
ob
14
.w
or
dp
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.c
Light is a form of energy which is propagated as electromagnetic waves. In
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the spectrum of electromagnetic waves it lies between ultra-violet and infra-
red region and has wavelength between 3900 A° to 7800 A°.
 Electromagnetic waves are transverse, hence light is transverse wave.
 Wave nature of light explains rectilinear propagation, reflection,
refraction, interference, diffraction and polarisation of light.
 The phenomena like photoelectric effect, compton effect are not
explained on the basis of wave nature of light. These phenomena are
explained on the basis of quantum theory of light as proposed by
Einstein.
 In quantum theory, light is regarded as a packet or bundle of energy
called photon. Photon is associated with it an energy E where E = hv.
 Clearly light behaves as wave and particle both. Thus light has dual
nature.
 Speed of light was first measured by Roemer. (1678 A(d) .
 Speed of light is maximum in vacuum and air (3 x 108 m/s)
Refractive index—R.I. of a medium is defined as the ratio of speed of light in

vacuume to the speed of light in the medium.
c Speed of light in vacuum

= =
v Speed of light in the medium
 Speed of light is different in different media. Velocity of light is large in a
medium which has small refractive index.

General Awareness
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Speed of light in different mediums
yo
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Medium Speed of light (m/s) Medium Speed of light (m/s)
ah
bo
Vacuum 3 x 108 Glass 2 x 108
ob
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Water 2.25 x 108 Glass 2.04 x 108
or
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Rock salt 1.96 x 108 Nylon 1.96 x 108
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 Light takes 8 minute 19 second (499 secon(d) to reach from sun to earth.
 The light reflected from moon takes 1.28 second to reach earth.
Luminous bodies—Those object which emit light by themselves are
called luminous bodies.
e.g.—sun, stars, electric bulb etc.
Non-luminous bodies—Those objects which do not emit light by
themselves but are visible by the light falling on them emitted by self
luminous bodies are called non-luminous bodies.
 A material can be classified as:
(i) Transparent—The substances which allow most of the incident
light to pass through them are called transparent. e.g. glass, water.
(ii) Translucent—The substances which allow a part of incident light
to pass through them are called translucent bodies e.g. oiled paper.
(iii) Opaque—The substances which do not allow the incident light to
pass through them are called opaque bodies. e.g., mirror, metal,
wood etc.
Reflection of light—Light moving in one medium when falls at the surface of
another medium, part of light returns back to the same medium. This
phenomenon of returning back of light in the first medium at the interface of
two media is known as reflection of light.
Laws of reflection—
(i) The incident ray, reflected ray and normal to the reflecting surface at the
incident point all lie in the same plane.
(ii) The angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence.
General Awareness
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Reflection from plane mirror
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(i) The image is virtual, laterally inverted.
ah
bo
(ii) The size of image is equal to that of object.
ob
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or
(iii) The distance of image from the mirror is equal to distance of object from
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the mirror.
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(iv) If an object moves towards (or away from) a plane mirror with speed ,
relative to the object the image moves towards (or away) with a speed
2
(v) If a plane mirror is rotated by an angle  , keeping the incident ray fixed,
the reflected ray is rotated by an angle 2  .
(vi) To see his full image in a plane mirror, a person requires a mirror of at
least half of his height.
(vii) If two plane mirrors are inclined to each other at an angle  the number
of images (n) of a point object formed are determined as follows:
360 360
(a) If is even integer, then n  1
 
360 360
(b) If is odd integer, then n   1 for the object is symmetrically
 
placed. And
360
n= for the object is not symmetrically placed.

360
(c) If is a fraction then n is equal to integral part.

Reflection from spherical mirror

Spherical mirror are of two types (i) Concave mirror (ii) Convex mirror

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Position & nature of image formed by a concave mirror
yo
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No. Position of Object Position of image Size of image in Nature of
ah
bo
comparison to image
ob
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object
or
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1. At infinity At Focus Highly Real,
re
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diminished inverted
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2. Between infinity Between focus and Diminished Real,
and centre of centre of curvature inverted
curvature
3. At centre of At centre of Of same size Real,
curvature curvature inverted
4. Between focus and Between centre of Enlarged Real,
centre of curvature curvature and inverted
infinity
5. At focus At infinity Highly enlarged Real,
inverted
6. Between focus and Behind the mirror Enlarged Virtual,
pole erect
Image formed by convex mirror

No. Position of Position of Size of mage in Nature of
Object image comparison to imag
object e
1. At infinity At Focus Highly Virtual,
erect
2. Infront of Between pole diminished Diminished Virtual,
mirror and focus erect
Clearly image formed by a convex mirror is always virtual, erect and

diminished.
Uses of spherical mirrors:
Concave mirror:
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(i) As a shaving glass.
yo
ur
sm
(ii) As a reflector for the head lights of a vehicle, search light.
ah
bo
(iii) In opthalmoscope for examing eye, ear, nose by doctors.
ob
.w
(iv) In solar cookers.
or
dp
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Convex mirror:
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(i) As a rear view mirror in vehicle because it provides the maximum rear
field of view and image formed is always erect.
(ii) In sodium reflector lamp.
Refraction of Light—When a ray of light propagating in a medium enters the

other medium, it deviates from its path. This phenomenon of change in the
direction of propagation of light at the boundary when it passes from one
medium to other medium is called refraction of light.
When a ray of light enters from rarer medium to denser medium (as from
water to glass) it deviates towards the normal drawn on the boundary of two
media at the incident point. Similarly in passing from denser to rarer medium,
a ray deviates away from the normal. If light is incident normally on the
boundary i.e. parallel to normal, it enters the second medium undeviated.
Laws of refraction
(i) Incident ray, refracted ray and normal drawn at incident point always lie
in the same plane.
(ii) Snell’s law—For a given colour of light, the ratio of sine of angle of
incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is a constant,
sin i 1
i.e. =   2 (constant)
sin r
This constant 1  2 is called refractive index of second medium with
respect to the first medium.
 Absolute refractive index of a medium is defined as the ratio of speed of
light in free space (vacuum) to that in the given medium.

General Awareness
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yo
Speed of light in vacuum
ur
i.e. absolute refractive index () =
sm
Speed of light in the medium
ah
bo

ob
The refractive index of a medium is different for different colours. The
.w
or
refractive index of a medium decreases with the increase in wavelength
dp
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of light. Hence refractive index of a medium is maximum for violet colour
ss
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of light and minimum for red colour of light.
om
 The refractive index of a medium decreases with the increase in
temperature. But this variation is very small.
 When a ray of light enters from one medium to other medium, its
frequency and phase donot change but wavelength and velocity change.
Some illustrations of Refraction

(i) Bending of a linear object when it is partially dipped in a liquid inclined to
the surface of the liquid.
(ii) Twinkling of stars.
(iii) Oval shape of sun in the morning and evening.
(iv) An object in a denser medium when seen from a rarer medium appears to
be at a smaller distance.
This is way (a) A fish in a pond when viewed from air appears to be at a
smaller depth them actual depth (b) A coin at the base of a vessel filled with
water appears raised.
Critical angle—In case of propagation of light from denser to rarer medium
through a plane boundary, critical angle is the angle of incidence for which
angle of refraction is 900.
Total Internal Reflection—If light is propagating from denser medium
towards the rarer medium and angle of incidence is more than critical angle,
then the light incident on the boundary is reflected back in the denser
medium, obeying the laws of reflection. This phenomenon is called total
internal reflection as total light energy is reflected, no part is absorbed or
transmitted.

General Awareness
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
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For total internal reflection,
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(i) Light must be propagating from denser to rarer medium.
ah
bo
(ii) Angle of incidence must exceeds the critical angle.
ob
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or
dp
Illustrations of total internal reflection
re
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(i) Sparkling of diamond
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(ii) Mirage and looming.
(iii) Shining of air bubble in water.
(iv) Increase in duration of sun’s visibility—The sun becomes visible even
before sun rise and remains visible even after sunset due to total internal
reflection of light.
(v) Shining of a smoked ball or a metal ball on which lamp soot is deposited
when dipped in water.
(vi) Optical Fibre—Optical fibre consists of thousands of strands of a very
fine quality glass or quartz (of refractive index 1.7), each strand coated
with a layer of material of lower refractive index (1.5). In it, light is
propagated along the axis of fibre through multiple total internal
reflection, even though the fibre is curved, without loss of energy.
Applications:
(i) For transmitting optical signals and the two dimensional pictures.
(ii) For transmitting electrical signals by first converting them to light.
(iii) For visualising the internal sites of the body by doctors in endoscopy.
Refraction of Light Through Lens

 Lens is a section of transparent refractive material of two surfaces of
definite geometrical shape of which one surface must be spherical. Lens
is generally of two types: (i) Convex lens (ii) Concave lens.
 When a lens is thicker at the middle than at the edges, it is called a
convex lens or a converging lens. When the lens is thicker at the edges
than in the middle, it is called as concave lens or diverging lens.
 Some terms regarding a lens.

General Awareness
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Formation of images by lenses
yo
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sm
ah
bo
S. Position of Position of Size of image Nature of
ob
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object image image
or
dp
A. Convex Lens
re
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1. At infinity At focus Highly diminised Real
.c
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and inverted
2. Beyond 2 F Between F and Diminished Real and
2F inverted
3. At 2F At 2F Of same size Real and
inverted
4. Between P and 2P Beyond 2F Enlarged Real and
inverted
5. At F At infinity Highly enlarged Real and
inverted
6. Between optical
The same side Enlarged Virtual and
centre and F as in the object erect
B. Concave Lens
1. At infinity At focus Highly diminished Virtual and ere
ct
2. Between lens and Between lens diminished Virtual and
infinity same side. and P on the erect
Power of a lens : Power of a lens is its capacity to deviate a ray. It is measured

1
as the reciprocal of the focal length in meters, i.e. P =
f
SI Unit of power is dioptre (d) .

 Power of a convex lens is positive and that of a concave lens is negative.
 If two lenses are placed in contact, then the power of combination is
equal to the sum of powers of individual lenses.

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ob
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or
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General Awareness
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Change in the power of a lens : If a lens is dipped in a liquid, its focal length
yo
ur
sm
and power both change. This change depends upon the refractive indices of
ah
bo
lens and the liquid. If a lens of refractive index is dipped in a liquid of
ob
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refractive index .t’, then the following three situations are possible
or
dp
(i) > ’ i.e. lens is dipped in a liquid of smaller fractive index like a lens of
re
ss
glass ( = 1.5) is dipped in water (’ = 1.33), then the focal length of the
.c
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lens increases and the power of the lens decreases.
(ii)  = ’i.e. lens is dipped in a liquid of equal refractive index then the focal
length of the lens becomes infinite i.e. its power becomes zero. The lens
and the liquid behave as a single medium.
(iii)  = ’i.e. lens is dipped in a liquid of higher refractive index the focal
length increases i.e. power decreases as well as the nature of the lens
also changes i.e. convex lens behaves as concave lens and vice-versa. For
example, an air bubble trapped in water or glass appears as convex but
behaves as concave lens. Similarly a convex lens of glass ( = 1.5) when
dipped in carbon disulphide (’ = 1.68), it behaves as a concave lens.
Dispersion of Light : When a ray of white light (or a composite light) is

passed through a prism, it gets splitted into its constituent colours. This
phenomenon is called dispersion of light. The coloured pattern obtained on a
screen after dispersion of light is called spectrum.
 The dispersion of light is due to different deviation suffered by different
colours of light. The deviation is maximum for violet colour and
minimum for red colour of light. The different colours appeared in the
spectrum are on the following order, violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow,
orange and red. (VIBGYOR)
 The dispersion of light is due to different velocities of light of different
colorus in a medium. As a result, the refractive index of a medium is
different for different colours of light.
 The velocity of light in a medium is maximum for that colour for which
refractive index is minimum. Clearly, the velocity of violet colour of light
is minimum in a medium and retroactive index of that medium is

General Awareness
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maximum for violet colour. Similarly, the velocity of light in a medium is
yo
ur
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maximum for red colour and refractive index of that medium is
ah
bo
minimum for red colour.
ob
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or
dp
Rainbow : Rainbow is the coloured display in the form of an arc of a circle
re
ss
hanging in the sky observed during or after a little drizzle appearing on the
.c
om
opposite side of sun. Rainbow is formed due to dispersion of sun light by the
suspended water droplets.
Rainbow is of two types:
(i) Primary rainbow (ii) Secondary rainbow
 Primary rainbow is formed due to two refractions and one total internal
reflection of light falling on the raindrops. In the primary rainbow, the
red colour is on the convex side and violet on the concave side. Primary
rainbow has an angular width of 2° at an average angle of elevation of
41°.
 Secondary rainbow is formed due to two refractions and two internal
reflections of light falling on rain drops. The order of colour on the
secondary rainbow is in the reverse order and has an angular width of
35o at an average elevation of 52.75°. Secondary rainbow is less intense
than primary rainbow.
Theory of Colours : Colour is the sensation perceived by the rods in the eye
due to light.
Primary Colours : The spectral colours blue, green and red are called
primary colours because all the colours can be produced by mixing these in
proper proportion.
Blue + Red + Green = White
Secondary Colours : The colour produced by mixing any two primary
colours is called a secondary colour. There are three secondary colours
yellow, magenta and cyan as
Green + Red = Yellow
Red ± Blue = Magenta
Blue + Green = Cyan
When the three secondary colours are mixed, white colour is produced.
General Awareness
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i.e. Yellow + Magenta .+ Cyan = White
yo
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ah
Complementary Colours : Any two colours when added produce white light,
bo
ob
are said to be complementary colours. Clearly a secondary colour and the
.w
or
remaining primary colour are complementary colours. Red and cyan, blue
dp
re
and yellow and green and magenta are complementary of each other.
ss
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 The different colours and their mixtures are shown by the colour
om
triangle.
 In coloured television, the three primary colours are used.
Colour of Bodies : The colour of a body is the colour of light which it reflects
or transmits. An object is white, if it reflects all the components of white light
and it is black if it absorbs all the light incident over it. This is why a red rose
appears red when viewed in white or red light but appears black when
viewed in blue or green light.
How a body will appear in light of different colour can be understood by the
following table
Name of In white In red In green In yellow In blue
object light light light light light
White paper White Red Green Yellow Blue
Red paper Red Red Black Black Black
Green paper Green Black Green Black Black
Yellow paper Yellow Black Black Yellow Black
Blue paper Blue Black Black Black Blue
Scattering of light: When light waves fall on small bodies such as dust
particles, water particles in suspension, suspended particles in colloidal
solution, they are thrown out in all directions. This phenomenon is called
scattering of light.
Scattering of light is maximum in case of violet colour and minimum in case of

red colour of light.
 Blue colour of sky is due to scattering of light.
General Awareness
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
yo
The brilliant red colour of rising and setting sun is due to scattering of
ur
sm
light.
ah
bo
ob
.w
Interference of light : When two light waves of exactly the same frequency
or
dp
and a constant phase difference travel in same direction and superimpose
re
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then the resultant intensity in the region of superposition is different from
.c
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the sum of intensity of individual waves. This modification in the intensity of
light in the region of superposition is called interference of light. Interference
is of two types (i) Constructive interference (ii) Destructive interference
Constructive interference : At some points, where the two waves meet is

same phase, resultant intensity is maximum. Such interference is called
constructive interference.
Destructive interference : At some points, where the two waves meet in

opposite phase, resultant intensity is minimum. Such interference iscalled
destructive interference.
Diffraction of light : When light waves fall on a small sized obstacle or a

small aperture whose dimension is comparable to the wavelength of light,
then there is a departure from the rectilinear propagation and light energy
flavours out into the region of geometrical shadow. The spreading of light
energy beyond the limit prescribed by rectilinear propagation of light is
called diffraction of light. In other words, diffraction is the process by which a
beam of light or other systems of wave is spread out as a result of passing
through a narrow opening or across an edge.
Polarisation of light : Polarisation is the only phenomenon which proves

that light is a transverse wave. Light is an electromagnetic wave in which
electric and magnetic field vectors vibrate perpendicular to each other and
also perpendicular to the direction of propagation. In ordinary light, the
vibrations of elecltric field vector are in every plane perpendicular to the
direction of propagation of wave. Polarisation is the phenomenon of
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restricting the vibrations of a light in a particular direction in a plane
yo
ur
sm
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of wave.
ah
bo
 The visible effect of light is only due to electric field vector.
ob
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or
dp
Human Eye:
re
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 Least distance of distinct vision is 25 cm.
.c
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Defects of human eye and the remedies:
1. Myopia or short sightedness : A person suffering from myopia can see
the near objects clearly while far objects are not clear.
Causes:
(i) Elongation of eye ball along the axis.
(ii) Shortening of focal length of eye lens.
(iii) Over stretching of ciliary muscles beyond the elastic limit.
Remedy : Diverging lens is used.

2. Hyperopia or hypermetropia or longsightedness : A person suffering
from hypermetropia can see the distant objects clearly but not the near
objects.
Causes:
(i) Shortening of eye ball along the axis.
(ii) Increase in the focal length of eye lens.
(iii) Stiffening of ciliary muscles.
Remedy : A converging lens is sued.

3. Presbyopia : This defect is generally found in elderly person. Due to
stiffening of ciliary muscles, eye looses much of its accommodating
power. As a result distanct as well as nearby objects can not be seen. For
its remedy two separate lens or a bifocal lens is used.
4. Astigmatism : This defect arises due to difference in the radius of
curvature of cornea in the different planes. As a result rays from an
object in one plane are brought to focus by eye in another plane. For its
remedy cylindrical lens is used.
General Awareness
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There are two kinds of vision cells in the retina. They are called rods and
yo
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cones on account of their peculiar shape. Rods decides the intensity of light
ah
bo
where as cones distinguish colour of light.
ob
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or
dp
Simple Microscope : This is simply a convex lens of small focal length. The
re
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object to be enlarged is placed within the focus of lens.
.c
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Magnifying power of a simple microscope is given as
M =1 + D where D = 25 cm, f = focal length of lens.
f
Compound microscope : It consists of two convex lenses coaxially fitted in a
hollow tube. The lens facing the object is called objective and the lens
towards the eye is called eye piece.
 The aperture of objective is smaller than that of eye piece.
 Both the lenses are of smaller focal lengths. This increases the
magnifying power of instrument.
Telescope
Telescopes are used to view distant objects which are not visible to naked
eye. Telescope can be divided as astronomical telescope, terrestrial telescope
and Galilean telescope.
 Astronomical telescope consists of two convex lenses placed coaxially in
a hollow tube. The lens facing the object is called objective and the lens
towards the eye is called eye piece.
 The objective has large aperture so that the rays from the object can be
easily collected.
 The focal length of objective is larger than that of eye piece.

General Awareness
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Chapter
ah
Static Electricity
bo
15
ob
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or
dp
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.c
When two bodies are rubbed together, they acquire the property of attracting
om
light objects like small bits of paper, dust particles etc. The bodies which
acquire this property are said to be electrified or charged with electricity.
Charge : Charge is the basic property associated with matter due 10 which it
produces and experiences eletrical and magnetic effects.
 Benjamin Frnkline named the two types of charges as positive and
negative.
 Similar charges repel each other and opposite charges attract each other.
 Charging of bodies takes place due to transfer of electrons from one body
to other body.
 A list of materials has been given below. The list is such that any of the
material in the list will be positively charged when rubbed with any
other material coming later in the list. The other material will naturally
be negatively charged.
1. Fur 2. Flannel
3. Shellac 4. Sealing Wax
5. Glass 6. Paper
7. Silk 8. Human body
9. Wood 10. Metals
11. India Rubber 12. Resm
13. Amber 14. Sulphur
15. Ebonite 16. Gutta Percha
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Surface density of charge : Surface density of charge is defined as the
ah
bo
amount of charge per unit area on the surface of conductor.
ob
.w
or
 The surface density of charge at a point on the surface of conductor
dp
re
ss
depends upon the shape of conductor and presence of other conductors
.c
om
or insulators near the given conductor.
 The surface density of charge at any part of the conductor is inversely
proportional to the radius of curvature of the surface of that part. This is
why surface density of charge in maximum at the pointed parts of the
conductor.
Conductor : Conductors are those materials which allow electricity (charge)

to pass through themselves.
Examples : (a) Metals like silver, iron, copper (b) Earth (especially the moist
part) acts like a huge conductor.
 Silver is the best conductor.
Insulator or Dielectric : Insulators are those materials which do not allow

electricity to flow through themselves. Examples : Wood, paper, mica, glass,
ebonite.
Coulomb’s law According to Coulomb’s law, the force of attraction or
repulsion between two point charges at rest is directly proportional to the
product of the magnitudes of the charges and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them. This force acts on the line joining the
two charges.
Electric Field : Region in space around a charge or charged body where the
charge has its electrical effect is called electric field of the charge.
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ob
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General Awareness
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Electric Field Intensity: Electric field intensity at a point in an electric field is
ah
bo
ob
the force experienced by a unit positive charge placed at that point.
.w
or
dp
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ss
.c
Electric Field of hollow conductor:
om
Electric field intensity inside a charged hollow conductor is zero. Charge
given to such a conductor (or conductor of any shape) remains on its surface
only. This explains why a hollow conductor acts as an electrostatic shield. It is
for this reason that it is safer to sit in a car or bus during lightning.
Electric Potential: Electric potential at a point in an electric field is the work

done in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to that point. SI unit of
electric potential is volt. It is a scalar quantity.
Potential Difference : Work done in bringing a unit positive charge from one
point to other point is the potential difference between the two points. Its SI
unit is volt and is a scalar quantity.
Electric Capacity : Electric capacity of a conductor is defined as the charge

required to increase the potential of the conductor by unity. If potential of a
conductor is increased by V when a charge Q is given to it, capacity of the
Q
conductor is . Its SI unit is farad. (F)
V

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Electrochemical Cell : Electrochemical cell is a device which converts
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chemical energy into electrical energy.
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Cells are basically of two types: (i) Primary cell (ii) Secondary cell.
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Primary Cell : In primary cell electrical energy is obtained from the
irreversible chemical reaction taking inside the cell. After complete discharge,
primary cell becomes unserviceable.
Examples : Voltaic Cell, Leclanche Cell, Daniel Cell, Dry Cell etc.
Secondary Cell : A secondary cell is that which has to be charged at first from
an external electric source and then can be used to draw current. Such cells
are rechargable.
 Production of electricity by chemical reaction was first discovered by
Allexandro de volta (voltaic cell is named after him) in 1794. In voltaic
cell zinc rod is used as cathode and copper rod is used as anode. These
rods are placed in sulphuric acid kept in a glass vessel.
 In a Leclanche cell, carbon rod acts as anode and zinc rod acts as cathode.
These rods are placed in amonium chloride kept in a glass vessel.
 The emf of Leclanche cell is 1.5 volt.
 Leclanche cell is used for intermittent works. i.e. works in which
continuous electrical energy is not required like electric bell.
 In a dry cell, mixture of MnO2, NH4C1 and carbon is kept in a zinc vessel.
A carbon rod is placed in the mixture which acts as anode. The zinc
vessel itself acts as cathode. The emf of dry cell is 1.5 volt.

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Chapter
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Current Electricity
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Electric Current : Electric current is defined as the rate of flow of charge or
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charge flowing per unit time interval. Its direction is the direction of flow of
positive charge. Its SI unit is ampere (a). It is a scalar quantity.
 A current of one ampere flowing through a conductor means 6.25 x 1018
electrons are entering at one end or leaving the other end of the
conductor in one second.
Resistance : The opposition offered by a conductor to the flow of current
through it is called resistance. It arises due to collisions of drifting electrons
with the core ions. Its SI unit is ohm.
Ohm’s law: If physical conditions like temperature, intensity of light etc.
remains unchanged then electric current flowing through a conductor is
directly proportional to the potential difference across its ends. If V is the
potential difference across the ends of a conductor and I is the current
through it, then according to ohm’s law V I or, V = RI where R is a constant
called resistance of conductor.
Ohmic Resistance : The resistances of such condcutors which obey ohm’s

law are called ohmic resistance. For example resistance of manganin wire.
Non Ohmic Resistance: The resistances of such materials which do not obey
ohm’s law are called non ohmic resistance. Example : resistance of diode
valve, resistance of triode valve.
Conductance: Reciprocal of resistance of a conductor is called its

1
conductance i.e. conductuctance =
Resistance
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 1
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It is denoted by G and  G= 
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 R
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Its SI unit is ohm’ (also called mho or siemen.)
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 The resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length and
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inversely proportional to its cross sectional area. i.e. if 1 and A are
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respectively length and cross sectional area of a conductor and R is its
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1 1
resistance then R  or, R = 
A A
where  is a constant of material of conductor called specific resistance or
resistivity. Its SI unit is ohm meter.
Specific conductance or conductivity: The reciprocal of receptivity of a

conductor is called its conductivity (s). Its SI unit is mho m or siemen/ meter
(sm-1)
Combination of Resistance: Various resistances can be combined to form a

network mainly in two ways : (i) Series combination (ii) Parallel combination.
 In series combination, the equivalent resistance is equal to the sum of
the resistances of individual conductors. (R = R1 + R2 + ........ Rn)
 In parallel combination, the reciprocal of equivalent resistance is equal
to the sum of the reciprocal of individual resistances.
1 1 1 1 
    ...  
 2 R1 R 2 Rn 
Electric Power: The rate at which electrical energy is consumed in a circuit is
called electric power. Its SI unit is watt.
Kilowatt hour: It is the unit of energy and is equal to the energy consumed in
the circuit at the rate of 1 kilowatt (1000 J Is) for 1 hour.
1 kilowatt hour = 3.6 x 106 joule
1 kWh is also called board of trade unit.

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Ammeter: Ammeter is a device which is used to measure electric current in a
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circuit. It is connected in series in the circuit. The resistance of an ideal
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ammeter is zero.
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Voltmeter: Voltmeter is a device used to measure the potential difference
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between two points in a circuit. It is connected in parallel to the circuit. The
resistance of an ideal voltmeter is infinite.
Electric Fuse: Electric fuse is a protective device used in series with an

electric appliance to save it from being damaged due to high current. In
general, it is a small conducting wire of alloy of copper, tin and lead having
low melting point. Pure fuse is made up of tin.
Galvanometer: Galvanometer is a device used to detect and measure electric

current in a circuit. It can measure current up to 10 A.
Shunt : Shunt is a wire of very small resistance. In simple words,

galvanometer is an instrument for detecting and measuring small electric
currents.
 A galvanometer can be converted into an ammeter by connecting a shunt
parallel to it.
 A galvanometer can be converted into a voltmeter by connecting a very
high resistance in its series.
Transformer : Transformer is a device which converts low voltage A.C. into

high voltage A.C. and high voltage A.C. into low voltage A.C. It is based on
electromagnetic induction and can be used only in case of alternating current.

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A.C. Dynamo (or generator) : It is device used to convert mechanical energy
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into electrical energy. It works on the principle of electro-magnetic induction.
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Electric Motor : It is a device which converts electrical energy into
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mechanical energy.
Microphone : It converts sound energy into electrical energy and works on
the principle of electromagnetic induction. In other words, microscope is an
instrument for changing sound waves into electrical energy which may then
be amplified, transmitted or recorded.
 The current generated in the power stations are alternating current
having voltage 22000 volt or more. In grid substations, with the help of
transformer, their voltage is increased up to 132000 volt to minimise
loss of energy in long distance transmission.

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Magnetism
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 Magnetism is the property displayed by magnets and produced by the
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movement of electric charges, which results in objects being attracted or
pushed away.
 Magnet is a piece of iron or other materials that can attract iron
containing objects and that points north and south when suspended.
 A magnet is characterised by following two properties:
- Attractive property : A magnet attracts magnetic substances like
iron, cobalt, nickel and some of their alloys like magnetite (Fe304)
- Directive property : When a magnet is freely suspended, it aligns
itself in the geographical north south direction.
 A magnet may be (i) Natural (ii) Artificial
 Natural magnet is oxide of iron. But due to irregular shape, weak
magnetism and high brittleness, natural magnets find no use in the
laboratory.
 The magnets made by artificial methods are called artificial magnets or
man made magnets. They may be of different types like bar magnet,
horse shoe magnet, Robinson’s ball ended magnet, magnetic needle,
electromagnet etc.
 The two points near the two ends of a magnet where the attracting
capacity is maximum are called magnetic poles. When a magnet is freely
suspended, its one pole always directs towards the north. This pole is
called north pole. The other pole is called south pole.
 The imaginary line joining the two poles of a magnet is called magnetic
axis of the magnet.
 Similar poles repel each other and dissimilar poles attract each other.
 When a magnetic substance is placed rear a magnet, it gets magnetised
due to induction.
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Magnetic Field: Region in space around a magnet where the magnet has its
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magnetic effect is called magnetic field of the magnet.
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Intensity of magnetic field or magnetic flux density : Magnetic flux density of a
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point in a magnetic field is the force experienced by a north pole of unit
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strength of unit strength placed at that point. Its SI unit is newton / ampere-
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meter or weber / meter2 or tesla (T).
Magnetic lines of force : The magnetic lines of force are imaginary curves
which represent a magnetic field graphically. The tangent drawn at any point
on the magnetic liens of force gives the direction of magnetic field at that
point.
Properties of magnetic liens of force:
(i) Magnetic lines of force are closed curves. Outside the magnet they are
from north to south pole and inside the magnet they are from south to
north pole.
(ii) Two lines of force near intersect each other.
(iii) If the lines of force are crowded, the field is strong.
(iv) If the liens of force are parallel and equidistant, the field is uniform.
Magnetic Substance : On the basis of magnetic behaviour, substances can be

divided into three categories.
(i) Diamagnetic substance : Diamagnetic substances are such substances
which when placed in a magnetic field, acquire feeble magnetism
opposite to the direction of magnetic field. Examples : Bismuth, Zinc,
Copper, Silver, Gold, Diamond, Water, Mercury, Water etc.
(ii) Paramagnetic Substance : Paramagnetic substances are such
substances which when placed in a magnetic field acquire a feeble
magnetism in the direction of the field. Examples : Aluminum, Platinum,
Manganese, Sodium, Oxygen etc.
(iii) Ferromagnetic substance: Ferromagnetic substances are those
substance, which when placed in a magnetic field, are strongly
magrietised in the direction of field. Examples : Iron, Cobalt, Nickel etc.
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Domain : Atoms of ferromagnetic substance have a permanent dipole
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moment i.e. .they behave like a very small magnet. The atoms form a large no.
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of effective regions called domain in which 1018 to 1021 atoms have their
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dipole moment aligned in the same direction. The magnetism in
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ferromagnetic substance, when placed in a magnetic field, is developed due to
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these domain by (i) the displacements of boundaries of the domains (ii) the
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rotation of the domains.
Curie Temperature : As temperature increases, the magnetic property of
ferromagnetic substance decreases and above a certain temperature the
substance changes into paramagnetic substance. This temperature is called
Curie temperature.
 Permanent magnets are made of steel, cobalt steel, ticonal, alcomax and
alnico.
 Electromagnets, cores of transformers, telephone diaphragms, armatures
of dynamos and motors are made of soft iron, mu-metal and stalloy.
Terrestrial Magnetism : Our earth behaves as a powerful magnet whose

south pole is near the geographical north pole and whose north pole is near
the geographical south pole. The magnetic field of earth of a place is
described in the terms of following three elements.
(i) Declination : The acute angle between magnetic meridian and
geographical meridian at a place is called the angle of declination at that
place.
(ii) Dip or Inclination : Dip is the angle which the resultant earth’s magnetic
field at a place makes with the horizontal. At poles and equator, dip is
90° and 0° respectively.
(iii) Horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field : At a place it is defined
as the component of earth’s magnetic field along the horizontal in the
magnetic meridian.
Its valve is different at different places. (approximately 0.4 gauss or 0.4 x
10-4 tesl(a).

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Atomic & Nuclear Physics
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Atomic Physics
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 Atom is the smallest part of matter which takes part in chemical
reactions. Atoms of the same element are similar in mass, size and
characteristics. Atom consists of three fundamental particles electron,
proton and neutron. All the protons and neutrons are present in the
central core of atom called nucleus. Electrons revolve around the
nucleus.
 In an atom, electrons and protons are equal in number and have equal
and opposite charge. Hence atom is neutral.
Properties of Fundamental Particles
Particle Mass (Kg) Charge (Coulom(b) Discoverer
Proton 1.672 x 10-27 -1.6 x 10-19 Rutherford
Neutron 1.675 x 10-27 0 Chadwick
Electron 9.108 x 10-31 -1.6 x 10-19 J.J. Thomsom
Note : Proton was discovered by Golas tin and named by Rutherford.
 Till today, several subatomic particles have been discovered. Some
important of them are as follows.
Particle Mass (Kg) Charge Discoverer
Positron 9.08 x 10-31 +1.6 x 10-19 Anderson Antiparticle of

electron
Neutrino 0 0 Pauli
Pi-meson 274 times the Positive & Yakawa unstable
mass of electron negative both
Photon 0 0 Velocity equal
of that of ligh
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Cathode Rays—If the gas pressure in a discharge tube is 10-2 to 10-3 mm of
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Hg and a potential difference of i04 volt is applied between the electrode,
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then a beam of electrons emerges from the cathode which is called cathode
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rays. Hence cathode rays are beam of high energy electrons. Cathode is an
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electrode with a negative charge.
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Properties of cathode rays:
(i) Cathode rays are invisible and travel in straight line.
(ii) These rays carry negative charge and travel from cathode to anode.
(iii) These rays emerge perpendicular to the cathode surface and are not
affected by the position of anode.
(iv) Cathode rays travel with very high velocity (1/10th the velocity of light).
(v) These rays are deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
(vi) These rays can ionise gases.
(vii) These rays heat the material on which they fall.
(viii) They can produce chemical change and thus affect a photographic plate.
(ix) These rays can penetrate through thin metal foils.
(x) oil.
(xi) When they strike a target of heavy metals such as tungsten, they produce
x-rays.
(xii) The nature of cathode rays is independent of nature of cathode and the
gas in the discharge tube.
Positive or Canal rays:

If perforated cathode is used in a discharge tube, it is observed that a new
type of rays are produced from anode moving towards the cathode and
passed through the holes of cathode. These rays are positively charged and
are called positive rays or canal rays or anode rays. These rays were
discovered by Goldstein.
Properties of Canal rays:

(i) The positive rays consists of positively charged particles.
(ii) These rays travel in straight line.
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(iii) These rays can exert pressure and thus possess kinetic energy-
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(iv) These rays are deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
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(v) These rays are capable of producing physical and chemical changes.
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(vi) These rays can produce ionisation in gases.
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Radioactivity
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 Radioactivity is the sending out of harmful radiation or particles, caused
when atomic nuclei breakup spontaneously.
 Radioactivity was discovered by Henry Becquerel, Madame Curie and
Pierre Curie for which they jointly win Noble prize.
 The nucleus having protons 83 or more are unstable. They emit ,  and
particles and become stable. The elements of such nucleus are called
radioactive elements and the phenomenon of emission of a,  and 
particles is called radioactivity.
  rays are emitted after the emission of and rays.
 Robert Pierre and his wife Madame Curie discovered a new radioactive
element radium.
 The rays emitted by radioactivity were first recognised by Rutherford.
 The end product of all natural radioactive element after emission of
radioactive rays is lead.
Difference between stable and unstable nucleus

S.No. Stable nucleus Unstable nucleus
1. Low atomic number High atomic number
2. Low mass number High mass number
3. Nucleus of small size Nucleus of bigger size
4. n
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n
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p p

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Properties of and  particles
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S.No. Properties   
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1. Origin Nucleus Nucleus Nucleus
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2. Nature Positively Negatively Neutral
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charged charged
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3. Composition He4 Photon
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4. Mass 6.4 x 10-31 kg 9.1 x 10-31 kg zero
5. Charge +2e -e zero
6. Chemical effect Affects photo Affects photo Affects
graphic plate graphic plate photo
graphic
plate
7. Effect of electric Deflected Deflected No effect
and magnetic
field
8. Penetrating Minimum In between the Maximum
power other two
9. Ionising Power Maximum In between the Minimum
other two
10. Velocity Between 1.4 x 1% to 99% of 3 x 108 m/s
107 m/s to 2.2 x velocity of light
107 m/s
 With the emission an -particle, atomic number is decreased by 2 and

mass member is decreased by 4.
 With the emission of a particle atomic number is increased by one and
mass number does not change.
 The effect on the mass number and atomic number with the emission of
  and ays is decided by Group-displacement law or Soddy-Fajan
Law.
 Radioactivity is detected by G.M. Counter.

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
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The time in which half nuclei of the element is decayed is called half life
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of the radioactive substance.
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 Cloud chamber: Cloud chamber is used to detect the presence and kinetic
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energy of radioactive particles. It was discovered by C.R.T. Wilson.
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 Radioactive carbon-14 is used to measure the age of fossils and plants.
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(Carbon dating) In this method age is decided by measuring the ratio of
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6C and 6C .
12 14
Nuclear Fission and Fusion

Nuclear Fission : The nuclear reaction in which a heavy nucleus splits into
two nuclei of nearly equal mass is nuclear fission. The energy released in the
nuclear fission is called nuclear energy.
 Nuclear fission was first demonstrated by Strassmann and O. Hahn. They
found that when U235 nucleus is excited by the capture of a neutron, it
splits into two nuclei Ba142 & K92.
Chain Reaction : When uranium atom is bombarded with slow neutrons,

fission takes place. With the fission of each uranium nucleus, on the average 3
neutrons and large energy is released. These neutrons cause further fission.
Clearly a chain of fission of uranium nucleus starts which continues till whole
of uranium is exhausted. This is called chain reaction.
Chain reaction is of the following two types
(i) Uncontrolled chain reaction (ii) Controlled chain reaction.
Uncontrolled Chain Reaction: In each fission reaction, three more neutrons

are produced. These three neutrons may cause the fission of three other U235
nuclei producing 9 neutrons and so on. As a result the number of neutron
goes on increasing till the whole of fissionable material is consumed. This
chain reaction is called uncontrolled or explosive chain reaction. This
reaction proceeds very quickly and a huge amount of energy is liberated in a
short time.

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Atom bomb : Atom bomb is based on nuclear fission. U235 and Pu239 are used
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as fissionable material. This bomb was first used by USA against Japan in
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second world war (6th August, 1945 at Hiroshima & 9th August, 1945 at
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Nagashaki).
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Controlled Chain Reaction : A fission chain reaction which proceeds slowly
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without any explosion and in which the energy released can be controlled is
known as controlled reaction. Actually in this situation only one of the
neutrons produced in each fission is able to cause further fission. The rate of
reaction remains constant.
Nuclear Reactor or Atomic Pile : Nuclear reactor is an arrangement in

which controlled nuclear fission reaction takes place.
 First nuclear reactor was established in Chicago University under the
supervision of Prof. Fermi.
 There are several components of nuclear reactor which are as follows
(i) Fissionable Fuel : U235 or U239 is used.
(ii) Moderator: Moderator decreases the energy of neutrons so that they
can be further used for fission reaction. Heavy water and graphite are
used as moderator.
(iii) Control rod : Rods of cadminum or boron are used to absorb the excess
neutrons produced in fission of uranium nucleus so that the chain
reaction continues to be controlled.
(iv) Coolant : A large amount of heat is produced during fission. Coolant
absorbs that heat and prevents excessive rise in the temperature. The
coolant may be water, heavy water, or a gas like He or CO2.
Uses of nuclear reactor
(i) To produce electrical energy from the energy released during fission.

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(ii) To produce different isotopes which can be used in medical, physical and
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agriculture science.
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Fast Breeder Reactor : A nuclear reactor which can produce more fissile fuel
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than it consumes is called a fast breeder reactor.
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Nuclear Fusion: When two or more light nuclei combined together to form a
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heavier nucleus, tremendous energy is released. This phenomenon is called
nuclear fusion. A typical example of nuclear fission is 1H2 + 1H3 -> 2He4 + 0n1 +
17.6 Mev.
 The energy released by sun and other stars is by nuclear fusion.
 For the nuclear fusion, a temperature of the order of 10 K is required.
Hydrogen Bomb : Hydrogen bomb was made by American scientists in 1952.

This is based on nuclear fusion. It is 1000 times more powerful than atom
bomb.
Mass Energy Relation : In 1905 Einstein established a relation between

mass and energy on the basis of special theory of relativity. According to this
relation, mass can be converted into energy and vice versa, according to the
relation E = mc2 where c is the velocity of light and E is the energy equivalent
of mass m.
 Albert Einstein was an American scientist. He was born in Germany. He
was given Nobel Prize of Physics in 1921.
 Sun is continuously emitting energy. Earth is continuously receiving 4
1026 joule of energy per second from sun. As a result mass of sun is
decreasing at the rate of approximately 4 x 109 kg per second. But mass
of sun is so large that it is estimated that the sun will continuously supply
energy for next 109 years.

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Electronics
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Electronics : Electronics is the branch of physics and technology concerned
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with the behaviour and movement of electrons.
Diode Valve : Designed by J. A. Fleming in 1904, diode valve consists of two

electrodes placed inside an evacuated glass envelope. One electrode is called
cathode which is made up of tungsten on which there is a thin layer of barium
oxide. When heated, cathode emits electrons. These electron flow towards the
other electrode called anode or plate, which is at positive potential. As a
result an electric current is established in the circuit.
 The electrons emitted from the cathode are collected in the evaluated
space around it. This collection of electrons is called space charge which
is obviously negative.
 Diode valve acts a rectifier. Rectifier is a device which converts
alternating voltage (current) into direct voltage (current).
Triode Valve : Designed by Lee de Forest in 1907, triode valve is a modified

form of usual diode. It consists of a usual anode - cathode pair and one more
electrode called control grid.
 Triode valve can be used as amplifier, oscillator, transmitter and
detector.
Semi-conductor : Semi conductor are those materials whose electrical

conductivity, at room temperature, lies in between that of insulator and
conductor. Germenium and Silicon are two important semiconductor. In a
crystal lattice of semi-conductor, some of the electrons become free from
bond formation. At the sites of these electrons a deficiency of electron exists

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which acts as a virtual positive charge. These virtual positive charges are
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called holes. Semi-conductors are used in electronics industry.
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Semi-conductors are of two types:
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(i) Intrinsic Semi -Conductor : A semi conductor in an extremely pure form
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is known as intrinsic semi conductor.
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(ii) Extrinsic Semi-Conductor : If a measured and small amount of chemical
impurity is added to intrinsic semi-conductor, it is called extrinsic semi-
conductor or doped semi conductor. As a result of doping, there is large
increase in its conductivity.
Extrinsic semi conductor are of two types:

(a) N type semi conductor : An extrionic semi conductor in which electrons
are majority charge carrier is called N type semi conductor. Such a semi
conductor is made by doping a pure semi conductor with pentavalent
impurity like Arsenic, Antimony & Phosphorus.
(b) P type semi conductor : An extrinsic semi conductor in which holes are
the majority charge carrier is called a P type semi conductor. Such a semi
conductor is made by doping a pure semi conductor with trivalent
impurity like Gallium, Indium, Boron and Aluminium.
Doping: Adding of chemical impurity to a pure semi conductor is called

doping. The amount and type of impurity is closely controlled.
Donor: Pentavalent impurities are called donor.

Acceptor: Trivalent impurities are called acceptor.
 The electrical conductivity of a semi conductor increases with the
increase in temperature.

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Scientific Instruments
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Instrument Use
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Altimeter Measures altitudes (used in aircraft)
Ammeter Measures strength of electric current
Anemometer Measures force and velocity of wind and directions
Audiometer Measures intensity of sound
Barograph Continuous recording of atmospheric pressure
Barometez, Measures atmospheric pressure:
Binoculars To view distant objects
Bolorneter To measure heat radiation
Callipers Measure inner and outer diameters of bodies
Calorimeter Measures quantities of heal
Cardiogram (ECG) Traces movements of the heart; recorded on a
Cardiograph
Cathétoxneter Determines heights, measurement of levels, etc, in
scientific experiment
Chronometer Determines longitude of a vessel at sea.
Colorimeter Compares intensity of colours
Commutator To change / reverse the direction of electric current;
Also used to convert AC into DC
Cryometer A type of thermometer used to measure very low
temperatures, usually close to 0°C
Cyclotron A charged particle accelerator which can accelerate
charged particles to high energies
Dilatometer Measures changes in volume of substances
Dyanamo To convert mechanical energy into electrical energy
Dynamometer Measures electrical power
Electronecephalograph (EE(c) Records and interprets the electrical
waves of the brain (brain waves) recorded on electroencephalograms
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Electrometer Measures very small but potential difference in
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electric currents
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Electroscope Detects presence of an electric charge
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Electromicroscope To obtain a magnifying view of very small objects
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Capable of magnifying up to 20,000 times
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Endoscope To examine internal parts of the body
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Fathometer Measures depth of the ocean
Fluxmeter Measures magnetic flux
Galvanometer Measures electric current
Hydrometer Measures the relative density of liquids
Hygrometer Measures level of humidity
Hydrophone Measures sound under water
Hygroscope Shows the changes in atmospheric humidity
Hypsometer To determine boiling point of liquids
Kymograph Graphically records physiological movement.: (e.g.,
blood pressure/heartbeat)
Lactometer Measures the relative density of milk to determine
purity
Machmeter Determines the speed of an aircraft in terms of the
speed of sound
Magnetometer Compares magnetic movements and fields
Manometer Measures the pressure of gases
Micrometer Converts sound waves into electrical vibrations
Microphone Measures distances/angles
Microscope To obtain a magnified view of small objects
Nephetometer Measures the scattering of light by particles
suspended in a liquid
Ohmmeter To measure electrical resistance in ohms
Ondometer Measures the frequency of electromagnetic waves,
especially in the radio-frequency band
Periscope To view objects above sea level (used in submarines)
Photometer Compares the luminous intensity of the source of light

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Polygraph Instrument that simultaneously records changes in
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physiological processes such as heartbeat, blood-
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pressure and respiration; used as a lie detector
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Pyrheliometer Measures components of solar radiation
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Pyrometer Measures very high temperature
Quadrant Measures altitudes and angles in navigation and
astronomy
Radar To detect the direction and range of an approaching
aeroplane by means of radiowaves, (Radio, Angle,
Detection and Range)
Radio micrometer Measures heat radiation
Refractometer Measures refractive indices
Salinometer Determines salinity of solutions
Sextant Used by navigators to find the latitude of a place by
measuring the elevation above the horizon of the sun
or another star; also used to measure the height of
very distant objects
Spectroscope To observe or record spectra
Spectrometer Spectroscope equipped with calibrated scale to
measure the position of spectral lines (Measurement
of refractive indices)
Spherometer Measures curvature of spherical objects
Sphygmometer Measures blood pressure
Stereoscope To view two-dimensional pictures
Stethoscope Used by doctors to hear and analyze heart and lung
sounds
Stroboscope To view rapidly moving objects
Tachometer To determine speed, especially the rotational speed of
a shaft (used in aeroplanes and motor-boats)
Tacheometer A theodolite adapted to measure distances, elevations
and bearings during survey
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Tangent Galvanometer Measures the strength of direct current
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Telemeter Records physical happenings at a distant place.
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Telescope To view distant objects in space
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Thermostat Regulates temperature at a particular point
Tonometer To measure the pitch of a sound
Transponder To receive a signal and transmit a reply
immediately
Udometer Rain gauge
Ultrasonoscope To measure and use ultrasonic sound (beyond
hearing); use to make a Ecogram to detect brain
tumours, heart defects and abnormal growth
Venturimeter To measure the rate of flow of liquids
Vernier Measures small sub-division of scale
Viscometer Measures the viscosity of liquid
Voltmeter To measure electric potential difference between
two points
Wattmeter To measure the power of an electric circuit
Wavemeter To measure the wavelength of a radiowave

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Inventions
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Invention Inventor Country Year
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Adding machine Pascal France 1642
Aeroplane Wright brothers USA 1903
Balloon Jacques and Joseph Montgolfier France 1783
Ball-point pen C. Biro Hungary 1938
Barometer E. Torricelli Italy 1644
Bicycle K. Macmillan Scotland 1839
Bicycle Tyre J.B. Dunlop Scotland 1888
Calculating machine Pascal France 1642
Centrigrade scale A. Celsius France 1742
Cinematograph Thomas Alva Edison USA 1891
Computer Charles Babbage Britain 1834
Cine camera Friese-Greene Britain 1889
Cinema A.L. and J.L. Lumiere France 1895
Clock (machanical) Hsing and Ling-Tsan China 1725
Clock (pendulum) C. Hugyens Netherlands 1657
Diesel engine Rudolf Diesel Germany 1892
Dynamite Alfred Nobel Sweden 1867
Dynamo Michael Faraday England 1831
Electric iron H.W. Seeley USA 1882
Electric lamp Thomas Alva Edison USA 1879
Electromagnet W. Sturgeon England 1824
Evolution (theory) Charles Darwin England 1858
Film (with soun(d) Dr Lee de Forest USA 1923
Fountain Pen LE Waterman USA 1884
Gas lighting William Murdoch Scotland 1794
Gramophone T.A. Edison USA 1878

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Jet Engine Sir Frank Whittle England 1937
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Lift E.G. Otis USA 1852
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Locomotive Richard Trevithick England 1804
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Machine gun Richard Gatling USA 1861
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Match (safety) J.E. Lurdstrom Sweden 1855
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Microphone David Hughes USA 1878
Microscope Z. Jansen Netherlands 1590
Motor car (petrol) Karl Benz Germany 1885
Motorcycle Edward Butler England 1884
Neon-lamp G. Claude France 1915
Nylon Dr W.H. Carothers USA 1937
Photography (paper) W.H. Fox Tablot England 1835
Printing press J. Gutenberg Germany 1455
Radar Dr A.H. Taylor and L.C. Young USA 1922
Radium Marie and Pierre curie France 1898
Radio G. Marconi England 1901
Rayon American Viscose Co. USA 1910
Razor (safety) K.G. Gillette USA 1895
Razor (electri(c) Col. J. Schick USA 1931
Refrigerator J. Harrison and A. Catlin Britain 1834
Revolver Samuel Colt USA 1835
Rubber (vulcanize(d) Charles Goodyear USA 1841
Rubber (waterproof) Charles Macintosh Scotland 1819
Safety lamp Sir Humphrey Davy England 1816
Safety pin William Hurst USA 1849
Sewing machine B. Thimmonnier France 1830
Scooter G. Bradshaw England 1919
Ship (steam) J.C. Perier France 1775
Ship (turbine) Sir Charles Parsons Britain 1894
Shorthand (modem) Sir Issac Pitman Britain 1837
Spinning frame Sir Richard Arkwight England 1769
Spinning jenny James Hargreaves England 1764
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Steam engine (piston) Thomas Newcome Britain 1712
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Steam engine James Watt Scotland 1765
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(condenser) Henry Bessemer England 1855
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Steel production Harry Brearley England 1913
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Stainless Steel Sir Ernest Swington England 1914
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Tank Samuel F.B. Morse USA 1837
Telegraph code Alexander Graham Bell USA 1876
Telephone Hans Lippershey Netherlands 1608
Telescope John Logie Bared Scotland 1926
Television J. Whinfield and H. Dickson England 1941
Terylene Galileo Galilei Italy 1593
Thermometer J. Froelich USA 1892
Tractor Bardeen, Shockley USA & UK 1949
Transistor C. Sholes USA 1868
Typewriter Sir J.A. Fleming Britain 1904
Valve of radio A.L. Breguet France 1791
Watch Wilhelm Roentgen Germany 1895
X-ray W.L. Judson USA 1891
Zip fastener

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Important Discoveries in
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Discovery Scientist Year
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Electron J.J. Thomson 1897
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Proton Rutherford 1919
Neutron James Chadwick 1932
Atom John Dalton 1808
Atomic Structure Neil Bohr & Rutherford 1913
Laws of motion Newton 1687
Radioactivity Henry Becquerel 1896
Radium Madam Curie 1898
Principle of Relativity Albert Einstein 1905
Electromagnetic Induction Michael Faraday 1831
Raman Effect C.V. Raman 1928
X-Rays Roentgen 1895
Quantum theory Max Plank 1900
Photo electric effect Albert Einstein 1905
Law of electrostatic attraction Coulomb 1779
Photography (On metal) J. Neepse 1826
Photography (On paper) W. Fox Talbot 1835
Periodic table Mandeleev 1888
Law of Electric resistance G.S. Ohm 1827
Law of floatation Archemedes 1827
Thermionic emission Edison -
Diode Bulb Sir J. S. Fleming 1904
Triode Bulb Lee de Forest 1906
Nuclear Reactor Anrico Fermi 1942
Law of electrolytic dissociation Faraday —
Wireless Telegram Marconi 1901
Dynamite Alfred Nobel 1867

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Quantity SI Symbol
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Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Work and Energy joule J
Electric current ampere A
Temperature kelvin K
Intensity of flame candela cd
Angle radian rad
Solid angle steredian sr
Force newton N
Area square meter m2
Volume Cubic meter m3
Speed meter per second ms-1
Angle Velocity radian per second rad s-1
Frequency Hertz Hz
Moment of inertia kilogram Square meter kgm2
Momentum kilogram meter per second Kg ms-1
impulse Newton second Ns
Angular Momentum kilogram square meter per second Kgm2s-1
Pressure pascal Pa
Power watt W
Surface tension newton per meter Nm-1
Viscosity newton second per square m. N.s.m-2
Thermal Conductivity watt per meter per degree celcius Wm-1C-1

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Quantity SI Symbol
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Specific Heat capacity joule per kilogram per Kelvin Jkg-1 K-1
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Electric charge coulomb C
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Potential Difference volt V
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Electric Resistance ohm Q
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Electrical Capacity farad F
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Magnetic Induction henry H
Magnetic Flux weber Wb
Luminous Flux or lumen Im
photometric power lux Ix
Intensity of illumination Angstrom A°
Wave length light year Iy
Astronomical distance

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Conversion Of Units From One
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System To Another System
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1 Inch 2.54 centimeter 1 grain 64.8 milligram
1 Feet 0.3 meter 1 dram 1.77 gm
1 Yard 0.91 meter 1 ounce 28.35 kilogram
1 Mile 1.60 kilometer 1 pound 0.4537 kilogram
1 Fathom 1.8 meter 1 dyne 10-5 Newton
1 Chain 20.11 meter 1 poundal 0.1383 Newton
1 Nautical mile 1.85 kilometer 1 erg 10-7 Joule
1 Angstrom 10-10 meter 1 horse power 747 Watt
1 Square inch 6.45 sq. centimeter 1 fathom 6 feet
1 Square feet 0.09 square meter 1 mile 8 furlong
1 Square yard 0.83 square meter 1 mile 5280 feet
1 Acre 104 sq.meter 1 nautical mile 6080 feet
1 Square mile 2.58 sq. kilometer 1 feet 12 inch
1 Cubic inch 16.38 cubic centimeter 1 yard 3 feet
1 Cubic feet 0.028 cubic meter 370 centigrade 98.6° Fahrenheit
1 Cubic yard 0.7 quebec meter 50° centigrade 122 Fahrenheit
1 Litre 1000 cubic centimeter -40° Fahrenheit -40° Centigrade
1 Pint 0.56 litre 32° Fahrenheit 00 Centigrade

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Chemistry
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What Is Chemistry?
Chemistry is branch of science that systematically studies the composition,
properties, and activity of organic and inorganic substances and various
elementary forms of matter. Simply we can say that it is a scientific study of
matter, its properties, and interactions with other matter and with energy.
MATTER
Anything in the universe which occupies space and has mass is called
matter.It can be changed from one form to another or into energy but can
never be completely destroyed.
Physical Forms Of Matter

(i)Solid (ii) Liquid & (iii) Gases
Gases, liquids and solids are all made up of atoms, molecules, and/or ions, but
the behaviors of these particles differ due to intermolecular space and force
Particles in a:
 Gas is well separated with no regular arrangement.
 Liquid are close together with no regular arrangement.
 Solid are tightly packed, usually in a regular pattern.
Particles in a:
 Gas vibrates and moves freely at high speeds.
 Liquid vibrate, move about, and slide past each other.
 Solid vibrate (jiggle) but generally do not move from place to place.

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Liquids and solids are often referred to as condensed phases because the
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particles are very close together.The following table summarizes
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properties of gases, liquids, and solids
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Some Characteristics of Gases, Liquids and Solids
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Gas Liquid Solid
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assumes the shape assumes the shape of retains a fixed volume
and volume of its the part of the container and shape
container which it occupies rigid- particles are
particle can move particle can move / locked
freely slide
compressible not easily compressible not easily compressible
flows easily flows easily does not flow easily
BEHAVIOUR OF GASES
I. Boyle’s law
When any gas is expanded or compressed at constant temperature, its
volume(V) & pressure (P) are inversely proportional to each other (of a given
mass of gas)
PV= P1V1 = P2V2 = Constant
II. Charle’s law

When any gas is expanded or compressed at constant pressure, the volume
(V) (of the given mass of a gas) is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature i.e. V  T at constant temperature.
III. Avogadro’s law

Under the similar conditions of temperature and pressure equal volume of all
gases contain the equal number of molecules (n1=n2).

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Noble gases
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They are called noble gases because of their chemical inertness. Ex. Helium,
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neon, argon, krypton, xenon and radon.These are colourless and odourless.
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CONCEPT OF CHANGE IN STATE OF MATTER
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The temperature at which a solid changes into liquid known as melting point.
Effect of pressure on melting point:
(a) Melting point of such substances increases with increase in pressure
whose volume increases on melting eg. Wax, copper.
(b) Melting point of such substances decreases with increase in pressure
whose volume decreases on melting eg. ice, melten iron etc.
II. FREEZING POINT

The temperature at which a liquid freezes at a certain pressure known as
freezing point. Generally melting and freezing point of the substance is equal.
Eg. M.P. & F.P. of ice is 0°C.
III. EVAPORATION
The process of change from liquid state to gaseous (vapour) is called
evaporation / vaporization.
Evaporation depends on :
(i)Lower the boiling point higher the rate of evaporation.
(ii)Higher the temperature higher the rate of evaporation.
(iii)Greater the surface area greater the rate of evaporation
IV. BOILING POINT

The temperature at which a liquid changes into gas or vapor is known as
boiling point.Boiling point increases with increase in pressure and decreases
with decrease in pressure.

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Chemical forms of matter
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(I)Elements (II) Compounds (III) Mixtures
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I. Elements
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It is the simplest form of a pure substance that neither be broken into nor
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Elements, symbols and atomic numbers
Element Symbol Atomic Name Symbol Atomic
Number Number
Hydrogen H 1 Iron (Ferum) Fe 26
Helium He 2 Cobalt Co 27
Lithium Li 3 Nickel Ni 28
Beryllium Be 4 Copper (Cuprum) Cu 29
Boron B 5 Zinc Zn 30
Carbon C 6 Germenium Ge 32
Nitrogen N 7 Bromine Br 35
Oxygen O 8 Krypton Kr 36
Fluorine F 9 Zirconium Zr 40
Neon Ne 10 Silver Ag 47
Sodium Na 11 Tin (Stannum) Sn 50
(Natrium) Mg 12 Antimony (Stobniu Sb 51
Magnesium Al 13 m) I 53
Aluminium Si 14 Iodine Ba 56
Silicon P 15 Barium Au 79
Phosphorous S 16 Gold (Aurum) Hg 80
Sulphur Cl 17 Mercury (Hydrage Pb 82
Chlorine Ar 18 rm) Bi 83
Argon K 19 Lead (Plumbum) Ra 88
Potassium (K Ca 20 Bismuth Th 90
alium) Ti 22 Radium U 92
Calcium V 23 Thorium Pu 94
Titanium Cr 24 Uranium Cm 96
Vanadium Mn 25 Plutonium
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Chromium Curium
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Manganese
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TYPES OF ELEMENTS
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(a) Metals (b) Non-metals ((c) Metalloids
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These are good conductor of electricity (max. in silver) and heat, generally in
solid form at room temperature (Exception: Mercury, which exist in liquid
form at room temperature) have luster Ex. Copper, silver, gold etc.
Physical Properties of Metal
 lustrous (shiny)
 good conductors of heat and electricity
 high melting point
 high density (heavy for their size)
 malleable (can be hammere(d)
 ductile (can be drawn into wires)
 usually solid at room temperature (an exception is mercury)
 opaque as a thin sheet (can't see through metals)
 metals are sonorous or make a bell-like sound when struck
METALLURGY
The process of extraction of a metal in a pure state on a large scale from its
one by physical or chemical means is called metallurgy.
Ores
Those minerals from which the metals are extracted commercially and
economically and with minimum effort are called ores of the metal.
All ores of the metals are minerals but all minerals are not ones.
Gangue
The earthy and other insoluble impurities associated with the minerals are
known as gangue.

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Some important ores of metals
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Names of the elements Ores Chemical Formulae
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Aluminum (Al) (a) Bauxite Al2O32H2O
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(b) Corundum Al2O3
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(c) Kryolite Na3AIF6
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Iron (Fe) (a) Hematite Fe2O3
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(b) Magnetite Fe3O4
(c) Iron Pyrite FeS2
(d) Siderite FeCO3
Copper (Cu) (a) Copper Pyrite CuFeS2
(b) Copper Glance Cu2S
((c) Malachite 2CuCO3 Cu(OH) 2
Zinc (Zn) (a) Zinc Blende ZnS
(b) Calamine ZnCO3
Sodium (N(a) (a) Rock Salt NaCl
(b) Sodium Carbonate Na2CO3
Potassium (K) (a) Karnalite KCI MgCI 6H2O
(b) Salt Petre KNO3
Lead (P(b) (a) Galena PbS
(b) Anglesite PbCI2
Tin (Sn) (a) Tin Pyrites Cu2 FeSnS4
(b) Cassiterite SnO2
Silver (Ag) (a) Silver Glance Ag2S
Gold (Au) (a) Calve rite AuTe2
(b) Sybarite AgAuTe2
Mercury (Hg) (a) Cinnabar HgS
(b) Calomel Hg2CI2
Magnesium (Mg) (a) Dolomite MgCO3 CaCO3
(b) Karnalite KCI MgCI2 6H2O
Calcium C(a) (a) Lime Stone CaCO3
(b) Dolomite MgCO3 CaCO3
Phosphorous (P) (a) Phosphorite Ca3(PO4) 2
(b) Floreopetite 3Ca3(PO4) CaFe2
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Alloys
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An alloy is a homogeneous mixture of two or more metals (or a metal and
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non-metal) mixed in a definite proportion in their molten state.
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SOME IMPORTANT ALLOYS
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Brass Cu (60 to 80%), Zn (40 to 20%) For making household
utensils
Bronze Cu (75 to 90%), Sn (25 to 10%) For making coins, idols,
utencils
German Silver Cu (60%), Zn (25%), Ni (15%) For making utencils
Magnelium Mg (5%), Al (95%) For making aircraft
frame
Rolled Gold Cu (90%), Ni (10%) For making cheap
ornaments
Monel metal Cu (70%), Ni (30%) For making alkali
resistant containers
Bell metal Cu (80%), Sn (20%) For making bells
Gun metal Cu (85%), Zn (10%), Sn (5%) Used for engineering
purposes
Solder Sn (50-75%), Pb (50-25%) Soldering of metals
Duralium Al (95%), tu (4%), Mg (0.5, Mn In aircraft
(0.5%) manufacturing
Steel Fe (98%), C (2%) For making nails,
screws, bridges
Stainless Steel Fe (82%) Cr, Ni (18%) For making cooking
utensils, knives
EXPLOSIVES
Dynamite : It was discovered by Alfred Noble.
Tri-Nitro-Toluene (TNT)
Tri-Nitro Benzene (TN(b)

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SOME IMPORTANT FACTS
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 Diamond has maximum refractive index and due to total internal
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reflection.
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 Polonium has the maximum number of isotopes.
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 To avoid melting of ice gelatine is used.
 When dry ice is heated it is directly converted into gas.
 Acetyline is used for light production.
 Cardium rod is used in nuclear reactor to slow down the speed of
neutron.
 In tube light there is the vapour of mercury and argon.
 Zeolite is used to remove hardness of water.
 Silver iodide is used in artificial rain.
 Nichrome wire is used in electrical heater.
 Iron phritey is known as fools gold.
WATER
 It is colourless, odourless and tasteless liquid.Of the total global water, the
oceans and inland saline water bodies hold 97.3% and the fresh water
amounts to only 2.7%.Water constitute about 65% of our body and is an
essential element for its growth.
 The density of ice is less than that of water and hence ice floats over
water.
 Water has maximum density (1 g) at 4°C.
 M.P. is 273.2 K and B.P. is 373.2 K.
Heavy Water
Chemically heavy water is deuterium oxide (D20). It was discovered by Urey
in 1932. It has been finding use in nuclear reactors as a moderator because it
slows the fast moving neutrons.

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Properties of water
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The freezing point, boiling point, heat of fusion and heat of vaporisation of
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water are higher as compared to the hydrides of the other members of same
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(b) NON-METALS
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They have the property opposite to the metals. They are found in solid, liquid
and gaseous form. Ex. Carbon, oxygen etc. There are 24 non-metals. Gases –
11, Solid-12, Liquid-1
Si and Ge is semi conductor (Generally these are bad conductor of electricity
and heat)
Nonmetal Physical Properties
 not lustrous (dull appearance)
 poor conductors of heat and electricity
 non ductile solids
 brittle solids
 may be solids, liquids or gases at room temperature
 transparent as a thin sheet
Some important Non Metal

i. Hydrogen
It is the lightest gas. It has three isotopes
Protium – 1H1, Denterium – 1H2, Tritium – 1H3
ii. Nitrogen
78% by volume in atmosphere. Liquid nitrogen is used for refrigeration
Ammonia is the compound of nitrogen which is prepared by Haber’s process.
iii. Phosphorus
An important constituent of animal and plants. It is present in bones and
DNA.

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C. METALLOLIDS
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Those elements which pass both metallic and non-metallic properties are
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PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS
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Mandleev’s periodic law (1869)
The physical and chemical properties of the elements are the periodic
function of their atomic masses.
In modern periodic table

Given by Moseley. According to this physical and chemical properties of the
elements are the periodic function of their atomic number. Horizontal lines
are called period. Vertical lines are called groups. There are 7 periods and 18
groups and four blocks, S, P, d and f.
Period properties
Size increases in group and decreases in periods due to effective nuclear
charge.
(II). COMPOUNDS :
A pure substance which contains more than one kind of element or atom in
fixed proportion by weight eg. NaCl (Sodium chloride), SO2 (sulphur dioxide)
etc. The properties of a compound are completely different from those of its
constituents
Common and chemicals names of some compounds

Common Chemical Name Chemical Formula
Name
Dry Ice Solid Carbondioxide CO2
Slaked lime Calcium Hydroxide Ca (OH)2
Bleaching Powd Calcium Oxychioride CaOCI2
er Ammonium Chloride NH4CI
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Nausadar Sodium Hydroxide NaOH
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Caustic Soda Sodium Chloride NaCI
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Rock Salt Potassium Hydroxide KOH
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Caustic Potash Potassium Aluminium Sulpha K2SO4 Al2(SO4)3.24H2O
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Potash Alum te MgSO4 7H2O
Epsom Magnesium Sulphate CaO
Quick Lime Calcium Oxide (CaSO4)½ H2O
Plaster of Paris Calcium Sulphate CaSO4 .2H2O
Gypsum Calcium Sulphate FeSO4 7H2O
Green Vitriol Ferrous Sulphate FeSO4 (NH4) 2SO4.6H2O
Mohr’s Salt Ammonium Ferrous Sulphate CuSO4 5H2O
Blue Vitriol Copper Sulphate ZnSO4 7H2O
White Vitriol Zinc Sulphate CH4
Marsh Gas Methane CH3OOH
Vinegar Acetic Acid K2CO3
Potash Ash Potassium Carbonate Na2S2O3 5H2O
Hypo Sodium Thiosulphate NaHCO3
Baking Powder Sodium Bicarbonate Na2CO3. 10H2O
Washing Soda Sodium Carbonate MgO
Magnesia Magnesium Oxide CaCO3
Chalk (Marble) Calcium Carbonate AgNO3
Lunar Caustic Silver Nitrate N2O
Laughing Gas Nitrous Oxide CHCI3
Chloroform Tricholoro Methane HgS
Vermelium Mercuric Sulphide Na2B4O7 10H2O
Borax Borax C2H2OH
Alcohol Ethyl Alcohol C12H22O11
Sugar Sucrose D2O
Heavy water Deuterium Oxide Na2SO4 10H2O
Globar’s salt Sodium Slphate C6H2CH3(NO2) 3
T.N.T. Tri Nitrotoluene HgCI
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Name
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Calomel Mercurous Chloride SiO2
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Sand Silicon Oxide
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TYPES OF COMPOUND
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i Organic: Obtained from living sources proteins.
ii Inorganic: Obtained from non-living Sources ( Marble, washing sod(a)
iii MIXTURES
A material containing two or more elements or compounds in any proportion
is a mixture. It can be separated into its constituents. Ex. Air, Milk, Paints,
Cements etc.
The properties of a mixture are the properties of its constituents.
A mixture with definite boiling point is known as azeotropic mixture.
TYPES OF MIXTURES
(i) Homogeneous (uniform composition)
(ii) Heterogeneous (Non-uniform composition)
SEPARATION OF MIXTURES
(i) Sublimation
Certain solid substances which when heated directly change into vapour
without passing through the intermediate liquid state.Ex. Iodine + sand,
Camphor + sand.
(ii) Crystallization
It is based on the differences in solubility of the two components in a solvent.
Ex. Potassium Nitrate + Sodium chloride.
(iii) Distillation
The process of converting a liquid into its vapour by heating and the
subsequent condensation of the vapour back into the original liquid is called
distillation.
Ex: Iodine + Chloroform.

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Atomic structure
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1. Atom
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Structural and functional unit of the substance is known as an atom.
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Atom is the smallest part of the element that takes part in a chemical
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reaction. It does not exist in Free State. Ex. Na, K.
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2. Molecule
A molecule is the smallest part of the element or compound that is capable of
existing independently.
3. Atomic weight or mass
Average mass of an atom of the element x 12

Wt. of one atom of C12
The atomic mass of an element is number of times its atom is heavier the
1\12 th of the mass of carbon atom. The unit used to measure is called atomic
mass unit (amu)
Ex. Hydrogen = 1, Carbon = 12
4. Molecular mass
The relative molecular mass is the number which represents how many
times a molecule of that substance is heavier than 1/12th of an atom of C.
5. Mole
A mole is the amount of the substance which contain the same number of
units (molecules, atoms or ions) as the number of atoms in 12g of C12
isotope.
1 mole = 6.022 × 1023 (Avogadro’s number)
6. Constituents of an atom
(a) Electron
It was discovered by J.J. Thomson. These are negatively charged (–1).
Mass = 9.1 × 10–31 k.g. Charge = –(1.6 × 10–19 coulom(b)
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(b) Proton
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Discovered by Goldstein.Positively charged (+1)
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Mass = 1.6726 × 1024 g. Charge = + (1.6×10–19(c) .
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(c) Neutron
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Discovered by Chadwick. No charge. Mass = 1.6749 × 49–24 g.
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7. Nucleus
A positively charged centre on which whole mass of an atom is centered is
known as nucleus.
8. Atomic number
The number of proton or electron present in an atom of the element is
known as atomic number.
9. Atomic mass
Number of proton and neutron present in the nucleus of an atom is known
as atomic mass or mass number.
10. Isotopes
Atoms of the elements having same atomic number but different mass
number.
11. Isobars
Same atomic mass but differs in atomic number.
12. Isotones
Atoms of different elements having same number of neutrons.
13. Aufbau principle

It states that orbital of lowest energy is filled first, before the filling of
orbitals having higher energy starts.
So, the order of relative energy :
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1S. 2S, 3S, 2P. 4S, 3P. 5S, 4P, 3d. 6S, 5P, 4d. 7s, 6p, 5d, 4f. 7p, 6d, 5f
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It follows (n+1) rule.
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CHEMICAL BONDING
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The force that holds any two atoms to form a new entity is called a chemical
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bond. There are three types of bond:
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(i) Electrovalent bond (ii) Covalent bond (iii) Coordinate bond
(i) Electrovalent bond

Conditions: Metal + Non-metal; This bond is formed by the complete
transfer of the electron. Ex. Na + Cl Na+, Cl– NaCl
(ii) Covalent bond

Conditions: Smaller the size higher the covalency.Electronegative
element + electronegative element. Formed by the mutual sharing of
electron.
(iii) Co-ordinate bond:

Dative or semi polar bond. This is a special type of bond in which a pair
of electron is donated by one atom only called coordinate bond.
OXIDATION AND REDUCTION

Addition of oxygen or electron is called oxidation. (Removal of H or
electropositive element)
Removal of electron is known as reduction (Addition of electropositive
element)
Ex. Removal of hydrogen atom is oxidation while addition of hydrogen atom
is reduction
H2 = Cl2  2 HCl (Cl2 is reduced to HCl)
H2S + Cl2  2 HCl + S (H2S is oxidized to S)
Addition of oxygen atom is oxidation while removal of oxygen atom is
reduction.
C+O2  CO2 (C is oxidized to CO2)
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CuO + H2  Cu + H2O (CuO is reduced to Cu)
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REACTIONS AND THEIR RESULTS
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Reaction Result
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If a lighted paper is introduced The flame will be extinguished because
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in a jar of carbon dioxide? carbon dioxide does not help in burning
If flame water is kept in air? If turns milky due to carbon dioxide in the
air.
Blue litmus is put into a it turns red
solution of acid?
Red litmus is put into a solution it turns blue
of base/alkali why?
Why does a candle blow off Because it does not get oxygen which
when covered? helps in burning
Why is phosphorous kept in Because with air it catches fire and in
water? water it is insoluble
Sugar gets charred on heating, When sugar is heated above 200°C
Why? decomposes into carbon and water and
therefore gets charred
Why does the moss of on iron Because rust is hydrated ferric oxide
rod increase on rusting (Fe2O3.3H2O) which adds to its mass
Why is salt mixed with ice Salt causes reduction of temperature and
when making ice cream? helps to freeze the cream and freezing
temperature is lowered from O° to 5°C
Why does milk curdle? Lactose (milk sugar) content of milk
undergoes fermentation and changes into
lactic acid which on reading with lactose
forms curd
Why does milk turn sour? The microbes read with milk and grow.
They turn lactose into lactic acid which is
sour in taste

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Reaction Result
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Why doesn’t hard water lather Hard water contains sulphates and
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soap profusely? chlorides of magnesium and calcium
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which from an insoluble compound with
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soap. Therefore soap does not lather with
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hard water
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Why does sea water boil at a Sea water contains impurities which raises
higher temperature than fresh the boiling point of water
water?
Why is it dangerous to hove When charcoal burns its produces carbon
charcoal fire burning in a monoxide which is suffocating
closed room?
Why is dangerous to sleep Plants respire at night and give out carbon
under trees at night dioxide which reduces the oxygen content
of air required for breathing
Why does ENO’s salt effervesce It contains tartaric acid and sodium
on addition of water? bicarbonate. On adding Water carbon
dioxide produced which when released
into water causes effervescence
ACIDS AND BASES

(i) Acid
Sour in taste. Turns blue litmus paper into red. Contains replicable
hydrogen. Gives H+ ion in aqueous solution. Proton donor. Lone pair of
electron acceptor
Use of acid
Citric acid – Lemons or oranges (citrus fruits)
Lactic acid – Sour milk
Tatric acid – Grapes
(ii) Bases
The compound which gives salt and water with acid known as bases.
Bitter in taste. Turns red litmus to blue. Water soluble bases are called
Alkali eg. NaOH, KOH, Ca (OH)2
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All alkalies are bases but all bases are not alkalies because all bases are not
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soluble in water.
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Strong bases: NaOH, KOH, Ca (OH)2
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Weak bases: NH4OH, Mg (OH)2
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Hard & Soft Water
Water which produces lather with soap solution readily is called soft water.
e.g. Rain-water, deminerlised water.
Water which does not produce lather with soap solution readily is called hard
water. e.g., Sea-water, river water, well water, tap-water.
Cause of hardness of water

The hardness of water is due to presence of the bicarbonates, chlorides and
sulphates of calcium and magnesium (Ca++ and Mg++).
TYPES OF HARDNESS OF WATER

(a) Temporary hardness
This type of hardness in water is due to the presence of bicarbonates of
calcium and magnesium. It can be removed by boiling.
(b) Permanent hardness

This type of hardness is due to presence of bicarbonates of calcium and
magnesium, it can be removed by boiling but some chlorides and
sulphates of calcium and magnesium are also present with it which can
not be removed by boiling.
Softening of water
The process of removal of hardness from water is called softening of water.
(i) Water is treated with a calculated amount of washing soda (Na2 CO3)
which converts the chlorides and sulphates of calcium and magnesium
into their respective carbonates.
(ii) Iron exchange method : This method can be classified into two parts:

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Inorganic cations exchanges: This method is also known as “Permutit
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Method”. These are complex inorganic salts like “hydrated sodium- aluminum
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silicate” (Na2Al2Si2O8 . xH2O) which have interesting property of exchanging
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cations such as calcium and magnesium ions in hard water with sodium salt
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ions. These complex salts are known as “Zeolites”.
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Organic ion exchanges : These are complex organic molecules having giant
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hydrogen frame work attached to acidic or basic groups. These are called ion
exchange resins. These are superior to zeolites because they can remove all
types of cations as well as anions present in water. The resulting water is
known as deionised water or demineralised water.
(iii) Salt
When acid reacts with alkali salts and water are formed.
NaOH + HCl  NaCl + H2O
CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

Carbon is a non-metal. Its atomic number is 6 and mass number 12.
It is placed in 14th group of periodic table.
Allotrophy
The substances which have same chemical properties, but different physical
properties are called allotropes and this property is called allotrophy.
Ex. : Allotrophies of carbon-graphite, diamond-charcol.
(i) Diamond
It is the purest form of carbon. It is the hardest natural substance known
to man. It has high melting point and density. It is transparent
(ii) Graphite
Grayish black opaque substance, soft and slippery to touch and has
metallic lusture.
HYDROCARBONS
Compounds made up of hydrogen and carbon atoms are called hydrocarbon.
The natural sources of hydrocarbons are:
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(i) Saturated hydrocarbons
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The hydrocarbons in which carbon atoms are singly bonded are called
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saturated hydrocarbons.Ex. Methane (CH4)
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(ii) Unsaturated hydrocarbons
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The hydrocarbons in which carbon atoms are either doubly or triply
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bonded are called unsaturated hydrocarbons.Ex. Propane C3H6.
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Aromatic hydrocarbon
These are homocyclic compounds which contain at least one benzene ring in
which carbon atom are lined to one another by alternate single and double
bonds.Ex. Benzene (C6H6)
Natural sources hydrocarbon is petroleum obtained from sedimentary rocks.
Polymers
Natural occurring polymers: Protein, nucleic acid, cellulose, starch etc.
Plastics
Plastics are cross linked polymers and are very tough. Lac is a natural plastic.
Chemically plastic can be of two types:
(i) Thermoplastic
It becomes soft on heating and hard on cooling. Ex. Polystrene, polythene,
PVC etc.
Use: Acid bottles, cells covers etc.
(ii) Thermosetting plastics

It becomes soft on heating and can be moulded as per size. Ex. Bakelite,
Glyptal, Terrylene etc.
Rubber
Natural rubber: Isomer of isoprene and thermoplastic
Synthetic rubber: Neoprene and Thiokol (synthetic rubber)

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Fibres
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A linked chain solid whose length is 100 or 1000 times or more than its
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breadth called fibres.Ex. Nylon-6.
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CEMENT
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PORTLAND CEMENT
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The approximate composition of Portland cement is:
(i) Calcium oxide - 62%, (ii) Silica -22%, (iii) Alumina- 7.5%,
(iv)Magnesia -2.5% & (v) Ferric oxide -2.5%
The above compounds are provided by the two raw materials:
(i) lime stone (ii) clay
 In cement almost entire amount of lime is present in combined state as
cal. silicates and cal. aluminates.
 Cement containing excess amount of lime cracks during setting while
cement containing less amount of lime is weak in strength. Setting of
cement is an exothermic process.
 A small amount of gypsum is added to slow down the setting of cement.
 Cement with excess of silica shows slow setting and that having an excess
of alumina shows quick setting.
 Cement containing no iron is white but hard to burn.
Concrete
It is a mixture of cement, sand, gravel (small pieces of stones) and
approximate amount of water. When the cement concrete is filled in and
around a wire-netting or skeleton of iron rods and allowed to set the
resulting structure is known as “Reinforced-concrete”.
GLASS
Ordinary glass is solid mixture of silica (SiO2), sodium silicate (Na2SiO3) and
calcium silicate (CaSiO3).
Glass is a super cooled liquid hence; it has no definite crystal structure and
melting point. Thus, ordinary glass may be represented as Na20 CaO 6SiO2.
Hence we can say that glass is a mixture, not a compound.
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Colouring substance Colour of glass
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1. Cobalt oxide Dark blue
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2. Sodium cromate or Ferrous oxide Green colour
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3. Silenium oxide Orange red
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4. Ferric salt or Sodium urate Yellow colour
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5. Gold chloride or Purple of causius Red as Ruby
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6. Cuprous chloride and CdS Dork red
7. Cupric salt Peacock blue
Colouring materials
Colouring substance Colour of glass
Cobalt oxide Dark blue
Sodium cromate or Ferrous oxide Green colour
Silenium oxide Orange red
Cupric salt Peacock blue
Ferric salt or Sodium urate Yellow colour
Gold chloride or Purple of causius Red as Ruby
Cuprous chloride and CdS Dark red
Annealing of Glass
The process of slowly cooling of glass in annealing kiln is called Annealing of
glass.
TYPES OF GLASS
Glass is of following types
1. Soft-glass - It is soda-lime silicate glass (Na2O. CaO.6SiO2). It melts at low
temperature It is used in manufacturing of bottles, test tubes and glass of
windows etc.
2. Hard-glass - It is potash lime silicate (K2O.CaO.6SiO2). It melts at high
temperature in comparison to soft glass and is used in manufacturing of
flask, etc.

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3. Flint-glass - It is lead-potash silicate (K2O.PbO.6SiO2) and is used in
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manufacturing of prism and lens of optical instruments.
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4. Crookes-glass - It is special type of optical glass containing circum oxide
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which cut off ultra violet rays harmful to eyes and used in manufacturing
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of lens of spectales.
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5. Pyrex-glass - It is a mixture of sodium aluminum borosilicates
(Na2O.A1203[B2(SiO3)3]). Its coefficient of expansion is very low and
hence it can withstand sudden temp. changes. It has high percentage of
silica, about 80%. It is used in manufacture of high quality equipments in
laboratory because it does not melt at very high temperature.
6. Quartz-glass - It is obtained from pure silica. It has a low coefficient of
expansion and does not break even when plunged in water while red hot.
7. Ground glass - It is prepared by grinding ordinary sand (soft) glass by
emery and turpentine oil.
8. Reinforced glass - It has a network of wires embedded in and does not
shatter easily.
9. Safety-glass - It is also known as shatter proof glass. It is prepared by
placing a layer of transparent plastic glass (usually a sheet of vinyl acetate
resin) between two layers of glass by means of a suitable adhesive. This
glass does not break easily under ordinary impact. It is used in making
wind screen of automobiles, aeroplanes, trains etc.
DYES
Coloured substances used for colouring textiles, foodstuffs, silk, wool, etc. are
called dyes. But all coloured substances are not dyes. For a substance to act as
a dye, it must fulfil the following requirements :
(i) It must have a suitable attractive colour, i.e, it should absorb light in the
visible region;

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(ii) it must be able to fix itself to the fabrics by either physical or chemical
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bonding;
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(iii) it must be fast to light; it must not be affected either by water, dilute acids
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or alkalies.
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Different classes of dyes are discussed below.
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(i) Nitro dyes: These are polynitro derivatives of phenol where nitro group
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acts as a chromophore and hydroxyl group as auxochrome. These are less
important industrially because the colours are not fast.
(ii) Azo dyes
These are an important class of dyes and are characterised by the
presence of azo group (—N=N—) as the chromophore. The groups like
NH2, NR2 or —OH etc, present in the molecule containing one or more
azo groups act as the auxochromes.
(iii) Triphenylmethane dyes
These dyes contain the paraquinoid moiety as chromophore and —OH, —
NH2 or —NR2 as auxochrome. These dyes are not fast to light and
washing and hence are-mainly used for colouring paper or typewriter
ribbons, e.g., malachite green which is used of dyeing wool and silk-
directly and cotton after mordanting with tannin.
(iv) Direct dyes
These include dyes which can be directly applied to the fabric when the
latter. is dipped in a hot aqueous solution of the dye. Wool and silk are
dyed by direct dyes. The polar groups of the fabric (proteinic structure)
unit with the polar groups of the dye and thus the dye is chemically fired
upon the fibre. Example of direct dyes are Mautius yellow, Naptho yellow
S, Congo red, etc.
(v) Mordant dyes Those dyes which are fixed on the fibre with the help of a
modrant are known as mordant dyes. Various mordants depending upon
the nature of the dye are used.

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For acidic dyes, basic mordants (such as hydroxides of iron, aluminium
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and chromium) are used, while for basic dyes, acidic mordants (like tannic
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aci(d) are used. Here the fabric is first dipped into a solution of mordant
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and then into the dye solution. The colour poroduced depends on the
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nature of the mordants used. Using alizarin as mordant dye and
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aluminium, chromium and iron as mordants, red, brownish-red tones and
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black-violet colours, respectively are produced.
Vat dyes
These are water insoluble dyes and are introduced into the fibre in its
(soluble) reduced form, also known as leuco form (colourless). The parent
dye is regenerated by oxidant with air or a suitable chemical. These are called
vat dyes because reducing operation (using sodium hydrosuiphite) was
formerly carried out in wooden vats. Indigo is a vat dye and is used for dyeing
cotton.

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Science & Technology
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SPACE PROGRAMME OF INDIA
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 The Indian space programme began in 1962 by the setting up of Indian
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National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR).
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 Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) was set-up in 1969 with its
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headquarters at Bangalore.
 Space commission was set-up in 1972.
 Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching station near Thiruvanthapuram in
Kerala was set-up in 1963 for launching facilities.
 Sriharikota Range (SITAR) is a satellite launching station set up in
Sriharikota in Andhra Pradesh. SHAR has been renamed as Satish
Dhawan Space Centre.
 India’s first satellite communication earth station was set-up at Arvi near
Pune.
 Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre was set up by Vikram Sarabhai at
Thiruvananthapuram to built know-how for satellite technology.
 The first Indian satellite Aryabhatta was launched on Apr. 19, 1975 from
Baikanur (erstwhile USSR).
 India launched its second satellite named Bhaskara 1 on June 7, 1979
from Baikanur.
 The first Indian Remote Sensing Satellite was launched on Mar 17, 1988.
 The first Indian communication satellite, APPLE was launched on June
19, 1981 from Kourou in French Guyana (South Americ(a). It was the
first Indian satellite that was placed in geostationary orbit.
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LAUNCH VEHICLE TECHNOLOGY
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 In the field of launch vehicle technology, India has evolved a four-stage
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development programme.
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 In the first stage SLV-3 (Satellite Launching Vehicle-3) was developed.
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Rohini satellite was launched with its help,
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 In the second stage ASLV (Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle) was
developed.
 In the third stage PSLV (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle) was developed in
which liquid propellant was used for the first time along with solid
propellants.
 In the fourth stage GSLV (Geo-stationary Launch Vehicle) was developed.
Its second and fourth stage uses cryogenic engines. They use liquid
hydrogen as fuel at — 253°C and liquid oxygen at – 183°C as oxidiser.
PRIME ISRO ESTABLISHMENTS

Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSS(c) , Trivandrum
 Responsible for development of rocket launch vehicles.
ISRO Satellite Centre (SA(c) , Bangalore
 Responsible for space craft mainframe development.
Space Application Centre (SA(c) , Ahmedabad
 Main centre for space application and development of spacecraft’s
payloads.
Auxiliary Propulsion System Unit (APSU), Bangalore and
Trivandrum
 Develops propulsion control packages for launch vehicles and
spacecrafts.
Development and Educational Communication Unit (DECU),
Ahmedabad
 Produces development and educational television programmes.
 ISRO Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network (ISTRA(c) .
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
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Consists of five ground stations located at Sriharikota, Kdvalpur,
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Thiruvananthapuram, Car Nicobar and Ahmedabad with headquarters at
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Bangalore.
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National Remote Sensing Agency (NRS(A), Hyderabad
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 For utilizing the potential of remote sensing, mainly in the context of
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natural resources survey.
 Indian National Satellite Space Segment Project Office (INSAT-INSSPO)
 Responsible for implementation and operation of the space segment for
INSAT.
 The Master Control Facility for INSAT spacecrafts is located at Hassan in
Kamataka. The second centre is at Bhopal.
Physical Research Laboratory (PRL), Ahmedabad

 To carry out research in outer space.
Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS)
 A US- sponsored mission near Thiruvananthapuram (Keral(a) is a rocket
launching facility which became operational in 1963.
Rocket Propellent Plant (RPP), Thumba
 Commissioned in 1969, it is engaged in production of solid propellent
blocks to support rocket launching programmes.
Experimental Satellite Communication Earth Station (ESCES),
Ahmedabad
 Set-up in 1967, to impart instruction in satellite communication
technology.
Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE), Ahmedabad
 Set up in 1970, to conduct joint TV experiments.
Experimental Satellite Communication Earth Station, Arvi, Pune
 India’s first satellite communication earth station. It operates through
the Intersat-III satellite positioned over the Indian Ocean. Second station
has been opened at Dehradun.
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National Mesosphere Stratosphere Troposphere Reader Facility
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(NMRF) - Gadanki (near Tirupati)
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 To carry out atmospheric research.
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DEFENCE RESEARCH IN INDIA
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 Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) was
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established iii 1958 to provide a solid base to the national security
system.
 DRDO formulates and executes programs of scientific research, design
and develop new weapons required by the Armed Forces.
 Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP) was
launched in 1983 in which the following missiles have been developed:
AGNI
 The Agni missile is an intermediate-range ballistic missile (IRBM)
developed under the IGMDP by India. It was first tested at the Interim
Test Range in Chandipur in 1989, and is capable of carrying a
conventional payload of 1000 kg or a nuclear warhead. It consists of one
(short range) or two stages (intermediate range). It is rail and road
mobile. It is powered by solid and/or liquid propellants.
 Agni-III, the third in the Agni series, has a range of 3,500 km- 5500 km.
The Agni I has a range of 700—800 km while the Agni-II as a range of
2,000—2,500 km.
PRITHVI
 The Prithvi missile is the tactical surface-to-surface short-range ballistic
missile (SRBM). It was India’s first indigenously developed ballistic
missile. Development of the Prithvi began in 1983, and it was first test-
fired on Feb 25, 1988 from Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh.

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VARIANTS OF PRITHVI
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 The Prithvi missile project encompassed developing three variants for
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use by the Indian Army, Indian Air Force and the Indian Navy, outlined in
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the initial project framework of the IGMDP.
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 Prithvi I - Army Version (150 km range with a payload of 1000 kg)
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 Prithvi II - Air Force Version (200 km range with a payload of 500 kg)
 Prithvi III or Sagarika - Naval Version (350 km range with a payload of
500 kg)
DHANUSH
 The Dhanush is a Naval variant of the Prithvi short-range ballistic missile
intended for launch from surface ships. The Defence Ministry has said
that the 8.53 metre-long and 0.9 meter wide Dhanush, with a strike
range of 350 km and payload capacity of 500 kg, would “soon be
operationalised” in the Navy.
AKASH
 Akash is a medium range surface-to-air missile with an intercept range
of 30 km. It has a launch weight of 720 kg, a diameter of 35 cm and a
length of 5.8 metres. Akash flies at supersonic speed, reaching around
Mach 2.5. It can reach an altitude of 18km. It is propelled by a solid
fuelled booster stage.
TRISHUL
 Trishul is a short range surface-to-air missile. It has a range of 9 km and
is fitted with a 5.5 kg warhead. Designed to be used against low-level
(sea skimming) targets at short range, the system has been developed, to
defend naval vessels against missiles and also as a short range surface to
air missile on land.

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NAG
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 Nag is India’s third generation “Fire-and-forget” anti-tank missile. It is an
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all-weather, top attack missile with a range of 3 to 7 km. Separate
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versions for the Army and the Air Force are being developed.
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SHAURYA
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 The Shaurya missile is a short-range surface-to-surface ballistic missile
for use by the Indian Army. Capable of hypersonic speeds, it has a range
of 600 km and is capable of carrying a payload of one-tonne conventional
or nuclear warhead. The Shaurya missile provides India with a
significant second strike capability. Shaurya missile is a land version of
the under-water launched K-15 missile, Sagarika.
BRARMOS
 BrahMos is a supersonic cruise missile that can be launched from
submarines, ships, aircraft or land. It is a joint venture between India’s
DRDO and Russia’s NPO Mashinostroeyenia who have, together formed
the BrahMos Aerospace Private Limited. Its operational range is 290 km.
 The acronym BrahMos is perceived as the confluence of the two nations
represented by two rivers, the Brahmaputra of India and the Moskva of
Russia. It travels at speeds of Mach 2.5 to 2.8 and is the world’s fastest
cruise missile. A hypersonic version of the missile is also presently under
development.
INDIA’S ATOMIC RESEARCH

NUCLEAR REACTION AND ATOMIC ENERGY
Nuclear Reaction
A nuclear reaction is one in which a nucleus bombarded with an
elementary particle (like neutron) or with another nucleus to produce
other products in a very shot timespan. The first nuclear reaction was
discovered by Rutherford in 1919 when he bombarded nitrogen with
alpha particles.

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Nuclear fission
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Nuclear fission is the fragmentation of a large nucleus into two smaller
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nuclei and the liberation of large amount of energy. In 1939 the German
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scientists Otto Hahn and F steersman observed that when uranium was
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bombarded with slow neutrons, then two smaller products were
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obtained with a tremendous amount of heat. The splitting of uranium
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was called nuclear fission.
Types of Nuclear Fission

• Controlled nuclear fission carried out in nuclear reactors in which rate
of fission reaction is reduced and energy produced can be used for
constructive purposes.
• Uncontrolled nuclear fission: In atom bombs uncontrolled fission takes
place. A very large amount of heat is produced and the process
continues until the entire amount of fissionable material is exhausted.
First atom bomb

On August 6, 1945, an atom bomb was dropped on Hiroshima city in
Japan. The second bomb was dropped on Nagasaki, another city of Japan
on August 9, 1945. The bomb was made of plutonium-239.
Nuclear fusion
It is nuclear reaction in which lighter nuclei fuse to form a nucleus of
greater mass. In this reaction also, an enormous amount of heat is
produced. By carrying on nuclear fusion under controlled conditions, the
large amount of energy could be made available for useful purpose.
Atomic energy (nuclear energy)

Energy produced by nuclear fission or nuclear fusion is called nuclear
energy or atomic energy. In nuclear reactions there is loss of mass. This
mass is converted into energy. It can be transformed into electrical and
mechanical energy which can be used for various peaceful purposes.

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India’s journey to atomic energy research started with the establishment
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of the Atomic Energy Commission on Aug. 10, 1948, under the
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chairmanship of Dr. Homi J. Bhabha. Subsequently, the Department of
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Atomic Energy (DAE) was established in 1954 for implementation of
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• Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARc) was established in 1957 at
Trombay (Maharashtra). It is India’s largest atomic research centre.
• Apsara (India’s first atomic reactor), Circus, Zerlina, Dhruva, Purnima I
and II and Kamini (India’s first fast breeder nuclear reactor, at
Kalpakkam) are the BARC’S atomic reactors.
• BARC’S Research Centres: Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre (Kolkat(a),
High Altitude Research Lab (Gulmarg), Nuclear Research Lab (Kashmir)
and Seismic Station (Gauribidanur, Karnatak(a).
• Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research was established in 1971
and is located at Kalpakkam (Chennai). The centre carries out research
and development of indigenous technology of sodium cooled fast
breeder reactors.
• Centre for Advanced Technology (CAT) was established in 1984 and is
located at Indore. The centre carries out research and development of
high technology in fields like lasers, fusion and acceleration.
NUCLEAR POWER STATIONS IN INDIA

Tarapur Maharashtra
Kalpakkam Tamil Nadu, called Indira Gandhi
Nuclear Power Station
Narora UP
Rawatbhata Kota, Rajasthan
Kaiga Karnataka
Kakrapara Gujarat
Jaitpur (Propose(d) Maharashtra
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Kundnkulam (TN) Under construction with the
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assistance of Russia.
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nuclear explosion was conducted on May 18, 1974 at Pokhran in Rajasthan
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which was based on nuclear fission. The others were conducted on May 11
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and 13, 1998 at Pokhran range which was based on nuclear fussion. India’s
main objective of conducting these tests is to use atomic energy for peaceful
purposes.
Uranium
Its main ore is pitchblende. It is a radioactive metal, occurring in nature,
comprising of 99.28% and 71% . The isotope has the capacity of sustaining a
nuclear chain reaction and is used in nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons.
Thorium
It is a dark grey radioactive metal used in alloys and as a source of nuclear
energy. Its compounds occur in monozite and thorite.
Plutonium
It is a transuranic element (element having atomic number more than 92)
which do not occur in nature but may be obtained by nuclear reaction. It is
radioactive. The isotope is produced in nuclear reactors and is of great
importance as it undergoes nuclear fission when bombarded by slow
neutrons. This isotope is employed in nuclear weapons.

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Defence Production Undertakings
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 Eight Public-Sector Undertakings (PSUs) currently function under the
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Department of Defence Production and Supplies. They are:
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 Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL): It has 12 factories located at
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Bangalore (5 factories), Koraput, Nasik, Karwar, Kanpur, Lucknow,
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Barrackpur and Hyderabad. It designs, manufactures and overhauls
various types of aircrafts.
 Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL): It has 9 factories located at Bangalore,
Ghaziabad, Pune, Machhilipatnam, Taleja (Maharashtr(a), Panchkula
(Haryan(a), Kotdwar (Uttaranchal), Hyderabad and Chennai. It is
engaged in the design, development and manufacturing of electronic
equipments.
 Bharat Earth Movers Limited (BEML) : It has three factories located at
Bangalore, Mysore and Kolar gold fields where heavy equipments like
bulldozers, dumpers, loaders, cranes, etc are manufactured.
 Bharat Dynamics Limited (BDL): It is located at Hyderabad to
manufacture guided missiles.
 Mazgaon Dock Limited (MDL): It is located at Mumbai and its activities
include shipbuilding apart from other works.
 Garden Reach Shipbuilders and Engineering Limited (GRSE): It was set-
up in Kolkata and is engaged in the construction and maintenance of
warships and auxiliary vessels for Navy and Coast Guard.
 Goa Shipyard Limited (GSL): It comprises construction and repair/refit
of ships/vessels.
 Mishra Dhatu Nigam Limited (MIDHANI): It is located at Hyderabad and
 manufactures sophisticated and strategic special metals and alloys for
nuclear energy, aeronautics, space, etc.
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Introduction of Biology
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INTRODUCTION
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 Biology is a natural concerned with the study of life and living organism,
including their structure, function, growth, origin, evolution and
distribution.
 The term ‘Biology’ was given by Lamarck and Treviranus in the year
1807.
 There are two main branches of Biology :
Botany: Study of different aspects of plant is called Botany.

Theophrastus is known as father of Botany.
Zoology: Study of various aspects of animals is called zoology.
Aristotle is called father of zoology and as well as Biology.
THEORIES related to origin of life:

 The Russian Scientist A.I. Oparin scientifically told about origin of life.
 This was proved by Miller and Urey in 1953.
(A) Lamarckism:
There are four laws related to this theory of evolution:
(i) The internal forces are fully responsible for increase or decrease in size.
(ii) Formation of a new organ or disappearance of an existing organ is the
result of need.
a. The development and degeneration of organs is based on the continuous
use and disuse.
b. The characters acquired by an organism during its life time are
transmitted to their offspring by the process of inheritance.
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(b) Darwinism
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He gives the theory of natural selection. In his book ‘origin of species’. The
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following factors are mentioned for the formation of species by natural
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selection:
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(i) The over-production is shown by every organism.
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(ii) The organisms show struggle for their existence.
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(iii) This struggle for existence leads to ‘appearance of variation’.
(iv) The advantageous variations in organisms results in ‘survival
(v) of the fittest’.
(vi) The advantageous variations are inherited through the fittest and then
accumulation for a period gives rise to a new species.
Specific branches of Biology

a. Anatomy: The branch of Biology under which the internal structure of
the body of an organism is studied.
b. Anthropology: The branch of science under which human development,
their cultural and customary activities, history and the traditional
(primitive) societies are studied.
c. Entomology: The scientific study of insects is called entomology.
d. Epidemiology: The branch of the medical science under which the
epidemics and its remedial measures are studied.
e. Ex-biology: The branch of science under which the possibilities of lives
are studied on the various planets and satellites other than earth.
f. Gerontology: The branch of science under which the vital facts related
to the old ages of the human beings is studied called gerontology.
g. Horticulture : The branch of science under which the development and
the cultivating techniques of temperate, sub-tropical and tropical fruits,
vegetables, ornamental and medicinal plants, species and plantation
crops etc are studied.
h. Hydropathy: The branch of medical science under which the treatment
of the disease is done by the water.

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i. Mammography: The branch of medical science under which through a
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comprehensive diogonetic mechanism the breast cancer of the women
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are detected.
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j. Morphology: The branch of biology under which the structure, shape,
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size, type, and the nature and behaviour of the organism are studied
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collectively is called morphology.
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k. Neurology: The branch of medical science under which the study of
nerves and the diseases related to the nerves are diognised and its
curable modes are studied called neurology.
l. Odontography : The scientific study of the teeth in the medical science
is called Odontography.
m. Ornithology: The branch of biology under which birds related activities
are studied called ornithology.
n. Osteology : The branch of zoology under which the bones and the
skeleton systems of the body of the animals are studied.
o. Pomology: The scientific study of the fruits is called pomology.
p. Agrostology : The scientific study of the grasses is called agrostology.
q. Conchology: The scientific study of the molluse is called conchology.
r. Ethnography : The scientific study of the human species is called
ethnography.
s. Ethology: The scientific study of the nature, character and behaviour of
the living beings (organisms) are called ethology.
t. Genecology: The scientific study of the diversities of the species of the
organism and thus the study of population genetics to the environment
is called genecology.
u. Geomedicine : The branch of the medical science under which the direct
impact of the mutual interaction of the climate and surrounding on the
health of the human beings is studied, called geomedicine.
v. Heliotherapy: The diagnostic treatment process through the sunlight is
called heliotherapy.

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w. Hydroponics: The scientific study of the agriculture in which water
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processing mechanism is developed, called hydroponics.
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x. Phycology : The scientific study of the algae is called phycology.
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y. Sericulture: The branch of the agriculture science under which the
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culturing of the silk worms and the production of the silk are studied.
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z. Toxicology: The scientific study of the poison is called toxicology
Inventions related to the Medical/Biological Science
Associated Inventors Associated Inventors

terms terms
Vitamin Hopkins Kidney machine Choif
Antigen Ladstinar Heart & Christan Benard
ansplantation
DNA Watson & Crick Parasitic malaria Ronoald Ross
DDT Pol Muller Anti-pregnancy Pincuss
pills
Homeopath Haniman Genetic code Hargobind
Insulin Bating & West Khorana
Polio vaccine J. E. Shalk First test tube Adberds & Stepto
baby
TB Bacteria Robert Koach Blood circulation William Harbe
BCG Urin Cholmat Bacteria of Henson
leprosy
Bacteria Leeuwen hock Vaccination Adberd Gener

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Open Heart Walton Lilehock Polio drop Gene Albert Sebine
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Surgery of cancer Robert Winberge
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Straptomydne Vaxman Chloroform Hanson &
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Stethescope Rene Linek Simpson
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Penicillin RNA A FlemmingWatson Inoculation of Adberd Genar
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& Arther small pox
Microbes of Charles Laweran Rh factor blood Charles
malaria replacement Landstiner

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Cytology
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INTRODUCTION
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 Study which deals with the cell, its structure and functions of cell organis
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called cytology.
 The structural and functional unit of all the organism or living beings is
called cell.
 The shape & size of the cell are different, not only for the various
organisms but the cells are also different in the same organism of the
different organs.
 Cell was first discovered by Robert Hook in 1665.
 Protoplasm, the physical base of the life was discovered by J.E. Purkinje.
 The Cell Theory was jointly propounded by Schleden & Schwann in 1838
– 39. It states that:
a) The cell is a self independent unit.
b) All living things are composed of cells and their products.
c) All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
d) All cells are basically alike in chemical composition and metabolic
activities.
e) The function of an organism as a whole is the outcome of the activities
and interaction of the constituent cells.
A. TYPES OF CELLS
In a typical cell, the protoplasm consists of nucleus and cytoplasm.
A. Depending on the type of nucleus present, the cells are of two types:
(i) Prokaryotic cell: Found in blue-green algae, bacteria and
Pleuropneumonia like organisms (PPLO).
(ii) Eukaryotic cell: Found in developed organism
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Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic cell
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1. It is simple and primitive in ature. 1. It is developed and comparatively
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complex in nature.
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2. The nucleus is not well organized. 2. The nucleus is well organized.
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It has no nuclear membrane and Nuclear membrane and nucleolus
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nucleolus. are present.
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3. The cell has no membrane bound 3. The cell contains almost all the
organelles except ribosomal membrane bound organelles.
granules.
4. Chromosomes are not formed in 4. Chromosomes are formed in the
this cell during cell division. nucleus during cell division.
5. Single DNA thread remains freely 5. DNA is present in the nuclear
in the nuclear material. reticulum or chromosomes.
B. On the basis of number of cells, the organisms are classified as
Unicellular and Multi-cellular organisms.
C. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PLANT CELLS AND ANIMAL CELLS

Plant Cell Animal Cell
A plant cell has a rigid wall on the Cell wall is absent.
outside.
It is usually larger in size. An animal cell is comparatively
smaller in size.
It cannot change its shape. An animal cell can often change
its shape.
Plastids ore found in plant cells. Plastids are usually absent.
Plant cells exposed to sunlight possess Chlorophyll is absent.
chlorophyll containing plastids called
chloroplasts.
A mature plant cell contains a large An animal cell often possesses
central vacuole. many small vacuoles.
Nucleus lies on one side in the Nucleus usually lies in the centre.
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comparatively fewer. numerous.
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Cristae are tubular in plant Cristae are plate-like in animal
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mitochondria. mitochondria.
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Plant cells do not burst if placed in Animal cells usually burst if
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hypotonic solution due to the presence placed in hypotonic solution
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of cell wall. unless arid until they possess
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contractile vacuoles.
Centrioles are usually absent except in Centrioles are found in animal
lower plants. Golgi apparatus consists of cells. Golgi apparatus is either
a number of distinct or unconnected localized or consists of a well
units called dictyosomes connected single complex.
Lysosomes are rare. Their activity is Typical lysbsomes occur in
performed by specialized vacuoles. animal cell.
Glyoxysomes may be present. They are absent.
Crystals of inorganic substances may Crystals usually do not occur in
occur inside the cell. animal cells.
Reserve food is generally starch and fat. Reserve food is usually glycogen
and fat.
Adjacent cells may be connected Adjacent cells are connected
through plasmodesmata. through a number of junctions.
1. CELL STRUCTURE
Every cellhas three main components – Cell membrane, Nucleus and
Nucleoplasm
A. CELL MEMBRANE
 The cell membrane of the cell is the outer layer of the cell and it is
basically a semi permeable membrane.
 The main function of the cell membrane is to control the molecular
activities between the cell & its outer medium which interact with the
cell.
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Cells are enclosed by a thin film like membrane called plasma membrane,
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cytoplasmic membrane or plasma lemma.
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B. CYTOPLASM
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 It is a part of protoplasm lying between plasma membrane and nucleus,
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Jelly-like fluid.
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 Participates in the intracellular distribution of nutrients, metabolites and
enzymes.
C. CELL WALL
 Cells of most fungi, prokaryotes (bacteria and blue-green algae) and
plants (except gametes) are surrounded by the cell wall. It is absent in
animals.
 In true bacteria and cyanobacteria, cell wall is of peptidoglycan, in some
fungi it is of chitin and in most of the algae and higher green plants it is of
cellulose.
D. NUCLEUS
 Discovered by Robert Brown.
 Every eukaryotic cell consists of at least one, almost spherical, dense,
highly specialized structure called nucleus. Although, sieve tube element
of mature phloem and RBCs of mammals don’t have nucleus.
 Contains nucleoplasm (nuclear sap) which contains chromatin.
(Chromatin is composed of DNA mainly)
 Chromatin organizes itself into thread like structures called
Chromosomes. The function of chromosomes is to carry genetic
information from one cell generation to another.
 Nucleolus is also present which helps in the production of ribosome.
 Nucleus controls the metabolic activities of the cell by controlling the
synthesis of enzymes.

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E. CHROMOSOMES
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 Waldeyer coined the term chromosome.
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 Sutton and Boveri proved that chromosome is the physical basis of
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hereditary.
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 Each chromosome is made up of DNA and this DNA by replication gives
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rise to messenger RNA which carry the genetic information in the form
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of code. This -RNA comes out of the nuclear wall into the cytoplasm
where it helps to form a particular kind of protein needed by the cell or
body.
 Number is constant for a particular species.
 In humans, the diploid number is 46. Of these, 23 are from egg cell and
23 from sperm cell.
F. MITOCHONDRIA
 Powerhouse of the cell or energy converting organelles, as oxidation of
‘fuel’ occurs stepwise in these, resulting in the release of chemical
energy. This energy is stored as ATP
 From mitochondria, ATP molecules are shifted to cytoplasm, which is the
chief site of their utilization.
 They are semi-autonomous organelles. They contain DNA, m-RNA,
ribosome and can synthesize some of their own proteins.
 Each mitochondria is enclosed by a double-membraned envelope, outer
and inner. Fluid (called matrix) is there between these 2 layers
G. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
 Provides an increased surface area for various metabolic activities
within the cell:
 Provides mechanical support to the cytoplasm.
 2 types: Rough and smooth.
 Both Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum and Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
form passages for transport of secretary proteins, lipids and sterols.

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Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum collects and stores the proteins
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synthesized by its surface bound, ribosome
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H. GOLGI COMPLEX
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 Main function is secretion.).
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I. LYSOSOMES
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 Also called Suicidal bags.
 Contain powerful enzymes (acid hydrolyses), rupture of lissome
membrane releases these enzymes.
 Digest worn-out or unnecessary parts of the cell, or even whole cells by
process called ‘Autophagy’.
J. RIBOSOMES
 Found on Endoplasmic Reticulum. Made of RNA and proteins in equal
amounts.
 Sites of protein synthesis (Ribosome are inactive for protein synthesis,
but after combining with mRNA form polyribosome which play
important role in protein synthesis).
K. VACUOLES
 Found in plant cells only.
 Membrane surrounding the vacuole is tonoplast.
 Function: Regulation of water, in osmoregulation, in storage and
indigestion.
L. PLASTIDS
 Found in plant cells only.
 Are of different types:
(i) Chloroplast: Green contains the pigment chlorophyll. Contains the
matrix (flui(d), stroma which has many flat membranous structures
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(ii) Leucoplasts: Colorless, occur in large no in cells of fruits, seeds, etc.
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They store nutrients (eg, amyloplasts of potato store starch).
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(iii) Chromoplasts: Colored, containing fat soluble yellow, orange and red
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pigments (chiefly carotinoids). Found in flowers and fruits.
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M. CENTROSOME
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 Found in animal cells and cells of lower plants (eg, Algae) only.
 The first indication that the cell is about to divide is generally given by
the centrosome.
SUMMARY OF FUNCTIONS OF DIFFERENT CELL ORGANELLES
Cell Organelles Functions
1. Plasma membrane (i) Protection of cell cytoplasm.
(ii) Control of substances entering and coming
out of the cell.
2. Cytoplasm (i) Provides an increased surface area for the
(a) Endoplasmic metabolic activities.
reticulum
(ii) Synthesis of steroids.
(b) Mitochondria Act as power houses of cell, release energy
by the oxidation of food.
(c) Golgi complex (i) Produce secretions.
(ii) Forms lysosome.
(d) Centro some Plays an important role in the formation of
spindle during cell-division.
(e) Lysosomes (i) Store enzymes for the digestion of cellular
components and bring about digestion of
proteins and carbohydrates etc.
(ii) Bring about digestion of foreign substances
entering the cell.
(f) Ribosomes Act as factories of the cell and synthesize
proteins from amino acids.
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chloroplasts manufacture carbohydrates
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from water and carbon dioxide.
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(ii) Chromoplosts give different colours to the
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structures in which these are present.
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3. Nucleus (i) Protects the nucleus.
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(a) Nuclear
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membrane
(ii) Regulates the passage of substances
entering and leaving the nucleus.
(b) Nucleolous Stores ribosomol RNA and controls
synthesis of ribosomes and proteins.
(i) Controls nuclear metabolism and cell
metabolism.
(ii) Stores hereditary information.
(iii) Inherits characters from parents to
offsprings.
N. DNA and RNA
 Wilkins, Watson and Crick (1953)—Noble Prize for DNA Structure.
 DNA stands for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid while RNA stands for Ribose
Nucleic Acid.
 Compounds of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen nitrogen and phosphorus.
 Made up of Nucleotide monomers (Polynucleotides)
 A nucleotide consists of a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar &
phosphate group.
 Nucleotide: Nitrogenous base + Sugar.
 5 Nitrogenous Bases :
(i) Cytosine (ii) Uracil (iii) Thymine (iv) Adenine (v) Guanine
 Cytosine, Uracil and Thymine are the Pyrimidine Derivatives with a
single ring structure.
 Adenine and Guanine are the Purine Derivatives with a double ring
structure.

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The pentose sugars are of 2 types :-
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(i) Deoxyribose (ii) Ribose
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 Long and highly complex, spirally twisted, right-handed double helix,
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Ladder like structure formed by 2 polynucleotjdes strands
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 Base thymine is present, but never uracil.
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 Adenine links with Thymine by two hydrogen bonds.
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 Guanine with cytosine by three hydrogen bonds.
 A single DNA molecule has millions of pairs of nucleotide monomers.
 DNA contains “BLUE PRINT” of life.
 With RNA’s help, it directs the synthesis of all structural and functional
proteins of protoplasm.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DNA AND RNA
DNA RNA
It usually occurs inside nucleus Very little RNA occurs inside nucleus.
and some cell organelles. Most of it is found in the cytoplasm.
DNA is the genetic material. RNA is not the genetic material except in
certain viruses, e.g., TNIV, Reovirus.
It is double stranded with the RNA is single stranded with the
exception of some viruses. exception of some viruses (e.g., double
stranded in Reovirus).
DNA shows regular helical There is no regular coiling except in
coiling. parts of RNA.
DNA forms chromosomes of RNA form, ribosomes.
similar structures.
DNA contains several million Depending upon the type, RNA contains
nucleotides. 10-12000 nucleotides.
DNA is of only two types, nuclear There are at least three types of RNA—
and extra nuclear. rRNA, mRNA and tRNA.
It contains deoxyribose sugar. It contains ribose sugar.

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Nitrogen base thymine occurs in Thymine is replaced by uracil in RNA.
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DNA alongwith three other- The other three are adenine, cytosine
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odenine, cytosine and guanine. and guanine.
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Renaturation after melting is It is quite fast.
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slow.
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Hydrogen bonds tire formed Base pairing through hydrogen bonds
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between complementary occurs only in the coiled parts.
nitrogen bases of the opposite
strands of DNA (A : T, C : G)
It replicates to form new DNA It cannot replicate itself except in RNA-
molecules. RNA viruses.
DNA transcribes genetic RNA translates the transcribed message
information to RNA. for forming polypeptides.
DNA controls heredity, evolution, RNA controls only protein synthesis.
metabolism, structure and
differentiation.
Its quantity is fixed for cell. The quantity of RNA of a cell is variable.
DNA controls metabolism and It only controls metabolism under
genetics including variations. instructions from DNA.
Purine and pyrimidine bases are There is no proportionality between
in equal nmber. number of purine and pyrimidine bases.
It can be hydrolyzed by enzyme RNA is hydrolysed by RNA-ase.
DNA-ase.
MISCELLANEOUS FACTS
1. Human nerve cell is the longest animal cell.
2. In human beings, cells of kidney are the smallest.
3. Ostrich egg is the largest cell in size.
4. The smallest cell is Mycoplasma gallisepticum.
5. Largest a cellular plant Acetabularia and animal is Amoeba.
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Chapter
Histology
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INTRODUCTION
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The study of tissue is called Histology.Tissue is a cellular organizational level
intermediate between cells and organ. A tissue is an ensemble of cells, not
necessarily identical, but from the same origin, that together carry out a
specific function.
In almost higher animals including human beings there are four types of
tissues and these are
(I) Epithelium tissue: The epithelial tissue forms a continuous layer over
the free surface of many other tissues. Consequently, it covers the
external surface of the animal body and the internal (luminal) surfaces of
visceral organs, body cavities and blood vessels. It protects the
underlying or overlying tissues and the materials are exchanged across
the epithelial tissues, cells of the epithelium are set very close to each
other and separated by the very thin films of extracellular material. The
epithelial tissue rests on a non cellular basement membrane which
separates it from the underlying connective tissue.
(II) Connective tissue: It provides the structural framework and support to
different tissues forming an organ. It also plays a key role in the body
defense, tissue repair, fat storage and transmission of blood vessels to
the other tissues. The connective tissue has a large amount of
extracellular material consists of insoluble protein fibers lying in an
amorphous, transparent matrix. In the blood the extra cellular material is
a fiber-free fluid. In bones connective tissue is dense, mineralized and
rigid.
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There are various types of connective tissues—
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(i) Areolar tissue: Areolar tissues exist among the hollow, inners behind
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the skin and on the arteries and veins. It connects various tissues and
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form cushions which helps in locating and confining the organs at their
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usual places and in maintaining their common original shapes.
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(ii) Adipose tissue: Adipose tissue synthesises the fats and stores it with
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sharp metabolic activities. It prevents the harmful impact inside the body
by making thermally insulated layer below the skin. Thus it makes a
comfortable cushion to prevent the shock occurring near the kidney and
eye ball.
(iii) White fibrous tissue: It has greater tensile power in the connective
tissue. White fibrous tissue provides loco motional motion between the
joints of the skeletons of the skull.
(iv) Tendons: It is an extremely densed, powerful and fibrous connective

tissue and these fibres are naturally slacked but practically extremely
elastic. The secretion of these fibres is performed by the closed
connective tissues. Tendons connect the muscles to the bones.
(v) Ligaments: This is a densed fibrous connective tissue which is extremely

soft and connects bone to bone.
(vi) Bone: This is basically a solid, hard and powerful connective tissue in
whose matrix the apatite salts of calcium and phosphorous exist which
provides stronger rigidity but a complete lack of elasticity.
(vii) Cartilage: This is a solid semi-hard and elastic connective tissue
The peak of the nose of the man, exterior part of the human ear etc. is made
from cartilage. The entire body of the shark fish is made of cartilage.

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Sensory Organs
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A group of tissues that perform a specific function or group of functions is
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called Organ. A specialized organ, where sensory neurons are concentrated
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and that functions as a receptor is called sensory organ. There are five
sensory organs – eye, ear, nose, tongue & skin.
I. Eye
 Eye is made up of 3 layers - Upper sclerotic, Middle choroid, and Inner
retina.
(a) SCLEROTIC LAYER
 The transparent bulging, circular part of sclerotic layer which lies in
the front is called cornea.
 Cornea is covered by the thin conjunctiva.
(b) CHOROID LAYER

 Choroid layer starts from iris which is next to cornea. It controls the
amount of light entering into the eye (In brighter light, the iris
automatically shuts tighter, reducing the amount of light entering the
pupil).
 The circular aperture of iris is called pupil.
 Next is lens (proteinous). It is biconvex in nature.
 Space between lens and cornea is filled with a transparent watery
fluid called Aqueous Humour.
 The space behind the lens is filled with Vitreous Humour.
(c) RETINA
 Image of the object is formed on retina. Image is formed upside
down on it and the process of interpretation takes place in brain.
 Retina is composed of 2 types of cells:

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(i) Rod cells: Sensitive to dim light and contain the pigment
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Rhodopsin (in nocturnal animals more)
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(ii) Cone cells:Color sensitive for 3 primary colors (Red, Blue and
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Green). They are found more in diurnal animals. Transferred
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from parents. Found more at yellow spot.
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Yellow Spot (Macula Lute(a) : On retina, finest image is formed here. Favea
centralis is the depression in the middle of yellow spot.
Blind Spot: No image formation takes place here as the optic nerves
innervate the eyeball here. Also the rods and cones are absent here.
 Color of eye is the color of the iris.
 Cornea is donated in eye donation.
 Eyes glow in animals due to tapetum.
DEFECTS OF EYE
1. Myopia: Cannot see distant objects, image formed before retina, concave
lens is used. The power of the lens is denoted by negative sign.
2. Hypermetropia : Cannot see near objects, image formed behind retina,
convex lens is used. The power of the lens is denoted by positive sign.
3. Astigmatism: Curvature of cornea becomes irregular and image is not
clear. Cylindrical lens is used.
4. Cataract: Due to defective protein metabolism the lens becomes opaque.
Operation is needed.
5. Glaucoma : Due to defect in aqueous humour.
6. Xerophthalmia : It is due to deficiency of Vitamin A. In this conjunctiva or
cornea becomes keratinized. It may lead to blindness.
7. Presbiopia : In this, power of accommodation of lens decreases due to
age factor and defected metabolism. Also known as age sightedness. Can
be removed by bifocal lens.

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II. EAR
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Divided into 3 parts:external ear, middle ear (tympanic cavity) & internal ear
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(membranous labyrinth)
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1. EXTERNAL EAR (Pinna + External Auditory Meatus)
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 Leads into auditary canal or external auditary meatus. Auditary canal
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terminates at ear drum or tympanum.
 Pinna collects the sound waves and transmits them to ear drum which
further transmits it to the middle ear.
 Have wax glands which produce cerumen to trap dust particles.
2. MIDDLE EAR (Tympanic cavity)

It encloses 3 ear ossicles : Malleus (Hammer-shape(d)Incus (Anvil-
shape(d)Stapes (Stirrup-shape(d)
 These 3 transmit sound to the internal ear (through stapes, which is
connected to the internal ear)
 Fanastra avails : connects middle ear-to internal ear
 Middle ear is connected to the pharynx by eustachian tube.
3. INTERNAL EAR (Membranous Labyrinth)

 Most delicate part. Enclosed by parotic bone.
 Various parts are there which perform 2 acts: Maintenance of balance
and hearing.
 Succulus and cochlea parts are associated with hearing. It is filled with a
fluid perilymph. It ultimately leads to nerve impulses through corti (rod
shaped structure). Cochlea is a small snail shaped tube, in a 2 3/4 turned
spirally).
 In the internal ear are 3 semicircular canals and, utiaulus which are filled
with a fluid endolyinph. They perform the balancing act.

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Chapter
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Human Organ System
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INTRODUCTION
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As discussed earlier tissues performed identical function. Organs are formed
by the functional grouping together of multiple tissues. A group of organs that
work together to carry out a particular task. The human body is made up of
several organ systems that work together as one unit. Major organ system is
following:
SN SYSTEM FUNCTION PARTCIPATING

ORGANS
1 Skeletal System Supports and protects the Bones, joints,
body while giving it shape ligaments etc.
and form
2 Muscular System Enables movement of the Muscles
body.
3 Respiratory environment & gases in the Lungs, nose etc.
System blood
4 Nervous system Monitors & coordinates Brain, spinal cord,
internal organ function and nerves etc.
respond to change in the
external environment
5 Circulatory Transports nutrients & Heart, blood
System gasses to cells and tissues vessels, blood,
throughout body spleen etc.
6 Digestive System Break down food polymers Mouth, stomach,
into smaller molecules to intestines,
provide energy for the body. pancreas etc.

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7 Endocrine Helps to maintain growth & Pituitary gland,
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System homeostasis within the body pineal gland,
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hypothalamus etc.
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8 Reproductive Enables the production of Penis, vagina,
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System offspring through sexual testes, ovaries,
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reproduction uterus etc.
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9 Excretory System Removes wastes & maintains Kidneys, ureters,
water balance in the body urinary
bladder etc.
10 Integumentary Protects the internal Skin, nails, hair,
System structures of the body from sweat glands.
damage, prevents
dehydration, stores fat &
produces vitamins &
hormones.
2. SKELETAL SYSTEM
Skeletal system constitutes hard internal or external living or non-living
parts that form the supporting framework of the body. It is divided into
two parts:
(i) EXOSKELETON: It is present on the outside of the body. Found in both
invertebrates and vertebrates.
(ii) ENDOSKELETON: it is occurs inside the body and is made up of
cartilages and bones. Found in corals, echinoderms and vertebrates.
Human endoskeleton
It is divided into two main parts:
(i) Axial Skeleton (80 bones) (ii) Appendicular Skeleton (126 bones)
I. axial skeleton
It lies along the principal axis of the body. It includes skull, vertebral
column, ribs and sternum.

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A.SKULL: It is made up of two parts:
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CRANIUM (8 bones – provides a bony protection for the brain)
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FACE (there are 14 bones which from the skeleton of the face). 6 ear bones
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and one more bone is called hyoid, which is horse shoe shaped present in
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neck between lower jaw and sound box. It supports tongue.
B. VERTEBRAL COLUMN: It is made up of 33 vertebrae.
FUNCTIONS
 It holds the head.
 Provides base to the neck and body.
 Helps the human in standing, walking etc.
 Provides the protection to spinal cord.
C. RIBS
There are 12 pairs of bony bars which form the sides of chest cage.
II. APPENDICULAR SKELETON

It is made up of girdles (Pectoral and pelvi(c)and limb bones (forelimb
and hind lim(b).
LIMB BONES
Forelimbs: Consists of 60 bones.
Hind limbs: Consists of 60 bones.
HINDLIMBS
Femur (2) – Thigh (longest bone of the body)
Fibula (2) – Shan (thinnest bone)

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PELVIC GIRDLE:
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Has 2 hip bones.The smallest bone of the body is stapes (bone of ear).
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FUNCTIONS OF SKELETON SYSTEM
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 To provide a definite shape to the body.
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 To provide protection to soft parts of the body.
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 To help in respiration and nutrition.
3. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
All physical and chemical reactions in which atmospheric air oxidizes
food in the body cells resulting in production of energy and liberation of
CO2 are included in respiration.
A. TYPES OF RESPIRATION
I. ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION: When nutrients are oxidized without using

O2 (also called fermentation).
In yeast, glucose forms ethyl alcohol and CO2.
In bacteria and muscles, glucose is converted into lactic acid.
It is a low energy yielding process.
II. AEROBIC RESPIRATION

Cells utilize O2 for oxidizing nutrients. O2 is used either from atmospheric air
or from water.
It is found in most plants and animals.
It provides much more energy than the anaerobic one.
It involves:
(A) External respiration: Gaseous exchange of O2 and CO2 between blood
and air (or water).Transport of gases to the tissues.
(b) Internal respiration: Gaseous exchange between blood and tissues.
(c) Cellular respiration: Oxidation of nutrients in the cells and liberation of
energy.
(b) RESPIRATORY ORGANS
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(I) Nasal Cavity
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It opens to the exterior through nostrils. The small hair present in the cavity
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help to filter particles of dust and other foreign matter.
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The air in the nasal cavity gets warmed (because nasal cavity has a very good
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blood supply) and moistened before it enters lungs.
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(II) PHARYNX
From the nasal cavity the air enters the pharynx. It serves as a common
passage for both air and food.
The opening into the wind pipe or trachea is a narrow slit, the glottis. The
glottis is protected against the entrance of food by a triangular flap of tissue,
the epiglottis.
(III) LARYNX (VOICE BOX)
Called Adam’s apple in man. It is the first part of trachea present in the neck.
When air is forced into the larynx, the vocal cords present in it vibrates and
sound is produced. The pitch of a sound is determined by the tension on the
vocal cords—the greater the tension, the higher the pitch.
(IV) TRACHEA
It is four and a half inch long tube with C-shaped ring of cartilages in its walls.
These rings of cartilage make the wall non-collapsable.
The trachea branches into two bronchi on to each lung and these branches
within the lung into many smaller bronchioles.
(V) LUNGS
Surrounding each lung is a double walled sac, the pleural cavity. Hence, the
covering of lungs is called pleural membrane.
The right lung is divided into three lobes and left into two. The left lung is
smaller than the right and has a concavity, the cardiac notch, where the heart
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Inside the lung each bronchi divides into numerous bronchioles, each of
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which terminates into an elongated saccule, the alveolar duct, which bears on
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its surface air sac or alveoli. The latter provide a large surface for gaseous
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exchange.
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(c) PULMONARY VOLUMES & CAPACITIES
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PULMONARY VOLUME: Volume of air in the lungs.
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PULMONARY CAPACITIES: Combination of two or more pulmonary
volumes.
All pulmonary volume and capacities are about 20% to 25% less in women
than in men, more in athletic people than non-exercising ones and more in
non smokers than the smokers.
4. NERVOUS SYSTEM
 In this system thin thread like nerves are spread throughout the body.
I.e. Its unit is neuron. Minimum power of regeneration is found in
Nervous System, Largest cell of our body is Neuron.
 After receiving the information of environment changes from the
sensitive organs, it spreads them speedily like electrical impulses and
establishes working coordination among the different organs. Nervous
System is of following types:
(I) Central Nervous System: Brain + Spinal chord
(II) Peripheral Nervous System: Nerves
(III) Autonomic Nervous System: Sympathetic + Parasympathetic Nervous
System.
(I) CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Consists of Brain and Spinal Cord. Brain has following parts:
(A) CEREBRUM
It has two distinct parts:
Outer grey matter or cerebral cortex and inner white matter.

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Grey matter
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 Itscontrols activities such as speech, taste, smell, hearing (conscious
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activities).
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 It is the seat of intelligence, reasoning, learning, will, pleasure, pain, fear
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 White matter is beneath of grey matter.
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 If cerebrum is removed, the person will become a simple reflex animal.
(B) CEREBELLUM
Concerned with equilibrium of the body and brings about coordination and
control of muscular activities of the body
(C) MEDULLA OBLONGATA

Lowest part of the Brain and is connected to the spinal cord.
Controls the involuntary actions (respiration heart beat, flow of blood in
blood vessels secretion of glands etc.).
SPINAL CORD:
The posterior region of the medulla oblongata forms the spinal cord.
Main functions are:
 Coordination and control of reflex actions.
 It carries the wave coming out of the brain.
REFLEX ACTION
 First discovered by Marshal Hall.
 Can be defined as the spontaneous response to the external stimulii.
 Co-ordinate by spinal cord.
 In this, the stimulus received by the receptor organ is conveyed to the
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transmitted to the effectors organs like muscles by motor or efferent
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nerve fibers.
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CONDITIONAL REFLEX
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 First shown by Pavlov on dog.
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 When the reflex action becomes the regular feature of an animal or the
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animal becomes habitual of it, such a reflex action is known as the
conditional reflex.
 It is controlled by the cerebrum.
(II) PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Composed of cranial nerves and spinal nerves.
Cranialarise from brain while spinal from spinal cord.
Cranial are 12 pairs while spinal are 31 pairs. .
NERVES
 It is of 2 types :
Efferent: The fibres which carry impulses from the CNS. Many of them
pass through the muscles making them to contract, and are therefore
called Motor Nerve Fibres.
Afferent: Those which carry impulses to the CNS. ‘The information
which they transmit from the skin and deeper tissues often evokes
subjective sensation within the nervous system and are therefore called
Sensory Nerve Fibres.
(III) AUTOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
Not under voluntary control.
Controlled by central nervous system.
Controls digestion, excretion, secretion of sweat and digestive juices etc.
Divided into two:

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(A) SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
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Increases the defense of body against adverse conditions.
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It is active in stress condition, pain, fear and anger.
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Speeds up heartbeat, BP, etc.
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Expenditure of energy takes place.
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Acetyl-chlorine and sympathein are released.
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(B) PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Provides relaxation, comfort and pleasure at the time of rest.
 Lowers heartbeat thus lowering the B.P.
 Restoration and conservation of energy takes place.
 Only acetyl-chlorine is released.
 It increases the secretion of saliva and other digestive juices.
 The contraction of pupil is caused by this.
 It creates contraction in other muscles of urinary bladder.
5. CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
In the human body there exists a developed, closed and double circulatory
system and it is composed through the two parts— Blood Circulatory
System and Lymph Circulatory System.
(I) Blood Circulatory System
The blood circulatory system was invented by William Horway. Circulatory
system moves blood throughout the body. This system is composed of the
heart, arteries, capillaries, and veins. The main vascular substance of this
system is blood. This remarkable system transports oxygenated blood from
the lungs and heart throughout the body via the arteries. The blood goes
through the capillaries which are situated between the arteries and veins.
And the blood that has been depleted of oxygen by the body is then returned
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(A) HUMAN HEART AND ITS FUNCTIONING
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(i) Heart- The human heart is located and confined in the middle of both
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lungs of the chest cavity. All around the heart, there exists a membrane
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called Pericardial Membrane in which pericardial fluid is filled up
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through which any exterior hammering is resisted and the heart remains
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safely protected.
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(ii) Auricle&Ventricle -The human heart is a four chambered organ in
which there exists upper two chambers called Auricle and lower two
chambers called Ventricle. The right auricle obtains the blood from
vencava while the left auricle gets it through pulmonary veins. The blood
through the auricle reaches in the ventricle by the small holes on which
valves are attached.
(iii) Tricuspid valve&Bicuspid valve- Between the right ventricle there
exists a valve called Tricuspid valve, while between the left auricle and
the left ventricle another valve exists which is called Bicuspid valve. The
valve prevents the blood flows in the opposite direction. Through the
right ventricle the blood goes to the lungs by the pulmonary Artery,
while through the left ventricle the blood is brought to the various
human organs by the Aorota. There exist some semilunar valves at the
emancipating sites of the aorota, which bring the blood through the
ventricle up to the aorotas only and due to it the blood from the aorota
again doesn’t enter into the ventricle. The blood transportation work in
the heart is done by the coronary artery.
(iv) Blood vessels- The process of the blood circulation in the human body is
done by the arteries and veins, while the blood capillaries connect the
arteries and veins both. Thus the three blood circulatory components
arteries, veins and blood capillaries compose the blood vessels.
(v) Arteries -The blood vessels which transport the blood from the heart to
the various organs of the body are called arteries. Through the arteries
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arteries only impure blood (deoxygenated bloo(d)flows. Also in the
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arteries, valves do not exists.
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(vi) Veins -The blood vessels which bring back the blood from the various
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organs of the body to the heart are called veins. Through the veins only
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impure blood (deoxygenated bloo(d)flows, but through the pulmonary
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veins only pure blood (oxygenated bloo(d)flows.
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Difference between Artery and Vein
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Artery Vein
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1. The blood is brought through 1. The blood comes back from the
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the heart towards the organs of organs to the heart.
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the body. 2. It is of deep red colour or violet
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2. It is of red colour. blue colour.
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3. The valves do not exist. 3. The valves exist.
4. It is located at the depth in the 4. It is located at the upper layer
body. of the body.
5. Its cavity is narrow. 5. The walls of it are thiner and
6. On being empty it doesn’t elastic.
shrivel. 6. It cavity is flattend.
7. Other than pulmonary artery, 7. It is shriveld on being empty.
the pure or oxygenated blood 8. Other than pulmonary vein, the
flows through it. impure or deoxygenated blood
flows through it.
c. Blood circulation in the human body

The right auricle of the heart obtains the impure blood (blood containing CO2)
from the entire human body through the Venacava. The right auricle now
pumps out the impure blood to the right ventricle and through it impure
blood is pumped out to the lungs by the pulmonary aorota to purify the blood.
The purified blood of the lungs is now reached or brought to the left auricle
through the pulmonary veins. The left auricle now brings this blood into the
left ventricle. The left ventricle now pumps out this pure blood to the entire
arteries of the human body. Thus the blood is pumped out to the entire body
through the heart and again from the body, the blood is brought to the heart
and this process is continuously repeated again and again.
(viii) Working function or mechanism of the Heart

The heart which is the pumping station of the blood of the human body
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(ix) Systole, Diastole & Heart beat
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In the first phase ventricles of the heart contract and the blood are pumped
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out to the aorotas and this phase is called Systole. But in the second phase the
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ventricles of the heart expand arid obtain the blood through the auricles and
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this phase is called Diastole. The composite form of systole and diastole is
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called Heart beat.
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In an adult or healthy person the heart beat is nearly 72 per minute in the
position of rest, while for a hard core physical worker its value may go upto
180 per minute.
(x) Stroke volume & pace-maker

Also our heart in producing 1 heart beat, nearly 70 ml blood is pumped out
and this blood volume is called Stroke volume. During the time of heart beat
both auricles of the heart contract simultaneously and then both ventricles
contract simultaneously. The process of heart beat starts from a group of
small tissues located and confined at the upper part of the right auricle and it
is called sino auricular node or sino-atrial node. This is also called pace-
maker. Heart failure: When S.A. node does not initiate any impulse.
(xi) Electrocardiogram (Electrocardiography or ECG)

Inside the heart the process of systole and diastole produce the impulses in
the form of electro chemical waves which begin from the sino-atrial node and
go up to the ventricles. The electrical changes appear due to the heart beats
and these can be easily recorded through the device called
Electrocardiogram. This graphical electrical recording is called
Electrocardiography or ECG which is done to diagnose the cardio logical
diseases.
(xii) Regulation of Heart beat

The process of heart beat is an automatic process which is commenced
through the sino-artial node and it is controlled or regulated by a controlling
centre located in the medulla oblongata of rhombencephalon. This controlling

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centre is called Cardiac centre. The hormones like thyroxine and adrenal
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directly control the heart beat.
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Other than nerves and horomonal regulation, some chemical substances
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present in the blood also control the heartbeat. The CO2 present in the blood,
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decrease the pH value and increases the heart beat. Thus it can be concluded
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that due to the acidity the heart beat is increased while due to the alkalinity,
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the heart beat is decreased.
The contraction of the muscles and the closure of the valves during the heart
beat produce the sounds of the heart and it is listened by the aid of a
stethoscope whose sounds are appeared like lub-dup-lub-dup-Jub.
(xiii) Blood pressure

Through the systole of the heart the pressure exerted on the walls of the
arteries is called blood pressure and more appropriately systolic pressure
which is actually produces due to the contraction of ventricles. The numerical
value of the pressure of contraction is equivalent to the column of 120mm of
Hg.
Just opposite to it there is a diastolic pressure which is produced due to the
diastole of the ventricle, whenever the blood is in the entering phase through
the auricle to the ventricle. This pressure is equivalent to the pressure
produced due to the column of 80 mm Hg.
For a healthy adult person the systole and diastole pressure is 120 /80. The
device which measures the blood pressure is called Sphygmomanometer.
(xiv) Hypertension & Hypotension

The systolic pressure over 140 or diastolic pressure over 100 is considered to
be abnormal and it is called hypertension or high blood pressure. But in some
persons the blood pressure is lower than normal and then such persons are
said to have low blood pressure or hypotension.The average pulse rate for the
adults who are mentally and physically reed are 65 to 70 for the men and 70
to 75 for the women. The pulse rate is too high in babies, lesser in sleeping
stage and abruptly enhances in fever etc.

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(xv) Miscellaneous
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The heart which is the pumping station of the blood is a muscular organ and
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its average weight for an adult healthy man is 340 gm, while for an adult
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healthy woman its weight is 255 gm.
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The blood in the human body flows two times through the heart and thats
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why our heart is called a double circulatory device.The micro inner organelle
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components auricles receive blood from the veins, while the ventricles pump
blood into the arteries. The blood vessels that carry the blood from the
intestine to the liver is called the hepatic portal vein.
(B) BLOOD
It is a fluid connective tissue. It is 6.8 liters in man and 500 ml less in
woman.Its constitute 6-8% of body weight (pH 7.4)
(i) CONSTITUENTS OF BLOOD

 Solid or cellular part called Blood Cells and fluid part called the Blood
Plasma. Approx. 60% blood is water only.
(a) Red blood corpuscles (RBc)
(b) White blood corpuscles (WBc)
(c) Platelets plasma (65%)
(d) Lymph (Plasma +. WBc)
(a) Red blood corpuscles (RBc)

These are also called erythrocytes, disc-shaped (for increased surface are(a).
There is no nucleus.
These contain a pigment called Hemoglobin which gives red colour to the
blood.Average man: Amount of Haemoglobin is 14-15.6 gm/ 100cc of blood
(11 - 14 in woman).
RBCs are produced in spleen and liver in foetus and in bone marrow after
birth @ 1.2 million per sec.
Number of RBCs is 4.5 – 5 million / cubic mm of blood. Life of RBC is 120 days
after which they are broken down in spleen or liver. Product of breakdown of
hemoglobin is a pigment (yellow colour), called bilirubin which is normally
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disposed off through bile whereas haem transferred to red bone marrow.
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Retention of bilirubin leads to jaundice.
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No. of RBCs is 4.5-5 million/cubic mm of blood. At high altitude, RBC’s
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increase in number.
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More: Polycythemia.
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Less: Anemia
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(b) White blood corpuscles (WB(c)
These are also called Leucocytes, rounded with nucleus. Far less numerous
than RBCs (1 : 400-500) (5,000-10,000 /cu mm), life 3-4 days
These are soldiers of body’s defense system.
Takes part in antigen and antibody formation.
Helps in blood clotting.
Are of 2 types:
(i) Granulocytes :Basophils, Eosinophils, Neutrophils
(ii) Agranulocytes :Monocytes, Lymphocytes
Basophils : Take up basic stains. Have an S-shaped nucleus. Secrete an anti-
coagulant Heparin, which prevents clots within the blood vessels.
Eosinophils or Acidophils : Take up acidic stains. Assists in defence
mechanism.
Neutrophils : Stain equally well with both acidic and basic dyes: Most
numerous of the WBC5 (65-70%). Defence.
Monocytes : Largest of all. Very motile. Defence.
Lymphocytes : 25% of the WBC. Takes part in antigen and antibody
formation.
Lymphocytes & phagocytes
Lymphocytes are white blood cells (WB(c)while phagocytes are cells that
attack and engulf invading microbes.
(c) Platelets
Also called Thrombocytes, formed in bone marrow, sets off blood clotting.

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(d) Plasma (65%)
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It is the liquid part of the blood.
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This is clear, yellow fluid. It contains 90% water, proteins and organic salts.
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It regulates pH of blood.
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 It contains 7% proteins which include Albumin, Globulin and Fibrinogen.
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The protein in plasma includes antibodies also, to assist in defence
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mechanism.
 Plasma transports nutrients from the small intestine to the body tissues
and return the waste material to the kidneys, where it is filtered out.
 Regulates pH of blood.
 Also called Thrombocytes, formed in bone marrow, about 250,000 / cu
mm of blood, life 3-7 days, sets off blood clotting.
(e) Lymph(Plasma + WB(C)

 Lymph = Blood — RBC, i.e., Plasma + WBC.
 Lymph forms second circulating system. It acts as middle man between
blood and tissue. It has more of lymphocytes as compared to that of
blood (Blood has more of neutrophils).
All interchanges of nutrients and waste products between blood and
tissues takes place through lymph only.
Spleen produces lymph. At the same time it also acts as the graveyard of
lymph
Spleen is also known by the name of ‘Blood Bank’ because RBC’s, WBCs
and lymph are produced in spleen. It is situated above left kidney behind
the stomach.
(ii) Blood groupings
 Father of Blood Grouping: Karl Landsteiner (Australian pathologist). He
discovered A, B and O blood groups in 1900.
 Decastello and Sturle in 1902 discovered AB blood group.
 ABO system of blood groups is based on antigens and antibodies.
 Antigens: They are proteins and are found on the surface of RBCs.
Antigens are A and B.

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
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Antibodies: They are produced in lymph glands and are present in blood
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plasma. Antibodies are a and b.
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Blood Group Antigen Antibody Can donate to Can receive
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from
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A (25%) A b A, AB A, O
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B (35%) B a B, AB B, O
AB (7%) A&B - AB AB, AB, O
O (35%) - a&b AB, A, B, O O
(Percentage in brackets imply the percentage of the World population of that

particular blood group)
AB: Universal recipient
O: Universal donor
RH Factor: It is based on Rh antigen. Discovered in 1940 by Landsteiner and
A.S. Veiner. It discovered in Rhesus monkey. A person can be Rh+ or Rh-. In
world population Rh+ are 85% and Rh - are 15% only. + can receive blood
from Rh- but no vice-versa.
 Blood, transfusion technique was first developed by James Blundell in
1825.
(II) Lymph Circulatory System

The lymph is a vascular fluid substance which is collected inside the tissues
and comes or transmits in the lymph cells. The lymph is basically a yellowish
coloured fluid in which the defensive lymphocytes cells exist. The flow of
lymph takes place towards the heart from the unidirectional tissues.
The lymph system plays an important role in the spread of cancer throughout
the body carrying cancerous tissue from a malignant growth to the various
parts of the body. Due to it the lymph nodes near the cancerous growth are
often removed whenever cancer us surgery is performed.

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(a) Structure of the lymph circulatory system
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The basic structure of the lymph circulatory system is composed through the
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various micro organelle components like lymph capillaries, lymph vessels,
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lymph nodes, lymph organs etc.
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(b) Various organelle components
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(i) Lymph Nodes
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The lymph vessels at some places become flattened and form the bag shaped
structure which are called lymph nodes. Actually it is the tuberous part of the
lymph vessels. In the lymph nodes White Blood Corpuscles (WB(c)and some
antibodies cultivate. The lymph nodes are abundantly found in arm-pit, neck
and groin.
Whenever any infection in the human body occurs then to Cross sectional
view of Lymph destroy or kill the microbes (virus, circulatory system bacteria
et(c)the lymph and WBC accumulated in the lymph nodes of the infectious
places, due to it sometimes glandular swelling takes place at these locations.

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(ii) Lymph organelles
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There is various lymph organelles coexist in the human body and these are
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Lymph Follicle, Spleen, Thymus Gland and Tonsils.
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(iii) Working function of the lymph
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There are so many working functions of the lymph in our human body and
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the main of these are given below—
(a) Temporary accumulation of the water: For the water entering in the
human body the lymph vessels work like temporary reservoir.
(b) Absorption of the excess water: The lymph absorbs the water from the
fluid of the tissue and transports it into the blood circulation.
(c) Transportation of the macromolecules: Through the lymph larger
molecules of protein, hormone etc is brought and is dropped in the blood
circulation but these macromolecules do not penetrate into the walls of
blood capillaries. Thus these molecules do not directly reached in the
blood circulation.
(d) Transportation of the fat: Some molecules of the food stuffs like of the
fat are transported by the lymph. After the digestion fatty acid and
glycerol do not undergo to the blood vessels and undergo to the lactial,
from where these are transported to the lymph system.
(e) Protection from the infection: The lymphocytes present in the lymph
kill or destroy the microbes like bacteria and virus and protect our body
from the infection.
7. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM :
The process of converting food into energy giving substances iscarried
out by this system.There are five stages of digestion :
(i) Ingestion (ii) Digestion (iii) Absorption
(iv) Assimilation (v) Defecation
(i) Ingestion:It involves taking of food into the mouth.
(ii) Digestion : Conversion of non-absorbable food into absorbable form.
The digestion of food started from the mouth.

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Saliva is secreted by salivary gland in mouth in which two types of enzymes
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are found : ptyalin and maltase.
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The nature of saliva is acidic. (PH6.8).
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(a) Digestion in stomach
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The food lies approximately for four hours in stomach.
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After reaching the food in stomach gastric glands secretes the gastric juice.
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This is a light yellow acidic liquid.
The enzymes in the gastric juice of stomach are pepsin and Rennin.
Pepsin breaks down the protein into peptones.
Rennin breaks down the protein into peptones.
(b) Digestion in Small intestine: (Duodenum + Jejenum + Ileum)
Here the food from the stomach is mixed with bile (from liver) and pancreatic
juice (from pancreas) and moves forward by peristaltic movement.
(Absorption of food starts).
Duodenum receives the bile-pancreatic duct formed by the union of bile duct
and pancreatic duct.
As soon as the food reaches the duodenum bile juice from liver combines with
it.
Bile juice makes the food alkaline. (It is stored in gall bladder).
Pancreatic juice contains several enzymes, which act on proteins,
carbohydrates and fats:
ENZYMES ACTS ON
Trypsin Proteins
Amylase Starch, Glycogen
Lipase Emulsified Fats
(c) Digestion in large intestine (Caecum+Colon+Rectum)

Here absorption of water starts. It receives undigested material from the
small intestine and absorbs water.
The remaining waste material is sent to rectum and discharged through anus.

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(d) The main organs involved in digestion
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(i) Liver
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 It is largest gland of the human body. It is bilobed, right lobe being the
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larger and left lobe the smaller. Weight – 15.2 kg.
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 Bile juice is secreted through it, which is yellowish in colour.
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 Bile helps in digestion through three ways:
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 It emulsifies the fats.
 It prevents decomposition of food by checking the growth of bacteria and
 It neutralizes the acid coming from the stomach.
 It has diverse functions which are following:
 Digestion (with the help of bile)
 Regulation of blood sugar.
 Deamination : In the liver, the amino acids, coming from the alimentary
canal are stored out. Those necessary for the protein synthesis are
distributed to the tissues.
 The excess or unnecessary amino acids are broken down.
 Blood clotting: It produces heparin, prothrombin and fibrinogen.
 Synthesis of Vitamin ‘A’.
 Storage: Besides glycogen, liver stores:
 Lipids such as fats, fatty acids and cholesterol.
 Minerals like copper and iron.
 Vitamins namely A, B12, D and E and
 Bile in the gall bladder.
(ii) Pancreas
It is both an exocrine and endocrine gland.
It is the second largest gland of the human body.
Pancreatic juice is secreted by it. It contains 9.8% of water and
remaining part is of salt and enzymes.
These proenzymes digest all three types of food materials like
carbohydrates fats and protein.
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The endocrine part (called Islets of langerhans) secretes hormones, whereas
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exocrine part secretes pancreatic juice.
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Insulin
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Insulinis secreted by B-Cell of Islets of langerhans which is a part of the
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pancreas.
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It controls the process of making glycogen from glucose. Diabetes is caused
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due to deficiency of Insulin. Excessive flow of Insulin causes hypoglycemia in
which one loses the reproductive capacity and vision deteriorates.
IMPORTANT DIGESTIVE ENZYMES

Secreted Enzymes Acts on Products
by
Salivary Ptyalin (Salivary Starch, glycogen, Maltose, Isomaltose,
Glands Amylase) dextrins ‘Limit’ Dextrins
Gastric
(i) Pepsin (Activated Proteins, Peptones
from Prorennin by Calcium Paracasein and
HCI) parocaseinate Whey Proteins
(ii) Rennin (Activated Casein Fatty Acids and
from by HCI) Fats Monoglycerides
(iii) Gastric Lipase
Pancreas (i) Trypsin (Activated Proteins Peptides
from Trypsinogen by Proteins, Casein Proteins, Casein
Enterokinase) Starch, Glycogen, Peptides, Poracasein
(ii) Chymotrypsin Dextrins (cur(d)
(Activated from Emulsified fats Maltose, Isomaltose,
Chymotrypsinogen by ‘Limit’ Dextrins
Trypsin) Peptides Fatty Acids,
(iii) Pancreatic Glycerol,
Amylase DNA Monoglycerides,
(iv) Pancreatic Lipase Diglycerides and
(v) RNA Triglycerides Amino
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Secreted Enzymes Acts on Products
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by
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Carboxypeptidoses Acids and
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(Activated from Dipeptides
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Procarboxypeptidase Amino Acids and
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s by Trypsin) Dipeptides
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(vi) DNAse Deoxyribonucleotid
(vii) RNAse es Ribonucleotides
Intestina (i) Intestinal amylase Starch, glycogen, Maltose, Isoma
l Glands (ii) Maltose dextrins Maltose Itose,
(iii) Isomaltase Isomaltose ‘Limit’ Dextrins
(iv) ‘Limit’ Dextrinase ‘Limit’ Dextrins Glucose
(v) Invertase Surcose Glucose
(Sucrase) Lactose Glucose
(vi) Lactase Emulsified fats Glucose, Fructose
(vii) intestinal (Tri, Di- Glucose, Galactose
bacteria Monoglycenides) Fotty Acids, Glycerol
(viii) Nucleotidases Nucteotides Nucleosides and
(ix) Nucleosidases Nucleosidases Inorganic
Phosphates
Nitrogenous Bases,
Pentose sugars
8. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Under the endocrine system are found at the various parts of the human
body. Through these glands some special types of fluids are secreted which
are called hormones.
The hormone is a complex chemical substance which is mainly made from
amino acid, catecholamine and steroids and plays the key role of massage
carrier of the various organs of the human body. Thus the hormones are the
valuable chemical substance releases or secrets through the various glands of
the human body and Cross sectional view of Human goes to the blood which
Endocrine system circulates in the entire body.
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The hormones are the most fundamental fluids respondent for the growth
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and development, safety and behaviour, sexual characteristics and
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reproductive activities of the human body.
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The most important work of the hormone is to maintain a balance in the
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inner environment of the body so that metabolic activities, osmatic pressure
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etc not to be disturbed in changing situation.
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The organs through which hormones are secreted are called ductless glands
or endocrine glands.
Types of glands:
There are various types of glands which exist in the human body. A brief
description of these glands has been given below;
(i) Exocrine gland: The glands of the human body whose secreted fluids
are transported through the duct to the various organs, called exocrine
glands. Thus in the exocrine gland to bring the hormones to the various
organs, ducts are available. Also through these ducts enzymes are
secreted. The glands like milk gland, sweat gland, salivary gland, mucous
gland, tear gland etc are the examples of exocrine gland.
(ii) Endocrine gland: This is basically ductless gland and the secreted
hormones are brought through the blood plasma to the various parts of
the human body. The glands like pituitary gland, thyroid gland, adrenal
gland etc are the examples of endocrine gland.
(iii) Mixed gland: There exist some glands which are of exocrine and
endocrine both types and through these glands the secretion of enzymes
and hormones both take place thats why these are called mixed glands.
The pancreas of the human body is the best example of the mixed gland.
Main endocrine glands and secreted hormones, their working functions
and effect on the human body.
(I) Pituitary gland: This gland is located in a narrow ditch shaped structure
of the bone of skull called sphenoid. The complete system of the pituitary
gland with sphenoid bone of the skull is called Sellaturcica. The average
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weight of the pituitary gland is 0.6 gm and this gland is called Master
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gland.
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Secreted hormone its working function and effect
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(i) Somatotropic Hormone (STH) This hormone is directly respondent for
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the growth and development of the human body, specially this hormone
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controls or regulates the sustained growth of the bones. Due to the the
excess secretion of STH, disorder or deformation appears in the human
body and it is called Gigantism or Acromegaly. Thus the height of the
human body is extremely increased. But due to the lack of STH dwarfism
is appeared in the human body.
(ii) Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH): This hormone provokes and
motivates the thyroid gland to secrete hormone.
(iii) Adreno Corti Cotropic Hormone (ACTH) : This hormone (ACTH)
controls or regulates the secretion activities of the adrenal cortex.
(iv) Gonadotropic Hormone (GTH): This hormone controls the working
functions of the reproductive organs and it is of two types—
(a) Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH): This hormone helps in semen
reproduction of the seminiferous tubules of the testes. The FSH also
helps in the growth of follicle in the ovary.
(b) Luteiniging Hormone (LH): The LH secrets testostirone and estrogen
in the male and female respectively.
(v) Lactogenic Hormone (LTH): This is a milkified hormone and its main
work is to secret milk in the female breast for the babies.
(vi) Antidiuretic Hormone (AD H): The ADH contracts the small blood
arteries and due to it the blood pressure of the human body is abruptly
enhanced (increase(d). This hormone is also useful in making a balance
in the water level and osmatic pressure of the human body.

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(II) Thyroid gland
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It is the largest endocrine gland located in the neck between the trachea and
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larynx. Controls BMR (Basal Metabolic Rate). BMR is the minimum energy
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requirement for maintenance of body during rest or sleep. For normal human
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adult, it is 1500 Kcal/day.
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Secretes: The hormone secreted through it is called thyroxine in which
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iodine is abundantly found.Thyroxin Regulates physical, mental and sexual
development
Working function of thyroxine and its effect
This hormone activates and abruptly increases the cellular respiratory
activities and this hormone is directly accountable for the normal and
balanced growth of the human body specially bones, hairs etc. The normal
functing of the sex organs depends on its activation. Along with the hormone
of pituitary gland the thyroxine controls or regulates the water level balance
in the human body.
Diseases occurring due to the deficiency of thyroxine
(i) Cretinism : This disease occurs in the children due to the lack of the
thyroxine hormone. The mental and physical development of the
children is completely disrupted in the critinism.
(ii) Myxodema : This disease occurs in the adultphase in human beings and
in it the metabolic activities is disturbed and consequently the heart beat
and the blood pressure of the body abruptly downfall.
(iii) Hypothyroidism: Due to the lack of long duration of the thyroxine this
disease occurs. In this disease normal sexual activities are disrupted and
sometimes due to it human being becomes dumb or deaf.
(iv) Simple Goiter : This disease is appeared due to the lack of iodine in the
food stuffs and the size of the thyroid gland is extremely increased.
That’s why to take the remedial measures iodised edible salt is
recommended to the people suffering simple Goiter or Goiter.
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Disease occurring due to the excess of the thyroxine
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(i) Toxic Goiter : This disease is appeared due to the excess secretion of the
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thyroxine in the human body and in it the heart beat, blood pressure and
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the rate of respiration of the body are sharply increased.
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(ii) Exophthalmic Goiter : This disease occurs also due to the excess
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thyroxine secretion in the human body and in it eyes swelling take place
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and sometimes eyes are detached from their cavities. Below the eye ball
a fluid substance mucous is accumulated.
(III) Parathyroid Gland
The parathyroid gland is located in the throat (pharynx) just behind the
thyroid gland. Through it two types of hormones are secreted—
(i) Parathyroid Honnone : This hormone is secreted through the
parathyroid gland when there exists the deficiency of the calcium in the
blood.
(ii) Calcitonin : When the amount of the calcium is excessively increased in
the blood then calcitonin hormone is secreted which is used in
controlling the amount of the calcium in the blood of the human body.
(IV) Adrenal gland

2, on each kidney. Adrenal gland is also known as 4S gland. (4S stands for:
Sugar metabolism, Salt/retention, Sex hormone and Source of energy).
The adrenal gland of the human body has two componental parts— exterior
(Cortex) and interior (Medull(a).
Cortex : The cortex is vital for the human life and if it is detached from the
human body then human beings be only survive one or two weeks.
Cortex secretes two types of hormones:
(a) Mineralo corticoids : Maintain electrolyte balance in the body and
distribution of water to the tissues. It is also known as salt retaining
hormone. It is mainly associated with the reabsorption of the salt
through the kidney tubules and to have a balanced control of the another
salt level in the human body. Its hyposecretion results in Addison’s
disease. In this disease, excessive loss of Na, Cl ions takes place and level
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of K ions increases in blood. Its hypersecretion leads to retension of Na,
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Cl ions and/nore absorption of water.
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(b) Gluco corticoids: It influences carbohydrate metabolism and also effect
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protein and fat metabolism. It alsocontrols the metabolic activities of the
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carbohydrate, protein and fat of the human body.Its hyposecretion leads
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to fall in glucose level due to which body temperature decreases.Its
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hypersecretion leads to Cushing Disease in which irregular deposition of
fat takes place and glucose level increases in blood.
(c) Sex hormone: The sex hormone controls the sexual activities of the
human body.
Secreted hormone through the medula and its working function
Through the medula two hormones— epinephrine and norepinephrine are
secreted and both are basically amino acids. Both the hormones work in
sustained and cohesive manner and combindely stimulate the heart muscles
and promote the growth of contraction. Consequently the blood pressure is
sharply enhanced.
The epinephrine hormone helps in reactivating the stopped heart beat of the
human body.
Fight and Fleight Hormone : The hormone whose secretion takes through
the adrenal gland is called fight and fleight hormone
(G) Gonads
Under the reproductive gland or Gonad the human organs ovary and testes
have been kept. Both testes and ovaries, in addition to producing and ova,
also produce hormones.
(a) Ovary: In females, the follicular cells and corpus luteum secretes the
following hormones:
(i) Estrogen: Follicular cells produces Oestrogen which controls the female
secondary sexual characters (Broadening of pelvis, development of breasts,
growth of uterus and vagina, pubic hair, onset of menstrual cycle, et(c)

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(ii) Progesteron : The progesteron hormone along with the estrogen hormone
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combinedly help in breast (female chest) growth. Corpus luteum secretes
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Progesterone which is essential for the completion of each menstrual cycle. It
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controls the fin changes in the uterine wall and brings about the attachment
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of embryo and causes development of breasts in the later months of
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pregnancy.
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Corpus also secretes Relaxin at the end of gestation period, and helps in easy
birth by relaxing the uterus and ligaments of the pelvic girdle.
(iii) Relaxin: The hormone produced by the corpus Luteum and it is directly
respondent for the inhibition of uterine contraction. During the pregenancy in
the female the relaxin hormone is present in the ovary and uterus through
which the pubic symphysis is made soften and the uterine cervic becomes
widen. Thus pelvic girdle becomes smooth and flattend which helps in child
birth.
(b) Testis (testicle):

Its interstitial cells (Leydig’s cells) secrete testosterone which is responsible
for male secondary sexual characters (beard, body hair, deep voice, muscles,
formation of sperms, sexual urge, et(c).
Deficiency leads to sterility (eunuchoidism
In man, the testes are oval structures about 4-5 cm long and each comprises a
fibrous capsule (the tunica albugine(a) which surrounds a mass of
seminiferous tubules separated into the compartments by the fibrous tissue.
(VI) Thymus Gland
 Situated near the heart.
 Produces Thymine.
 Plays important role in formation of antibodies in children.
 Decreases in size as sexual maturity increases as it absorbs GTH, thus
preventing development of gonads.

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(VI) PANCREAS
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 It is an exocrine as well as an endocrine gland.
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(i) Beta cells secrete Insulin which controls the amount of sugar in the
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(ii ) Alpha cells secretes Glucagon which increases blood sugar level.
(iii) Gamma cells secrete Somatostatin which controls the functioning of
alpha and beta cells.
Chemical Nature of Major Hormones
Peptides and proteins Growth Hormone Posterior pituitary
Oxytocin gland
ADH (Vasopressin)
Parathormone Parathyroid gland
Calcitonin Thyroid gland
Insulin Islets of Langerhans
Glucagon (pancreas)
Gastrin Stomach mucosa
Secretin Duodenal mucosa
Amines Adrenaline Adrenal medulla
Noradrepaline Sympathetic nervous
Releasing and inhibiting system and
Chemical group hormones and factors adrenal medulla
Steroids of the hypothalamus Thyroid gland
Folicle Stimulating
Fatty acids Hormone Hypothalamus
Hormone Anterior pituitary
Testosterone gland
Oestrogen Major source
Progesterone Testis
Corticosteroids Ovary and placenta

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Prstaglandins Adrenal cortex Many
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tissues
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8. EXCRETORY SYSTEM
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Waste materials excreted in animals are of many kinds : nitrogenous
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substances, carbondioxide, pigments, excess water, etc.
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The nirogenous waste can be excreted in the following farms:
 Ammonia: Highly toxic, soluble in water and has to be immediately
excreted. In aquatic animals (called Ammonioteli(c).
 Urea: Far less toxic ‘than ammonia. Less water required than ammonia.
In mammals, alligators, turtles (called Ureoteli(c).
 Uric acid: In animals where conservation of water is needed. In birds,
insects, land reptiles (called Uricoteli(c).
EXCRETORY SYSTEM OF MAMMALS
1. Kidneys
 Left kidney is higher than the right kidney.
 A kidney is composed of 1.2 million microscopic structural and
functional units called nephrons or uriniferous tubules.
2. Ureters
 Open into urinary bladder
3. Urinary Bladder
 Size depends upon the amount of urine in it (upto 700-800 ml).
 The lower part is guarded by 2 sphinctors : inner involuntary and outer
voluntary.
4. Urethra
 Leads to the exterior.
 In females, it carries only urine. Opens by urinary aperture in the vulva
in front of vaginal aperture. In males it carries urine as well as spermatic
fluid.
 Act of passing urine is called Micturition.
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NEPHRON
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 Functional unit of kidney. It is a long tube differentiated into 4 regions.
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(i) Bowman’s Capsule
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 Contains a globular bunch of capillaries, the glomeruius.
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 The Bowman’s capsule and the glomerulus together form a globular
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body called Malpighian body.
 In glomerular filtrate: water (99%), inorganic salts, amino acids, fatty
acids, glucose, urea, uric acid, hippuric acid, hormones, vitamins are
present.
(ii) Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT)
 Starts from the neck of Bowman’s capsule and is highly twisted.
 Almost whole of the glucose and vitamins, about 75% of amino acids,
about 70% of Na and K, a large amount of Ca and Mg and 75% water is
absorbed.
(iii) Loop of Henle
 U-shaped. Consist of 2 straight limbs: descending and ascending. No
water is absorbed in ascending limb.
(iv) Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT)
 Greatly twisted.
 Reabsorbs some Na and Cl.
 Leads to Collecting Tubules which lead to ureters.
The yellow colour of urine is caused by the pigment urochrome, which is a
breakdown product of haemoglobin from worn out RBCs.
The urine on standing gives a pungent smell. It is due to conversion of urea
into ammonia by bacteria.
pH of urine is between 5—8. Average pH is 6.0 (slightly acidi(c).

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Balanced Diet
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The components of food are: Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals,
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vitamins, water and roughage. If all the components are present in optimum
proportions and quantity for maintaining the body in perfect state of health,
activity and development than the food is called balanced diet.
(I) CARBOHYDRATES
These are organic compounds in which the ratio of carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen is involved.1 gm gives 17 KJ of energy.These are classified into three
main groups :
(A) MONOSACCHARIDES:
These are the simplest carbohydrates (eg. glucose, fructose, galactose
etc.)
These have six carbon atoms.
(B) DIASACCHARIDES:
Consists of 2 units of monosaccharides (eg. sucrose, lactose and
maltose).
(C) POLYSACCHARIDES:
These are compound of sugar which are formed due to joining large
number of monosacchrides.Ex. Starch, Glycogen, Cellulose, Chitin etc.
FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES IN HUMAN BODY

 Works as fuel.
 Lactose of milk is formed from glucose and galactose.
 Glucose is used for the formation of fat and amino acid.

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SOURCES OF CARBOHYDRATE
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 Wheat, Rice, Maize, Sweet potato, potato etc.
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(II) PROTEINS
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 Made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sometimes sulphur.
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 Important for growth and repair of the body. (75% of our body is
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proteins only).
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 Made up of Amino acids.22 types of protein is necessary for human body.
FUNCTIONS
 It takes part in the formation of cells, protoplasm and tissues.
 In case of necessity these provide energy to the body.
 Controls the development of genetic characters.
 These are helpful in conduction also.
 About 70-100 gms of proteins are daily needed.
SOURCES
Groundnuts, soyabean, pulses, lean meats, fish, eggs, milk etc.
PROTEIN ENERGY MALNUTRITION
In the age group of 1-5 years.
It is primarily due to inadequate in take of food (particularly proteins) both in
quantity and quality. It causes:
Kwashiorkor: Means neglected child (when mother stops breast feeding).
Symptoms: Abdomen and feet sweless skin becomes, dark and scaly, enlarged
liver, anaemia.In infants under 1 year of age.
MEASURES
 Deficiency of proteins, carbohydrates and fats.
 Symptoms : Losing of body weight, wasting of muscles, ribs look
prominent.
 In children between 6 months and 3 year.
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(III)FATS
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Fat is an ester of glycerol and fatty acid.Less oxygen than carbohydrates.
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Normally fat remains as solid at 20°C temp but if it is in liquid form at this
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temp. then this is called oil.
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There are two types of fatty acid :
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(i) Saturated fatty acid : solids at room temp.
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(ii) Unsaturated fatty acid : liquids at room temp.
FUNCTIONS
 Provides energy to the body.
 Makes food material tasty.
 Protects different parts of the body form in.
(IV) VITAMINS
Was invented by Sir F.G. Hopkins. The term vitamin was coined by Funk.
On the basis of solubility, vitamisn arte of two types:
(i) Vitamins soluble in water : Vitamin B and C.
(ii) Vitamin soluble in Fat : Vitamin A, D, E & K.
DISEASES CAUSED BY DEFICIENCY OF VITAMINS & THEIR SOURCES
VITAMIN CHEMICAL DISEASE SOURCE
NAME
Vitamin-A Retinol Colour Milk, Eg.
blindness
Vitamin-B1 Thaimine Beri-Beri Ricerbran, Whole
wheat, Groundnut
Vitamin-B2 Riboflavin Cracking of skin Meat, Green Veg.
Vitamin-B6 Pyridoxine Anaemia Milk cereals, Meat
Vitamin-B12 Cyanocobalamine Pernicious Meat, Fish, Eggs, Milk

Anaemia

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Vitamin-C Ascorbic Acid Scruvy, Lemon, Orange, Citrus
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Swelling of Fruit
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Gums
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Vitamin-D Cholecalciferol Rickets (In Fish oil, egg, york
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Vitamin-E Tocopherol Less Fertility Green vegetables
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Vitamin-K Phylloquinone Delayed blood Carrots, Cabbage,
clotting tomatoes
 Cobalt is found in vitamin B-12.
(V) MINERALS
Mineral is a homogeneous inorganic material needed for body. This control
the metabolism of body.
(VI) WATER
 65-75% of body weight.
 In controls the temp. Of our body by sweating and vaporizing.
 It is the important way of excretion of the excretory substances from the
body.
BACTERIAL DISEASES
DISEASE AFFECTED ORGAN SYMPTOMS
Tuberculosis Lungs Repeated Cough; High fever

Cholera Intestine Vomiting, Dehydration, Muscular
Cramp
Leprosy Nervous system, Spots on body, nervous affected
skin
Pneumonia Lungs High fever
Typhoid Intestine High fever, Headache

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VIRAL DISEASES
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DISEASE VIRUS SYMPTOMS
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Common cold Rhinovirus Headache, Watery eyes,
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sneezing, cough
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Dengue Fever RNA containing dengue High fever, backache, pain
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virus behind the eye-ball
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Transmitted by female
tiger mosquito Aedes
aegypti during day time
Hepatitis or Hepatitis-A&B virus Loss of appetite, nausea,
Jaundice yellow eyes and yellow urine
Aids HIV Weak immune system
Viral diseases in animals:

Animals Viruses Diseases
Cow Herpes virus Herpes
Cow Blue tung virus Blue tung
Cow Variyola vaccinia Small pox
Buffalow Poxverdi orthopox Small pox
Domestic animals Rabdovergi vasculo virus Fever
Dog Stereit virus Rabies
Cow & buffalow Picornaverdi aphtho virus Mouth and gland infection
Cow & buffalo Paramixoverdi morbeli virus Renderpest disease

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Classification of Plantae
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PART II - BOTANY
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Botany is Study of different types of trees, plants and their functions is called
Botany.
Father of Botany : Theopharastus.
Plant kingdom is classified in two groups :
(I) Cryptogams (Plant without seed)
(II) Phanerogams (seed bearing plant)
(I) CRYPTOGAMS
(a) Thalophyta (Algae, fungi), (b)Bryophyta and (c)Pteridophyta
(a) Thalophyta
 Largest group of plant kingdom.
 Plants are not differentiated into root, stem and leave etc.
 There is no conducting tissue.
Algae: Study of Algae is called psychology, phloem does not contain
companion cells. Ex. Ferns, Azolla, Pteridium.
Fungi: Study of fungi is called mycology.
It is chlorophyll less.There is no central carrier tissue.
Accumulated food in fungi remains as glycogen
Cell wall is made up of chitin. Ex. Albugo, Phytohthora, Mucor etc.
(b) Bryophyta
 Lack of Xylem & Phloem tissue.
 Lack of true roots, stems and leaves.
 Also called Amphibian category of plant kingdom.
(c) Pteridophyta
 Found in wet shady places, forests and mountains.
 Body is differentiated into root, stem and leaves.
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Conducting tissues are well developed but xylem does not contain
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vessels.
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(II) PHANEROGAMS
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(a) Gymnospermae &(b)Angiospermae (Monocotyledons, Dicotyledons)
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(a) Gymnosperm
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 Found in the forms of trees and bush
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 Pollination takes place through air.
 The longest plant of the plant kingdom, sequoia gigentia comes under it.
Its height is 120m. This is also called Red wood of California.
 The smallest plant is Zaimia Pygmia.
Importance of gymnosperms
 As a food
 Vapour Oil: We get trap in oil from the trees of pine, cedrus oil from
deodar trees etc.
 Tannin : It is useful in making ink.
 Resin : It is extracted from some conical plants which are used in making
varnish, polish, paint etc.
 It has chlorophpyll and is autotropic.
 Can be unicellular, colonial or filamentous.
(b) Angiosperm
 Seeds are inside the fruits.
 There is seed wall in seeds. On the basis of number of cotyledons plants
are divided into two categories:
(i) Monocotyledon. (ii) Dicotyledon
MONOCOTYLEDON
CATEGORY MAIN PLANT
Liliaceae Garlic, Onion
Palmae Nut, Palm, Coconut
Gramnaeceae Wheat, Maize, Bamboo
DICOTYLEDON
CATEGORY MAIN PLANT

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Plant Morphology
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Cruciferae Radish, Triumph, Mustard
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Mavaceae Jute, Ladyfinger
Study of forms and features of different parts of plant like roots, stems, leaves,
flowers, fruits etc. is called morphology.
(I) ROOT
Descending part of the plant which develops from radical.Roots are of
two types :
(i) Tap root
(ii) Adventitious root.
Modifications of tap roots
(a) Conical – Ex. Carrot. (b) Napiform – Carrot, turnip, beet (c)Fusiform –
Radish
Modifications of Adventitious roots
Roots Examples Roots Examples
Fibrous root Onion Aerial root Orcede
Leafy root Briophylem Assimilatory root Tinspora
Climbing root Betel leaf, pothos Parasitic root Kascutta
Buttress root Terminolia Moniliform Grapes, bitter
Sucking root Cuscuta Nodulose root guard
Respiratory root Juicia Prop root Mongo turmeric
Epiphytic root Orcede Stilt root Banyan tree
Fasciculated root Maize, sugarcane
Dahlia

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(II) STEM
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Part of plant which grows towards light.
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Modification of stems
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Underground stem
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(a) Tuber- Potato (b)Crorn – Colocasia, Saffron (c) Bulb – Onion, Garlic
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(d) Rhizome – Turmeric, Ginger
(III) LEAF
Its main function is to made food through photosynthesis.
(IV)FLOWER
Productive part of the plant
Calyx, corolla, Androcium and cynoecium are the parts of flower.
(a) Androcecium
Stamens are present, pollen grains are found in other.
Gynoecium
The Gynoecium includes all the female reproductive organ of a flower. It is
formed of a single or several pistils. Each pistil is composedof one or more
fused carpels and produce the ovules.There are three parts of carpel:
(i)Ovary (ii)Styhle (iii)Stigma
Fertilization
Pollen tube reaches the embryo after entering into the ovule through a pore
called micropyle, after that a male nucleus fuses with egycell. This process in
plant leads to the fertilization.
Formation of fruit
Fruit is matured or ripened ovary developed after fertilization.
It developed from ovary.These are divided into three types:
(i) Simple fruits: Banana, Guava, etc.
(i) Aggregate fruits: strawberry, custard
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(iii) Composite fruit: Jack Fruit, Mulberry etc.
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Fruits and their edible parts
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Fruits Edible parts Fruits Edible parts
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Mango Mid. Pericarp Grape Pericrap
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Apple Thalamus Jack fruit Sepals, bract, seeds
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Pear Thalamus Wheat Endosperm and embr
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Tomato Pericrap and perisperm Coriander ya
Litchi Pulpy aerial Custard Thalamus and seeds
Coconut Endosperm apple Pericrap
Guava Pericarp Water chest Seed leaves
Papaya Mid. Pericarp nut Juicy pore
Ground nut Seed leaves and embryo Lemon Epicarp and Mesocarp
Wood Mesocarp and endocarp Chinese date Bract, sepals and
apple Mulberry seeds
PLANT TISSUE
(I) MERISTEMATIC TISSUE
Growing regions of the plants are called meristems. Specific features of
the meristematic tissue :
Round, oval or multi-sided.
Wall is thin and cytoplasm is homogenous
Cell contains dense cytoplasm and a single large nucleus.
Lack of intercellular spaces between the cells.
Meristematic tissue can be divided into following parts :
(i) Apical (ii) Lateral (iii) Intercalary
(i) Apical meristems

Found in the root and stem apex.Initial growth takes place due to there.

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(III) Lateral meristems
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Due to the division of these tissues growth in the firth of roots and stems
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takes place.
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(IV) Intercalary meristem
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Found at the base of inter-node. Its importance is for those plants where apex
part is are eaten by vegetarian animals.
(II) PERMANENT TISSUE

Those tissues which have attained a definition forms of various works and
have lost their capacity of division are combined to make permanent tissue
There cells can be alive or dead.Can be divided into following parts
(i) Simple tissue: The permanent tissue which is made up of similar type of
cells. Example Parenchyma, Collenchyma, Sclerenchyma
(ii) Complex tissue: The permanent tissue which is made up of one or more
types of cells is called complex tissue.Example Xylem, Phloem
(a) Xylem
Usually called wood.This is conducting tissue.
Conduction of water and minerals.To provide mechanical consistency
PHOLEM
To conduct the food prepared by leaves to different parts of the plant.

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Nutrition in Plant
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Nutrition: The word nutrition originates from the word nutrient and it is the
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substance which is obtained from the environment or surroundings. The
nutrient substance obtained by the living beings (organisms) from the
environment is utilized in the form of source of energy or in biosynthesis
among taxonomical factors, called nutrition.
Types of nutrition: The nutrition process on the basis of food preparation
among the living beings or organisms is of two types—
(i) Autotrophic nutrition: In such type of nutrition living beings prepare
their own food. Almost green plants, blue-green algae, some bacteria and
almost unicellular organisms take part in such type of nutrition called
autotrophic nutrition.
(ii) Heterotrophic nutrition: In such type of nutrition living beings do not
prepare their own food and acquire their food from another living beings
called heterotrophic nutrition. These types of nutrition occur in almost
creatures, fungi and some unicellular creatures etc.
Nutrition in plants and photosynthesis
Almost green plants are autotrophic and they prepare or synthesize their
food by the process of photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis and the components involve in it:
The process through which the food is prepared by the plant from
chlorophyll, carbon dioxide (C02) and water (H20) in the presence of sunlight
is called photosynthesis.
Thus the living cells of the plant by the help of chlorophyll and sunlight
absorb CO2 from atmosphere and then in the presence of water (H2O)
carbohydrate is formed. The chemical reactions involve in the photosynthesis
is—
Various components involved in photosynthesis
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(i) Chlorophyll
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The metal magnesium is found in the chlorophyll of plant leave and in the
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nucleus of the chlorophyll one atom of the magnesium exists. The chemical
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substance chloroplast is also called the nucleus of the photosynthesis.Green
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colour of plant is due to the presence of Chlorophyll. Chlorophyll absorbs the
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violet, blue and red colour of light.The substance chlorophyll is the pigments
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which are found in the cell organelles of the chloroplast. Thus the plant cell
which has chlorophyll (almost found in the leaves of the plants) only takes
part in photosynthesis process. The leaves of the plants are called
photosynthetic organs. The microorganisms like algae and hydria are usually
found in water and the entire bodies of these microorganisms are
photosynthetic. The chloroplast is surrounded by continuous double elastic
and composite membranes and in the cells of higher plants; chloroplast is in
the form of series of layer wise structure called Grana. The internal layers of
the chloroplast touch and pass through the grana which is called stroma. Thus
the process of photosynthesis occurs between the part of grana and stroma in
the chlorophyll.
(ii) Carbon dioxide (CO2):
During the process of photosynthesis for the formation of glucose (C6H12O6),
CO2 is utilized as raw material or basic component. The plants which are
found on the land surfaces acquire CO2 from atmosphere, while aquatic plants
acquire CO2 from the water, which is dissolved in it. When the intensity of
sunlight is lesser (usually in the morning and evening) then CO2 released due
to the respiratory activities of the plant cells and the required amount of CO2
for the photosynthesis becomes equal and it is called compensation point.
(iii) Water (H2O):

The substance water for the photosynthesis process used as raw material and
the water is absorbed by the roots of the plants through the process of
osmosis. The water is transported from the roots to leaves by the vascular
tissue xylem and ultimately water is reached up to the photosynthetic cells.
Thus through the water disassociation hydrogen is obtained.
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(iv) Sunlight:
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Usually the process of photosynthesis is done in the presence of sunlight by
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the plants, but some artificial source of light is also able to perform this
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process. Also the photosynthesis process is completed only by the visible light
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and violet, blue and red colours are absorbed by the chlorophyll.
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Photosynthatic activity for the violet coloured light is minimum, while for
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the red coloured light it is maximum.
Photosynthesis process and its various phases
The process of photosynthesis is an oxidation-reduction process in which
oxygen (O2) is formed by the oxidation of water (H2O), while sugar (glucose),
starch etc are formed by the reduction of carbon dioxide (C02). Usually there
are two phases in which photosynthesis process occurs—
(i) Photochemical reaction: This process (reaction) occurs in the grana of
the chlorophyll and the reaction involves is called Hill reaction. In this
process water (H2O) disassociates] and forms H and electron and for this
decomposition of water (H2O) energy is obtained from light. Ultimately
APT and NADPH are emancipated in the form of energy.
(ii) Chemical dark reaction: This process (reaction) occurs in the stroma of
the chlorophyll and for this reaction energy is supplied by the
photochemical reaction and that’s why it is called dark reaction. In this
reaction the produced energy in the forms of APT and NADPH are
utilised in the synthesis of carbohydrates from CO2.
The factors influencing the process of photosynthesis

(i) Light: The process of photosynthesis only occurs for violet, blue and red
light, while it doesn’t occur for ultraviolet, green, yellow and infrared
light. For the low intensity of light photosynthetic activity is maximum,
but as the intensity of the light increases photosynthetic activity
decreases.
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(ii) Temperature: As the process of photosynthesis is the complex chemical
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reaction of the various enzymes and these enzymes only being normal to
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participate in the chemical reaction up to a moderate and optimum
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temperature. Thus photosynthetic activity increases from 0°C to 37°C
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but 37°C onwards such activity decreases abruptly.
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(iii) Carbon dioxide (CO2): Up to a definite level on increasing the
concentration of CO2, photosynthetic activity increases, but after the
certain limit, the increase of its concentration doesn’t affect the
photosynthetic activity.
(v) Water (H2O): Due to the lack of water the photosynthetic activity
abruptly decreases because of steep fall of the rate of evaporation. In fact
the pores of the plant leaves become partially close and ultimately the
communication of CO2 is disrupted through the leaves.

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Plant Hormones
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(I) AUXINS - Discovered by Darwin in the year 1880.It controls the growth
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in the plants.
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Main functions are
 Destroys the straues.
 Prevents the separation of leaves.
 Save the crops from falling.
(II) GIBBERELLINS - Discovered by Japanese Scientist Kurosave in 1926.
Main functions are
 Turns the dwarf plants into long one.
 Helps in breaking the dormancy of plants.
 Motivates the speed to be sprout.
(III) CAPITAL
Main functions are
 Works in coordination with auxins
 Helps in cell-division.
 Helps in making of R.N.A. and Protein
(IV) ABA (ABSCISIC ACI(d)- Discovered by carnes and adicote.
Main functions are
 Keeps the seeds and bud in dormant condition.
 This hormone is against the growth.
 Plays main role in separation of leaves.
 Delays in flowering of long day plant.

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(V) ETHYLENE - This is the only hormone which is found in gaseous form.
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Main functions are
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 Helps in ripening the fruits.
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 Increases the number of female flowers.
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 Motivates the separation of leaves, flowers and fruits.
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(VI) FLORIGENS
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 It is formed in leaves but helps in blooming of the flowers.
 It is also called flowering hormones.
(VII)TRAUMATIC
 This is a type of dicarboxylic acid.
 It is formed in injured cells by which the injury of plants is healed.

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Viral diseases in plants
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Plants Diseases Plants Diseases
Tomato Twisted leaf disease Beet root Twisted Apex
Lemon Yellowing of veins Lady finger Yellow vein mosaic
Almond Streak pattern Sugarcane Grass shoot disease
Mustard Mosaic Papaya Mosaic
Seasamum Phyllody Banana Mosaic
Other viral diseases
Mosaic disease of tobacco :In this disease leaves get shricked and become
small.
The chlorophyll of leaves get destroyed.The factor of this disease is tobacco
mosaic virus (TMV).
Control: Affected plant should be burnt.
Bunchy of banana :Caused of banana virus, In this disease plants become
dwarf and all the leaves get accumulated like a rose on the branch.
Dacterial disease :Will be in potato, Also known as ring disease. Ring is
formed on the xylem.Factor is pseudomonas solonacearum bacteria. In this
disease conduction system of plant is affected.
Black Arm of cotton :Factor is xanthomonas bacteria.Symptom : A water
body (brown) is formed on the leaves.
Bacterial blight of rice : The disease is caused by xanthomonas oryzae
bacteria.Yellow greenish spot is seen on both side of leaves. Vascular bundles
get blocked due to bacterial growth.

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Tundus disease of wehat : The factor of this disease are corinobacterium
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titrici bacteria and enzuinal.Titriki Nematode.Lower parts of the eaves are
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Disease (plants) Causal organisms (fungals)
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Wart disease of potato Synchytrium endobioticum
Lab blight of potato Phytophythora infestans
Green ear disease of bajra Sclerospora gramicola
Rust of wheat Puccinia graminis tritici
Loose smut of wheat Ustilogo nuda tritici
Tikka disease of groundnut Corcospora personata
Red rot of sugarcane Colltotrichurn falcatum
Brown leaf spot of rice Helmin thosporium oryzea
Ergot disease of rye Cleviceps purpurea
Powdery mildew of wheat Erysiphe graminis tritici

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Ecology
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Study of inter relationship between living organisms and their environment
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(I) BIOTIC COMPONENTS
(i) Producer (ii) Consumer (iii) Decomposer
(i) Procedure
These components make their own food. Ex. Green plants.
(ii) Consumer
Those components that consumes the food made by the plants.These are
of three types :
(a) Primary Consumers : That leaves on green plants or some parts of
them.
(b) Secondary consumers : That depends on primary consumers : Fox,
Wolf, Peacock etc.
(c) Tertiary consumers : Those organisms who depends on the secondary
consumers : Tiger, Lion, Cheetah etc.
(iii) Decomposers
Fungi & bacteria are main organisms of this category.
(II) ABIOTIC COMPONENTS
(i) Carbonic substance (ii) Non-carbonic substance (iii) Climatic factor Ex.
Water, light, temperature, air, humidity, minerals etc.
(III) FOOD CHAIN
Transfer of energy from the producer through a series of organisms.
(IV) NITROGEN CYCLE
Nitrogen fixation is a process in which free atmospheric nitrogen is converted
by living organisms into nitrogenous compound that can be used by plant.
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(a) Ammonification : Formation of ammonia from organic compound like
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pseudonymouna.
(V) IMPORTANT FACTS
 Largest Angiosperm Tree -  Plant with largest leaf –
Eucalyptus Victoria Regia
 Longest tree in the world –  Smallest (in shape) Angiosperm
Sequoia giganteum plant – Lemna
 Smallest seed – Orchid  The smallest cell – Mycoplasma
 Smallest flower –Wolfia gallisepticum
 Largest flower – Reflexia  Coffee giving plant – Coffea
arnoldii Arabica
 Largest fruit – Lodoicea
(VI) VIRUS
 During the test of mosaic disease on tobacco Russian scientist. Ivanovsky
discovered the virus.
 Virus are connecting link between living and non-living
Characteristics of virus
 Became active inside a living cell.
 Caused diseases like bacteria and fungi.

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In man virus causes disease like mumps, chicken pox, hepatitis, polio,
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AIDS and Herpes.
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(VII) BACTERIA
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 Robert Koch discovered the bacteria of tuberculosis (T(b).
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 Louis Pasteur discovered the vaccine of Rabies and Pasteurization of
Milk.
On the basis of shape bacterias are of following types :
(i) Bacillus: This is rod-like or cylindrical.
(ii) Round or cocuse: There are round and the smallest bacteria.
(iii) Comma shaped or Vibrio : Like the ENG sign ex. Vibrio, Cholerae etc.
(iv) Spirillum: Spring or screw shaped

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Traditional General Knowledge
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NATIONAL/INTERNATIONAL YEARS
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2001 Year of Woman Empowerment (Govt. of Indi(a)
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2002 International Year of Mountain (by FAQ)
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2003 International Fresh Water Year
2004 International Year of Rice
2005 International Year of Physics/Sports (by UNO)
2006 International Year of Deserts and Desertification
2007 International Polar Year, Year of the Dolphin
2008 International Year of Sanitation, International Year of Languages
2009 International Year of Astronomy (UN)
International Year of Natural Fibers (FAQ)
International Year of Reconciliation
2010 International Year of Biodiversity
International Year of Youth
2011 International Year of Forests
International Year of Chemistry
THE FIRST’S
• The first person to reach Mount Everest Sherpa Tenzing,

Edmund Hillary
• The first person to reach North Pole Robert Peary
• The first person to reach South Pole Amundsen
• The first religion of the world Hinduism
• The first country to print book China
• The first country to issue paper currency China
• The first country to commence competitive
examination in civil services China
• The first President of the U.S.A. George Washington
• The first Prime Minister of Britain Robert Walpole
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• Thefirst Governor General of the United Nations Trigveli (Norway)
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• The first country to win football World cup Uruguay
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• The first country to prepare a constitution U.S.A.
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• The first Governor General of Pakistan Mohd. Ali Jinnah
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• The first country to host NAM summit Belgrade (Yugoslavi(a)
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• The first European to attack India Alexander, The Great
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• The first European to reach China Marco Polo
• The first person to fly aeroplane Wright Brothers
• The first person to sail round the world Magellan
• The first country to send man to the moon U.S.A.
• The first country to launch Artificial satellite
in the space Russia
• The first country to host the modern Olympics Greece
• The first city on which the atom bomb was dropped Hiroshima (Japan)
• The first person to land on the moon Neil Armstrong
followed by Edwin E. Aldrin
• The first shuttle to go in space Columbia
• The first spacecraft to reach on Mars Viking—I
• The first woman Prime Minister of England Margaret Thatcher
• The first muslim Prime Minister of a country Benazir Bhutto
(Pakistan)
• The first woman Prime Minister of a country Mrs. S. Bandamaike
(Sri Lank(a)
• The first woman to climb Mount Everest Mrs. Junko Tabei
(Japan)
• The first woman cosmonaut of the world Velentina Tereshkova
(Russi(a)
• The first woman President of the
U.N. General Assembly Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit
• The first man to fly into space Yuri Gagarin (Russi(a)
• The first batsman to score three test century in three
successive tests on debut Mohd. Azharuddin
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• The first man to have climbed Mount Everest Twice Nawang Gombu
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• The first U.S. President to resign Presidency Richard Nixon
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FIRST IN INDIA
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MALE
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• The first President of Indian Republic Dr. Rajendra Prasad
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• The first Prime Minister of free India Pt. Jawahar Lal Nehru
• The first Indian to win Nobel Prize Rabindranath Tagore
• The first President of Indian National Congress W. C. Banerjee
• The first Muslim President of Indian National
Congress Badruddin Tayyabji
• The first Muslim President of India Dr. Zakir Hussain
• The first British Governor General of India Lord William Bentinck
• The first British Viceroy of India Lord Canning
• The first Governor General of free India Lord Mounthatten
• The first and the last Indian to be Governor General of
free India
C. Rajgopalachari
• The first man who introduced printing press in India James Hicky
• The first Indian to join the I.C.S. Satyendra Nath
Tagore
• India’s first man in space Rakesh Sharma
• The first Prime Minister of India who resigned
without completing the full term Morarji Desai
• The first Indian Commander-in-Chief of India General Cariappa
• The first Chief of the Army Staff Gen. Maharaj Rajendra
Singhji
• The first Indian member of the Viceroy’s
executive council S. P. Sinha
• The first President of India Who died while in office Dr. Zakir Hussain
• The first Prime Minister of India who did not
• face the Parliament Charan Singh
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• The first Field Marshal of India S. H. F. Manekshaw
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• The first Indian to get Nobel prize in Physics C. V. Raman
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• The first Indian to receive Bharat Ratna award Dr. Radhakrishnan
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• The first Indian to cross English channel Mihir Sen
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• The first person to receive Jnanpith award Sri Shankar Kurup
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• The first Speaker of the Lok Sabha Ganesh Vasudeva
Mavaiankar
• The first Vice-President of India Dr. Radhakrishnan
• The first Education Minister Abui Kalam Azad
• The first Home Minister of India Sardar Vailabh Bhai
Patel
• The first Indian Air Chief Marshal S. Mukherjee
• The first Indian Naval Chief Vice Admiral R. D.
Katari
• The first judge of International Court of Justice Dr. Nagendra Singh
• The first person to receive Paramveer Chakra Major Somnath Sharma
• The first person to reach Mt. Everest without oxygen Sherpa Anga Dorjee
• The first Chief Election Commissioner Sukumar Sen
• The first person to receive Magsaysay Award Acharya Vinoba Bhave
• The first person of Indian origin to receive Nobel Prize in Medicine
Hargovind Khurana
• The first Chinese traveller to visit India Fahein
• The first person to receive Stalin Prize Saifuddin Kitchlu
• The4irst person to resign from the central cabinet Shyama Prasad
Mukherjee
• The first foreigner to receive Bharat Ratna Khan Abdul Ghaftar
Khan
• The first person to receive Nobel Prize in Economics Amartya Sen
• The first Chief Justice of Supreme Court Justice Hiralal J. Kania

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Female
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• The first lady to become “Miss World” Rita Faria
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• The first woman judge in Supreme Court Mrs. Meera Sahib
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Fatima Bibi
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• The first woman Ambassador Miss C. B. Muthamma
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• The first woman Governor of a State in tree India Mrs. Sarojini Naidu
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• The first woman Prime Minister Mrs. Indira Gandhi
• The first woman to climb Mount Everest. Bachhendri Pal
• The first woman to climb Mount Everest twice Santosh Yadav
• Thefirst woman President of the Indian National
Congress Mrs. Annie Besant
• The first woman chief justice of a High Court Mrs. Leela Seth
• The first woman pilot in Indian Air Force Harita Kaur Dayal
• The first woman President of the
United Nations General Assembly Mrs. Vijaya Laxmi
Pandit
• The first woman Chief Minister of an Indian State Mrs. Sucheta Kripalani
• The first woman chairman of
Union Public Service Commission Roze Miltan Bethew
• The first woman Director General of Police (DGP) Kanchan Chaudhary
Bhattacharya
• The first woman Lieutenent General Puneeta Arora
• The first woman Air Vice Marshal P. Bandopadhyaya
• The first woman chairperson of Indian Airlines Sushma Chawla
• The first woman I.P.S. Officer Mrs. Kiran Bedi
• The first and the last Muslim woman ruler of Delhi Razia Sultan
• The first woman to receive Ashoka Chakra Nirja Bhanot
• The first woman to crass English Channel Aarti Saha
• The first woman to receive Nobel Prize Mother Teresa
• The first woman to receive Bharat Ratna Mrs. Indira Gandhi
• The first woman to receive Jnanpith Award Ashapurna Devi

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POPULAR NAMES OF PERSONALITIES
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Popular Name Personality
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Lady with the lamp Florence Nightingale
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Grand Old man Dadabhai Naoroji of India
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Iron Duke Duke of Wellington
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Guru Ji M.S. Golwalkar
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John Bull England and the English people
CR Chakravarti Rajagopalachari
King Maker Earl of Warwick
JP Jayaprakash Narayan
Little Corporal Napoleon
Mahamanya Pt. Madan Mohan Malaviya
Gurudev Rabindranath Tagore
Maid of Orleans Joan of Arc
Desh Bandhu C.R. Das
Deen Bandhu C.F. Andrews
Yankee Inhabitants of U.S.A.
Lion of the Punjab (Sher-i-Punja(b) Lala Lajpat Rai
Bard of Avon Shakespeare
Panditji Jawaharlal Nehru
Man of Blood Bismark
Andhra Kesri T. Prakasam
Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak
Bapu Mahatma Gandhi
Apostle of Free Trade Richard Cobden
Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose
Desert Fox Gen. Rommei
Nightingle of India Sarojini Naidu
Lal, Bal, Pal Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak,
Bipin Chandra Pal
Father of English Poetry Geoffery Chaucer
Feuhrer Hitler
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Popular Name Personality
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Iron man Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel
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Ike Gen. Eisenhower
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Tomy Atkins English soldier
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Jawan Indian soldier
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Poolu French soldier
Vizzy Maharaja Kumar of Vizianagara
G.I. American soldier
Wizard of the North Sir Walter Scot
Samuel Clemens Mark Twain
Sparrow Major Gen. Rajender Singh
Shastriji Lal Bahadur Shastri
Babuji Jagjiwan Ram
NICKNAMES/FATHERS
Father of Greek Tragedy Aeschylus
Father of Comedy Aristophanes
Father of the Telephone Alexander Graham Bell
Father of Sunday Newspapers John Bell
Father of Chemistry Robert Boyle
Father of Canada Jacques Cartier
Father of English Poetry Geoffery Chaucer
Father of Aviation Sir George Cayley
Father of Immunology Edward Jenner
Father of Modern Chemistry Antoine Lavoisier
Father of Atom Bomb Dr. Robert Oppenheimer
Father of Nuclear Physics Ernest Rutherford
Father of Economics Adam Smith
Father of Railways George Stephenson

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THE NEWSPAPER WORLD
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Newspaper Language Newspaper Language
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Times of India English Dainik Jagran Hindi
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Dainik Bhaskar Hindi Malaya Manorama Malayalam
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Gujarat Samachar Gujarati Hindustan Times English
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The Hindu English Mathrtjbhumi Malayalam
Ananda Bazar Patrika Bengali Aaj Hindi
Punjab Kesri Hindi Eenadu Telugu
Sandesh Gujarati Hindustan Hindi
Amar Ujala Hindi Daily Thanthi Tamil
Nays Bharat Hindi Daily Sakal Marathi
Navbharat Times Hindi Dinamalar Tamil
WORLD’S FAMOUS NEWS AGENCIES

Newspaper City/Country Newspaper City/Country
Al-Ahram Cairo (Egypt) Le Republics Rome (Italy)
Bangladesh Dacca (Bangladesh) Merdeka Djakarta (Indonesi(a)
Observer
Daily News New York (US(A) New York Times New York (US(A)
Daily Mail London (Englan(d) Pravada Moscow (Russi(a)
Daily Mirror London (Englan(d) People’s Daily Beijing (Chin(a)
Dawn Karachi (Pakistan) Star Johannsburg (S. Afric(a)
Eastern Sun Singapore The Times London (Englan(d)
Financial London (Englan(d) The Island Colombo (Sri Lank(a)
Times
Guardian London (Englan(d) The Times of India India
Izvestia Moscow (Russi(a) Washington Post Washington D.C. (US(A)
Independent London (Englan(d) Khalij Times Dubai (UAE)
Le Monde Paris (France)

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WORLD’S FAMOUS NEWS AGENCIES
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Countries Agencies Countries Agencies
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Australia AAP Italy ANSA
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China XINHUA Israel ITIM
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Egypt MENA Japan KYODO
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France A. F. P. Malaysia ERNAMA
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Germany D. P. A. Pakistan APP
India PTI Palestine WAFA
India UNI Russia Tass
India Samachar Bharti Russia NOVOSTI
India Univarta United Kingdom REUTER
Indonesia Antara USA AP (Associated Press)
Iran IRNA USA UPI (United Press
International)
UNITED NATIONS ORGANISATION

 World’s largest international organisation and a successor of League of
Nations. (League of Nations was formed after the I World War, but it
faile(d).
 The Charter of the UN was signed at San Francisco on June 26, 1945, at a
meeting of the representatives of 50 states, representing 2/3rd of the
world population.
 The name United Nations was given at the instance of US President
Roosevelt.
 The Charter or Constitution was formed at Dumbarton Oaks (Washington
D(c)Conference by USSR, UK, US and China.
 Formally came into existence on Oct 24, 1945.
 First regular session was held in London in Jan, 1946 and Trygve Le
(Norway) was elected the first Secretary General.
 Headquarters located at First Avenue, UN Plaza, New York City, New York,
US. It is 17 acre tract of land donated by John D. Rockfeller. The building is
39 storeys.
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 Flag : White UN emblem (2 bent olive branches open at the top, and in
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between them is the map of the worl(d)on a light blue background. It was
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adopted on Oct 20, 1947. The UN Flag is not to be subordinated to any
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 The purposes of the UN can be divided into 4 groups—Security, Justice,
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 Disarm, decolonise and develop are the 3 new objectives set forth by the
UN.
 One of the principles of UN is not to interfere in the internal affairs of any
State so long as it acts according to the terms of the charter.
 The official languages of the UN are English, French, Chinese, Russian,
Arabic and Spanish, while the working languages are English and French
only.
 Admission of Members New members are admitted to the General
Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council.
 The present membership of UN is 192.
ORGANS OF THE UNITED NATJONS
 There are six principal bodies of the UN:
1. General Assembly
2. Security Council
3. Economic and Social Council
4. International Court of Justice
5. Trusteeship Council
6. Secretariat
GENERAL ASSEMBLY
 Consists of all member states of the U.N. Each member nation can send five
delegates but each nation has only one vote.
 The General Assembly meets in regular session beginning in September
each year.

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SECURITY COUNCIL
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 It is the executive body of the U.N. It consists of total 15 members, out of
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 China, France, Russia, UK and USA are the permanent members.
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 The non-permanent members are elected by the General Assembly for 2
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years from among the member states.
 The permanent members of the security council have got veto power. Any
matter supported by the majority of the members fails to be carried
through if negative vote is cast by any of the permanent members.
ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL
 This organ of the U.N. consists of 54 representatives of the member
countries elected by a two third majority of the General Assembly.
 Its main function is to achieve international co-operation by solving
international problems of economic, social, cultural and humanitarian
character.
 One third of this council is elected every year for the period of three years
and equal numbers retire annually.
INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE
 It is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations.
 The headquarters of the International court of justice is at the Hague
(Netherlands).
 The court consists of 15 judges. The judges of the court are elected by the
General Assembly along with the security council for a nine year term.
TRUSTEESHIP COUNCIL
 This organ consists of 14 members out of which five are the permanent
members of the security council.
 The function of this organ is to provide for an international trusteeship
system to safeguard the interests of inhabitants of territories which are not
yet fully self governing and which may be placed there under by individual
agreements.
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SECRETARIAT
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 This organ of the United Nations is the chief administrative office which
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coordinates and supervises the activities of the U.N.
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 Secretary-General of the U.N. is elected for five years and eligible for re-
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election.
SECRETARY GENERALS OF THE UNITED NATIONS

Name Nationality Period
1. Trygve Le Norway 1946-53
2. Dag Hammarskjoeld Sweden 1953-61
3. U. Thant Burma 1961 -71
4. Kurt Waldheim Austria 1972-81
5. Javier Perez de Cuellar Peru 1982-91
6. Dr. Boutros Boutros Ghali Egypt 1992-96
7. Kofi Annan Ghana 1997-2007
8. Ban Ki-moon South Korea 2007-At Present
SOME IMPORTANT U.N. AGENCIES

Name of Agency Estd. Headquarters Purpose
In
International Labour 1919 Geneva To improve conditions
Organisation (ILO) and living standard of
workers.
World Health 1948 Geneva Attainment of highest
Organisation (WHO) possible level of health
by all people.
United Nations 1946 Paris To promote
Educational, 1946 collaboration among
Scientific and Cultural nations through
Organisation education, science and
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(UNESCO) culture.
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International Atomic 1957 Vienna To promote peaceful
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Energy 1957 Agency uses of atomic energy.
(IAE(A)
United Nations 1946 New York To promote children’s
International welfare all over the
Children’s Emergency world.
Fund (UNICEF)
United Nations High 1950 Geneva To provide protection to
Commissioner for refugees.
Refugees (UNHCR)
United Nations Fund 1967 New York For formulating
for 1967 Population population policies.
Activities (UNFP(A)
International Fund for 1977 Rome For financing
Agricultural agricultural projects in
Development the world to raise the
economic growth.
United Nations 1964 Geneva Promotes international
Conference on Trade trade to accelerate
and Development economic growth of
(UNCTA(d) developing countries.
International Civil 1947 Montreal Promotes safety of
Aviation Organisation international aviation.
(ICAO)
International Monetary 1945 Washington DC Promotes international
Fund (IMF) monetary cooperation.
International Finance 1956 Washington DC Promote economic
Corporation (IF(c) development by
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encouraging private
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Universal Postal Union 1947 Berne Improve various postal
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(UPU) services in the world.
United. Nations 1972 Nairobi Promotes international
Environmental co-operation in human
Programme (UNEP) environment.
United Nations 1967 Geneva Sets international
Industrial regulations for radio,
Development telegraph, telephone and
Organisation (UNIDO) space radio
communication.
Food and Agricultural 1945 Rome To improve living
Organisation (FAO) condition of rural
population.
International Bank for 1945 Washington Development of
Reconstruction and D.C. economies of members
Development (IBR(d) by facilitating
investment of capitals by
providing loans.
World Meteorological 1950 Geneva Promote international
Organisation (WMO) exchange of weather
reports.
World Trade 1995 Geneva Setting rules for world
Organisation (WTO) trade to reduce tariffs.
United Nations New York Help deneloping
Development countries increase the
Programme (UNDP) wealth producing
capabilities of their
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natural and human
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Inter Government 1958 London Promotes co-operation
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Maritime Consultative on technical matters of
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Organisation (IMCO) maritime safety,
navigation and
encourages anti-
pollution measures.
International 1960 Washington An affiliate of the World
Development D.C. Bank, aims to help
Association (ID(A) under-developed
countries raise living
standards.
International Tele- 1947 Geneva Sets international
communication Union regulations for radio
(ITU) telegraph, telephone and
space radio
communications.
United Nations 1965 New York Provides training and
Institute for Training research to help
and Research facilitate UN objectives
(UNITAR) of world peace and
security and of economic
and social progress.
United Nations Relief 1949 New York Provides basic amenities
and Work for Palestine and education for the
Refugees (UNRW(A) victims of Arab-Israel
War
United Nations Fund 1967 New York Studying population
For Population dynamics, collecting
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Activities (UNFP(A) population data,
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formulating and
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evolving population
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policies, family planning
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and related programmes
MEMBERS OF UNITED NATIONS ORGANISATION (UNO)

Country Year of Country Year of
admission admission
Afghanistan 1946 Albania 1955
Algeria 1962 Andorra 1993
Angola 1976 Antigua and Barbuda 1981
Argentina 1945 Armenia 1992
Australia 1945 Austria 1955
Azebaijan 1992 Bahamas 1973
Bahrain 1971 Bangladesh 1974
Barbados 1966 Belarus 1945
Belgium 1945 Belize 1981
Benin 1960 Bhutan 1971
Bolivia 1945 Bosnia-Herzegovina 1992
Botawana 1966 Brazil 1945
Brunei 1984 Bulgaria 1955
Burkina Faso 1960 Burundi 1962
Cambodia 1955 Cameroon 1960
Canada 1945 Cape Verde 1975
Central African Rep. 1960 Chad 1960
Chile 1945 China 1945
Colombia 1945 Comoros 1975
Congo, Rep. of the 1960 Congo, Dem. Rep. of the 1960
Costa Rica 1945 Cote d’lvoire 1960
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admission admission
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Croatia 1992 Cuba 1945
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Cyprus 1960 Czech Republic 1993
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Denmark 1945 Ojibouti 1977
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Dominica 1978 Dominican Republic 1945
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Ecuador 1945 Egypt 1945
El Salvador 1945 Equatorial Guinea 1968
Eritrea 1993 Estonia 1991
Ethiopia 1945 Fiji Islands 1970
Finland 1955 France 1945
Gabon 1960 Gambia 1965
Georgia 1992 Germany 1973
Ghana 1957 Greece 1945
Grenada 1974 Guatemala 1945
Guinea 1958 Guinea-Bissau 1974
Gu’ana 1966 Haiti 1945
Honduras 1945 Hungary 1955
Iceland 1946 India 1945
Indonesia 1950 Iran 1945
Iraq 1945 Ireland, Rep. of 1955
Israel 1949 Italy 1955
Jamaica 1962 Japan 1956
Jordan 1955 Kazakhstan 1992
Kenya 1963 Korea (North) 1991
Korea (South) 1991 Kuwait 1963
Kyrgyzstafl 1992 Laos 1955
Latvia 1991 Lebanon 1945
Lesotho 1966 Liberia 1945
Libya 1955 Liechtenstein 1990
Lithuania 1991 Luxembourg 1945
Macedonia 1993 Madagascar 1960
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admission admission
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Malawi 1964 Malaysia 1957
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Maldives 1965 Mali 1960
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Malta 1964 Marshall Islands 1991
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Mauritania 1961 Mauritius 1968
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Mexico 1945 Micronesia 1991
Moldova 1992 Monaco 1993
Mangolia 1961 Morocco 1956
Mozambique 1975 Myanmar 1948
Namibia 1990 Nepal 1955
Netherlands 1945 New Zealand 1945
Nicaragua 1945 Niger 1960
Nigeria 1960 Norway 1945
Oman 1971 Pakistan 1947
Palau 1994 Panama 1945
Papua New Guinea 1975 Paraguay 1945
Peru 1945 Philippines 1945
Poland 1945 Portugal 1955
Qatar 1971 Romania 1955
Russia 1945 Rwanda 1962
St. Kitts and Nevis 1983 St. Lucia 1979
St. Vincent & 1980 Samoa 1976
Grenadines 1992 Sao Tome e Principe 1975
San Marino 1945 Senegal 1961
Saudi Arabia 1976 Sierra Leone 1961
Seychelles 1965 Slovakia 1993
Singapore 1992 Solomon Islands 1978
Slovenia 1960 South Africa 1945
Somalia 1955 Sri Lanka 1955
Spain 1956 Suriname 1975
Sudan 1968 Sweden 1946
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admission admission
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Swaziland 1945 Tajikistan 1992
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Syria 1961 Thailand 1946
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Tanzania 1960 Trinidad and Tobago 1962
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Togo 1956 Turkey 1945
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Tunisia 1992 Uganda 1962
Turkmenistan 1945 United Arab Emirates 1971
Ukraine 1945 United States of America 1945
United Kingdom 1945 Upper Volta 1960
Uruguay 1992 Vanuatu 1981
Uzbekistan 1945 Vietnam 1977
Venezuela 1947 Zambia 1965
Yemen 1999 Kiribati 1999
Tongo 1999 Tuvalu 2000
Nauru 2000 Switzerland 2002
Yugoslavia 2002 Montenegro 2006
East Timor
Note : Switzerland was the 190th member (in 2002) while East Timor was the
191st (in 2002). Montenegro became the 192nd member in 2006.
OTHER INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS AND GROUPS

THE COMMON WEALTH
 It was originally known as ‘The British Commonwealth of Nations’. It is an
association of sovereing and independent states which formally made up
the British empire.
 Members : 54
 Headquarters : London
 The British Monarch (Queen Elizabeth II) is the symbolic head of the
commonwealth.
 Commonwealth heads of government meet (CHOGM) is held in every 2
years.
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ARAB LEAGUE
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 Established : March 22, 1945.
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 Objective : To promote economic, social, political and military cooperation.
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 Members : 22
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 Headquarters : Cairo
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ASIA PACIFIC ECONOMIC COOPERATION (APE(c)
 Established : Nov, 1989
 Objective : To promote trade and investment in the Pacific basin.
 Members : 21
 Headquarters : Singapore
ASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANK (AD(b)

 Established : Dec 19, 1966
 Objective : To promote regional economic cooperation.
 Members: 67
 Headquarters : Manila
ASSOCIATION OF SOUTH-EAST ASIAN NATIONS (ASEAN)

 Established : Aug. 8, 1967
 Objective : Regional, economic, social and cultural cooperation among the
non-communist countries of South-East Asia.
 Members : Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand,
Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, Cambodia. (10 in number)
 Headquarters : Djakarta
COMMON WEALTH OFINDEPEN DENT STATES (CIS)

 Established : Dec. 8, 1991
 Objective : To coordinate inter-common wealth relations and to provide a
mechanism for the orderly dissolution of the USSR.

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 Members : 11
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 Headquarters : Kirava (Belarus)
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GROUP OF 8 OR G-8
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 Objective : To promote co-operation among major non-communist
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economic powers.
 Members : France, Germany, Japan, UK, US, Canada, Italy, plus Russia
(added later)
GROUP OF 15 (G-15)
 Established: 1989
 Objective : To promote economic co-operation among developing nations.
 Members: 18
GROUP OF 20 (G-20)
 Objective : For cooperation and consultation on matters pertaining to the
International Financial System.
 Members: 20
GROUP OF 77 (G-77)
 Established : Oct., 1967
 Objective : To promote economic co-operation among developing nations.
 Members : 131
INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL POLICE ORGANISATION (INTERPOL)

 Established : 1914
 Objective : To promote international cooperation among criminal police
authorities.
 Members: 187

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 Headquarters : France
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INTERNATIONAL OLYMPIC COMMITTEE (IO(c)
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 Established : June 23, 1894
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 Objective : To promote the olympic ideals and administer olympic games.
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 Members : 205
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 Headquarters: Switzerland
INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATION FOR STANDARDISATION (ISO)

 Established : Feb., 1947
 Objective : To promote the development of international standards
 Members : 163
 Headquarters: Switzerland
INTERNATIONAL RED CROSS AND RED CRESCENT MOVEMENT

 Objective : To promote worldwide humanitarian aid
 Headquarters : Geneva
NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT (NAM)

 Established: Sept. 1961
 Objective : Political co-operation and separate itself from both USA and
USSR (in the cold-war er(a)
 Members: 118
 The credit of evolving the concept goes to Pt. Jawahar lal Nehru. The other
contributors were Marshal Tito (President of Yugoslavi(a), Dr. Sukarno
(President of Indonesi(a) and General Nasser (President of Egypt).
Bandung conference in Indonesia became the forum for the birth of NAM.
EUROPEAN UNION
 Established : Apr. 8, 1965. Effective on July 1, 1967.

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 Objective: To create a united Europe in which member countries would
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 Members: 27 (The ten new countries which joined in 2004 are Cyprus,
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 Headquarters: Brussels (Belgium). The common European, currency, Euro,
was launched on Jan. 1, 1999.
NORTH ATLANTIC TREATYORGANISATION (NATO)
 Established : April 4, 1949
 Objective : Mutual defence and cooperation
 Members : 28
 Headquarters : Brussels
ORGANISATION OF PETROTEUM EXPORTING COUNTRIES (OPE(c)
 Established : Sept, 1959
 Objective : Attempts to set world prices by controlling oil production and
also persues member interest in trade and development.
 Members: 12 (Algeria, Ecuador, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, UAE, Nigeria,
Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Angola and Venezuel(a).
 Headquarters : Vienna (Austri(a)
SOUTH ASIAN ASSOCIATION FOR REGIONAL COOPERATION (SPAR(c)
 Established : Dec. 8, 1985
 Objective : To promote economic, social and cultural cooperation
 Members : Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, Srilanka &
Afghanistan.
 Headquarters: Kathmandu
WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANISATION (WMO)
 Established : Oct 11, 1947, Effective from April 4, 1951.

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 Objective : Specialised UN Agency concerned with meteorological
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cooperation.
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 Members: 188
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AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL (AI)
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 Objective : To keep a watch over human rights violation worldwide.
 Headquarters : London
 Got Nobel Prize in 1977 for Peace.
ORGANISATION OF THE ISLAMIC CONFERENCE (OI(c)

 Objective : To promote Islamic solidarity among member states and to
consolidate cooperation among members.
 Members : 57
 Headquarters: Saudi Arabia
WORLDWIDE FUND FOR NATURE (WWF)

 Established: Sept. 11, 1961
 Objective : To save the wildlife from extinction
 Members : All the countries of the world.
 Headquarters : Gland (Switzerlan(d).
SHANGHAI COOPERATION ORGANIZATION (SCO)

 Established : June 7, 2001
 Objective : To develop mutual cooperation.
 Members : Russia, China, Kazakhistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrghiztan and
Tajikistan.

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SCOUTS AND GUIDES
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 Established: 1907 by Lt. Gen. Baden Powell.
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 Objective : To encourage good character, loyalty to god and country, service
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 World Scouts Bureau: Geneva (Switzerlan(d).
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WORLD WILDLIFE FUND FOR NATURE (WWF)
 Established : Sept. 11,1961
 Objective: To save the wildlife from extinction
 Members : All the countries of the world
 Headquarters : Gland (Switzerlan(d)
SPACE PROGRAMME OF INDIA

 The Indian space programme began in 1962 by the setting up of Indian
National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR).
 Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) was set-up in 1969 with its
headquarters at Bangalore.
 Space commission was set-up in 1972.
 Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching station near Thiruvanthapuram in
Kerala was set-up in 1963 for launching facilities.
 Sriharikota Range (SITAR) is a satellite launching station set up in
Sriharikota in Andhra Pradesh. SHAR has been renamed as Satish Dhawan
Space Centre.
 India’s first satellite communication earth station was set-up at Arvi near
Pune.
 Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre was set up by Vikram Sarabhai at
Thiruvananthapuram to built know-how for satellite technology.
 The first Indian satellite Aryabhatta was launched on Apr. 19, 1975 from
Baikanur (erstwhile USSR).
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 India launched its second satellite named Bhaskara 1 on June 7, 1979 from
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 The first Indian communication satellite, APPLE was launched on June 19,
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Indian satellite that was placed in geostationary orbit.
PRIME ISRO ESTABLISHMENTS

Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSS(c), Trivandrum
 Responsible for development of rocket launch vehicles.
ISRO Satellite Centre (SA(c), Bangalore

 Responsible for space craft mainframe development.
Space Application Centre (SA(c), Ahmedabad

 Main centre for space application and development of spacecraft’s
payloads.
Auxiliary Propulsion System Unit (APSU), Bangalore and Trivandrum

 Develops propulsion control packages for launch vehicles and spacecrafts.
Development and Educational Communication Unit (DECU), Ahmedabad

 Produces development and educational television programmes.
 ISRO Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network (ISTRA(c).
 Consists of five ground stations located at Sriharikota, Kdvalpur,
Thiruvananthapuram, Car Nicobar and Ahmedabad with headquarters at
Bangalore.
National Remote Sensing Agency (NRS(A), Hyderabad
 For utilizing the potential of remote sensing, mainly in the context of
natural resources survey.
 Indian National Satellite Space Segment Project Office (INSAT-INSSPO)
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 Responsible for implementation and operation of the space segment for
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 The Master Control Facility for INSAT spacecrafts is located at Hassan in
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Kamataka. The second centre is at Bhopal.
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Physical Research Laboratory (PRL), Ahmedabad
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 To carry out research in outer space.
Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS)

 A US- sponsored mission near Thiruvananthapuram (Keral(a) is a rocket
launching facility which became operational in 1963.
Rocket Propellent Plant (RPP), Thumba

 Commissioned in 1969, it is engaged in production of solid propellent
blocks to support rocket launching programmes.
Experimental Satellite Communication Earth Station (ESCES),

Ahmedabad
 Set-up in 1967, to impart instruction in satellite communication
technology.
Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE), Ahmedabad

 Set up in 1970, to conduct joint TV experiments.
Experimental Satellite Communication Earth Station, Arvi, Pune

 India’s first satellite communication earth station. It operates through the
Intersat-III satellite positioned over the Indian Ocean. Second station has
been opened at Dehradun.
National Mesosphere Stratosphere Troposphere Reader Facility (NMRF)

- Gadanki (near Tirupati)
 To carry out atmospheric research.
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MILESTONES OF INDIAN SPACE PROGRAMME
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Aryabhatta April 19, 1975 Cosmos Baikanur Scientific
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Bhaskara June 7, 1979 Cosmos Baikanur Geosurvey
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Rohini Aug. 10, 1979 S.L. V-3 Sriharikota Geosurvey
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Rohini-D-1 July 18, 1980 S.L. V-3 Sriharikota Geosurvey
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Rohini May 31, 1981 S.L. V-3 Sriharikota Communication
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Apple June 19, 1981 Ariane Kourou Geosurvey
Bhaskara II Nov 20, 1981 Cosmos Baikanur Communication
INSAT-IA April 10, 1982 Delta America Scientific
Rohini* April 17, 1983 S. L. V-3 D2 Sriharikota Communication
INSAT-1B Aug 30, 1983 Space Shuttle America Technological
SROSS I* March 24, 1987 ASLV-D1 Sriharikota Remote sensing
IRS-IA March 17, 1988 VOSTOK Baikanur Technological
SROSS II July 13, 1988 ASLV-D2 Sriharikota Communication
lNSAT-1C* July 21, 1988 Ariane-4 PlaceCommunication
INSAT-ID June 12, 1990 Delta America Remote sensing
IRS-IB Aug 29, 1991 Vostok Baikanur Multipurpose
INSAT-2A July 10, 1992 Ariane-4 Kourou Multipurpose
Insat-2B July 23, 1993 Ariane-4 Kourou Remote sensing
IRS-P1* Sep 20, 1993 PSLV-D1 Sriharikota Scientific
SPOSS-IV May 4, 1994 ASLV-D3 Sriharikota Remote sensing
IRS P2 Oct 15, 1994 PSLV-D2 Sriharikota Multipurpose
INSAT-2C Dec 7, 1995 Ariane-4 Kourou Remote sensing
IRS-IC Dec 28, 1995 Molenia BaiksnurRemote sensing
IRS-P3 Mar. 21, 1996 PSLV-D3 Sriharikota Communication
INSAT-2D* June 4, 1997 Ariane-4 Kourou Remote sensing
IRS-1D Sep. 29, 1997 PSLV-C1 SriharikotaMultipurpose
INSAT-2E Apr. 3, 1999 Ariane-4 Kourou Remote sensing
IRS-P4 May 4, 1999 PSLV -C2 Sriharikota Communication
INSAT-3B Mar. 22, 2000 Ariane-5 Kourou Communication
GSAT-1* Mar. 28, 2001 GSLV-D1 Sriharikota Communication
G-SAT-1 April 18, 2001 GSLV-D1 Sriharikota Communication
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INSAT-3C Jan. 24, 2002 Ariane-4 Kourou Communication
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MATSAT Sept. 11, 2002 PSLVC-4 Sriharikota Meteorology
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INSAT-3A April 10, 2003 Arlene-5 Kourou Communication
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GSAT-2 May 8, 2003 GSLV-D2 Sriharikota Communication
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EDUSAT Sept. 20, 2004 GSLV-F01 Sriharikota Education
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CARTOSAT May 5, 2005 PSLV-C6 Srikarikota Mapping
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HAMSAT May 5, 2005 PSLV-C6 Sriharikota Communication
CARTOSAT-2 Jan 10, 2007 PSLV-C7 Sriharikota Mapping
SRE-1 Jan 10, 2007 PSLV-C7 Sriharikota Experimental
INSAT-4B Mar 12, 2007 Arlene-5 Kourou Communication
AGILE Apr 23, 2007 PSLV-C8 Sriharikota Astronomy
Tech SAR Jan21, 2008 PSLV-C10 Sriharikota Surveillance
CARTOSAT-2A Apr 28, 2008 PSLV-C9 Sriharikota Mapping
IMS-1 Apr 28, 2008 PSLV-C9 Sriharikota Remote Sensing
CHANDRAYAAN-1 Oct 22, 2008 PSLV-C11 Sriharikota Moon Mission
RISAT-2 Apr 4, 2009 PSLV-C12 Sriharikota Observation
OCEANSAT-2 Sept 23, 2009 PSLV-C14 Sriharikota Observation
GSAT-4 Apr 15, 2010 GSLV-D3 Sriharikota Experimental
CARTOSAT-2B July 15, 2010 PSLV-C1S Sriharikota Remote Sensing
GSAT-5P Dec 25, 2010 GSLV-F06 Sriharikota Communication
LAUNCH VEHICLE TECHNOLOGY

 In the field of launch vehicle technology, India has evolved a four-stage
development programme.
 In the first stage SLV-3 (Satellite Launching Vehicle-3) was developed.
Rohini satellite was launched with its help,
 In the second stage ASLV (Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle) was
developed.
 In the third stage PSLV (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle) was developed in
which liquid propellant was used for the first time along with solid
propellants.

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 In the fourth stage GSLV (Geo-stationary Launch Vehicle) was developed.
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hydrogen as fuel at — 253°C and liquid oxygen at – 183°C as oxidiser.
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HISTORY OF SATELLITE LAUNCH VEHICLES
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SLV-3 Rohini 10 Aug., 1979 Unsuccessful
SLV-3 Rohini 18 July, 1980 Successful
SLV-3 Rohini 31 May, 1980 Unsuccessful
SLV-3 Rohini 17 April, 1983 Successful
ASLV-D1 SROSS-1 24 March, 1987 Unsuccessful
ASLV-D2 SROSS-2 13 July, 1988 Unsuccessful
ASLV-D3 SROSS-3 20 May. 1992 Successful
ASLV-D1 IRS-P1 20 Sep., 1993 Unsuccessful
ASLV-D2 IRS-P2 15 Oct., 1994. Successful
ASLV-D3 IRS-P3 21 March, 1996 Successful
ASLV-C1 IRS-1D 29 Sep., 1997 Successful
ASLV-C2 IRS-P4 26 May, 1999 Successful
ASLV-D1 GSAT 28 March, 2001 Unsuccessful
ASLV-D1 GSAT 18 April, 2001 Successful
ASLV-D2 GSAT-2 8 May, 2003 Successful
PSLV-C5 Resourcestat-1 17 Oct, 2003 Successful
GSLV-F01 EDUSAT 20 Sept, 2004 Successful
PSLV-C6 CARTOSAT 1 and 5 May, 2005 Successful
GSVL-F2 HAMSAT 10 July, 2006 Unsuccessful
PSLV-C7 INSAT-4C 10 Jan, 2007 Successful
Ariane-5 CARTOSAT-2 and Mar 12, 2007 Successful
PSLV-C8 SRE-1 Apr 23, 2007 Successful
PSLV-C10 INSAT-4B Jan 21, 2008 Successful
PSLV-C9 AGILE Apr 28, 2008 Successful
PSLV-C9 Tech SAR Apr 28, 2008 Successful
PSLV-C11 CARTOSAT-2A Oct 22, 2008 Successful

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PSLV-C12 IMS-1 Apr 20, 2009 Successful
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GSLV-D3 CHANDRAYAAN-1 Apr 15, 2010 Unsuccessful
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PSLV-C15 RIST-2 July 15, 2010 Successful
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GSLV-F06 GSAT-4 Dec 25, 2010 Unsuccessful
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PSLV-C14 CARTOSAT-2B Dec 25, 2010 Successful
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GSAT-5P Sept 23, 2009 Successful
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OCEANSAT-2
WORLD-MISCELLANEOUS
WORLD’S FAMOUS POLITICAL PARTIES
Countries Chief Political Parties
Australia Liberal Party, Labour Party
Bangladesh Bangladesh National Party, Awami League, Jatiya Party
China Chinese Communist Party
France Socialist Party, National Front, Union for French
Democracy
India Indian National Congress, Bhartiya Janta Party
Israel Labour Party, Likud Party, Hadash Party
Nepal Nepali Congress, Nepali Communist Party V
Pakistan Muslim League, Pakistan People’s Party
Russia Liberal Democratic Party, Communist Party
South Africa African National Congress, National Party
Sri Lanka Freedom Party, United National Party
United Kingdom Labour Party, Conservative Party, Liberal Democratic
Party
United States of America Democratic Party, Republican Party
WORLD’S FAMOUS INTELLIGENCE AGENCIES
Intelligence Agency Country
Australian Security and intelligence Organisation (ASIO) Australia
Central External Langa Department(CEL(d) China
Mukhbirat Egypt

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Mosad Israel
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Sawac Iran
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Almukhbirat Iraq
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Research and Analysis Wing (RAW), Intelligence Bureau India
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(I(b). Central Bureau of Investigation (CB1)
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NIACHO Japan
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Inter Services Intelligence (ISI) Pakistan
KGB/G.R.U. Russia
Bureau of State Security South Africa
MI (Military Intelligence)—5 & 6, Joint Intelligence United
Organisation (JIO) Kingdom
Central Intelligence Agency (CI(A), Federal Bureau of USA
Investigation (FBI)
NATIONAL MONUMENTS OF SOME FAMOUS COUNTRIES

Monument Country Monument Country
Emperial Palace (Tokyo) Japan Leaning Tower of Pisa Italy
Eiffel Tower (Paris) France Pyramid (Giz(a) Egypt
Great Wall of China China Opera House (Sidney) Australia
Kremlin (Moscow) Russia Statue of Liberty (New
York)USA
Kinder Disk Denmark Tajmahal (Agr) India
NATIONAL EMBLEMS OF FAMOUS COUNTRIES

Country Emblem Country Emblem
Australia Kangaroo Italy White Lily
Bangladesh Water Lily Japan Chrysanthemum
Canada White Lily Norway Lion
Denmark Beach Pakistan Crescent
France Lily Spain Eagle
Germany Corn Flower Sri Lanka Sword & Lion
India Lion Capital Russia Sickle & Hammer
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Iran Rose United Kingdom Rose
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Ireland Shamrock U.S.A. Golden Rod
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PARLIAMENT’S NAME OF THE FAMOUS COUNTRIES
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Country Parliament Country Parliament
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Afghanistan Shora Malaysia Majlis
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Australia Parliament Maldive Majlis
Bangladesh Jatia Parliament Mangolia Khural
Bhutan Tasongadu Nepal Rasthtriya Panchayat
Canada Parliament Netherlands States General
China National People Congress Norway Storting
Denmark Folketing Pakistan National Assembly
Egypt People’s Assembly Poland Scym
France National Assembly Spain Crotes
Germany Bundestag Sweden Riksdag
Great Britain Parliament South Africa Parliament
India Parliament (Sansa(d) Switzerland Federal Assembly
Iran Majlis Russia Duma
Ireland Dali Eirearin Taiwan Yuan
Israel Knesset Turkey Grand National Assembly
Japan Diet U.S.A. Congress
SIGNS AND SYMBOLS

A blind folder woman holding a balanced scale Justice
Black armband Sign of Protest or Mourning
Black flag Protest
Dove Peace
Flag flown at half mart National mourning
Flag flown upside down Distress
Green Light Line clear signal
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Hammer and Sickle National Flag (Russi(a)
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Lotus Culture and Civilisation
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Olive Branch Peace
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Red Flag Sign of danger, revolution
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Red Cross Hospital or medical aid
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Red Light Sign of stop
Red Triangle Family Planning
Stars and Stripes National Flag (US(A)
Maharaja Air India
Tricolour National Flag (Indi(a)
Two bones crossing each other diagonally with a skull in the upper quadrant
Danger (electricity)
Union Jack National Flag (U.K.)
Wheel Progress
White flag Truce
OFFICIAL BOOKS
Blue Book An official report of the British Government.
Green Book Official Publications of Italy and Persia.
Grey Book Official reports of the Government of Japan and Belgium.
Orange Book Official Publication of the Government of Netherlands.
White Book Official Publications of China, Germany and Portugal.
White Paper Official Paper of the Government of Britain and India on a
particular issue.
Yellow Book French Official Book.
WONDERS OF THE WORLD
Ancient Medieval
Hanging Gardens of Babylon Colosseum of Rome
Temple of Diana al Ephesus (Rome) Great Wall of China
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Statue of Jupiter at Olympia Porcelain Tower of Nanking
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Mausoleum of .Mausolus Stonehange of England
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(Ruler of Halicarnassus)
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Pyramids of Egypt Mosque at St. Sophia (Constantinople)
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Light House at Alexandria Catacombs of Alexandria
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Colossus of Rhodes Leaning Tower of Pisa
Taj Mahal (Indi(a)
FAMOUS ANIMALS AND BIRDS
Name Description
Albatross Sea bird found in North Pacific of the American Coast.
Alpaca Animal found in Chile (S. Americ(a).
Beaver Animal found in Europe and N. America.
Chameleon A lizard capable of changing colour of its own skin.
Chamois An animal found in western Europe and Asia.
Cod Well-known palatable fish found in British Coast and New
foundland.
Corals Small marineanirnals found mainly in the Mediterranean.
Pacific and Indian Ocean.
Emu Running bird of AUstralia.
Giraffe The tallest animal of th world and found in Africa.
Guerilla Man-like animal and found in Africa.
Llama A dwarf-camel like animal found in South America.
Kangaroo An animal found in Australia.
Kiwi Flightless bird found in New Zealand.
Koala Animal found in Australia.
Mustang Animal found in American Prairies.
Octopus A sea animal with eight sucker arms:
Ostrich It is the largest living bird found in the Kalahari desert of Africa.
Pelican Water foul found in North America and Europe.
Penguin Flightless sea bird found in Antarctica.
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Puma A carnivorous quadrupled found in N. America.
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Reindeer A genus of horned deer found in Arctic region.
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Trout A fresh water fish found in Kashmir.
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Walrus Large arctic marine animal found in north polar region.
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Yak A curious long haired ox found in Tibet.
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Zebra Horse like quadrupled of whitish-grey colour animal found in
Africa.
FAMOUS DANCES, DANCERS, INSTRUMENTALISTS AND VOCALISTS
CLASSICAL DANCES OF INDIA
Dance State Dance State
Bharat NatyamTamil Nadu Karma Madhya Pradesh
Bihu Assam Laho Meghalaya
Bhangra Punjab Mohiniattam Kerala
Chhau Bihar, Orissa, W. Bengal
and Jharkhand Mando Goa
Garhwali Uttaranchal Manipuri Manipur
Garba Gujarat Nati Himachal Pradesh
Hattari Karnataka Nat-Natin Bihar
Kathak North India Odissi Orissa
Kathakali Kerala Rauf Jammu & Kashmir
Kutchipudi Andhra Pradesh Yakshagan Karnataka
Khantumm Mizoram
FOLK AND TRIBAL DANCES

States Dances
Maharashtra Kathakeertan, Lezin Dandaniya, Tamasha, Gafa, Dahikala,
Lovani, Mauni, Dasavtar
Kamataka Huttari, Suggi Kunitha, Yakashagana
Kerala Kaikottikali, Kaliyattam, Tappatikkali

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Tamil Nadu Kolattam, Pinnal Kolattam, Kummi, Kavadi, Karagam
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Andhra Pradesh Ghanta Mardala, Veedhi Natakam, Burrakatha
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Orissa Ghumara Sanchar, Chadya Dandanata, Chhau
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West Bengal Kathi, Chhau, Baul, Kirtan, Jatra, Lama
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Assam Bihu, Khel Gopal, Rash Lila, Tabal Chongli, Canoe
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Punjab Giddha (women), Bhangra (men)
J&K Rauf, Hikat
Himachal PradeshJhora, Jhali, Darigli. Mahasu, Jadda, Jhainta, Chhanhi
Haryana Jhumar, Ras Leela, Phag dance, Daph, Dhamal, Loor, Gugga,
Khoria, Gagor
Gujarat Garba, Dandiya Bass, Tippani, Gomph
Rajasthan Ginad, Chakri, Gangore, Terahtaal, Khayal, Jhulan Leela,
Jhuma, Suisini
Bihar Jata Jatin, Jadur, Chhau, Kathaputli, Bakho, Jhijhiya,.
Samochakwa, Karma, Jatra, Natna
Uttar Pradesh Nautanki, Thora, Chappeli, Raslila, Kajri.
DANCERS
Bharatnatyam Bala Saraswati, C.V. Chandrasekhar, Leela Samson,
Mrinalini Sarabhai, Padma Subramanyam, Rukmini Devi
Sanyukta Panigrahi, Sonal Mansingh, Yamini Krishnamurti
Kathak Bharti Gupta. Birju Maharaj, Damayanti Joshi, Durga Das,
Gopi Krishna, Kumudini Lakhia, Sambhu Maharaj, Sitara
Devi
Kuchipudi Josyula Seetharamaiah, Vempathi Chinna Sathyam
Manipuri Guru Bipin Sinha, Jhaveni Sisters, Nayana Jhaveni, Nirmala
Mehta, Savita Mehta

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Odissi Debaprasad Das, Dhirendra Nath Pattnaik, Indrani
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Rahman, Kelucharan Mahapatra, Pniyambada Mohanty,
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Sonal Mansingh
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INSTRUMENTALISTS
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Sarod All Akbar Khan, Allaudin Khan, Amjad All Khan,
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Buddhadev Dasgupta, Bahadur Khan, Sharan Rani, Zarin S.
Sharma
Tabla Alla Rakha Khan, Kishan Maharaj, Nikhil Ghosh, Zakir
Hussain
Violin Baluswamy Dikshitar, Gajanan Rao Joshi, Lalgucli G.
Jayaraman, M.S. Gopala krishnan, Mysore T. Chowdiah, T.
N. Krishnan
Shehnai Bismillah Khan
Sitar Nikhil Banerjee, Ravi Shankar, Vilayat Khan, Hara Shankar
Bhattacharya
Flute Hari Prasad Chaurasia, Pannalal Ghose, T.R. Mahalingam
Veena K.R. Kumaraswamy lyer, Doraiswami Iyengar
VOCALISTS
Hindustani Shubha Mudgal, Bheemsen Joshi, Madhup Mudgal, Mukul
Shivputra, Pandit Jasraj, Parveen Sultana, Naina Devi, Girija
Devi, Ustad Ghulam Mustafa Khan, Gangubai Hangal,
Krishna Hangal, V.Rajput, Kumar Gandharva, Faiyyaz Khan,
Mallikarjun Mansur.
Carnatic M.S. Subbalakshmi, Balamuralikrishna, Bombay Jaishree,
H.K. Raghavendra, H.K. Venkataram, Sitarajam, Mani
Krishnaswamy, Akhil Krishnan, M.L. Vasanthakumani, M.D.
Ramanathan, G.N. Balasubramaniam
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Thumri Ustad Bade Ghulam All Khan, Ustad Mazhar All Khan,
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Ustad Zawad All Khan, Rita Ganguli, Poornima Chaudhary,
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Shanti Heerananda, Naina Devi
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Quwwali Ghulam Hasan Niyazi, Sultan Niyazi, Ghulam Farid Nizaml,
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Chand Nizami, Iqbal Hussain Khan Bandanawaji, Aslam
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Sabari
Dhrupad Ustad Hahim Fahimuddin Dagar. Zahiruddin Dagar,
Wasifuddin Dagar, Bundecha Bandhu, Uday Rhawalkar, Pt.
Abhay Narayan Mallick, Pt. Ritwik Sanyal
INDIAN DEFENCE
 The President of India is the supreme commander of the Indian Defence
System.
 The whole administrative control of the Armed forces lies in the Ministry of
Defence.
 Indian Defence System has been divided into three services-Army, Navy
and Air Force.
INDIAN ARMY
Commands Headquarters
1. Western Command Chandigarh
2. Eastern Command Kolkata
3. Northern Command 56 A.P.O.
4. Southern Command Pune
5. Central Command Lucknow
7. Army Training Command Shimla
8. South Western Command Jaipur
 Each command is under a General Officer Commanding-in-chief of the rank
of Lieutenant General.

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 The commands are divided into Areas and Sub-Areas. An area is
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commanded by a General Officer Commanding of the rank of a Major
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General and a sub-area by a Brigadier.
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Note : In most of the books, the HQ of training command is given at Mhow
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(M.P.), that is wrong. The HQ of training command is in Shimla.
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ARMY TRAINING INSTITUTES
1. National Defence Academy Khadakvasla
2. National Defence College New Delhi
3. Indian Military Academy Dehradun
4. Defence Services Staff College Wellington (TN)
5. Armed Forces Medical College Pune
6. Infantry School Mhow
7. Rashtriya Indian Military College Dehradun
8: Artillery Training Deolali
9. Army Ordnance Corps School Jabalpur
10. Army Cadet College Dehradun
11. College of Defence Management Secunderabad
12. College of Military Engineering Kirkee, Rifle
13. Armoured Corps Centre and School Ahmednagar
14. College of Combat Mhow
15. Officers’ Training Academy Chennai
INDIAN AIR FORCE
 It is organised into seven commands:
1. Western Command New Delhi
2. Central Command Allahabad
3. Eastern Command Shillong
4. South Western Command Jodhpur
5. Training Command Bangalore
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6. Maintenance Command Nagpur
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7. Southern Command Thiruvananthapuram
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 The following fighter air crafts are there in the Indian Air Force : Sukhoi-30,
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MIG-29, MIG-27, MIG-25, MIG-21, Mirage 2000. MIG-29 has been renamed
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Baaz and Mirage 2000 is called Vajra. MI-45, MI-85, Cheetas and Chetaks
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are the helicopters used in Indian Air Force.
AIR FORCE TRAINING CENTRES
1. Air Force Administrative College Coimbatore
2. Air Force Flying College Jodhpur
3. Air Force School Jalahalli
4. Air Force Paratroopers Training School Agra
5. Flying Instructors School Tambaram
6. Air Force School Sambra, Belgaun
7 Elementary Flying School Bidar
8. Fighter Training & Transport Training Wings Hakimpet & Yelahanka
9. Institute of Aviation Medicine Bangalore
10. College of Air Warfare Secunderabad
INDIAN NAVY
 It is organised into three commands:
Eastern Command Vishakhapatnam
Southern Command Cochin
Western Command Mumbai
 Each command is headed by Vice Admiral.
 The Navy is headed by the “Chief of the Naval Staff” of the rank of Admiral.
 The first Aircraft Carrier of Indian Navy was INS Vikrant. India’s largest
Aircraft carrier is INS Viraat. After retirement of Vikrant, Viraat is the main
guard of Indian coastline. It was commissioned in 1987 and will continue in
service till 2010.
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 INS Chakra was India’s first nuclear submarine.
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 INS Vibhuti was India’s first indigenously built missile boat launched at
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Mazgaon docks in Mumbai.
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 INS Savitri was India’s first warship fabricated at Hindustan Shipyard
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Limited in 1990.
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 INS Shakti was India’s first indigenously built submarine.
 INS Delhi is India’s largest and most sophisticated indigenously built
worship. It was launched in 1991 at Mazgaon docks and commissioned in
1997.
 INS Kadamba is India’s largest naval base situated at Karwar, Karnataka. It
was commissioned in 2005 under the project ‘Seabird’.
 INS Talwar is first of the three hightech stealth frigates built by Russia for
Indian navy.
 Nilgiri is India’s first indigenous stealth frigate. It was built at Mazgaon
dockyard.
 INS Prahar is world’s fastest missile ship, commissioned in 1997.
 INS Mysore is Indian navy’s most modernised indigenously built warship,
commissioned in 1999.
 INS Beas, the advanced guided missile frigate, was commissioned in 2005.
NAVAL TRAINING CENTRES
1. Indian Naval Academy Cochin
2. INS Angre Mumbai
3. INS Valsura Jamnagar
4. Naval Air Station, Garuda Cochin
5. INS Venduruthy Cochin
6. INS Kunjali Mumbai
7. INS Shivaji Lonavala
8. INS Oircars Vishakhapatnam

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9. Sailors Training Establishment Dabalin (Go(a)
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10. INS Dronacharya Fort Kochi
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11. INS Hamla Mumbai
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RANKS OF COMMISSIONED OFFICERS
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General Air Chief Marshal Admiral
Lt. General Air Marshal Vice Admiral
Major General Air Vice Marshal Rear Admiral
Brigadier Air Commodore Commodore
Colonel Group Captain Captain
Lt. Colonel Wing Commander Commander
Major Squadron Leader Lt. Commander
Captain Fit. Lieutenant Lieutenant
Lieutenant Flying Officer Sub-Lieutenant
DEFENCE PRODUCTION UNDERTAKINGS

 Eight Public-Sector Undertakings (PSUs) currently function under the
Department of Defence Production and Supplies. They are:
 Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL): It has 12 factories located at
Bangalore (5 factories), Koraput, Nasik, Karwar, Kanpur, Lucknow,
Barrackpur and Hyderabad. It designs, manufactures and overhauls
various types of aircrafts.
 Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL): It has 9 factories located at Bangalore,
Ghaziabad, Pune, Machhilipatnam, Taleja (Maharashtr(a), Panchkula
(Haryan(a), Kotdwar (Uttaranchal), Hyderabad and Chennai. It is engaged
in the design, development and manufacturing of electronic equipments.
 Bharat Earth Movers Limited (BEML) : It has three factories located at
Bangalore, Mysore and Kolar gold fields where heavy equipments like
bulldozers, dumpers, loaders, cranes, etc are manufactured.

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 Bharat Dynamics Limited (BDL): It is located at Hyderabad to manufacture
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guided missiles.
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 Mazgaon Dock Limited (MDL): It is located at Mumbai and its activities
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include shipbuilding apart from other works.
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 Garden Reach Shipbuilders and Engineering Limited (GRSE): It was set-up
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in Kolkata and is engaged in the construction and maintenance of warships
and auxiliary vessels for Navy and Coast Guard.
 Goa Shipyard Limited (GSL): It comprises construction and repair/refit of
ships/vessels.
 Mishra Dhatu Nigam Limited (MIDHANI): It is located at Hyderabad and
manufactures sophisticated and strategic special metals and alloys for
nuclear energy, aeronautics, space, etc.
PARAMILITARY AND RESERVED FORCES

INDO-TIBETAN BORDER POLICE (ITBP)
 It was established in 1962, after the Chinese attack.
 It is basically employed in the Northern borders for monitoring the borders
and also to stop smuggling and illegal immigration.
NATIONAL SECURITY GUARDS (NSG)

 It was established is 1984.
 It has been established to counter the surge of militancy in the country.
 It is a highly trained force which deals with the militants effectively.
CENTRAL INDUSTRIAL SECURITY FORCE (CISF)

 It was set-up in 1969 after the recommendations of Justice B. Mukherji.
 Its objective is to monitor the industrial complexes of Central Government.
ASSAM RIFLES
 It was established in 1835 and is the oldest paramilitary force in the
country.
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 Its main objective is to keep vigilance of international borders in North East
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and countering insurgency operations in Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur,
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Mizoram and Nagaland.
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BORDER SECURITY FORCE (BSF)
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 It keeps a vigil over the international borders against the intrusion in the
country.
CENTRAL RESERVE POLICE FORCE (CRPF)

 It was set-up in 1939.
 Its main objective is to assist the State / Union Territory Police in
maintenance of law and order.
 The 88th Battalion of CRPF, known as ‘Mahila Battalion’ (commissioned on
March 30, 1986) is the world’s first paramilitary force comprising entirely
of women.
NATIOIAL CADET CORPS (NO(c)

 Its main objective is to stimulate interest among the youth in the defence of
the country in order to build up a reserve man power to expand armed
forces.
TERRITORIAL ARMY (T(A)

 It is a voluntary, part-time force (between 18 and 35 years), not
professional soldiers, but civilians, who wish to assist in defence of the
country.
HOME GUARDS
 It was established in 1962, to assist the police in maintaining security, to
help defence forces and to help local authorities in case of any eventuality.
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COAST GUARD
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 Its objective is to protect the maritime and other national interests in the
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maritime zones of India.
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INTELLKENCE BUREAU (I(b)
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 Its objective is the collect secret information relating to country’s security.
 It was originally set-up as Central Special Branch (CS(b)in 1987 and
renamed IB in 1920.
CENTRAL BUREAU OF INVESTIGATION (CBI)

 Its objective is to investigate cases of misconduct by public servants, cases
of cheating, embezzlement and fraud.
 CBI is also entrusted with the investigation of international crime cases in
collaboration with INTERPOL.
NATIONAL CRIME RECRPS’BUREAU (NCR(b)

 Its objective is to collect crime statistics at the national level, information of
inter-state and international criminals to help investigation agencies.
RAPID ACTION FORCE (RAF)

 Under the operational command of CRPF.
 10 battalions of the CRPF have been reoriented for tackling communal riots
in the country.
DEFENCE RESEARCH IN INDIA

 Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) was established
iii 1958 to provide a solid base to the national security system.

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 DRDO formulates and executes programs of scientific research, design and
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develop new weapons required by the Armed Forces.
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 Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP) was launched
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in 1983 in which the following missiles have been developed:
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AGNI
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 The Agni missile is an intermediate-range ballistic missile (IRBM)
developed under the IGMDP by India. It was first tested at the Interim Test
Range in Chandipur in 1989, and is capable of carrying a conventional
payload of 1000 kg or a nuclear warhead. It consists of one (short range) or
two stages (intermediate range). It is rail and road mobile. It is powered by
solid and/or liquid propellants.
 Agni-III, the third in the Agni series, has a range of 3,500 km- 5500 km. The
Agni I has a range of 700—800 km while the Agni-II as a range of 2,000—
2,500 km.
PRITHVI
 The Prithvi missile is the tactical surface-to-surface short-range ballistic

missile (SRBM). It was India’s first indigenously developed ballistic missile.
Development of the Prithvi began in 1983, and it was first test-fired on Feb
25, 1988 from Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh.
VARIANTS OF PRITHVI
 The Prithvi missile project encompassed developing three variants for use
by the Indian Army, Indian Air Force and the Indian Navy, outlined in the
initial project framework of the IGMDP.
 Prithvi I - Army Version (150 km range with a payload of 1000 kg)
 Prithvi II - Air Force Version (200 km range with a payload of 500 kg)

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 Prithvi III or Sagarika - Naval Version (350 km range with a payload of 500
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DHANUSH
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 The Dhanush is a Naval variant of the Prithvi short-range ballistic missile
intended for launch from surface ships. The Defence Ministry has said that
the 8.53 metre-long and 0.9 meter wide Dhanush, with a strike range of
350 km and payload capacity of 500 kg, would “soon be operationalised” in
the Navy.
AKASH
 Akash is a medium range surface-to-air missile with an intercept range of

30 km. It has a launch weight of 720 kg, a diameter of 35 cm and a length of
5.8 metres. Akash flies at supersonic speed, reaching around Mach 2.5. It
can reach an altitude of 18km. It is propelled by a solid fuelled booster
stage.
TRISHUL
 Trishul is a short range surface-to-air missile. It has a range of 9 km and is
fitted with a 5.5 kg warhead. Designed to be used against low-level (sea
skimming) targets at short range, the system has been developed, to defend
naval vessels against missiles and also as a short range surface to air
missile on land.
NAG
 Nag is India’s third generation “Fire-and-forget” anti-tank missile. It is an
all-weather, top attack missile with a range of 3 to 7 km. Separate versions
for the Army and the Air Force are being developed.

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SHAURYA
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 The Shaurya missile is a short-range surface-to-surface ballistic missile for
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use by the Indian Army. Capable of hypersonic speeds, it has a range of 600
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km and is capable of carrying a payload of one-tonne conventional or
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nuclear warhead. The Shaurya missile provides India with a significant
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water launched K-15 missile, Sagarika.
BRARMOS
 BrahMos is a supersonic cruise missile that can be launched from
submarines, ships, aircraft or land. It is a joint venture between India’s
DRDO and Russia’s NPO Mashinostroeyenia who have, together formed the
BrahMos Aerospace Private Limited. Its operational range is 290 km.
 The acronym BrahMos is perceived as the confluence of the two nations
represented by two rivers, the Brahmaputra of India and the Moskva of
Russia. It travels at speeds of Mach 2.5 to 2.8 and is the world’s fastest
cruise missile. A hypersonic version of the missile is also presently under
development.
OTHER DEVELOPMENTS
 The expertise and technology developed through the IGMDP is also used in
the new Anti ballistic missile called the Exoatmospheric interceptor system
which successfully intercepted a Prithvi-II ballistic missile.
 India became the fourth nation in the world to acquire such a capability
and the third nation to develop it through indigenous effort. In Dec 2007,
India successfully tested the Endoatmospheric version which destroyed a
modified Prithvi-II missile at 15 km altitude with text-book perfection
thereby completing what is known as Multi-layered Theatrical Wide-area
Air Defence system that can successfully target and destroy all kinds of
Aerial threats from low flying cruise missiles, supersonic short-range,
intermediate-range and intercontinental ballistic missiles at altitudes of 15
to 50 + km at any angle and azimuth.

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 India’s journey to atomic energy research started with the establishment of
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the Atomic Energy Commission on Aug. 10, 1948, under the chairmanship
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of Dr. Homi J. Bhabha. Subsequently, the Department of Atomic Energy
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(DAE) was established in 1954 for implementation of atomic energy
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 Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BAR(c)was established in 1957 at
Trombay (Maharashtr(a). It is India’s largest atomic research centre.
Apsara (India’s first atomic reactor), Circus, Zerlina, Dhruva, Purnima I and
II and Kamini (India’s first fast breeder nuclear reactor, at Kalpakkam) are
the BARC’S atomic reactors.
 BARC’S Research Centres: Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre (Kolkat(a),
High Altitude Research Lab (Gulmarg), Nuclear Research Lab (Kashmir)
and Seismic Station (Gauribidanur, Karnatak(a).
 Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research was established in 1971 and is
located at Kalpakkam (Chennai). The centre carries out research and
development of indigenous technology of sodium cooled fast breeder
reactors.
 Centre for Advanced Technology (CAT) was established in 1984 and is
located at Indore. The centre carries out research and development of high
technology in fields like lasers, fusion and acceleration.
 Pokhran Tests: India has so far conducted 6 nuclear test explosion. The
first nuclear explosion was conducted on May 18, 1974 at Pokhran in
Rajasthan. The others were conducted on May 11 and 13, 1998 at Pokhran
range only. India’s main objective of conducting these tests is to use atomic
energy for peaceful purposes.
AWARDS, HONOURS AND PRIZES

NOBEL PRIZE
 It is the most coveted international award of the world.
 It was instituted by the inventor of dynamite, Alfred Bernard Nobel (1833-
96).
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 The award is given on Dec. 10, which is the death anniversary of its
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founder.
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 Nobel made a trust from the money that he earned through the patent of
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his invention whose interest is used to give the money for the Nobel Prizes.
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 Nobel Prize is given every year to those eminent persons who have made
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pioneering achievements in the field of Physics, Chemistry, Medicine,
Peace, Literature and Economics.
 Apart from Economics, all other categories have been given since 1901.
Economics Nobel Prize was instituted in 1967 and was first given in 1969.
TWICE RECEPIENTS OF NOBEL PRIZE
Same Subjects Different Subjects
John Bardeen Physics (1956) Marie Curie Physics (1903)
John Bardeen Physics (1972) Marie Curie Chemistry (1911)
Frederic Chemistry (1958) Linus Pauling Chemistry (1954)
Sanger Chemistry (1980) Linus Pauling Peace (1962)
Frederic
Sanger
 The international Committee of the Red Cross has been awarded the Nobel
Prize for peace three times : In 1917, 1944 and 1963.
ADJUDICATORS
Physics and Chemistry Swedish Academy of Science
Medicine Stockholm Faculty of Medicine
Literature Swedish Academy of Science
Peace Panel of 5-parliamentarians of Norwegian Parliament
Economics Bank of Sweden

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INDIAN NOBEL PRIZE WINNERS
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Name Field Year
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Rabindranath Tagore Literature 1913
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Dr. C.V.Raman Physics 1930
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Dr. Hargovind Khurana Medicine 1968
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Mother Teresa Peace 1979
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Dr. S. Chandrashekhar Physics 1983
Dr. Amartya Sen Economics 1999
V.S. Naipaul Literature 2001
Venkatraman Ramakrishnan Chemistry 2009
OTHER AWARDS AND PRIZES

PULITZER PRIZE
 It was instituted in 1970 and named after the US Publisher Joseph Pulitzer.
 It is conferred annually in the USA for accomplishments in journalism,
literature and music.
MAGSAYSAY AWARDS
 They were instituted in 1957 and named after Ramon Magsaysay, the late
President of Philippines, who died in an air crash.
 This award is given annually on Aug. 31, for outstanding contributions to
public service, community leadership journalism, literature and creative
arts and international understanding.
 They are often regarded as the Nobel Prize of Asia.
BOOKER PRIZE
 It is the highest literary award given to the authors of British, Irish and
Commonwealth countries.
 It was instituted in 1968 by the Booker Company and the British Publishers
Association along the lines of Pulitzer Prize of US.
 Booker Prize has been renamed as Man Booker Prize, as the sponsorship
has been taken over by the Man Group, an international stockbroker.
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JAWAHARLAL NEHRU AWARD FOR INTERNATIONAL UNDERSTANDING
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 It was instituted in 1965 by the Government of India.
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 It is given annually to persons for outstanding contributions to the
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or
promotion of international understanding and goodwill among the people
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of the world.
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OSCAR AWARDS
 These awards were instituted in 1929 and conferred annually by the
Academy of Motion Pictures in USA.
 These are considered the most prestigious awards in the cinema world.
 The first Indian to get an Oscar was Bhanu Athaiya for the movie ‘Gandhi’.
 Satyajk Ray was the first Indian who was awarded Oscar for lifetime
achievements in cinema in 1992.
RIGHT LIVELIHOOD AWARD

 It was instituted in. 1980 by the Right Livelihood Society, London.
 It is renowned as alternate Nobel Award to promote and contribute in the
fields of environment and social justice.
MAHATMA GANDHI PEACE PRIZE

 It was instituted in 1995 by the Government of India.
 It is presented for international peace on the lines of Nobel Prize.
UNESCO PEACE PRIZE

 It is presented by United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organisation (UNESCO) for extraordinary contributions for international
peace.
UNESCO HUMAN RIGHTS AWARD

 It is also presented by UNESCO for contributions in the field of Human
Rights Awareness.
 It is given every alternate year.
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UN HUMAN RIGHTS AWARD
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 It is presented by United. Nations (UN) for personal contribution for the
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cause of human rights.
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 It is presented every sixth year.
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WORLD FOOD PRIZE
 It is presented by Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), one of the
branches of UNO, for the cause of agriculture and food development.
OLYMPIC GOLD ORDER

 It is presented by the International Olympic Committee for distinguished
services in the development of the OLYMPIC MOVEMENT.
INDIRA GANDHI AWARD FOR INTERNATIONAL PEACE,
DISARMAMENT AND DEVELOPMENT
 It is presented by Indira Gandhi Memorial Fund for specialised
contribution in the field of international disarmament and development.
BHARAT RATNA
 It is the highest civilian award of India. It is presented by the Government
of India.
 It is presented for exceptional public service and rarest achievements in
the field of art, literature and science.
 It was instituted in 1954 and the first recipient was Dr. Radhakrishnan.
 Padma Vibhushan is the second highest civilian award for distinguished
services in any field including Government service.
 Padma Bhushan and Padma Shree are the other important civilian awards.
BHARTIYA JNANPEETH AWARDS
 It was instituted in 1965 and is given for distinguished works in any
recognised language by a scholar.

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SAHITYA AKADEMY AWARDS
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 It was instituted in 1955 and is given for any exclusive writing in any of the
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22 languages including English literature during last 5 years.
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MOORTIDEVI AWARD
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 It was constituted in 1948 and is given in any Indian language or in English
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literature, for distinguished contribution to Indian values.
SARASWATI SAMMAN
 It was instituted in 1991 by the K.K. Birla Foundation and is given for any
distinguished literary work made during last 10 years in any of the Indian
language.
TANSEN AWARDS
 These awards are given by the Government of M.P. for the outstanding
contribution in the field of music.
VYAS SAMMAN
 It was instituted in 1992 by the K.K. Birla Foundation for outstanding
contribution to Hindi literature.
TANSEN AWARDS
contribution in the field of music.
IQBAL SAMMAN
contribution in the field of literature.
SHANTI SWARUP BHATNAGAR AWARDS

 These awards are given to the Indian scientists for their exceptional
performance.
R.D. BIRLA AWARD

 These awards are given in the field of medical sciences.
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DHANVANTRI AWARD
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 These awards are given for the extra ordinary performance in medical
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sciences.
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ARJUNA AWARDS
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 These were instituted in 1961 and given by Sports Ministry, Government of
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India.
 These are given for the special achievements in different types of sports.
DRONACHARYA AWARDS
 These were instituted in 1985 and given by Sports Ministry, Government of
India.
 These are given to sports coaches.
RAJIV GANDHI KHEL RATNA

 It was instituted in 1962 and is presented for commendable display by the
players.
GALLANTRY AWARDS
 Param Vir Chakra : It is India’s highest award for bravery.
 Mahavir Chakra : It is the second highest gallantry award.
 Vir Chakra : It is the third highest gallantry award.
 Ashok Chakra : It is the highest peace-time gallantry award.
THE WORLD OF SPORTS

TROPHIES ASSOCIATED WITH SPORTS
Name the Trophy Related game
Agha Khan Cup Hockey

Barna Belleck Cup Table Tennis
Beighton Cup Hockey
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Bombay Gold Cup Hockey
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Burdwan Trophy Weight Lifting
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D.C.M. Trophy Football
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Dhyanchand Trophy Hockey
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Dr. B. C. Roy Trophy Football
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Duleep Trophy Cricket
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Durand Cup Football
Ezra Cup Polo
I. FA. Shield Football
Lady Ratan Tata Trophy Hockey
Moinuddaula Gold Cup Cricket
Nehru Trophy Hockey
Radha Mohan Cup Polo
Rangaswami Cup Hockey
Ranji Trophy Cricket
Rovers Cup Football
Santosh Trophy Football
Scindia Gold Cup Hockey
Subroto Mukherjee Cup Football (Inter School)
Wellington Trophy Rowing
American Cup Yatch Racing
Ashes Cup Cricket (Australia-Englan(d)
Azlan Shah Hockey
Linares Open Golf
US Masters Golf
Hopman Cup Lawn Tennis
Colombo Cup Football
Davis Cup Lawn Tennis
Derby Horse Race
Kings Cup Air Races (Englan(d)
Merdeka Cup Football (Asi(a)
Prince of Wales Cup Gold (Englan(d)
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Swaythling Cup World Table Tennis
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Thomas Cup World Badminton (Men)
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U. Thant Cup Tennis
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Uber Cup World Badminton (Women)
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Walker Cup Golf (Englan(d)
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West Chester Cup Polo (Englan(d)
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Heineken Cup Lawn Tennis
US-Open Lawn Tennis
French-Open Lawn Tennis
Australian Open Lawn Tennis
Wimbledon Lawn Tennis
World Cup Hockey
World Cup Football
World Cup Cricket
Augusta Masters Golf
Champions Trophy Hockey
British Open Golf
Malaysian Open Badminton
Tata Open Lawn Tennis
NUMBER OF PLAYERS ON EACH SIDE IN IMPORTANT GAMES
Badminton 1 or 2 Polo 4
Baseball 9 Rugby Football 15
Basketball 5 Tennis and Table Tennis 1 or 2
Cricket 11 Water Polo 7
Football 11 Volleyball 6
Hockey 11
PLACES ASSOCIATED WITH SPORTS
Play Ground Sports Place
Firoz Shah Kotla Cricket Delhi
Eden Garden Cricket Kolkata
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Wankhede Stadium Cricket Mumbai
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Green Park Cricket Kanpur
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Keenan Stadium Cricket Jamshedpur
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Chepak (Nehru) Stadium Cricket Chennai
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Chennaswami Stadium Cricket Bangalore
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Brabourne Stadium Cricket Mumbai
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Moinul Haqque Stadium Cricket, Football Patna
Jagjivan Ram Stadium Football Danapur (Patn(a)
Lords, Oval, Leeds Cricket England
Perth, Brisbane, Sidney Cricket Australia
Melbourne Cricket Australia
Sharjah Stadium Cricket Sharjah (U.A.E.)
Bangbandhu Stadium. Cricket Dacca (Bangladesh)
Lal Bahadur Shastri Stadium Cricket Hyderabad
Barabati Stadium Cricket Cuttack
Ranjit Stadium Football Kolkata
Yadavindra Stadium Hockey Patiala
National Stadium Hockey Delhi
Shivaji Stadium Hockey Delhi
Netaji Stadium Football Kolkata
Ambedkar Stadium Football Delhi
Indra Prastha Stadium Indoor games Delhi
Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium Athletics Delhi
Epsom Derby Horse race England
Blackheim Rugby Football England
Aintree Horse race England
Henly Boat racing England
Hurlingham Polo England
Brooklyn Baseball New York
Madison Square Garden Boxing New York
Dhyan Chand Stadium Hockey Lucknow
Lal Bahadur Shastri Stadium Hockey Hyderabad
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Mordeka Stadium Hockey Kuala Lumpur
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Nehru Stadium Hockey Delhi
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Sawai Man Singh Stadium Hockey Jaipur
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NATIONAL SPORTS OF FAMOUS COUNTRIES
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Name National game Name National game
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Australia Cricket Malaysia Badminton
Brazil Football Pakistan Hockey
Canada Ice Hockey Russia Chess, Football
China Table Tennis Scotland Rugby Football
England Cricket Spain Bull Fighting
India Hockey United States of America Baseball
Japan Judo or Ju Jitsu
TERMS USED IN GAMES AND SPORTS
Badminton Deuce, Double, Drop, Fault, Game, Let, Love, Smash.
Baseball Bunting, Diamond, Home, Pitcher, Put Out, Strike.
Billiards Break, Cannons, Cue, In off, Jigger, Scratch.
Boat Race Cox
Boxing Hook, Jab, Knock-out, Punch, upper cut.
Bridge Diamonds, Dummy, Grand slam, Little slam, Revoke, Ruff,
Tricks, Trrimp.
Chess Check, Checkmate, Gambit, Stalemate.
Cricket Bowling, Bouncer, Crease, Cover point, Drive, Duck, Follow on,
Googly, Gulley, Hat trick, Hit wicket, L. B. W. (Leg Before
Wicket), Leg Break, Leg spinner, Leg bye, Maiden over, No ball,
Pitch, Run, Silly point, Slumped, Wicket keeper.
Football Dribble, Dr6p kick, Foul, Hattrick, Off-side, Penalty, Throw in,
Touch Down.
Golf Bogey, Caddie, Hole, Links, Put, Putling the green, Stymie, Tee.
Hockey Bull, Carry, Centre forward, Carried, Dribble, Goal, Hat trick,
Penalty corner, Scoop, Short corner, Sticks, Striking circle,
Under cutting.

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Horse Racing Jockey, Place, Protest, Punter, Win.
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Lawn Tennis Back-hand-drive, Service, Smash, Volley, Deuce, Game, Set,
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Love.
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Polo Bunder, Chuckker, Mallet.
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Rifle Shooting Bull’s eye.
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Rugby Drop kick, Screen.
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Swimming Stroke.
Volleyball Booster, Deuce, Love, Service, Spikers.
Wrestling Half Nelson, Heave.
MEASUREMENTS OF SPORTS FIELDS

Badminton Court: 13.40 m x 5.18 m Net: 1.524 m high.
Shuttle : 4.73 to .5.50 gms.
Cricket Pitch : 20.12 metres Bat: 98.5 cm length and
10.8 cm width Ball:155.9 to 163 gms
Derby Course Route 2400 metres or 1½ miles Football Field: 100 x
length : 64m to 110 x 75m
Hockey Field:100 x 55 yards to 100 x 60 yards. Ball :
5.50 ounces to 5.75 ounces
Kabaddi Field: 13 x 10 meters
Khokho Field : 34 x 10 m to 34 x 16 metres
Lawn Tennis Court : 23.77 x 8.23 metres
Ball: 56.7 gms to 58.5 gms. (weight); 6.35 cm to
6.67 cms (diameter)
Marathon Race Route Length : 42,195 m—26 miles, 385 yards
Table Tennis Table : 275 cm x 152.5 cm, 76 cm above the ground
(floor)
Ball: 37.2 to 38.2 millimeter (diameter); 9.40 to
9.53 gms.
Volleyball Court: 18 m x 9 m Net : 9.5m x l m x 2.43 m

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SPORTS GROUNDS
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Games Grounds Games Grounds
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Athletics Track Handball Court
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Badminton Court Hockey Field
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Baseball Diamond Ice Hockey Ring
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Boxing Ring Lawn Tennis Court
Cricket Pitch (Fiel(d) Skating Ring
Football Field Wrestling Ring, Arena
Golf Course

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Practice Sets
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(Based on Previous Year Papers)
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SET - 1
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1. Who holds the record for scoring the highest number of runs (individual)
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in One-day Cricket Tournament ?
(a) S. Ganguly (b) B.Lara
(c) S. Tendulkar (d) G. Kristen
2. The temperature at which both Celsius and Fahernheit thermometer
read the same, is_
(a) 40o (b) Oo
(c) -40o (d) -60o
3. Where is the Bada Imambara located ?
(a) Agra (b) Lucknow
(c) Patna (d) Allahabad
4. What does the open market operation of the RBI mena?
(a) Buying and selling shares (b) Auctioning of foreign exchange
(c) Trading in securities (d) Transactions in gold
5. ‘Consumer Day’ is celebrated every year on:
(a) 1st April (b) 23rd October
(c) 15th March (d) 5thDecember
6. Which one of the following is notthe source of revenue of Central
Government ?
(a)Income Tax (b) Coporate Tax
(c) Agricultural Income Tax (d) Excise Duty
7. Rafael Nadal is associated with:
(a) Cricket (b) Football
(c) Tennis (d) Golf
8. Who has the sole right to issue paper currency in India?
(a) Government of India (b) Finance Commission
(c) Reserve Bank of India (d) Central Bank of India

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9. A fall in demand or rise in supply of a commodity:
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(a) increases the price of that commodity
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(b) decreased the price of that commodity
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(c) neutralizes the changes in the price
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(d) determines the price elasticity
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10. Planning Commission of India was established in:
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(a) 1947 (b) 1950
(c) 1951 (d) 1949
11. How many types of emergencies are envisaged by the Constitution?
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 3 (d) 4
12. Who calls the Joint Session of the two Houses of the Parliament?
(a) The President (b) The Prime Minister
(c) The Lok Sabha Speaker (d) The Vice-President
13. In which year, Gandhiji established Sabarmati Ashram in Gujarat?
(a) 1916 (b) 1917
(c) 1918 (d) 1929
14. No confidence Motion against the Union Council of Ministers can be
initiatd:
(a) in the Rajya Sabha only (b) in the Lok Sabha only
(c) both in the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha
(d) in the State Assemblies
15. Which Constitutional Amendment deleted the Right to Property from the
list of Fundamental Rights?
(a) 42nd Amendment (b) 62nd Amendment
(c) 44th Amendment (d) 43rd Amendment
16. Seaweeds are important source of:
(a) Fluorine (b) chlorine
(c) bromine (d) iodine
17. In nuclear reactor, heavy water is used as:
(a) coolant (b) fuel
(c) moderator (d) atomic smasher

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18. Which one of the following pairs is correctly matched?
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(a) Tetanus-BCG (b) Tuberculosis-ATS
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(c) Malaria-Chloroquin (d) Scurvy-Thiamine
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19. Tear gas used by the police to disperse the mob contains:
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(a) carbon dioxide (b) chlorine
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(c) ammonia (d) hydrogen sulphide
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20. Correct expansion of the term ‘http’ in Internet address is:?
(a) higher text transfer protocol (b) higher transfer text protocol
(c) hybrid text transfer protocol (d) hypertext transfer protocol
21. Milk is an example of -
(a) Emulsion (b) Gel
(c) Foam (d) Sol
22. ‘World AIDS Day’ is observed on:
(a) 1st January (b) 1st April
(c) 1st September (d) 1st December
23. Who was (is) the first lady recipient of Data Saheb Phalke Award?
(a) Nargis Dutt (b) Uma Devi
(c) Devika Rani (d) Sulochana
24. Out of the following artists, who has written the book, Meandering
Pastures of Memories?
(a) Shovana Narayan (b) Saroja Vaidyanathan
(c) Yamini Krishnamoorthy (d) Geeta Chandran
25. Out of the following Indian States, which state does not have any
maritime boundary?
(a) Gujarat (b) Goa
(c) Rajasthan (d) Maharashtra
26. Most of the Chola temples were dedicated to:
(a) Vishnu (b) Shiva
(c) Brahma (d) Durga
27. Which one of the following is a Bio-fertilizer-
(a) DDT (b) Malybdenum
(c) Rhizobium (d) Nitrate

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28. In the Gupta period, the largest number of coins were issued in:
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(a) gold (b) silver
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(c) copper (d) iron
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29. The tax which the kings used to collect from the people in the Vedic
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period was called:
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(a) Bali (b) Vidatha
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(c) Varman (d) Kara
30. Buddha preached his first sermon at:
(a) Gaya (b) Sarnath
(c) Pataliputra (d) Vaishali
31. Which one of the following is not the result of underground water
action?
(a) Stalactites (b) Stalagmites
(c) Sinkholes (d) Fiords
32. Grassland is called ‘pampas’ in:
(a) Africa (b) South America
(c) the United Kingdom (d) the USA
33. The coastal part of water bodies of the oceans which is structurally part
of the mainland of the continents is called:
(a) isthmus (b) oceanic ridge
(c) continental shelf (d) continental slope
34. Anemometer is used to measure:
(a) wind direction (b) wind velocity
(c) pressure gradient (d) wind speed and time
35. Mariana Trench is found in:
(a) Atlantic Ocean (b) Pacific Ocean
(c) Indian Ocean (d) Arctic Ocean
36. What happens to a liquid, when the vapour pressure equals the
atmospheric pressure?
(a) The liquid cools (b) The liquid boils
(c) No change (d) The liquid evaporates

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37. The metal whose electrical conductivity is more, is:
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(a) copper (b) aluminum
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(c) silver (d) lead
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38. The device used for locating submerged objects under sea is:
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(a) sonar (b) radar
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(c) laser (d) maser
39. Which one of the following has the highest value of specific heat?
(a) Glass (b) Copper
(c) Lead (d) Water
40. Mycoplasma is associated with a disease that affects the organs of:
(a) respiration (b) excretion
(c) reproduction (d) digestion
41. The source of the enzyme, diastase is:
(a) salivary gland (b) stomach
(c) lilver (d) pancreas
42. The cells which are responsible for the production of antibodies are:
(a) red blood cells (b) neutrophils
(c) lymphocytes (d) platetes
43. How many valves does a human heart have?
(a) Four (b) Three
(c) Two (d) One
44. A potato tuber has been cut into two halves. A few drops of iodine
solution are placed on the cut surface of one of the halves. What colour
change will be noticed?
(a) From brown to blue-black (b) From brown to orange-black
(c) from blue to pink (d) From pink to blue-green
45. India has the biggest world stock of the following one-
(a) Bauxite (b) Haematite
(c) Monazite (d) Fluorspar

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46. Production function reveals:
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(a) Technological relation between physical investment and production
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(b) Financial relation between physical investment and production
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(c) Relation between Finance and Technology
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(d) Relation between factors of production
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47. In which of the plans, stress was given to eradicate poverty for the first
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time?
(a) Fourth (b) Fifth
(c) Sixth (d) Seventh
48. Cross-elasticity of demand between petrol and car is:
(a) Infinite (b) Positive
(c) Zero (d) Negative
49. Period of the Eleventh Five Year plan is:
(a) 2005-2010 (b) 2006-2011
(c) 2007-2010 (d) 2008-2013
50. ‘Supply creates its demand itself.’ Who said this?
(a) Prof.Say (b) John Robinson
(c) Adam Smith (d) J.S. Gill
Answer SET-1
Que. Ans. Que. Ans. Que. Ans. Que. Ans. Que. Ans.
1 c 11 c 21 a 31 d 41 a
2 c 12 a 22 d 32 b 42 c
3 b 13 b 23 c 33 c 43 c
4 c 14 b 24 a 34 b 44 a
5 c 15 c 25 c 35 b 45 c
6 c 16 d 26 b 36 b 46 a
7 c 17 c 27 c 37 c 47 c
8 c 18 c 28 a 38 a 48 d
9 b 19 b 29 a 39 d 49 c
10 b 20 d 30 b 40 a 50 a
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SET - 2
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1. Who amidst the following won the Nobel Prize in Science in two different
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disciplines?
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(a) Russel Hulse (b) David Lee
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(c) Madam Curie (d) Paul Boyer
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2. Who is the author of “The Company of Women”?
(a) John Gray (b) David Baldacci
(c) Dick Francis (d) Khushwant Singh
3. In the 13th Lok Sabha elections in which of the following states did the
ruling alliance won all the seats?
(a) Andhra Pradesh (b) Orissa
(c) Haryana (d) Gujarat
4. Who represented India in the Second Round Table Conference?
(a) Aruna Asaf Ali (b) Sucheta Kripalani
(c) Sarojini Naidu (d) Kalpana Joshi
5. The rulers of which dynasty started the practice of granting tax-fee
villages to Brahmanas and Buddhist Monks?
(a) Satavahanas (b) maurayas
(c) Guptas (d) Cholas
6. The Bandung Conference was a major milestone in the history of
(a) Non-aligned movement (b) Indo-Chinese relationship
(c) U.S. –Vietnam War (d) Creation of ASEAN
7. The most important text of vedic mathematics is
(a) Satapatha Brahman (b) Atharva Veda
(c) Sulva Sutras (d) Chhandogya Upanishad
8. Which of the following Indian States is broadly as large as the European
nation-Austria?
(a) Kerala (b) West Bengal
(c) Orissa (d) Karnataka
9. Which of the following districts is on the international border of India?
(a) Sirsa (b) Anantnag

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(c) Karimganj (d) Purulia
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10. The deposits of the ancient Tethys Sea were folded to form the
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(a) Himalayas (b) Rockies
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(c) Andes (d) Alps
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11. The largest irrigation canal in India is called the
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(a) Yamuna canal (b) Sirhand canal
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(c) Indira Gandhi canal (d) Upper Bari Doab canal
12. Atmospheric pressure exerted on earth is due to ?
(a) rotation of earth (b) revolution of earth
(c) gravitational pull (d) uneven heating of earth
13. Pruning is an essential part in cultivation of
(a) Rubber (b) Tobacco
(c) Coffee (d) Tea
14. Operating surplus arises in the
(a) Government sector (b) Production for self-consumption
(c) Subsistence farming (d) Enterprise sector
15. The most important of the non-tariff trade barriers are
(a) Quotas (b) Health regulations
(c) Pollution standards (d) Labeling and packaging regulations
16. The maximum area under crops is India is used for the cultivation of
(a) Wheat (b) Rice
(c) Sugarcane (d) Cotton
17. Investment is equal to
(a) gross total of all types of physical capital assets
(b) gross total of all capital assets minus wear and tear
(c) Stock of plants, machines and equipments
(d) None of the above.
18. The Tarapore Committee recommended that before capital account was
made convertible the rate of inflation should be brought down for three
years to within
(a) 3-5% (b) 0-3%
(c) 4-6% (d) 5-7%

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19. Who among the following are not appointed by the President of India ?
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(a) Governors of States
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(b) Chief Justice and Judges of High Court
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(c) Vice-President
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(d) Chief Justice and Judges of Supreme Court
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20. What is the period within which a proclamation of national emergency
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made by the President is to be placed before each house of the
Parliament for approval?
(a) within one month (b) within two months
(c) within four months (d) within six months
21. What was the exact constitutional position of the Indian Republic when
the Constitution was brought into force within effect from 26th January,
1950?
(a) A Democratic Republic (b) A Soverign Democratic Republic
(c) A Soverign Secular Democratic Republic
(d) A Soverign Secular Socialist Democratic Republic
22. Fabianism is closely related to ?
(a) Facism (b) Scientific socialism
(c) Democratic (d) Liberalism
23. A federal structure for India was first put forward by the
(a) Act of 1909 (b) Act of 1919
(c) Act of 1935 (d) Act of 1947
24. Which Writ is issued by a High Court of the Supreme Court to compel an
authority to perform a function that it was not performing?
(a) Writ of Certiorai (b) Writ of Habeas Corpus
(c) Writ of Mandamus (d) Writ of Quo Warranto
25. In case of a disagreement between the two Houses of Parliament over a
non-money-bill
(a) the bill will lapse
(b) the President may sign in into a law
(c) the President may call a joint sitting of both the Houses to consider it
(d) the Presidnet may ask both the Houses to reconsider it

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26. Commercial nitric acid is coloured because it contains dissolved ?
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(a) Oxygen (b) Nitrous oxide
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(c) Nitrogen dioxide (d) Coloured impurities
ob
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27. Fertilizer having high nitrogen contents is ?
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(a) Urea (b) Ammonium sulphate
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(c) Ammonium nitrate (d) Calcium citrate
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28. Quantity of fresh air required for a man is
(a) 1000 cubic feet of air for every 20 minutes
(b) 1000 cubic feet of air for every 20 seconds
(c) 1000 cubic feet of air for every 10 minutes
(d) 1000 cubic feet of air for every 10 seconds
29. A compact disc (CD) is a data storage system of the type
(a) Magnetic (b) Optical
(c) Electrical (d) Electromechanical
30. Surface tension in liquid is due to ?
(a) Adhesive force between molecules
(b) Cohesive force beteen molecules
(c) Gravitational force between molecules
(d) Electrical force between molecules
31. A circular plate, a cube and a sphere, all made up of same material and
having the same mass, are heated to 300oC and left in room. Which of
them will have the slowest rate of cooling?
(a) Circular plate (b) Cube
(c) Sphere (d) All will cool at the same rate
32. Where does the oxygen that keeps us alive come from?
(a) Carbon dioxide (b) Carbonate absorbed from soil
(c) Oxide of minerals (d) Water
33. Reserpine is used to ?
(a) reduce high blood pressure
(b) increase blood pressure when it is low
(c) alleviate pain
(d) cure arthritis

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34. ‘ELISA’ test is employed to diagnose
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(a) Polio virus (b) AIDS antibodies
ah
bo
(c) Tuberculosis bacterium (d) Cancer
ob
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35. Why excessive heating and repeated use of cooking oil is most
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undesirable?
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(a) The oil vapours can cause indoor pollution
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(b) Carcinogenic substances like benzpyrene are produced
(c) Nutrient value of food is lost
(d) Loss and wastage of oil
36. The gas used for artificial fruit ripening of green fruit is
(a) Ethylene (b) Acetylene
(c) Ethane (d) Methane
37. Optic fibres are used in
(a) CAT scans (b) X-ray photos
(c) ultrasound scans (d) Endoscopy
38. The three elements most needed in common fertilizers are?
(a) Sulphur, Phosphorous and Sodium
(b) Nitrogen, Potassium and Phosphorous
(c) phosphorous, Sodium and Nitrogen
(d) Calcium, Phosphorous and Potassium
39. What was the ultimate goal of Mahatma Gandhi’s Salt Satyagraha?
(a) repeal of Salt Satyagraha
(b) curtailment of the Government’s power
(c) economic relief to the common people
(d) ’Purana Swaraj’ for India
40. Who persuaded the ratings of the RIN (Royal India Navy) to surrender
on he 23rd February 1946?
(a) Mahatma Gandhi
(b) Jawaharlal Nehru and Maulana Abul Kalam Azad
(c) Vallabh Bhai Patel and M.A. Jinnath
(d) Morarji Desai and J.B. Kripalani

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41. On September 20, 1932 Mahatma Gandhi began a fast unto death in
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Yervada Jail against
ah
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(a) British repression of the Satyagrahi
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(b) Violation of the Gandhi-Irwin Pact
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(c) Communal award of Ramsay MacDonald
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(d) Communal riots in Calcutta
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42. In 1939, for the time, Gandhiji tried out his specific techniques of
controlled mass struggle in a native state. He allowed a close associate of
his to lead a satyagraha. Who was he?
(a) K.T. Bhashyam in Mysore
(b) Jamnalal Bajaj in Jaipur
(c) Vallabha Bhai Patel in Rajkot
(d) Nebakrushna Chaudhri in Dhenkanal
43. What is Obra known for?
(a) a new refinery (b) a new aluminum plant
(c) a bird sanctuary (d) a thermal power station
44. What is NABARD’s primary role?
(a) to provide term loans to state co-operative banks
(b) to assist state government for share capital contribution
(c) to act as re-finance institution
(d) all of the above
45. Where is the National Institute of Excellence in the filed of Information
Technology and Allied Sciences proposed to be set up?
(a) Banglore (b) Hyderabad
(c) Pune (d) Allahabad
46. Which statement on the Harappan Civilization is correct ?
(a) Horse sacrifice was known to them.
(b) Cow was sacred to them.
(c) Pashupati was venerated by them.
(d) The culture was not generally static.

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47. The First Tirthankara of the Jains was
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(a) Arishtanemi (b) Parshvanath
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(c) Ajitnath (d) Rishbha
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48. The great silk-route to the Indians was opened by
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(a) Kanishka (b) Ashoka
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(c) Harsha (d) FA-hien
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49. The capital of the Yadava rulers was ?
(a) Dwarasamudra (b) Warangal
(c) Kalyani (d) Devagiri
50. Which religious sect did the Chola Kings patronize?
(a) Jainism (b) Buddhism
(c) Saivism (d) Vaishnavism
Answer Set-2
1 c 11 c 21 b 31 c 41 c
2 d 12 c 22 c 32 a 42 c
3 c 13 d 23 c 33 d 43 d
4 c 14 d 24 c 34 b 44 d
5 a 15 b 25 c 35 b 45 b
6 a 16 b 26 b 36 b 46 c
7 c 17 a 27 a 37 d 47 d
8 b 18 a 28 b 38 b 48 a
9 b 19 c 29 a 39 d 49 d
10 a 20 a 30 b 40 c 50 c
SET - 3
1. Finance Commission is constituted:
(a) yearly (b) Once in four years
(c) Once in two years (d) Once in five year
2. In India, estimates of national income are prepared by:
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(a)Central Statistics Organization
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(b) National Development Council
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(c) Finance Ministry
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(d) Planning Commission
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3. The Law of Demand indicates:
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.c
(a)Effect of change in value on demand
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(b) Effect of change in demand on value
(c) Effect of change in demand on the supply of substitute
(d) None of them
4. When did the British make English the medium of education in India?
(a)1813 (b) 1833
(c) 1835 (d) 1844
5. During whose tenure the High Courts of Calcutta, Madras and Bombay
came into existence?
(a)Waren Hestings (b) Lord Carnvalis
(c) John Lawrance (d) Lord Dulhosie
6. Who was famous with the title of ‘Nana Sahib’ ?
(a) Baji Rao I (b) Balaji Baji Rao
(c) Balaji Vishvanath (d) Madhava Rao
7. During whose region, Ibn-e-Batuta visited India?
(a) Iltutmish
(b) Alauddin Khilji
(c) Muhammad bin Tughlaq
(d) Balban
8. During the national struggle, who was the founder-editor of the famous
newspaper, i.e. Kesri?
(a) Mahatma Gandhi (b) Jawaharlal Nehru
(c) Lokmanya Tilak (d) Muhammad Iqbal
9. Who did commence the ‘Shak Samvat’ and when?
(a) Kadfises in BC 58 (b) Rudradaman in 78 AD
(c) Vikamaditya BC 58 (d) Kanishka in 78 AD

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10. Match table I with table II, and choose the right answer form among the
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given options:
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Table I Table II
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(a) Sarojini Naidu 1. Muslim League
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(b) M.A. Jinnah 2. Indian National Congress
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(c) Tej Bahadur 3. Hindu Maha Sapru Sabha
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(d) V.D. Savarkar 4. Liberal party
Options:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(a) 2 1 4 3
(b) 2 1 3 4
(c) 2 4 1 3
(d) 4 1 3 2
11. AIDA is caused by:
(a) Bacteria (b) Virus
(c) Fungus (d) Algae
12. Which is the main pollutant in the cigarette smoke?
(a) Carbon monoxide and di-oxide (b) Carbon monoxide and necotin
(c) Carbon monoxide and benzene (d) Dioxygen and banzine
13. Which of the following is not a permanent member of the Security
Council of the U.N.?
(a) China (b) France
(c) Japan (d) U.K.
14. All the legislative issue are included in the Union List, State List and the
Concurrent List. However, there may be a topic not included in any of
them. Who will make law upon it?
(a) Only Parliament (b) Only Legislative Assembly
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of the above
15. Financial crisis (emergency) can be declared by executing:
(a) Art. 360 (b) Art. 361
(c) Art. 37 (d) Art. 371

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16. For how may times, can the President of India stand for re-election of his
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seat?
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(a) Once (b) Twice
ob
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(c) Thrice (d) As many times as he wishes.
or
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17. Match list-I with list-II, and answer the questions correctly by using
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ss
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options given:
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List I List II
(a) Member of Parliament 1. Elected by Electoral Assembly
(b) President 2. Elected by Parliament
(c) Vice-President 3. Elected by Lok Sabha
(d) Speaker 4. Elected by Adult-Voting
Options:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(a) 1 2 3 4
(b) 2 3 4 1
(c) 3 4 1 2
(d) 4 1 2 3
18. By which name is the common currency of the European Union Known?
(a) Rupee (b) Euro
(c) Rouble (d) Franc
19. Who of the following is the first to walk in the outer space?
(a) Alexi Lionor (b) Yuri Gagarin
(c) Neel Armstrong (d) Der Scot
20. The dance from ‘Mohiniattam’ hails from:
(a) Kerala (b) Karnataka
(c) Punjab (d) Tamil Nadu
21. Who did translate the novel ‘Neel Darpan’ into English?
(a) Ravindera Nath Tagore (b) Madhu Sudan Datta
(c) Dinbandhu Mitra (d) Bankim Chandra Chatterjee

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22. When was the national anthem sung for the first time?
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ah
(a) 1947 (b) 1945
bo
ob
(c) 1911 (d) 1951
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or
23. The word ‘Monsoon’ is derived from:
dp
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(a) Urdu (b) Arabic
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(c) Sanskrit (d) Persian
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24. Whose office is housed at ‘Mandi House’ in New Delhi?
(a) Chief of DTC (b) NDFC
(c) CPWC (d) Director of ‘Door Darshan’
25. In which instrument is Amjad Ali Khan a celebrity?
(a) Violin (b) Sitar
(c) Sarod (d) Sarangi
26. 19th Commonwealth Game was held in:
(a) New Delhi (b) Chennai
(c) Melborne (d) Canada
27. Atomic energy is a mineral-based source of energy and is attained from:
(a) Uranium (b) Thorium
(c) Plutonium (d) All of the three
28. Pankaj Advani is associated with which of the following games?
(a) Golf (b) Snooker
(c) Cricket (d) None of these
29. The DNA-test was developed by:
(a) Dr. Allac Jafrees (b) Dr. V.K. Kashyap
(c) Watson & Crick (d) Gragor Mandel
30. A sppon thrown from a satellite by a pilot will fell on:
(a) the ground
(b) will not fall
(c) keep on following the velocity of the satellite
(d) will move in the tagential direction
31. A colour-blind person cannot:
(a) see things put far
(b) see the blank
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(c) differentiate between some colours (d) be called completely blind
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32. ECG indicate the functioning of:
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(a) brain (b) heart
ob
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(c) lung (d) kidney
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33. If a thing is carried on the moon from the earth:
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.c
(a) its mass changes, but weight remains unchanged.
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(b) Its weight changes but the mass remains unchanged.
(c) its weight and mass both change.
(d) its weight and mass both remain equal.
34. The reason of mirage is:
(a) reflection by hot earth
(b) complete internal reflection by the layers of air
(c) manifestation of light
(d) illusion of light
35. On which principle the atomic power plant works:
(a) Fission (b) Fusion
(c) Thermal combustion (d) Combined effect of the above three
36. The purest water is:
(a) tap-water (b) rain water
(c) ground water (d) calm water
37. Chief component of bio-gas is:
(a) Oxygen (b) Methane
(c) Acetic Acid (d) Methyl Alcohol
38. The chemical name of Asperine is:
(a) Methyl Salislato (b) Hydroxi Salisilate
(c) Acityl Salisitic Acid (d) Alkil Salisilic Acit
39. Which of the following is not a green house gas:
(a) hydrogen (b) Carbon Dioxide
(c) Nitric Oxide (d) Chlorofloro Carbon
40. ‘Table of Two Cities’ was written by:
(a) D.H. Lawrence (b) R.L. Stevenson
(c) Charles Dickens (d) Khushwant Singh

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41. Which of the following is used in large quantity in the manufacture of
ur
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Cement ?
ah
bo
ob
(a) Gypsum (b) Limestone
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or
(c) Coal (d) Clay
dp
re
42. Match table I with table Ii and answer the question correctly using the
ss
.c
om
options given:
Table I Table II
(Country) (Local Wind)
(a) Australia 1. Hurricane
(b) China 2. Willy-willy
(c) France 3. Typhoon
(d) West Indies 4. Mistral
Options:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(a) 2 1 4 3
(b) 1 2 3 4
(c) 1 3 2 4
(d) 4 1 2 3
43. The regulatory body set up in India to regulate the capital market is
called:
(a) DCA (b) MRTPC
(c) RBI (d) SEBI
44. The coastal plain consisting of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu is called:
(a) Konkan (b) Coromandal
(c) Eastern plain (d) Malabar
45. Which is the highest waterfall in India?
(a) Gokak (b) Gersoppa
(c) Shivasamudram (d) Yonna
46. Which of the following is not correctly matched?
(a) Indonesia-Jakarta (b) Maldives-Male
(c) North Korea-Seoul (d) Zimbabwe-Harare
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47. The first Commonwealth Games were held in the year 1930 at:
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(a) London (the UK) (b) Sydney (Australia)
ah
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(c) Hamilton (Canada) (d) Auckland (New Zealand)
ob
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48. The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty came into force in:
or
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(a) 1967 (b) 1970
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(c) 1971 (d) 1974
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49. The island of Corsica is associated with:
(a) Mussolini (b) Hitler
(c) Napolean (d) Winston Churchill
50. The headquarter of Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries is
located in:
(a) Vienna (b) Riyadh
(c) Kuwait City (d) Abu Dhabi
Answer Set-3
1 d 11 b 21 b 31 c 41 b
2 a 12 c 22 c 32 b 42 a
3 b 13 c 23 b 33 b 43 d
4 c 14 a 24 d 34 b 44 b
5 c 15 a 25 c 35 a 45 b
6 b 16 d 26 a 36 b 46 c
7 c 17 d 27 d 37 b 47 c
8 c 18 b 28 b 38 c 48 b
9 d 19 a 29 a 39 a 49 c
10 a 20 a 30 c 40 c 50 a
SET - 4
1. “Curie” is unit of
(a) Radioactivity (b) Temperature
(c) Heat (d) Energy
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2. The enzyme that converts glucose to ethyl alcohol is
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(a) Invertase (b) Maltase
ah
bo
(c) Zymase (c) Diastase
ob
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3. In which filed of Art did Jamini Roy make his name?
or
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(a) Sculpture (b) Music
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.c
(c) Painting (d) Drama
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4. Who won the Janprth award for the year 2000?
(a) Birendra Kumar Bhattacharya
(b) Indira Goswami
(c) Mahasweta Devi
(d) M.T. Vasudevan Nair
5. Who amongst the following was awarded Nobel Prize for path breaking
contributions to develop treatment against Pakinson’s disease?
(a) Arvid Carlsson (b) Walter Kohn
(c) Robert B. Laughlin (d) Ferid Murad
6. Booker Prize is given in the filed of
(a) Medicine (b) Adventure
(c) Fiction Writing (d) Science
7. From which country did the USA purchase Alaska to make it the 50th
federating state?
(a) Canada (b) Britain
(c) Russia (d) France
8. Sambhar Salt Lake is situated in ?
(a) Himachal Pradesh (b) Karnataka
(c) Madhya Pradesh (d) Rajasthan
9. When was the first train steamed off in India?
(a) 1848 (b) 1853
(c) 1875 (d) 1880
10. What is the age from which certain category of sports persons wining
gold medals at international levels are entitled to receive pension ?
(a) 30 (b) 40
(c) 50 (d) 60

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11. Where was electricity supply first introduced in India?
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(a) Kolkata (b) Darjeeling
ah
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(c) Mumbai (d) Chennai
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12. Where is “Pushkar Fair” held?
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(a) Jodhpur (b) Ajmer
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(c) Jaipur (d) Udaipur
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13. Silk chemically is
(a) Carbohy drate (b) Fat
(c) Protein (d) Cellulose
14. Which of the following food items is rich in iron?
(a) Rice (b) Apple
(c) Pulses (d) Orange
15. Who introduced broadcasting in India first?
(a) Government of India
(b) Government of Bombay Presidency
(c) Government of Bengal Presidency
(d) Private entities
16. Who amidst the following great music composers was the ruler of a
state?
(a) Tyagaraja (b) Shyama Shastri
(c) Muthu Swami Dishitar (d) Swati Tirunal
17. Which of the following can a court issue for enforcement of Fundamental
Rights?
(a) A decree (b) An ordinance
(c) A writ (d) A notification
18. Which Commission made the recommendations which formed the basis
for the Punjab Reorganization Act which created the stats Punjab and
Haryana?
(a) Dhar Commission (b) Dass Commission
(c) Shah Commission (d) Mahajan Commission
19. Who discovered cholera germs?
(a) Robert Koch (b) Rene Laennec

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(c) Dreser (d) Hansen
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20. Who developed Hydrogen Bomb?
ah
bo
(a) Wernher Von Braun
ob
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(b) J.Robert Oppen Heimer
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(c) Edward Teller
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(d) Samuel Cohen
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21. Where did the traveler Ibn Batuta come from?
(a) Moroco (b) Persia
(c) Turkey (d) Central Asia
22. Which among the following is the oldest dynasty?
(a) Maurya (b) Gupta
(c) Kushan (d) Kanva
23. With which of the following is the classic “Jivaka Chintamani” in tamil
associated ?
(a) Jainism (b) Buddhism
(c) Hinduism (d) Christianity
24. Which of the following is NOT an Indo-Nepal Cooperation Project?
(a) Sarada Barrage (b) Tanakpur Barrage
(c) Pancheswar Project (d) Chukka Project
25. Which amidst the following banks was recently converted to a “Universal
Bank”?
(a) Corporation Bank (b) Bank of Baroda
(c) IDBI Bank (d) Canara Bank
26. Which amongst the following currencies is the costliest?
(a) French Franc (b) Swiss Franc
(c) Euro (d) Pound Sterling
27. Which state has benefited the most with the Asian Development Bank
(ADB) loans for improvement of National Highways?
(a) West Bengal (b) Andhra Pradesh
(c) Maharashtra (d) Uttar Pradesh

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28. Which of the following circuit is used as a ‘memory device’ is computers?
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(a) Rectifier (b) Flip-Flop
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(c) Comparator (d) Attenuator
ob
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29. Which of the following is used is over?
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(a) X-rays (b) UV rays
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(c) Microwaves (d) Radiowaves
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30. When heated from 0oC to 10oC volume of a given mass of water will
(a) Increase gradually
(b) Decrease gradually
(c) Increase and then will decrease
(d) Decrease and then will increase
31. Sweetex used by the diabetic patients has energy content of
(a) Five calories (b) Ten calories
(c) hundred calories (d) Zero calorie
32. The element which is the most abundant in the human body is
(a) Oxygen (b) Carbon
(c) Iron (d) Nitrogen
33. Trees are leafless for a shorter or longer season of the year in
(a) Evergreen forest (b) Mangrove forest
(c) Scrub jungle forest (d) Deciduous forest
34. Oxygen liberated during photosynthesis is coming from
(a) Carbon dioxide (b) Water
(c) Break down of chlorophyII (d) Atmosphere
35. Which of the following is NOT included in the Technology Mission?
(a) Oil seeds (b) Pulses
(c) Maize (d) Vegetables
36. Which of the following is not a role assigned to Science and Technology
Entrepreneurship Park?
(a) Training
(b) Testing and Calibration
(c) Technology development
(d) Raising funds for entrepreneurs

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37. Who won the gold medal in football at the Sydney Olympics 2000?
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(a) Italy (b) Cameroon
ah
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(c) South Korea (d) Columbia
ob
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38. Who won the gold medal for 400 meters run at two consecutive Olympic
or
dp
games?
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(a) Michael Johnson (b) Carl Lewis
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(c) Alvin Harrison (d) Pallava
39. Which rules built the Ellora temples?
(a) Chalukya (b) Sunga
(c) Rashtrakuta (d) Pallava
40. Which of the following is in the World Heritage list?
(a) Khajuraho (b) Nalanda ruins
(c) Hampi ruins (d) Tajmahal
41. Who created the unforgettable literary character Swami?
(a) Vikram Sath (b) R.K. Narayan
(c) Mulk Raj Anand (d) Hari Vansh Rai Bachan
42. Which of the million-plus-population cities according to 1991 census, has
got the highest literacy rate?
(a) Greater Mumbai (b) Delhi
(c) Chennai (d) Kochi
43. Where is the Botanical Survey of India head-quartered?
(a) Lucknow (b) Darjeeling
(c) Kolkata (d) Oottaccamund
44. On which river has “Naranarayan Setu” been bult?
(a) Ganga (b) Brahmaputra
(c) Mahanadi (d) Godavari
45. What is “Oval Office”?
(a) The place where England’s Cricket Control Board is headquartered
(b) UN security council meeting room
(c) The personal office of the US President
(d) The place where the Queen of England gives personal audience

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46. The Landmines Treaty became a global law in September 1998 with the
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approval of
ah
bo
(a) Norway (b) Bukina Faso
ob
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(c) Thailand (d) Ethiopia
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47. Leander Paes and Mahesh Bhupathi won two doubles Grand Slams in
re
ss
.c
1999. Which were they?
om
(a) Australian Open and French Open
(b) French Open and Wimbledon
(c) Wimbledon and Australian Open
(d) U.S. Open and French Open
48. Who created a world record for the maximum number of dismissals in
Test Cricket as a Wicket Keeper?
(a) Alan knott (b) Rodney Marsh
(c) Ian Healy (d) Moin Khan
49. Who invented optical fibre?
(a) Samuel Cohen (b) Narinder Kapany
(c) Percy L. Spencer (d) T.H. Maimah
50. Who amongst the following is renowned in the filed of painting ?
(a) Parveen Sultana (b) Prof. T.N. Krishnan
(c) Ram Kinkar (d) Raja Ravi Varma
Answer Set-4
1 a 11 b 21 a 31 d 41 b
2 c 12 b 22 a 32 b 42 d
3 c 13 c 23 a 33 d 43 a
4 b 14 b 24 d 34 b 44 b
5 a 15 d 25 c 35 d 45 c
6 c 16 d 26 d 36 d 46 d
7 c 17 c 27 b 37 b 47 b
8 d 18 c 28 b 38 a 48 c
9 b 19 a 29 c 39 c 49 a
10 a 20 c 30 d 40 d 50 d
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SET - 5
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1. The split between the 'Extremists' and 'Moderates' came up in the open
ob
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at the Surat Congress Session in the year—
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(a) 1905 (b) 1906
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(c) 1907 (d) 1910
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2. Bhulabhai Desai's most memorable achievement was his defence of the
Indian National Army (I.N.A.) personnel at the Red Fort Trial towards the
end of—
(a) 1943 (b) 1944
(c) 1945 (d) 1946
3. St. Thomas is said to have come to India to propagate Christianity during
the reign of the—
(a) Cheras (b) Parthians
(c) Pandyas (d) Cholas
4. When was the All India Women's Conference founded?
(a) 1924 (b) 1925
(c) 1926 (d) 1927
5. The Kuka movement started in mid-nineteenth century in—
(a) Western Punjab (b) Maharashtra
(c) Bengal (d) Madhya Bharat
6. Who is the author of the autobiography, The Indian Struggle?
(a) Annie Beasant (b) Subhash Chandra Bose
(c) Chittaranjan Das (d) Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel
7. Mahatma Gandhi's remark, "A post-dated cheque on a crumbling bank" is
regarding the proposals of—
(a) Simon Commission (b) Cripps Mission
(c) Cabinet Mission (d) Wavel Plan
8. Under whose leadership was the Congress Socialist Party founded in
1934?
(a) Jawaharlal Nehru and Mahatma Gandhi
(b) Acharya Narendra Dev and Jai Prakash Narayan

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(c) Subhash Chandra Bose and P.C. Joshi
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(d) Saifuddin Kitchlew and Rajendra Prasad
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9. The people of the Indus Valley Civilization usually built their houses of—
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(a) Pucca bricks (b) Stone
or
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(c) Wood (d) All of the above
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.c
10. In which state is the Maikala range situated?
om
(a) Uttar Pradesh (b) Rajasthan
(c) Bihar (d) Chhattisgarh
11. Nallamala hills are located in the state of—
(a) Orissa (b) Meghalaya
(c) Andhra Pradesh (d) Gujarat
12. In which of the following is the Great Barrier Reef located?
(a) Coral Sea (b) Solomon Sea
(c) Bismarck Sea (d) Arafura Sea
13. Where is the headquarter of Zoological Survey of India located?
(a) Mumbai (b) Delhi
(c) Kolkata (d) Chennai
14. Where was the first iron and steel industry of India established?
(a) Bhadravati (b) Bhilai
(c) Jamshedpur (d) Burnpur
15. Which one of the following is incorrectly matched?
(a) Columbus—1492 (b) Vasco de Gama—1498
(c) Megellan—1520 (d) Balboa—1530
16. Which one of the following wavelengths of light is most effective in
photosynthesis?
(a) Blue (b) Green
(c) Orange (d) Yellow
17. Pick out the viral disease among the following—
(a) Hepatitis (b) Meningitis
(c) Arthritis (d) Nephritis
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18. IMEI is the abbreviated form of....
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(a) International Maritime Establishment Information
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(b) International Mobile Equipment Identity
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(c) Indian Monetary Exchange Index
or
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(d) Industrial Management and Export Index
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.c
19. Eden Garden (Kolkata) is associated with—
om
(a) basket Ball (b) Football
(c) Cricket (d) Hockey
20. Which one of the following is not a HYV of wheat?
(a) Sonalika (b) Ratna
(c) Kalyan Sona (d) Girija
21. Who gave the concept of 'Total Revolution'?
(a) Jayaprakash Narayan (b) Mahatma Gandhi
(c) Karl Marx (d) Lenin
22. The first mid-term elections for Lok Sabha were held in—
(a) 1962 (b) 1971
(c) 1977 (d) 1980
23. Japan's Parliament is known as—
(a) Diet (b) Dail
(c) Yuan (d) Shora
24. The headquarters of the Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) is
at—
(a) New York (b) Paris
(c) Geneva (d) Rome
25. Reserve Bank of India was nationalized in—
(a) 1947 (b) 1948
(c) 1949 (d) 1951
26. PSLV stands for— .
(a) Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle
(b) Polish Satellite Launch Vehicle
(c) Perfect Satellite Launching Verifier
(d) Preparatory Satellite Launching Vehicle

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27. Indira Gandhi Cup is associated with—
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(a) Basketball (b) Football ‘
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(c) Boxing (d) Cricket
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28. An industrialist wants to establish a cotton textile mill in the State of
or
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Kerala. He will face the difficulty of—
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(a) Electricity (b) Raw Material
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(c) Market (d) Manpower
29. Devaluation of currency leads to—
(a) expansion of export trade (b) contraction of import trade
(c) expansion of import substitution
(d) All of the above
30. The large amount of sugar present in human blood is—
(a) sucrose (b) glucose
(c) fructose (d) lactose
31. The major constituent of gobar gas is—
(a) Carbon dioxide (b) Methane
(c) Butane (d) Isobutane
32. The expansion of AIDS is—
(a) Active Immuno Deficiency Syndrome
(b) Acquired Individual Disease Syndrome
(c) Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome
(d) Acquired Immuno Disease Syndrome
33. Bee keeping is known as—
(a) Sericulture (b) Apiculture
(c) Aquaculture (d) Agriculture
34. The isotope of uranium used in atomic reactors is—
(a) U235 (b) U236
(c) U237 (d) U232
35. Arjuna Award has been instituted for outstanding contribution in the
field of—
(a) Games and Sports (b) Social Service
(c) Literature (d) Art and Music

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36. Among the defects of eye, the shortsightedness is called—
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(a) Coma (b) Hypermetropia
ah
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(c) Myopia (d) Astigmatism
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37. Velocity of sound in air does not change with the change of—
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(a) Temperature of air (b) Pressure of air
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(c) Moisture content in air
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(d) Wind in the direction of propagation of sound
38. Who discovered X-rays?
(a) Goldstein (b) Thomson
(c) Roentgen (d) Wien
39. Aqua regia is a 1: 3 mixture, by volume, of—
(a) cone, nitric acid and cone, hydrochloric acid
(b) cone, hydrochloric acid and cone, nitric acid
(c) cone, nitric acid and cone, sulphuric acid
(d) cone, sulphuric acid and cone, nitric acid
40. Where is the Indian Institute of Foreign Trade located?
(a) New Delhi (b) Hyderabad
(c) Mumbai (d) Ahmedabad
41. Per capita income is obtained by dividing National Income by—
(a) Total population of the country (b) Total working population
(c) Area of the country (d) Volume of capital used
42. The currency of Thailand is—
(a) Bhat (b) Rupiah
(c) YUJUI (d) Yen
43. In Indian agriculture, the period from July to October-November is
called—
(a) Rabi season (b) Kharif season
(c) Pre-kharif season (d) Slack season
44. The Indian king who opposed Alexander was—
(a) Ambhi (b) Porus
(c) Dhanananda (d) Chandragupta

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45. Who is the guardian of Fundamental Rights enumerated in Indian
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Constitution?
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(a) Supreme Court (b) Parliament
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(c) Constitution (d) President
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46. The United Nations officially came into existence on—
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(a) January 1, 1942 (b) October 3, 1944
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(c) October 24, 1945 (d) June 26, 1945
47. The annual report of the UPSC is submitted to—
(a) The President (b) The Supreme Court
(c) The Prime Minister
(d) The Chairman of the Union Public Service Commission
48. In ends and means relationship, Gandhiji believed—
(a) Means become good if they serve the end
(b) Means and ends are watertight compartments
(c) Means determine the end
(d) End is everything, no matter what or how the means are
49. The 'Speaker's vote' in the Lok Sabha is called—
(a) Casting vote (b) Sound vote
(c) Direct vote (d) Indirect vote
50. Which part of the Indian Constitution deals with 'Fundamental Rights'?
(a) Part I (b) Part ll
(c) Part III (d) Part IV
Answer Set-5
1 c 11 c 21 a 31 b 41 a
2 c 12 a 22 c 32 c 42 a
3 b 13 c 23 a 33 b 43 b
4 d 14 c 24 d 34 a 44 b
5 a 15 d 25 c 35 a 45 a
6 b 16 a 26 a 36 c 46 c
7 b 17 a 27 c 37 b 47 a
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8 b 18 b 28 b 38 c 48 c
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9 a 19 c 29 d 39 a 49 a
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10 d 20 b 30 b 40 a 50 c
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SET - 6
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1. Despotism is posssible in a
(a) One party state (b) Two party state
(c) Multi party state (d) Two and multi party state
2. Marx belonged to
(a) Germany (b) Holland
(c) France (d) Britain
3. Which one of the following is the guardian of Fundamental Rights?
(a) Legislature (b) Executive
(c) Political parties (d) Judiciary
4. Sarkaria Commission was concerned with
(a) Administrative Reforms (b) Electoral Reforms
(c) Ginancial Reforms (d) Centre-State relations
5. The Speaker of the Lok-Sabha has to address his/her letter of resignation
to
(a) Prime Minister of India (b) President of India
(c) Deputy Speaker of Lok Sabha (d) Minister of Parliamentary Affairs
6. A want becomes a demand only when it is backed by the
(a) Ability to purchase (b) Necessity to buy
(c) Desire to buy (d) Utility of the product
7. The terms "Micro Economics" and "Macro Economics" were coined by
(a) Alfred Marshall (b) Ragner Nurkse
(c) Ragner Frisch (d) J.M. Keynes
8. During periods of inflation, tax rates should
(a) increase (b) decrease
(c) remain constant (d) fluctuate
9. Which is the biggest tax paying sector in India?
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(a) Agriculture sector (b) Industrial sector
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(c) Transport sector (d) Banking sector
ah
bo
10. "Economics is what it ought to be" This statement refers to
ob
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(a) Normative economics (b) Positive economics
or
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(c) Monetary economics (d) Fiscal economics
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ss
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11. The excess of price a person is to pay rather than forego the
om
consumption of the commodity is called
(a) Price (b) Profit
(c) Producers' surplus (d) Consumers' surplus
12. Silver halides are used in photographic plates because they are
(a) oxidised in air (b) suluble in hyposolution
(c) reduced by light (d) totally colourless
13. Tetra ethyl lead (TEL) is
(a) a catalyst in burning fossil fuel
(b) an antioxidant (c) a reductant
(d) ah antiknock compound
14. Curie point is the temperature at which
(a) Matter becomes radioactive.
(b) A metal loses magnetic properties.
(c) A metal loses conductivity.
(d) Transmutation of metal occurs.
15. The isotope used for the production of atomic energy is
(a) U-235 (b) U-238
(c) U-234 (d) U-236
16. The acceleration due to gravity at the equator
(a) is less than that at the poles
(b) is greater than that at the poles
(c) is equal to that at the poles
(d) does not depend on the earth's centripetal acceleration
17. Which of the following is not a nucleon?
(a) Proton (b) Neutron
(c) Carbon (d) Positron

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18. The material used in the manufacture of lead pencil is
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(a) Graphite (b) Lead
ah
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(c) Carbon (d) Mica
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19. Angle of friction and angle of repose are
or
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(a) equal to each other (b) not equal to each other
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ss
.c
(c) proportional to each other (d) None of the above
om
20. Processor's speed of a computer is measured in
(a) BPS (b) MIPS
(c) Baud (d) Hertz
21. 'C language is a
(a) Low level language (b) High level language
(c) Machine level language (d) Assembly level language
22. What happens to a person who receives the wrong type of blood?
(a) All the arteries constrict.
(b) All the arteries dialates
(c) The RBCs agglutinate.
(d) The spleen and lymphnodes deteriorate.
23. NIS stands for
(a) National Infectious diseases Seminar
(b) National Irrigation Schedule
(c) National Immunisation Schedule
(d) National Information Sector
24. If all bullets coult not be removed from gun shot injury of a man, it may
cause poisoning by
(a) Mercury (b) Lead
(c) Iron (d) Arsenic
25. Ringworm is a_________disease.
(a) Bacterial (b) Protozoan
(c) Viral (d) Fungal
26. Pituitary gland is situtated in
(a) the base of the heart' (b) the base of the brain
(c) the neck (d) the abdomen

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27. Who discovered cement?
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(a) Agassit (b) Albertus Magnus
ah
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(c) Joseph Aspdin (d) Janseen
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28. According to RBI's Report on the trend and progress of banking, the Non-
or
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performing Assets (NPA's) in India for 2008-09 for Indian Banks in 2008
re
ss
.c
have stood at
om
(a) 2.3 percent (b) 2.6 percent
(c) 3.5 percent (d) 5.2 percent
29. Window 7, the latest operating system from Microsoft Corporation
has_____ Indian languages fonts.
(a) 14 (b) 26
(c) 37 (d) 49
30. TRIPS and TRIMS are the terms associated
(a) IMF (b) WTO
(c) IBRD (d) IDA
31. A Presidential Ordinance can remain in force
(a) For three months (b) For six months
(c) For nine months (d) Indefinitely
32. Which of the following Indonesian regions was a victim of massive
eqrthquake in 2004?
(a) Irian Jaya (b) Sumatra
(c) Kalibangan (d) Java
33. The first non-stop air-conditioned 'DURANTO' train was flagged off
between
(a) Sealdah - New Delhi (b) Mumbai – Howrah
(c) Bangalore – Howrah (d) Chennai - New Delhi
34. Which among the following angencies released the report, Economic
Outlook for 2009-10?
(a) Planning Commission (b) PM's Economic Advisory Council
(c) Finance Commission (d) Reserve Bank of India

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35. India and U.S. have decided to finalize agreements related to which of the
ur
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following?
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(a) Trade and Investment (b) Intellecutal Property
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(c) Traditional Knowledge (d) All of the above
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36. Which one of the following states does not form part of Narmade River
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basin?
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(a) Madhya Pradesh (b) Rajasthan
(c) Gujarat (d) Maharashtra
37. Which of the following countries has recently become the third largest
market for Twitter?
(a) China (b) India
(c) Brazil (d) Indonesia
38. The exchange of the commodities between two countries is referred as
(a) Balance of trade (b) Bilateral trade
(c) Volume of trade (d) Multilateral trade
39. Soil erosion on hill slopes can be checked by
(a) Afforestation (b) Terrace cultivation
(c) Strip –cropping (d) Contour ploughing
40. Who coined the word ‘Geography'?
(a) Ptolemy (b) Eratosthenese
(c) Hecataus (d) Herodatus
41. Which of the following is called the "ecological hot spot of India"?
(a) Western Ghats (b) Eastern Ghats
(c) Western Himalayas (d) Eastern Himalayas
42. The art and science of map making is called
(a) Remote Sensing (b) Cartography
(c) Photogrammetry (d) Mapping
43. The age of the Earth can be determined by
(a) Geological Time Scale (b) Radio-Metric Dating
(c) Gravity method (d) Fossilization method
44. The monk who influenced Ashoka to embrace Buddhism was
(a) Vishnu Gupta (b) Upa Gupta

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(c) Brahma Gupta (d) Brihadratha
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45. The declaration that Democracy is a Government 'of the people, by the
ah
bo
people; for the people' was made by
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(a) George Washinton (b) Winston Churchill
or
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(c) Abraham Lincoln (d) Thedore Roosevelt
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.c
46. The Lodi dynasty was founded by
om
(a) Ibrahim Lodi (b) Sikandar Lodi
c) Bahlol Lodi (d) Khizr Khan
47. Harshavardhana was defeated by
(a) Prabhakaravardhana (b) Pulakesin II
(c) Narasimhavarma Pallava (d) Sansanka
48. Who among the following was an illiterate?
(a) Jahangir (b) Shah Jahan
(c) Akbar (d) Aurangazeb
49. Which Governor General is associated with Doctrine of Lapse?
(a) Lord Ripon (b) Lord Dalhousie
(c) Lord Bentinck (d) Lord Curzon
50. India attained 'Dominion Status' on
(a) 15th January, 1947 (b) 15th August, 1947
(c) 15th August, 1950 (d) 15th October, 1947
Answer Set-6
1 a 11 c 21 b 31 b 41 a
2 a 12 c 22 c 32 b 42 b
3 d 13 d 23 d 33 a 43 b
4 d 14 b 24 d 34 b 44 b
5 c 15 a 25 d 35 d 45 c
6 d 16 a 26 b 36 b 46 c
7 d 17 d 27 c 37 b 47 b
8 a 18 a 28 a 38 c 48 c
9 b 19 a 29 d 39 b 49 b
10 a 20 b 30 b 40 b 50 b
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SET - 7
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1. Tower of Victory (Vijaya Stambh) is located in
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(a) Delhi (b) Jhansi
or
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(c) Chittorgath (d) Fatehpur Sikri
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ss
2. Who amongst the following leaders of 1857 was he first to lay down
.c
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his/her life?
(a) Kunwar Singh (b) Tantiya Tope
(c) Rani Laxmi Bai of Jhansi (d) Mangal Pandey.
3. The system of communal electorate
(a) Indian Council Act of 1892
(b) Minto-Morley Reforms of 1909.
(c) Montague-Chelmsford Reforms of 1919.
(d) Government of India Act of 1935.
4. Which of the following is not a necessary conditions for the development
of India?
(a) Capital accumulation (b) Resource discovery
(c) Population growth (d) Technological development.
5. Personal disposable income is ?
(a) always equal to personal income
(b) always more than personal income
(c) equal to personal income minus direct taxes paid by household.
(d) equal to personal income minus indirect taxes.
6. Which of the following is most closely approximates our definition of
oligopoly?
(a) The cigarette industry (b) The barber shops
(c) The gasoline stations (d) Wheat farmers.
7. Who had, “Supply creates its own demand”?
(a) Adam Smith (b) J.B. Say.
(c) Marshall (d) Ricardo.
8. The Indian economy can be most appropriately described as a
(a) Capitalist economy (b) Socialist economy.

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(c) Traditional economy. (d) Mixed economy.
ur
sm
9. Agricultural Technology is hard to spread because
ah
bo
(a) it has to be adopted to local conditions.
ob
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(b) rural people are not receptive.
or
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(c) farmers are afraid to experiment on land for fear of failure.
re
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(d) All of the above.
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10. Indirect tax means
(a) there is no direct relationship between the tax-payer and the
Government.
(b) direct relationship between tax-payer and the Government
(c) tax base is income.
(d) the incidence and impact are on the same person on whom tax is
imposed.
11. One of the essential conditions of perfect competition is
(a) product differentiation.
(b) multiplicity of prices for identical products at any one time.
(c) many sellers and a few buyers.
(d) only one price for identical goods at any one time.
12. Dehydration in human body is caused due to the loss of
(a) vitamins (b) salt
(c) hormones (d) water
13. Which of the following is the largest living bird?
(a) Eagle (b) Peacock
(c) Ostrich (d) Kiwi
14. In the case of test-tube babies
(a) egg is fertilized in the uterus
(b) embryo completes its development in a test tube.
(c) embryo is placed in uterus after two months.
(d) egg is fertilized outside mother’s body.
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15. The age of tree is determined by its
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(a) girth (b) height
ah
bo
ob
(c) growth rings (d) general appearance
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or
16. Kidney disease in man is caused by the pollutant
dp
re
(a) Cadmium (b) Iron
ss
.c
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(c) Cobalt (d) Carbon
17. Fruits of this plant are found underground:
(a) Potato (b) Carrot
(c) Groundnut (d) Onion
18. A rare and endangered animal in Silent Valley is
(a) Musk deer (b) Tiger
(c) Lion-tailed macaque (d) Rhinoceros
19. A boat will submerge when it displace water equal to its own
(a) volume (b) weight
(c) surface area (d) density
20. The asteroids revolve rounds the Sun in between
(a) Earth and Mars (b) Mars and Jupiter
(c) Jupiter and Saturn (d) Saturn and Uranus
21. The Suez Canal connects
(a) Mediterranean and Red Seas (b) Baltic and Caspian Seas
(c) Mediterranean and North Seas
(d) Red Sea and Caspian Sea
22. Khasi and Garo Tribes mainly live in
(a) Meghlya (b) Nagland
(c) Mizoram (d) Manipur
23. Which one of the following areas in noted for mangrove vegetation?
(a) Leave forest of Kalimpong
(b) Sajnekhali forest of South 24 Parganas
(c) Dandakaranya forest of Orissa
(d) Corbet National Park of U.P.
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ah
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ob
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24. Extensive deserts occur in the western tropical regions of continents
ur
sm
because ?
ah
bo
(a) of easterly trade winds
ob
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(b) cold ocean currents flow along the western coasts
or
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(c) of the effect of both the offshore easterly trade winds and cold ocean
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currents
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(d) the rate of evaporation is greater along the western margin areas
25. The seabed sloping gradually and bordering the continent is known as
(a) coast (b) continental self
(c) continental platform (d) continental slope
26. March List I with List II and find out the correct answer from the codes
given below the list:
List I List II
I. Silk Saree (a) Moradabad
II. Chiken (b) Gorakhpur
II. Terracota (c) Varanasi
IV. Brass (d) Lucknow
(a) I-A, II-B, IV-D (b) I-C, II-D, III-B, IV-A
(c) I-D, II-C, III-A, IV-B (d) I-B, II-A, III-D, IV-C
27. The most important uranium mine of India is located at
(a) Manavalkurichi (b) Gauribidanur
(c) Vashi (d) Jaduguda
28. Parliamentary Form of Government is also known as
(a) Responsive Government (b) Responsible Government
(c) Federal Government (d) Presidential Government
29. The chief advocate of Fascism was
(a) Mussolini (b) Adolf Hitler
(c) St. Mimon (d) Robert Owen
30. The minimum age for the member of Rajya Sabha is
(a) 25 years (b) 21 years
(c) 3 years (d) 35 years

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31. Mahatma Gandhi got his inspiration for Civil Disobedience from
ur
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(a) Thoreau (b) Ruskin
ah
bo
(c) Confucius (d) Tolstory
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32. India is considered a ‘Republic’ mainly because
or
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(a) the Head of the State is elected.
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(b) it gained independence on Aug. 15, 1947
om
(c) it has its own written Constitution.
(d) it is having a Parliamentary Form of Government
33. The first Indian selected for the Indian Civil Service was
(a) Surendra Nath Banerji (b) Sarojini Naidu
(c) Lala Lajpat Rai (d) C.R. Das
34. One feature is common to the following bodies-Find it out.-Supreme
Court, Election Commission, UPSC, Office of CAG.
(a) They are advisory bodies.
(b) They are extra-constitutional bodies.
(c) They are controlled by legislature.
(d) They are constitutional bodies.
35. How many member of the State Legislative Council are elected by the
Assembly?
(a) 1/6th of the members (b) 1/3rd of the member
(c) 1/12th of the members (d) 5/6th of the members
36. Girish Karnad is
(a) a well-know-play Wright and actor.
(b) recipient of Jnanpith Award.
(c) president of the Film and Television Institute of India Cosiety.
(d) All of the above.
37. Nine-time Wimbledon Campion of Women’s Singles is
(a) Mary Joe Fernandez. (b) Jana Novotna.
(c) Iva Jajoli. (d) Martina Navaratilova.
38. The book The God of Small Things is written by
(a) Pupul Jayakar (b) Shobha De
(c) Shekhar Kapur (d) Arundhati Roy

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39. Which of the following States is called the Tiger State of India?
ur
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(a) Himachal Pradesh (b) Gujarat
ah
bo
(c) Madhya Pradesh (d) Assam
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40. The District Primary Education Programe a Centrally-sponsored
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Programme in India is supported by
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ss
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(a) International Monetary Fund
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(b) World Bank
(c) UNESO
(d) Japanese Government
41. Na Khatam Honewali Kahani (The Never-Ending Story) is an
autobiography of
(a) T.N. Seshan (b) Amitabh Bachchan
(b) Sonia Gnadhi (d) V.P. Singh
42. From where was India’s multipurpose tele-communication satellite
INSAT-2E launched?
(a) Baikanour (b) Thumba
(b) Sriharikota (c) Kourou.
43. Antyodaya Programme is associated with
(a) Liberation of bonded labour.
(b) bringing up cultural revolution in India.
(c) demands of textile labourers.
(d) uplifment of the poorest of the poor.
44. A few years ago, an Indian city celebrated as 400th birthday. It is
(a) Banglore (b) Hyderabad.
(b) Trivandrum (d) Mumbai.
45. The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade was replaced by the
(a) North American Free Trade Association.
(b) South Asian Free Trade Association.
(c) World Trade Org.
(d) None

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46. With Which brand or product, is the slogan ‘Just do it’ associated?
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(a) Bata (b) Power
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(c) Woodland (d) Nike
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47. With Which of the following books, is Dr. S. Radhakrishnan associated?
or
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(1) An Idealist View of Life (2) Bhagavad Gita
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(3) Conquest of Self (4) Hindu View of life
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(a) 1,2 and 3 only (b) 2, 3 and 4 only
(c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2 and 4 only
48. The Headquarters of International Court of Justice is located in:
(a) Paris (France) (b) Geneva (Switzerland)
(c) New York (USA) (d) The Hague (Netherlands)
49. ‘Subroto Cup’ is associated with which game/sports?
(a) Hockey (b) Football
(c) Basketball (d) Badminton
50. The first talkie film in India was:
(a) Raja Harishchandra (b) Alam Ara
(c) Chandidas (d) Jhansi Ki Rani
Answer Set-7
1 c 11 d 21 a 31 d 41 d
2 d 12 d 22 a 32 a 42 d
3 b 13 c 23 b 33 a 43 d
4 c 14 d 24 c 34 d 44 b
5 c 15 c 25 b 35 b 45 c
6 a 16 a 26 b 36 d 46 d
7 b 17 c 27 d 37 d 47 d
8 d 18 c 28 a 38 d 48 d
9 d 19 b 29 a 39 c 49 b
10 a 20 b 30 c 40 c 50 b

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SET-8
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1. In the budget for 2011 – 12, the fiscal deficit (% of GDP) for 2011 – 12
ob
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has been projected at
or
dp
re
(a) 5.1 (b) 5.0
ss
.c
(c) 4.6 (d) 3.4
om
2. Which was described by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar as
the ‘heart and soul’ of the Constitution?
(a) Right to Equality
(b) Right against Exploitation
(c) Right to Constitutional Remedies
(d) Right to Freedom of Religion
3. Which is not the concern of the local
government?
(a) Public Health (b) Sanitation
(c) Law and Order (d) Public Utility Services
4. In India, the concept of single citizenship is
adopted from
(a) England (b) U.S.A.
(c) Canada (d) France
5. Who had proposed partyless democracy in
India?
(a) Jaya Prakash Narayan (b) Mahatma Gandhi
(c) Vinoba Bhave (d) S.A. Dange
6. Disinvestment in public Sector is called
(a) Liberalization (b) Globalization
(c) Industrialization (d) Privatization
7. ‘Darwin finches’ refers to a group of
(a) Fishes (c) Birds
(b) Lizards (d) Amphibians
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8. An individual’s actual standard of living can
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be assessed by
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(a) Gross National Income (b) Net National Income
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(c) per Capita Income (d) Disposable personal Income
or
dp
9. As announced by the Finance Minister in his Budget speech on 2gth
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ss
.c
February 2011, with a view to assist , States in modernizing their stamp
om
and registration administration, E-stamping is expected to be rolled out
in all the districts of different States in a period of
(a) one year (b) two years
(c) three years (d) five years
10. Which Sikh Guru called himself the Sachcha
Badshah’?
(a) Guru Gobind Singh
(b) Guru Hargovind
(c) Guru Tegh Bahadur
(d) Guru Arjan Dev
11. The Civil Disobedience Movement was
launched by Mahatma Gandhi in
(a) 1928 (b) 1930
(c) 1911 (d) 1922
12. What is the maximum strength prescribed for
State Legislative Assemblies?
(a) 350 (c) 500
(b) 600 (d) 750
13. Fa-hien visited India during the reign of
(a) Chandragupta II (b) Samudragupta
(c) Ramagupta (d) Kumaragupta
14. At which place in Bengal was the East India
Company given permission to trade and build
a factory by the Mughals in 1651?
(a) Calcutta (b) Cassim Bazar
(c) Singur (d) Burdwan

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15. Diu is an island of
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(a) Daman (b) Goa
ah
bo
(c) Gujarat (d) Maharashtra
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16. Which from the following is a landlocked sea?
or
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(a) Red Sea (b) Timor Sea
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.c
(c) North Sea (d) Aral Sea
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17. Shivasamudram Falls is found in the course river
(a) Krishna (b) Godavari
(c) Cauvery (d) Mahanadi
18. Who gave the slogan “Inquilab Zindabad”
(a) Chandrashekhar Azad (b) Subhash Chandra Bose
(c) Bhagat Singh (d) Iqbal
19. The position of Indian Railways network in the world is
(a) second (b) third
(c) fourth (d) fifth
20. The oldest international airline is
(a) Dutch KLM (b) Air Canada
(c) Qantas Airways (d) Air Sahara
21. Which of the following can be used to absorb neutrons to control the
chain reaction during nuclear fission ?
(a) Boron (b) Heavy water
(c) Uranium (d) Plutonium
22. Hydrogen bomb is based on the principle of
(a) controlled fission reaction
(b) Uncontrolled fission reaction
(c) controlled fusion reaction
(d) uncontrolled fusion reaction
23. Troposphere is the hottest part of the atmosphere because
(a) it is closest to the Sun
(b) there are charged particles in it
(c) it is heated by the earth’s surface
(d) heat is generated in it

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24. The outermost layer of the Sun is called
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(a) Chromo sphere (b) photosphere
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(c) Corona (d) Lithosphere
ob
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25. Where was India’s first computer installed
or
dp
(a) Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi
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.c
(b) Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore
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(c) Indian Iron & Steel Co. Ltd., Burnpur
(d) Indian Statistical Institute, Calcutta
26. The dried flower buds are used as a spice
(a) Cardamom (b) Cinnamon
(c) Cloves (d) Saffron
27. The tissue in man where no cell division occur after birth is
(a) Skeletal (b) Nerves
(c) Connective (d) Germinal
28. DNA fingerprinting is used to identify the
(a) Parents (b) Rapist
(c) Thieves (d) All the above
29. The normal Cholesterol level of a human being is
(a) 80 – 120 mg% (b) 120-140 mg%
(c) 140-180 mg% (d) 180 -200 mg%
30. Which of the following are warm blood animals
(a) Whales (b) Whale Sharks
(c) Alytes (d) Draco
31. Syrinx is the, voice box in
(a) Amphibians (b) Reptiles
(c) Birds (d) Mammals
32. The largest ecosystem of the Earth is
(a) Biome (b) Hydrosphere
(c) Lithosphere (d) Biosphere
33. In a food chain, the solar energy utilized by plants is only
(a) 10 percent (b) 1 Percent
(c) 0.1 percent (d) 0.01 Percent

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34. Supersonic jet causes pollution by thinning of
ur
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(a) 03 layer (b) O2 layer
ah
bo
(c) SO2 layer (d) CO2 layer
ob
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35. OTEC stands for
or
dp
(a) Ocean Thermal Energy Conservation
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ss
.c
(b) Oil and Thermal Energy Conservation
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(c) Oil and Thermal Energy Convention
(d) Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion
36. As per Railway Budget for 2011 – 12, the senior citizen concession for
men has been increased from
(a) 25% to 30% (b) 30% to 4o%
(c) 40% to 5O% (d) 30% to 50%
37. The monstcr earthquake-cum-tsunami which hit Japan on March 11,
2011 has moved the country’s main island, Honshu, by about
(a) two feet (b) three feet
(c) five feet (d) eight feet
38. What is the commonly used unit for measuring the speed of data
transmission?
(a) Mega Hertz (b) Characters per second
(c) Bits per second (d) Nano seconds
39. Which type of reaction produces the most harmful radiation?
(a) Fusion reaction (b) Fission reaction
(c) Chemical reaction (d) Photo-Chemical reaction
40. Which type of glass is used for making glass reinforced plastic?
(a) Pyrex glass (b) Flint glass
(c) Quartz glass (d) Fibre glass
41. Which of the following metals causes Itai-itai disease?
(a) Cadmium (b) Chromium
(c) Cobalt (d) Copper
42. Glycol is added to aviation gasoline because it
(a) reduces evaporation of petrol
(b) increases efficiency of petrol
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(c) prevents freezing of petrol
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ah
(d) reduces consumption of petrol
bo
ob
43. Who invented penicillin?
.w
or
dp
(a) Alexander Fleming (b) Louis pasteur
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(c) Dreser (d) Edward Jenner
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44. 2018 FIFA World Cup would be held in
(a) Russia (b) Qatar
(c) France (d) Netherlands
45. Who of the following was not the recipient of Nobel Prize in Economics
2010 ?
(a) Peter A. Diamond (b) Christopher pissarides
(c) Lui Xiaobo (d) Dale Mortensen
46. Which troubled model was recalled recently by the Indian automobile
giant Maruti Suzuki for replacement of faulty fuel pump gasket?
(a) Maruti 800 (b) Maruti A-Star
(c) Wagon R (d) Baleno
47. As a part of Human Resource Development Ministry’s brain gain, policy
to attract global talent, 14 world class universities to attract global
talents are proposed to be set up in various states. Name the state from
the following where no university of the aforesaid type is proposed to be
located.
(a) Punjab (c) Rajasthan
(b) Bihar (d) Uttaranchal
48. Who discovered South pole?
(a) Robert Peary (b) Amundsen
(c) John Cabot (d) Tasman

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49. Which of the following folk dances
ur
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ah
associated with Rajasthan?
bo
ob
(a) Rauf (b) Jhora
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or
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(c) Veedhi (d) Suisini
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ss
50. Which of the following books is authored
.c
om
V.S. Naipaul?
(a) The Rediscovery of India (b) A House for Mr. Biswas
(c) Witness the Night (d) Tender Hooks
Answer Set-8
Qns. Ans. Qns. Ans. Qns. Ans. Qns. Ans. Qns. Ans.
1. c 11. b 21. a 31. c 41. a
2. c 12. c 22. d 32. a 42. c
3. c 13. a 23. c 33. c 43. a
4. a 14. b 24. c 34. a 44. a
5. a 15. c 25. d 35. d 45. c
6. d 16. d 26. c 36. b 46. b
7. c 17. c 27. b 37. d 47. d
8. d 18. c 28. d 38. c 48. b
9. c 19. c 29. d 39. b 49. d
10. b 20. a 30. a 40. d 50. b
SET -9
1. Coronation of Shivaji took place in-
(a) 1627 A.D. (b) 1674 A.D.

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(c) 1680 A.D. (d) 1670 A.D.
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ah
2. The system of Dyarchy was introduced in India in-
bo
ob
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(a) 1909 (b) 1935
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re
(c) 1919 (d) 1945
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3. The Editor of ‘Young India’ and ‘Harijan’ was-
(a) Nehru (b) Ambedkar
(c) Mahatma Gandhi (d) Subhash Chandra Bose
4. Who of the following attended all the Three Round Table Conferences?
(a) B.R.Ambedkar (b) M.M.Malvia
(c) Vallabhbhai Patel (d) Gandhiji
5. Which is the largest living bird on Earth?
(a) Emu (b) Ostrich
(c) Albatross (d) Siberian Crane
6. Rihand Dam project provides irrigation to ____?
(a) Gujarat & Maharastra (b) Odisha and West Bengal
(c) Uttar Pradesh and Bihar (d) Kerala and Karnataka
7. The Headquarters of MCF (Master Control Facility) is
(a) Hyderabad-Andhra Pradesh
(b) Thumba- Kerala
(c) Sri Harikota-Andhra Pradesh
(d) Hassan-Karnataka

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8. Which is the longest irrigation canal in India?
ur
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ah
(a) Sir hind Canal (b) Yamuna Canal
bo
ob
.w
(c) Indira Gandhi Canal (d) East Kosi Canal
or
dp
re
9. Which one of the following minerals is found in Monazite Sand?
ss
.c
om
(a)Potassium (b) Uranium
(c)Thorium (d) Sodium
10. In Coriander, useful parts are?
(a) Roots and leaves (b) leaves and flowers
(c) leaves and dried fruits (d) flowers and dried fruits
11. Which plant is called ‘Herbal Indian Doctor” ?
(a)Amla (b) Neem
(c)Tulsi (d) Mango
12. The pH of Human Blood is ___?
(a) 7.2 (b) 7.8
(c) 6.6 (d) 7.4
13. Which among the following is the largest endocrine gland of country?
(a) Thyroid (b) Parathyroid
(c) Adrenal (d) Pituitary
14. Which amongst the following is the largest mammal?
(a) Elephant (b) Whale
(c) Dinosaur (d) Rhinoceros

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15. Which part becomes modified as the tusk of elephant?
ur
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ah
(a) Canine (b) Premolar
bo
ob
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(c) Second Incisor (d) Molar
or
dp
re
16. Optical fibres are based upon the phenomenon of which of the following?
ss
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om
(a) Interference (b) Dispersion
(c) Diffraction (d) Total Internal Reflection
17. Now a days, Yellow lamps are frequently used as street lights. Which
among the following gases, is used in these lamps?
(a) Sodium (b) Neon
(c) Hydrogen (d) Nitrogen
18. Mirage is an example of ____?
(a) Refraction of light
(b) Total Internal Reflection of Light
(c) Refraction and Total Internal Reflection of Light
(d) Dispersion of Light
19. The phenomenon of light associated with the appearance of blue color of
sky is?
(a) Interference (b) Reflection
(c) Refraction (d) Scattering
20. In which of the following areas, spreadsheet software is more useful?
(a) Psychology (b) Publishing
(c) Statistics (d) Message sending
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ur
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ah
bo
ob
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or
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21. A Groupware is a
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(a) Hardware (b) Software
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bo
(c) Network (d) Firmware
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22. Lens is made up of ___?
or
dp
(a) Pyrex Glass (b) Flint Glass
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.c
(c) Ordinary Glass (d) Cobalt Glass
om
23. The element which is used for vulcanizing rubber is?
(a) Sulfur (b) Bromine
(c) Silicon (d) Phosphorus
24. Which of the following is responsible for extra strength of Pyrex glass?
(a) Potassium carbonate (b) Lead Oxide
(c) Borax (d) Ferric Oxide
25. The Noble Gas used for the treatment of cancer is ___?
(a) Helium (b) Argon
(c) Krypton (d) Radon
26. Vasundhara Summit was held in __?
(a) USA (b) UK
(c) Brazil (d) Australia
27. Loktak is a ____?
(a) Valley (b) Lake
(c) River (d) Mountain Range
28. Which city receives the highest cosmic radiation amongst the following?
(a) Chennai (b) Mumbai
(c) Kolkata (d) Delhi
29. The common tree species in Nilgiri Hills is:
(a) Sal (b) Pine
(c) Eucalyptus (d) Teak
30. Which of the following statements on Railway Budget 2011-12 is
correct?
(a) There would be a 10% increase in fares for long distance train travel
both by AC
and NONAC classes

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(b) There would be 15% increase in freight rates on all goods other than
ur
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food grains
ah
bo
(c) There would be 15% increase in passenger fares for all classes for
ob
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long distance
or
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and freights
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.c
(d) There would be no increase in fares for both suburban and long
om
distance travel
31. The nuclear reactors which were damaged heavily due to strong
Earthquake-cum-
Tsunami that hit Japan on March 11, 2011 causing radiation leakage at:
(a) Fukushima (b) Tokyo
(c) Kyoto (d) None of them
32. The maximum limit on poll expenditure for Assembly Constituencies has
been raised in February ,2011 to
(a) 16 Lakh (b) 18 Lakh
(c) 20 Lakh (d) 25 Lakh
33. First Indian Prime Minister to visit Siachen was?
(a) Rajiv Gandhi (b) Inder Kumar Gujaral
(c) Mammohan Singh (d) None of them
34. Which of the following books has been written by Kishwar Desai?
(a) The Red Devil (b) Witness the night
(c) Tonight this Savage Rite (d) Earth and Ashes
35. Which of the following folk / tribal dances is associated with Karnataka?
(a) Yakshagana (b) Jatra
(c) Veedhi (d) Jhora
36. Who of the following received the Sangeet Natak Academi’s Ustad
Bismillah Khan Puraskar for 2009 in theatre?
(a) Omkar Shrikant Dadarkar
(b) Ragini chander sarkar
(c) Abanti Chakraborty and Sukracharjya Rabha
(d) K Nellai Maniknandan

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37. Which of the following country did not win any of the FIFA cup in 2002,
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2006 and
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2010?
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(a) Brazil (b) Arentina
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(c) Spain (d) South Africa
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.c
38. Who invented vaccination for small pox?
om
(a) Sir Frederick Grant Banting
(b) Sir Alexander Fleming
(c) Edward Jenner
(d) Loius Pasteur
39. Who was the first Indian to become the member of British parliament?
(a) Bankim Chandra Chaterjee
(b) W C Banerjee
(c) Dadabhai Naoroji
(d) None of the above
40. The purchase of shares and bonds of Indian companies by Foreign
Institutional Investors is called?
(a) FDI (b) Portfolio Investment
(c) NRI Investment (d) Foreign Indirect Investment
41. BT Seed is associated with which among the following?
(a) Rice (b) Wheat
(c) Cotton (d) Oil Seeds
42. The headquarters of International Atomic Energy Agency is in ?
(a) Geneva (b) Paris
(c) Vienna (d) Washington
43. In the Budget estimates of 2011-12, an allocation of Rs. 400 Crore has
been made to bring in second green revolution in East in the rice based
cropping system of ____?
(a) Assam and West Bengal
(b) Assam, West Bengal, Odisha, Bihar & Jharkhand
(c) Assam, West Bengal, Odisha, Bihar

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(d) Assam, West Bengal, Odisha, Bihar, Jharkhand , Eastern Uttar Pradesh
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and Chhattisgarh
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44. In the Budget 2011-12, presented by the Finance Minister on 28.2.2011,
ob
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the income tax limit for senior citizens has been increased to ?
or
dp
(a) Rs. 2.50 Lakh (b) Rs. 2.60 Lakh
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ss
.c
(c) Rs. 2.80 Lakh (d) Rs. 3.00 Lakh
om
45. If the Anglo Indian community does not get adequate representation in
the Lok Sabha, two members of the community can be nominated by:
(a) Prime Minister (b) President
(c) Speaker
(d) President in consultation with Parliament
46. For the election of President of India, a citizen should have completed
the age of ___?
(a) 25 Years (b) 35 Years
(c) 30 Years (d) 18 Years
47. Who said: “Good citizen makes a good state and bad citizen makes a bad
state”?
(a) Plato (b) Aristotle
(c) Rousseau (d) Laski
48. Member of parliament will lose his membership if he is continuously
absent from
sessions for
(a) 45 days (b) 60 days (c) 90 days (d) 365 days
49. In Indian , Residuary Powers are vested in ___?
(a) Union Government
(b) State Government
(c) Both Union and State Government
(d) Local Government
50. Mention the place where Buddha attained enlighten-ment?
(a) Sarnath (b) Bodhgaya
(c) Kapilvastu (d) Rajgriha

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Answer Set-9
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ah
bo
ob
1 b 11 a 21 c 31 a 41 c
.w
or
2 c 12 d 22 b 32 a 42 c
dp
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3 c 13 a 23 a 33 c 43 d
.c
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4 a 14 b 24 c 34 b 44 a
5 b 15 c 25 d 35 a 45 b
6 c 16 d 26 c 36 c 46 c
7 d 17 a 27 b 37 d 47 c
8 c 18 c 28 a 38 c 48 b
9 c 19 d 29 c 39 c 49 a
10 c 20 c 30 d 40 d 50 b
SET-10
1. When there is an official change in the exchange rate of domestic
currency, then it is said:
(a) Appreciation (b) Depreciation
(c) Revaluation (d) Deflation
2. Inflation redistributes income and wealth in favour of:
(a) Pensioners (b) Poor
(c) Middle class (d) Rich
3. The fringe benefit tax was introduced in the budget of
(a) 2003-04 (b) 2004-05
(c) 2005-06 (d) 2006-07
4. In the budget estimates for 2011-12, an allocation of Rs. 400 crore has
been made to bring in a green revolution in the East in the cropping
system of:
(a) Wheat (b) Rice
(c) Jowar (d) Pulses

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5. As announced by the Finance Minister in his budget speech on 28-02-
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201, the income tax exemption limit for individuals other than senior
ah
bo
citizens and women has been raised to:
ob
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(a) Rs. 1,80,000 (b) Rs. 1,90,000
or
dp
(c) Rs. 2,00,000 (d) Rs. 2,50,000
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ss
.c
6. Judicial review in the Indian Constitution is based on:
om
(a) Rule of Law
(b) Due Process of Law
(c) Procedure established by Law
(d) Precedents and Conventions
7. The Drafting of the Constitution was completed on
(a) 26th January, 1950 (b) 26th December, 1949
(c) 26th November, 1949 (d) 30th November, 1949
8. Who was the president of the Constituent Assembly?
(a) Pt. Jawahar Lal Nehru (b) Sardar Patel
(c) Dr. Rajendra Prasad (d) Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
9. Which innovative discussion process is introduced by the Indian
parliament to the World Parliamentary system?
(a) Question hour (b) Zero hour
(c) Resolutions (d) Presidential Speech
10. The judges of the Supreme Court retire at the age of:
(a) 60 years (b) 65 years
(c) 62 years (d) 58 years
11. The Greek ambassador sent to Chandragupta Maurya’s Court was:
(a) Kautilya (b) Seleucus Nicator
(c) Megasthenes (d) Justin
12. Identify the European power from whom Shivaji obtained cannons and
ammunition:
(a) The French (b) The Portuguese
(c) The Dutch (d) The English
13. The call of “Back to the Vedas” was given by:
(a) Swami Vivekananda (b) Swami Dayanand Saraswati

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(c) Aurobindo Ghosh (d) Raja Ram Mohan Roy
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14. Simon Commission was boycotted by the nationalist leaders of India
ah
bo
because
ob
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(a) They felt that it was only an eyewash
or
dp
(b) All the members of the Commission were English
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ss
.c
(c) The members of the Commission were biased against India
om
(d) It did not meet the demands of the Indians
15. Who among the following British persons admitted the Revolt of 1857 as
a national revolt?
(a) Lord Dalhousie (b) Lord Canning
(c) Lord Ellen borough (d) Disraeli
16. How much of the Earth’s land surface is desert?
(a) 1/10th (b) 1/5th
(c) 1/3rd (d) 1/6th
17. Which of the following is called the ‘shrimp capital of India’?
(a) Mangalore (b) Nagapatnam
(c) Kochi (d) Nellore
18. River Indus originates from
(a) Hundukush range (b) Himalayan range
(c) Karakoram range (d) Kailash range
19. The lowest layer of the atmosphere is
(a) Stratosphere (b) Thermosphere
(c) Troposphere (d) Mesosphere
20. The Konkan Railway connect
(a) Goa – Mangalore
(b) Roha – Mangalore
(c) Kanykumari – Mangalore
(d) Kanyakumari – Mumbai
21. Bark of this tree is used as a condiment –
(a) Cinnamon (b) Clove
(c) Neem (d) Palm

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22. Who was the architect of North and South Blocks of the Central
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Secretariat in Delhi?
ah
bo
ob
(a) Sir Edward Lut;yens (b) Herbert Baker
.w
or
(c) Robert Tor Russell (d) Antonin Raymond
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23. Saliva helps in the digestion of
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(a) Fats (b) Starch
(c) Proteins (d) Vitamins
24. The longest bone in the human body is
(a) Ulna (b) Humerus
(c) Femur (d) Tibia
25. Red data book gieves information about species which are
(a) Extinct (b) endangered
(c) dangerous (d) rare
26. Which of the following is the smallest bird?
(a) Pigeon (b) Parrot
(c) Humming bird (d) House sparrow
27. The time period of pendulum when taken to the Moon would
(a) Remain the same (b) decrease
(c) Become zero (d) increase
28. The atmospheric air is held to the Earth by
(a) Gravity (b) winds
(c) clouds (d) rotation of the Earth
29. The function of ball bearings in a wheel is
(a) To increase friction
(b) To convert kinetic friction into rolling friction
(c) To convert static friction into kinetic friction
(d) Just for convenience
30. ‘Shock-absorbers’ are usually made of steel as it
(a) Is not brittle (b) Has lower elasticity
(c) Has higher elasticity (d) Has no ductile property

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31. The first computer made available for commercial use was
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(a) MANIAC (b) ENIAC
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(c) UNIVAC (d) EDSAC
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32. A communication network which is used by large organizations over
dp
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regional, national or global area is called
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(a) LAN (b) WAN
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(c) MAN (d) VAN
33. Which of the following could be used as fuel in propellant or rockets?
(a) Liquid Hydrogen + Liquid Nitrogen
(b) Liquid Oxygen + Liquid Argon
(c) Liquid Nitrogen + Liquid Oxygen
(d) Liquid Hydrogen + Liquid Oxygen
34. The addition of gypsum to Portland cement helps in
(a) Increasing the strength of cement
(b) rapid setting cement
(c) Preventing rapid setting cement
(d) reduction in the cost of cement
35. White lung disease is prevalent among the workers of
(a) Paper industry (b) Cement industry
(c) Cotton industry (d) Pesticide industry
36. Iodoform is used as an
(a) Antipyretic (b) analgesic
(c) antiseptic (d) anaesthetic
37. An artificial ecosystem is represented by
(a) Pisciculture (b) agricultural land
(c) zoo (d) aquarium
38. The constituents of automobile exhaust that can cause cancer is/ are
(a) Oxides of nitrogen (b) Carbon monoxide
(c) Polycyclic hydrocarbons (d) Lead

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39. The optimum dissolved oxygen level (in mg/liter) required for survival
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of aquatic organisms is
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(a) 4-6 (b) 2-4
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(c) 8-10 (d) 12-16
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40. The world’s only floating national park is situated in
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(a) Manipur (b) Kuala Lumpur
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(c) Bilaspur (d) Dispur
41. According to the latest ‘Education Development Index’ based on a series
of surveys conducted by the National University of Education, Planning
and Administration and released in February, 2011, the state with the
highest Development Index
(a) Tamil Nadu (b) Kerala
(c) Punjab (d) Gujarat
42. Indian Army’s Operation ‘Saiyam’ was related to
(a) Kashmir
(b) Indo-China Border in the Central Region
(c) North-East
(d) Indo-Pak Border in Punjab and Rajasthan
43. In the Railway Budget for 2011-12, an outlay of Rs. 57,630 crore has
been announced for adding new lines with length of
(a) 1000 km (b) 1200 km
(c) 1300 km (d) 1500 km
44. The strong earthquake-cum-tsunami which has moved Japan’s main
island by a few feet and has caused the Earth’s axis to wobble is expected
to lead to the shortening of the day by
(a) 1.6 microseconds (b) 2.3 microseconds
(c) 3.1 microseconds (d) 3.4 microseconds
45. The ‘Project Snow Leopard’ to conserve the endangered species,
Launched by the Union Ministry of Environment and Forests covers the
states of
(a) Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh only
(b) Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand only

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(c) Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and Arunachal
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Pradesh only
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(d) Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Arunachal
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Pradesh and Sikkim
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46. The 2010 FIFA World Cup Final was held at
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(a) Paris
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(b) Berlin
(c) Johannesburg
(d) London
47. Who of the following received Sangeet Natak Akademi’s Ustad Bismillah
Khan Yuva Puruskar for 2009 in ‘Hindustani Vocal Music’?
(b) Ragini Chander Shekar
(c) Abanti Chakravorty and Sukracharya Rabha
(d) K. Nellai Manikandan
48. Which of the following folk/tribal dances is associated with Uttar
Pradesh?
(a) Veedhi
(b) Thora
(c) Tamasha
(d) Rauf
49. Which of the following books has been written by Atiq Rahimi?
(a) Earth and Ashes
(b) This Savage Rite
(c) The Red Devil
(d) Witness the Night
50. Who is the recipient of the Sahitya Akademi Award 2010 in Hindi
Literature category?
(a) Uday Prakash
(b) Laxman Dubey
(c) Nanjil Nandan
(d) Mangat Badal

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Answer SET-10
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1 c 11 c 21 a 31 c 41 b
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2 d 12 b 22 b 32 b 42 d
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3 c 13 b 23 b 33 d 43 c
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4 b 14 b 24 c 34 c 44 a
5 a 15 d 25 b 35 d 45 d
6 c 16 b 26 c 36 c 46 c
7 c 17 d 27 d 37 d 47 a
8 c 18 d 28 a 38 d 48 b
9 b 19 c 29 b 39 a 49 a
10 b 20 b 30 c 40 a 50 1
SET -11
1. The reserves held by Commercial Banks over and above the statutory
minimum, with RBI are called
(a) Cash reserves (b) Deposit reserves
(c) Excess reserves (d) momentary reserves
2. Who is authorized to issue coins in India?
(a) Reserve bank of India (b) Ministry of Finance
(c) State Bank of India (d) Indian Overseas Bank
3. Which four countries are called the Asian Tigers?
(a) Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan
(b) Hong Kong, China, Singapore, Taiwan
(c) Hong Kong, Malaysia, Singapore, China
(d) Hong Kong, South Korea, China, Taiwan

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4. In the Budget Estimates for 2011-12, an allocation of Rs. 300 crore has
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been made for promoting output of pulses in 60,000 villages in rainfed
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areas with a view to attaining self sufficiency in pulses in a period of
.w
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(a) Two years (b) Three years
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(c) Four years (d) Five years
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5. In the budget for 2011-12 presented by the Finance Minister on 28-02-
2011, the growth rate for the year 2010-2011 was projected at
(a) 7.6% (b) 8.0%
(c) 8.6% (d) 9.0%
6. The ‘break-even’ point is where
(a) Marginal revenue equals marginal cost
(b) average revenue equals average cost
(c) Total revenue equals total cost
(d) none of the above
7. The method of Impeachment of the President of India is adopted from
(a) U.S.A. (b) U.K.
(c) U.S.S.R. (d) France
8. In the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India, which languages were
added subsequently?
(a) English, Sindhi, Marathi, Sanskrit
(b) Sanskrit, Sindhi, Konkani, Manipuri
(c) Sindhi, Konkani, Manipuri, Nepali
(d) Marathi, Oriya, Konkani, Nepali
9. Indian Parliament Means
(a) Rajya Sabha – Lik Sabha
(b) Rajya Sabha – Lok Sabha – Prime Minister
(c) President of India – Rajya Sabha – Lok Sabha
(d) President of India–Vice-President of India – Lok Sabha – Rajya Sabha

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10. Generally, the soil of the northern plains of India has been formed by
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(a) Degradation (b) aggradation
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(c) Weathering in situ (d) erosion
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11. Hiuen Tsang visited India during the reign of
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(a) Chandragupta I (b) Chandragupta II
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(c) Harshavardhana (d) Rudradaman
12. The Muslim adventurer who destroyed the Nalanda University was
(a) Alla-ud-din Khilji (b) Muhammad-bin-Tughlak
(c) Muhammad-bin-Bhaktiyar (d) Muhammad-bin-Quasim
13. ainting reached its highest level of development during the reign of
(a) Akbar (b) Aurangzeb
(c) Jahangir (d) Shah Jahan
14. The communal electorate was introduced for the first time in India in
(a) 1919 (b) 1935
(c) 1906 (d) 1909
15. The two states which had non-Congress Ministries in 1937 were
(a) Bengal and Punjab (b) Punjab and NWFP
(c) Madras and Central Provinces (d) Bihar and Uttar Pradesh
16. Sea breeze is formed during
(a) Day time (b) night time
(c) both (d) seasonal
17. What percentage of world’s fresh water is stored as glacial ice?
(a) 50% (b) 10%
(c) 70% (d) 30%
18. Which one of the following rivers of India does not make a delta?
(a) Ganges (b) Godavari
(c) Mahanadi (d) Tapti

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19. Which one of the following state has the longest coastline?
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(a) Maharashtra (b) Tamil Nadu
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(c) Gujarat (d) Andhra Pradesh
or
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20. Match the following and select the correct answer from the codes given
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below:
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Crops Producing state
(a) Tea (a) Himachal Pradesh
(b) Sugarcane (b) Assam
(c) Groundnut (c) Uttar Pradesh
(d) Apple (d) Gujarat
(a) A-2, B-4, C-1, D-3 (b) A-2, B-3, C-4, D-1
(c) A-3, B-2, C-1, D-4 (d) A-4, B-3, C-1, D-2
21. The pass located in Himachal Pradesh is
(a) Shipkila (b) Zojila
(c) Nathula (d) Jelepla
22. An example of false fruit is
(a) Apple (b) Guava
(c) Mango (d) Tomato
23. Normal fasting blood sugar level per 100 ml. of blood in man is
(a) 30-50 mg (b) 50-70 mg
(c) 80-100 mg (d) 120-140 mg
24. Rate of interest is determined by
(a) The rate of return on the capital invested
(b) Central Government
(c) Liquidity preference
(d) Commercial Banks
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25. The vector of disease sleeping sickness is
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(a) sand-fly (b) house-fly
bo
ob
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(c) fruit-fly (d) tse-tse fly
or
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26. For how many years have the dinosaurs been extinct?
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(a) About 25 million years
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(b) about 65 million years
(c) About 100 million years
(d) about 135 million years
27. A geostationary satellite revolves round the earth from
(a) East to West (b) West to East
(c) North to South (d) South to North
28. Among the following materials sound travels fastest in
(a) Steel (b) Air
(c) Vacuum (d) Water
29. The rear side of the moon was photographed by
(a) Viking I (b) Viking II
(c) Luna (d) Mariner IX
30. Which phenomenon do bats or dolphins use to find prey, predators or
obstacles?
(a) Refraction of sound (b) Formation of beats
(c) Scattering of sound (d) Echo location
31. What did the first electronic digital computer contain?
(a) Transistors (b) Valves
(c) Core memory (d) Semiconductor memory

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32. Microsoft Office’s personal information manager is
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(a) Outlook (b) Internet Explorer
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(c) Organizer (d) Access
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33. Hard steel contains
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(a) 2 to 5% carbon (b) 0.5 to 1.5 % carbon
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(c) 0.1 to 0.4% carbon (d) 0.01 to 0.04% carbon
34. Cement is formed by strongly heating a mixture of
(a) Limestone and graphite (b) Limestone and clay
(c) Chalk and graphite (d) Clay and graphite
35. Glass is a
(a) Superheated solid (b) Supercooled liquid
(c) Supercooled gas (d) superheated liquid
36. The temperature of oxy-acetylene flame is around
(a) 2800oC (b) 3200oC
(c) 4000oC (d) 1500oC
37. Which is the most stable eco-system?
(a) Desert (b) Ocean
(c) Mountain (d) Forest
38. Lambert’s law is related to
(a) Reflection (b) Refraction
(c) Interference (d) Illumination
39. The coral reefs are the marine counterparts of
(a) Temperate forests (b) Tropical rain forest
(c) Savannahs (d) Scrubland
40. The Refrigerant ‘FREON’ is
(a) Calcium Tetra Fluoride (b) Difluoro Dichloro Methane
(c) Fluorspar and Felspar (d) Hydrofluosilicic Acid
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41. In the budget speech on February 28, 2011, the Finance minister has
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announced that an international award with prize money of Rs. 1 crore is
ah
bo
being instituted in the memory of Rabindranath Tagore for promoting
ob
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(a) International peace
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(b) Emancipation of underprivileged
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(c) Universal brotherhood
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(d) Human rights
42. The strong earthquake-cum-tsunami which has moved Japan’s main
island Honshu by a few feet has also caused Earth’s axis to wobble by
about
(a) 1 inch (b) 2 inches
(c) 4 inches (d) 6 inches
43. WIKILEAKS, a whistleblowers website is an international organization
based in
(a) U.S.A. (b) U.K.
(c) Sweden (d) Norway
44. ‘Nomadic Elephant’ was the joint military exercise held sometime hack in
India between India and
(a)China (b) U.S.A.
(c) Russia (d) Mongolia
45. The maximum limit on poll expenditure for parliamentary constituencies
has been raised in February, 2011 to
(a) 30 lakhs (b) 35 lakhs
(c) 40 lakhs (d) 50 lakhs
46. Who received Sangeet Natak Akademi’s Ustad Bismillah Khan Yuva
Puraskar for Dance in 2009?
(b) Ragini Chander Sarkar
(c) Abanti Chakravorty and Sukracharya Rabha
(d) K. Nellai Manikandan

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47. Which of the following folk dances is associated with Jammu and
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Kashmir?
ah
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(a) Jhora (b) Veedhi
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(c) Rauf (d) Suisini
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48. Which of the following books has been written by Kamala Das?
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(a) Witness the Night (b) The Red Devil
(c) Earth and Ashes (d) Tonight This Savage Rite
49. Who invented the Jet Engine?
(a) Karl Benz (b) Sir Frank Whittle
(c) Thomas Savery (d) Michael Faraday
50. Sough-Sough dialogue is associated with
(a) Co-operation among developing nations
(b) Arms conference
(c) Summit meeting between developed and developing countries
(d) All the above
Answer Set-11
1 c 11 c 21 b 31 b 41 c
2 b 12 c 22 a 32 a 42 c
3 a 13 c 23 c 33 b 43 c
4 b 14 d 24 c 34 b 44 d
5 c 15 a 25 d 35 b 45 c
6 c 16 a 26 b 36 b 46 b
7 a 17 c 27 b 37 a 47 c
8 c 18 d 28 a 38 d 48 d
9 c 19 c 29 c 39 b 49 b
10 b 20 a 30 d 40 b 50 a

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Set- 12
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1. In which State was the first non- Congress Government set up in
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Independent India?
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(a) Punjab (b) Bihar
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(c) Maharashtra (d) Kerala
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2. Cheep money means
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(a) low rates of interest. (b) low level of saving.
(c) low level of income. (d) low level of standard of living.
3. Under the rules of the IMR, each member is required to declare the par
value of its legal tender money in terms of the US dollars and
(a) Silver (b) Gold
(c) Pound Sterling (d) Diamond
4. The Government takes ‘Ways and means advances’ from
(a) RBI (b) IDBI
(c) SBI (d) ICICI
5. Kisan Credit Card Scheme was introduced in
(a) 1991 (b) 1996
(c) 1998 (d) 2000
6. Compared to the rich the poor save
(a) a large part of their income
(b) an equal part of their income
(c) a smaller part of their income
(d) all their income
7. One of the main factors that led to rapid expansion of Indian exports is:-
(a) imposition of import duties
(b) liberalization of the economy
(c) recession in other countries
(d) diversification of exports
8. When too much money is chasing too few goods, the situation is
(a) Deflation (b) Inflation
(c) Recession (d) Stagflation

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9. With which crop has Green Revolution been associated?
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(a) Rice (b) Wheat
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(c) Pulses (d) Sugarcane
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10. Who was the first Indian Governor-General of India ?
or
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(a) B.R. Ambedkar (b) C.Rajagopalachari
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(c) Dr. Rajendra Prasad (d) Dr. S. Radhakrishnan
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11. A candidate, to become a member of the Rajya Sabha, should not be less
than
(a) 21 years of age (b) 25 years of age
(c) 30 years of age (d) 32 years of age
12. Which Constitutional Amendment gave precedence to the Directive
Principles of State Policy over Fundamental Rights?
(a) 42nd (b) 44th
(c) 52nd (d) 56th
13. Nov. 26, 1949 is a significant day in the history of our constitution
because
(a) India took a pledge of complete independence on this day
(b) the Constitution was adopted on this day
(c) India became a Republic on the day
(d) the first amendment of the Constitution was passed on this day
14. Which of the following expressions does not figure in the Preamble to
the India Constitutions?
(a) Sovereign Democratic Republic
(b) Socialist
(c) Secular
(d) Federal.
15. Which one of the following Presidents of India served for two terms?
(a) S.Radhakrishnan
(b) Rajendra Prasad
(c) Zakir Hussain
(d) V.V. Giri.

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16. The maximum strength of the elected members of the House of the
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People (Lok Sabh(a) is
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(a) 530 (b) 545
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(c) 540 (d) 550
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17. How many readings does a non-Money Bill have in each House of the
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Parliament?
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(a) Two (b) Three
(c) Four (d) One
18. Money Bill can be introduced in the State Legislative Assembly with the
prior permission of the
(a) Governor of the State
(b) Chief Minister of the State.
(c) Speaker of Legislative Assembly
(d) Finance Minister of the State
19. The Prime Minister who was voted out of power by the Parliament was
(a) Indira Gandhi (b) Morarji Desai
(c) V.P. Sing (d) Chandrashekhar.
20. The Union Parliament consists of
(a) the President of India
(b) the Council of States (Rajya Sabha)
(c) the House of the People (Lok Sabha)
(d) All of these.
21. The Indian National Congress had passed the famous resolution on “Non-
Cooperation” in 1920 as its session held at
(a) Lucknow (b) Delhi
(c) Bombay (d) Calcutta
22. Who is known as the ‘Grand Old Man of India’?
(a) Dadabhai Naoroji
(b) Gopal Krishan Gokhale
(c) Bal Gangadhar Tilak
(d) Surendranath Banerjee

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23. Which of the following can be considered as the most useful and
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outstanding reforms made by Lord Curzon, especially in respect of the
ah
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people living in the undivided province of Punjab?
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(a) Educational Reforms (b) Police Reforms
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(c) Industrial Reforms (d) Agricultural Reforms
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24. Who among the following was sent as an Ambassasdor to the royal court
om
of Jahangir by James I, the then King of England?
(a) John Hawkins (b) William Todd
(c) Sir Thomas Roe (d) Sir Walter Raleigh.
25. ‘Dyarchy’ was introduced in the Government of India Act of
(a) 1909 (b) 1919
(c) 1935 (d) None of these
26. The transfer of Government from the ‘Company’ to the ‘Crown’ was
pronounced by Lord Canning (Nov. 1, 1858) at
(a) Calcutta (b) Delhi
(c) Patan (d) Allahabad
27. The India National Congress and the Muslim League came closer to each
other in 1916 at
(a) Lahore (b) Amritsar
(c) Lucknow (d) Haripura
28. The first General-Secretary of the Indian National Congress was:
(a) Dadabhai Naoroji (b) A.O. Hume
(c) Ferozeshah Mehta (d) Badruddin Tyabji
29. Raja Rammohun Roy organized a historic agitation against the :
(a) caste system
(b) evil custom of sati
(c) degrading position of women in society
(d) Practice of superfluous religious rituals.
30. “Long years ago we made a tryst with destiny, and now the time comes
when we shall redeem our pledge…”
This was stated on the night of Aug. 14, 1947 by
(a) Dr. B.R. Ambedkar

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(b) C.Rajagopalachari
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(c) Jawaharlal Nehru
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(d) Dr. Rajendra Prasad
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31. The highest grade and best quality coal is
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(a) Lignite (b) Peat
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(c) Bituminous (d) Anthracite
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32. The “Dark Continent” is :
(a) Africa (b) South America
(c) Australia (d) Asia
33. Which one of the following is the wettest place in India?
(a) Mahabaleshwar (b) Cherrapunji
(c) Udhagamandalam (d) Mawsynram.
34. The approximate length of the coast-line of India is :
(a) 5,500 km (b) 6,000 km
(c) 6,500 km (d) 7,000 km
35. The area with annual rainfall less than 50 cm in a year is
(a) Meghalaya (b) Leh in Kashmir
(c) Coromandel (d) Konkan coast
36. Silent Valley of Kerala :
(a) is the only evergreen forest in India
(b) contains costly timber trees
(c) is a good picnic spot
(d) contains rare species of plants and animals
37. The only sanctuary where Kashmir stag is found is :
(a) Kanha (b) Dachigam
(c) Gir (d) Mudumalai
38. The Visvesvaraya Iron & Steel Ltd. is located at :
(a) Bangalore (b) Bhadravati
(c) Mangalore (d) Mysore
39. Which dam of India is the highest?
(a) Mettur (b) Rihand
(c) Thein (d) Bhakra

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40. Of the gross cropped area in India, the foodgrains occupy
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(a) more than 70 per cent (b) 60 to 70 per cent
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(c) 50 to 60 per cent (d) less than 50 per cent
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41. Kaziranga National Park is famous for :
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(a) Rhinoceros (b) Tiger
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(c) Lion (d) Crocodile
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42. The colour of human skin is produced by :
(a) Haemoglobin (b) Insulin
(c) Adrenaline (d) Melanin
43. Which one of the following is not transmitted via blood transfusion?
(a) Hepatitis (b) Typhoid
(c) HIV (d) Malaria
44. Which of the following is a fish?
(a) Silverfish (b) Starfish
(c) Dogfish (d) Cuttlefish
45. Which of the following instruments is used to measure humidity?
(a) Kata Thermometer (b) Anemometer
(c) Sling Psychrometer (d) Clinical Thermometer
46. The period of revolution of a geostationary satellite is :
(a) 24 hours (b) 30 days
(c) 365 days (d) changing, continuously
47. The type of mirrors used in the headlamp of cars is
(a) parabolic concave (b) plane
(c) spherical convex (d) cylindrical concave
48. Nuclear explosive devices were tested in India at
(a) Sriharikota (b) Bangalore
(c) Pokharan (d) Kanchipuram
49. The gradation and standardization of agricultural products are
conducted through
(a) Food Corporation of India.
(b) Directorate of Marketing and Inspection.
(c) Indian Standards Institution.

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(d) Central Statistical Organization.
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50. The luster of the metals is because of:
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(a) high density, due to closed packing of atoms.
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(b) high polish
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(c) reflection of light due to the presence of free electrons.
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(d) absorption of light due to the presence of cavities
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Answer Set-12
1 d 11 c 21 d 31 d 41 a
2 a 12 a 22 a 32 a 42 d
3 b 13 b 23 d 33 d 43 b
4 a 14 d 24 c 34 b 44 b
5 c 15 b 25 b 35 b 45 c
6 c 16 d 26 a 36 d 46 a
7 a 17 b 27 c 37 b 47 c
8 a 18 c 28 a 38 b 48 c
9 b 19 a 29 b 39 d 49 c
10 b 20 d 30 c 40 b 50 c
SET - 13
1. Why is water not suitable for putting out a petrol fire ?
(a) Thee oxygen content of water is isolated by petrol and thus it helps in
burning
(b) Petrol is too inflammable to be extinguished by water
(c) The heat required for combustion of petrol is very low
(d) Water , being heavy, slips below petrol which thus remains in contact
with air and burns

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2. Milk is –
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(a) Emulsion (b) Suspension
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(c) Foam (d) Gel
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3. The chemical substance present in bones and teeth is –
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(a) Calcium phosphate (b) Calcium chloride
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(c) Calcium sulphate (d) Calcium borate
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4. Social forestry is –
(a) growing different types of plants together on private land
(b) management of forest by cooperative societies
(c) growing one type of plant in govt. owned land
(d) growing and management of useful plants on govt. owned land
5. Which of the following exhibits unidirectional flow in an ecosystem?
(a) Light (b) Energy
(c) Water (d) Biomass
6. Maximum permissible concentration of copper in drinkinh water in mg/l
is–
(a) 0.01 (b) 0.05
(c) 1.0 (d) 2.0
7. Earth Summit was held in –
(a) Chicago (b) Adilaide
(c) London (d) Rio-de Jeneiro
8. Who invented Penicillin ?
(a) William Harvey (b) Louis Pasteur
(c) Alexander Fleming (d) Edward Jenner
9. The coins of which of the following reveal their love for music ?
(a) Mauryas (b) Nandas
(c) Guptas (d) Cholas
10. Who is the following won the Wimbledon 2011 Women’s Singles title ?
(a) Maria Sharapova (b) Petra Kvitova
(c) Venus Williams (d) Serena Williams

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11. The vice-president Hamid Ansari Presented the prestigious Sangeet
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Natak Academic fellowships and awards for the year 2010 on 22 July,
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2011. Who of the following received award in the field of music ?
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(a) Chhanu Lal Mishra (b) Malabika Mitera
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(c) Atamjit Singh (d) T. K. Murthy
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12. How many new Duranto Trains are proposed to bhe introduced as per
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the railway Budget 2011-12 ?
(a) 5 (b) 7
(c) 9 (d) 10
13. According to the latest data of the Planning Commission, poverty based
on the formula suggested by the tendulkar Committee in 2009-10 has
declined to-
(a) 36% (b) 32%
(c) 28% (d) 24%
14. After ONGC, OIC, NTPC and SAIL, the ‘Navaratna ‘ PSU which was
awarded ‘Maharatna’ status is-
(a) HAL (b) GAIL
(c) Coal India Ltd. (d) BHEL
15. Which of the following registers the highest density in the country as per
Census 2011 ?
(a) Delhi (b) Chandigarh
(c) Puducherry (d) West Bangal
16. On 9 june,2011 India successfully flight tested-
(a) Agni-I (b) Agni-II
(c) Prithvi-II (d) Akash
17. Right to Education became a fundamental right on-
(a) 15 March,2010 (b) 1 April,2010
(c) 17 July,2010 (d) 10 October, 2010
18. Which one of the following is not included while estimating national
income through income method ?
(a) Rent (b) Mixed income
(c) Pension (d) Undistributed profits
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19. Taxation is a tool of-
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(a) Monetary (b) Fiscal policy
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(c) Price policy (d) Wage policy
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20. Globalisation means-
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(a) Integration of economy
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(b) Integration of financial market
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(c) Integration of the domestic economy with the world economy
(d) Integration of the various sectors of economy
21. Which is the artificial port of India?
(a) Kandla (b) Mangalore
(c) Chennai or Madras (d) Haldia
22. The Nobel Prize was instituted by the country –
(a) USA (b) UK
(c) Russia (d) Sweden
23. Which of the following motion is related with the Union Budget ?
(a) Adjournment (b) Censure
(c) Cut (d) None of these
24. Directive Principles of state policy in the Indian constitution were taken
from the constitution of-
(a) Britain (b) Ireland
(c) USA (d) Canada
25. As per Indian constitution the right to property is a-
(a) Fundamental Right (b) Natural Right
(c) Legal Right (d) Moral Right
26. The success of democracy depending upon the-
(a) Right to criticize (b) Righty to association
(c) Right to personal liberty (d) Right to property
27. Who is the Chairman of Planning Commission ?
(a) President (b) Prime Minister
(c) Finance Minister (d) Vice-president
28. In 1937, The congress formed ministries in –
(a) 7 states (b) 9 states
(c) 5 states (d) 4 states
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29. Kalinga war took place in the year –
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(a) 261 BC (b) 263 BC
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(c) 232 BC (d) 240 BC
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30. The Akaal Takht was built by-
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(a) Guru Ramdas (b) Guru Teg Bhadur
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(c) Guru Hargovind (d) Guru Nanak
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31. Who was the regent of Akbar in his early days –
(a) Abul Fazl (b) Bairam Khan
(c) Tansen (d) Todarmal
32. Before assuming the office of the Sultan of Delhi Balban was the Prime
Minister of Sultan-
(a) Nasir-ud din (b) Qutub-ud-din-Aibak
(c) Bahrem Shah (d) Aram Shah
33. Which one of the following is known as the ‘brown coal’ ?
(a) Anthracite (b) Bituminous
(c) Coke (d) Lignite
34. Vikarm Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC) is at-
(a) Thruvananthapuram (b) Mumbai
(c) Hyderabad (d) Bengaluru
35. Which one of the following is known as the ‘pearl City’ ?
(a) Kandla (b) Tuticorin
(c) Kochi (d) Hyderabad
36. Madhya Pradesh is the largest producer of –
(a) Cotton (b) Oil-seeds
(c) Pulses (d) Maize
37. Which planet in our solar system is nearly as big as the earth ?
(a) Mercury (b) Mars
(c) Venus (d) Pluto
38. In onion the edible part is –
(a) Leaf (b) Root
(c) Stem (d) Flower
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39. Mushroom Cultivation is not useful in –
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(a) Biogas production
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(b) Biological control of crop diseases
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(c) Recycling of agricultural wastes
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(d) Preventing cancer
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40. The Drone in honey-bee are-
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(a) Fertile male (b) Fertile
(c) Sterile male (d) Sterile female
41. Of which tissue nails, hoofs and horns are made of –
(a) Cutide (b) Chitin
(c) Keratin (d) Tunicin
42. Haemoglobin has highest affinity for –
(a) Oxiygen (b) Carbon dioxide
(c) Carbon monoxide (d) Nitrogen
43. Which chromosomal combination is responsible for maleness in man ?
(a) XO (b) XXX
(c) XX (d) XY
44. The Newton’s first law is also called as –
(a) Law of moments (b) Law of inertia
(c) Law of energy (d) Law of momentum
45. If we want to calculate the pressure of liquid at the bottom of a vessel,
the quantity which is NOT required to determine it ,is-
(a) Height of the liquid column
(b) Surface area of the bottom of the vessel
(c) Density of the liquid
(d) Acceleration due to gravity at the bottom of the vessel
46. The water from a hand pump is warm in winter because –
(a) Our body is cold in winter and the water appears to be warm
(b) The temperature inside the earth is higher than the atmospheric
temperature
(c) The pumping process causes friction which warms up the water
(d) Inside water comes out and absorbs heat from the environment

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47. A water tank appears shallower when it is viewed from top due to-
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(a) rectilinear propagation of light
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(b) reflection
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(c) total internal reflection
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(d) Refraction
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48. Small and cheap computer built into several home appliances are of
which type ?
(a) Mainframes (b) Mini Computer
(c) Micro Computer (d) None of these
49. What is the process of defining tables called ?
(a) Data definition (b) Data Normalization
(c) Index definition (d) Data administration
50. The chief source of naphthalene is-
(a) Coal-tar (b) Diesel
(c) Charcoal (d) Camphor
Answer Set-13
1 d 11 a 21 c 31 b 41 c
2 a 12 d 22 d 32 a 42 a
3 a 13 a 23 c 33 d 43 d
4 b 14 c 24 b 34 a 44 b
5 b 15 a 25 c 35 d 45 b
6 b 16 c 26 c 36 c 46 b
7 d 17 b 27 b 37 c 47 d
8 c 18 d 28 a 38 b 48 c
9 c 19 a 29 a 39 b 48 b
10 b 20 c 30 c 40 c 50 a

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SET 14
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1. Which Indian film stars was recently conferred Honorary Doctorate by
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Bedfordshire University, (U.K.) ?
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(a) AmitabhBachhan (b) Shah Rukh Khan
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(c) Om Puri (d) Amir Khan
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2. Williams Sisters won the U.S. Open Women’s Doubles Title 2009 after
defeating in the final-
(a) Leizal Herber and Cara Blank
(b) Kim Clijsters and Anna Kournikova
(c) Coroline Wozniacki and Dinara Safina
(d) Nathalie Deshy and Sania Mirza
3. Which one of the following is a military alliance ?
(a) ASEAN (b) SAARC
(c) NATO (d) NAFTA
4. The recipient of the 42nd Jnan Peeth Award is-
(a) Manohar Shastri (b) Harish Pandya
(c) Satya Vrat Shastri (d) K. Kamal Kumar
5. World Development Report is an annual publication of-
(a) UNICEF (b) UNDP
(c) WTO (d) World Bank
6. Which one of the following is correct ?
Player Sport
(a)jeev Milkha Singh —Tennis
(b) jhulan Goswami — Cricket
(c) Baichung Bhutia — Hockey
(d) Pankaj Advani-Badmi.nton

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7. Which one of the following industrialists was declared ‘The Business
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Person of the year 2008’ by the Times of India Survey ?
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(a) Anil Ambani (b) Rahul Bajaj
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(c) Ratan Tata (d) Gautam Adani
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8. Naina Devi peak forms a part of-
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(a) Himalayan range located in Sikkim
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(b) Himalayan range located in Kumaon region
(c) Himalayan range located in Nepal
(d) Himalayan range located in jammu & Kashmir
9. The aim of the ISRO’s OCEAN- SAT•2 satellite is—
(a) T0 provide ocean scientists knowledge – about mineral resources
under the sea
(b) To aid fishermen in identifying fishing zones
(c) To aid weathermen to forecast cyclones and weather conditions
(d) All the above
10. Who amongst the following is not the recipient of the Rajiv Gandhi Khel
Rama Award ?
(a) Vijendra Singh (b) Sushil Kumar
(c) M, C. Marykom (d) Abhinav Bindra
11. Nilgiri, Hirngiri and Beas are-
(a) Aircraft Carrier ships (b) Frigates
(c) Nuclear submarines (d) Oil tankers of ONGC
12. The age of a tree can be calculated by-
(a) Number of branches (b) Its height
(c) Girth of its trunk (d) Number of its annual rings
13. Which one of the statements below explains the external economies of
scale ?
(a) Starting a computer firm in a Techno Park to avail the expertise
(b) Expanding firms employing specialist accountants, lawyers and
managers
(c) A manufacturer spreading the research and development cost over

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the output
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(d) A major supermarket gaining bulk discounts on direct purchase
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14. Which one of the following types of unemployment is common in Indian
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agriculture
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(a) Frictional (b) Structural
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(c) Disguised (d) Seasonal
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15. A rolling plan refers to a plan which-
(a) Does not change its targets every year
(b) Changes its allocations every year
(c) Changes its allocations and targets every year
(d) Changes only its targets every year
16. An instrument of qualitative credit control in India is—
(a) Open market operations (b) Credit rationing
(c) Change in reserve ratio (d) Bank rate policy
17. Laissez-faire is a feature of—
(a) Socialism (b) Communism
(c) Capitalism (d) Mixed Economy
18. Which one of the following is not a source of the tax revenue in Indian
States ?
(a) Land Revenue (b) Motor Vehicle Tax
(c) Entertainment Tax (d) Corporate Tax
19. CSO has changed its base year for National Income estimation. The new
base year is-
(a) 1990-91 (b) 1993-94
(c) 1994-95 (d) 1995-96
20. Which is the biggest enterprise of the Government of India ?
(a) Postal and Telegraph (b) Railways
(c) Banking (d) Shipping
21. In which type of competition does Marginal Revenue Curve coincide with
Average Revenue Curve ?
(a) Monopoly (b) Imperfect Competition
(c) Perfect Competition (d) Monopolistic Competition

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22. According to J. Schumpeter, entrepreneurs are entitled to enjoy the profit
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for their …………………. activities.
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(a) Innovative (b) Risk taking
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(c) Risk averting (d) Hard work
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23. Demonstration effect means-
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(a) Effect of advertisement (b) imitating effect of consumption
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(c) Effect of entertainment (d) Effect of an experiment
24. Homogeneous product is a feature of-
(a) Imperfect market (b) Monopoly
(c) Oligopoly (d) Perfect market
25. Which part of the Indian Constitution declares the ideals of Welfare State
(a) Fundamental Rights (b) Fundamental Duties
(c) Preamble (d) Directive Principles of State Policy
26. Who said, “Parliamentary System provides a daily as well as a periodic
assessment of the Government” ?
(a) Dr. B. R. Ambedkar (b) Shri B. N. Rao
(c) Shri fawahar Lal Nehru (d) Dr. Rajendra Prasad
27. The legal advisor to the State Government is known as-
(a) Advocate-General (b) Attorney•General
(c) Solicitor-General (d) State Public Prosecutor
28. The maximum duration of Zero Hour in Lok Sabha is—•
(a) 30 minutes (b) One hour
(c) Two hours (d) Unspecified
29. Which agency acts as co-coordinator between Union Government,
Planning Commission and State Governments ?
(a) National Integration Council
(b) Finance Commission
(c) National Development Council (d) Inter-State Council
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30. When will demand become a grant ?
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(a) When a demand is pro-posed
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(b) After the discussion on demand is over
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(c) After the demand is granted
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(d) When the Budget Session is closed
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31. What makes the judiciary the guardian of the Constitution
(a) Independence (b) Service Conditions
(c) Salary (d) judicial Review
32. What is the name of judicial organ of UNO
(a) Supreme Court (b) Court of lnternational justice
(c) judicial Forum (d) International Court of justice
33. The Election disputes regarding the Election of President and Vice-
President can be heard by-
(a) Parliament (b) Central Election Cornmission
(c) Supreme Court (d) Attorney-General of India
34. Balwant Rai Mehta Committee suggested that the structure of Panchayati
Raj should consist of-
(a) The village, the block and the district levels
(b) The mandal and the district levels
(c) The village, the district and the State levels
(d) The village, the mandal, the district and the State levels
35. Which of the following has banned ‘floor crossing’ by the members
elected on a party ticket to the legislature
(a) 52nd Constitution Amendment
(b) Representation of People Act
(c) National Security Act
(d) Maintenance of Internal Security Act

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36. The expression ‘Creamy Layer’ used in the judgments of the Supreme
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Court relating to the case regarding reservations refers to-
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(a) Those sections of society which pay Income-tax
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(b) Those sections of socially and educationally backward classes of the
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society that are economically advanced
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(c) Those sections of the society that are considered advanced according
to Karpuri Thakur formula
(d) All sections of upper castes of the society
37. When was the Panchtantra written
(a) Maurya Period (b) Kanishka Period
(c) Gupta Period (d) Harsha Period
38. Which one among the following is regarded as the ‘Magna Carta’ of
Indian education :
(a) Wood’s Despatch (b) Hunter’s Commission
(c) Sadler Commission (d) Wardha Scheme
39. The battle of Mahabharata is believed to have been fought at
Kurukshetra for-
(a) 14 days (b) 16 days
(c) 18 days (d) 20 days
40. The Mukteswara Temple is located at—
(a) Puri (b) Belur
(c) Konark (d) Bhubaneswar
41. Which king of the Gupta Dynasty was called the ‘Napoleon of India’ 7
(a) Samudragupta
(b) Chandragupta Vikramaditya
(c) Sri Gupta (d) Chandragupta-I

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42. Between which two rulers was the First Battle of Panipat fought ?
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(a) Akbar and Bahlol Lodi (b) Baburand IbrahjrnLodi
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(c) Bairam Khan and Sikandar Lodi
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(d) Shah Iahanancl Daulat Khan Lodi
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43. Who is the author of Ain-i-Akbari?
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(a) Abul Fazal (b) Abdus Samad
(c) Bairam Khan (d) Raja Todarmal
44. Match List-I with List-Il and select the correct answer by using the codes
given below the lists-
List-I List-II
(a) Peshwas 1. Nagpur
(b) Gaekwads 2. Pune
(c) Bhonsles 3. lndore
(d) Holkers 4. Baroda
Codes:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(a) 2 4 1 3
(b) 1 3 2 4
(c) 2 4 3 1
(d) 4 3 2 1
45. Which reformer from Maharashtra was known as Lokhitavadi
(a) Pandit Ramabai
(b) Gopal Krishna Gokhale
(c) M. G. Ranade
(d) Gopal Hari Deshmukh
46. ’Din-e-Ilahi’ of Akbar was not a success because-
(a) After Akbar, it was not patronized
(b) The Muslims did not accept other religious practices
(c) It was not suitably projected to the masses
(d) All the above

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47. Who was the author of the book ‘My Experiments with Truth’ ?
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(a) Aurobindo Ghosh
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(b) Bal Gangadhar Tilak
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(c) M. K. Gandhi
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(d) Vinoba Bhave
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48. Give the correct chronological order of the following events-
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1. Formation of Muslim League
2. Formation of All India Untouch ability League .
3. Formation of All India Trade Union Congress
4. Formation of Indian National Congress
(a) 2, 4,1, 3 (b) 3, 4, 1, Z
(c) 4, 3, 1, 2 (d) 4, 1, 3, 2
49. 80% of the coal in India comes from-
(a) Iharia and Raniganj (b) Kantapalli and Singareni
(c) Singrauli and Korba (d) Neyveli
50. Dry zone agriculture in India contributes nearly 40% of the total-
(a) Commercial crops (b) Fodder crops
(c) Food crops (d) Plantation products
ANSWER Set - 14
1 b 11 b 21 c 31 d 41 a
2 a 12 d 22 a 32 d 42 b
3 c 13 c 23 b 33 c 43 a
4 c 14 d 24 d 34 a 44 a
5 d 15 c 25 d 35 a 45 d
6 b 16 b 26 a 36 b 46 d
7 c 17 c 27 a 37 c 47 c
8 b 18 d 28 b 38 a 48 d
9 d 19 b 29 c 39 c 49 a
10 d 20 b 30 c 40 d 50 d

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SET - 15
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1. ‘ India wins freedom’ is the autobiography of :
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(a) Abul kalam Azad (b) Muhammad ali
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(c) Zakir Hussain (d) Syed Ahmed Khan
2. Who called Gandhi ‘ half naked beggar’ ?
(a) Mountbatten (b) hastings
(c) Winstone Churchiil (d) Jinnah
3. The Harappan civilization was discovered in the year :
(a) 1901 (b) 1921
(c) 1935 (d) 1942
4. Which Amendment of the Indian constitution inserted the two words
‘Socialist’ and ‘Secular’ in the Preamble ?
(a) 28th (b) 40th
(c) 42th (d) 52th
5. Which part of the Indian constitution deals with the directive principles
of the state policy ?
(a) part I (b) part III
(c) part IV (d) part V
6. Rashtrapati Bhawan was designed by :
(a) Edward Stone (b) Le Corbusier
(c) Edwin Lutyens (d) Tarun Dutt
7. In an economy, the sectors are classified into public and private on the
basis of :
(a) employment condition (b) nature of economic activities
(c) ownership of enterprises (d) use of raw materials
8. Who coined the term ‘Hindu rate of Growth’ for Indian Economy ?
(a) AK sen (b) Kirit S parikh
(c) Raj Krishna (d) Montek singh Ahluwalia
9. The planning commission of India was constituted in the year :
(a) 1942 (b) 1947
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(c) 1950 (d) 1955
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10. The major aim of devaluation is to :
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(a) encourage exports (b) encourage imports
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(c) Both (a) & (b) (d) Discourage both exports & imports
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11. Who discovered the solar system ?
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(a) Copernicus (b) Kepler
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(c) Aryabhatta (d) Newton
12. On Earth, there is no centrifugal force at the :
(a) Equator (b) Tropic of cancer
(c) Tropic of Capricorn (d) Poles
13. Epicenter is concerned with
(a) Volcano (b) cyclone
(c) earthquake (d) land sliding
14. Anantapur district in ndhra Pradesh in famous for ?
(a) Copper (b) Mica
(c) Bauxite (d) Gold
15. In Uttar Pradesh, the Kharif crop is sown during
(a) January-February (b) April-May
(c) June-July (d) October-December
16. The phenomenon of mirage occurs due to which one of the following ?
(a) Polarisation of light (b) Dispersion of light
(c) Diffraction of light (d) Total internal reflection of light
17. Which one of the following diseases is caused by virus?
(a) Tuberculosis (b) typhoid
(c) Influenza (d) Diphtheria
18. Which one of the following is a global biodiversity hotspot in India ?
(a) Western Ghats (b) Western Himalayas
(c) Eastern Ghats (d) Northern
19. Which one of the following is responsible for converting milk into curd ?
(a) Fungi (b) Bacteria
(c) Virus (d) None of these
20. On which one of the following conservative laws, does a rocket work?
(a) Mass (b) Energy
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(c) Linear momentum (d) Angular momentum
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21. By using which one of the following techniques, is DNA fingerprint done?
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(a) ELISA (b) RIA
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(c) Northern blotting (d) Southern blotting
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22. In which one of the following places is the Indira Gandhi Center for
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Atomic Research located ?
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(a) Thiruvananthpuram (b) Sriharikota
(c) Kalapkkam (d) Trombay
23. Which one of the following Indian states does not have a common
International border with Bangladesh ?
(a) Manipur (b) West Bengal
(c) Tripura (d) Asom
24. Rihand Valley Project is located in which one of the following states ?
(a) Odisha (b) Gujarat
(c) Himachal Pradesh (d) Uttar Pradesh
25. Which one of the following is the first geostationary, telecommunication
satellite of India?
(a) INSAT-1A (b) APPLE
(c) ROHINI (d) ARYABHATTA
26. The boundary between North and South Korea is marked by which one
of the following?
(a) 16th Parallel (b) 29th Parallel
(c) 38th Parallel (d) 49th Parralel
27. Madhya Pradesh shares its border with how many states?
(a) 3 (b) 4
(c) 5 (d) 6
28. Which one of the following lakes in India has the highest water salinity?
(a) Dal (b) Chilka
(c) Wular (d) Sambhr
29. In which one of the following islands of India is an active volcano found?
(a) Car Nicobar Island (b) nancowry Island
(c) Barren Island (d) Maya Bundor Isalnd
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30. The Indus valley people had trade relations with:
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(a) Egypt (b) Greece
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(c) Ceylon (d) Mesopotamia
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31. Who invented the LASER?
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(a) Sir Frank Whittle (b) Fred Morrisson
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(c) Charles H Townes (d) Seymour Cray
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32. Durgapur is located on the banks of river
(a) Damodar (b) Brahmini
(c) Subarnarekha (d) Indravati
33. Who built the Ibadatkhana at Fatehpur Sikri?
(a) Akbar (b) Jahangir
(c) Shahjahan (d) Aurangzeb
34. Which one of the following is the oldest oil refinery in India?
(a) Haldia (b) Koyali
(c) Digboi (d) Mathura
35. Which of the following divides India into Northern and Southern parts?
(a) Aquator (b) Tropic of cancer
(c) Tropic of capricorn (d) Arctic Circle
36. Reserve Bank of India was set up in
(a) 1949 (b) 1935
(c) 1951 (d) 1955
37. The first estimate of national income in India was made by:
(a) Mahalanobis (b) VKRV
(c) Dadabhai Naoroji (d) Prof Shenoy
38. Railway Budget in India was separated from General Budget in
(a) 1924-25 (b) 1941-42
(c) 1947-48 (d) 1950-51
39. In which part of the constitution, details of citizenship are mentioned?
(a) part I (b) part II
(c) part III (d) part IV
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40. Earthquake (shock) waves are :
yo
ur
sm
(a) infrasonic waves (b) ultrasonic waves
ah
bo
(c) ultraviolet waves (d) infrared waves
ob
.w
41. Which one of the following is present in Chlorophyll which gives a green
or
dp
colour to plant leaves?
re
ss
.c
(a) Calcium (b) Magnesium
om
(c) Iron (d) Manganese
42. The coil in a heater is made up of
(a) nichrome (b) tungsten
(c) copper (d) iron
43. For which one among the following diseases no vaccine is yet available?
(a) Tetanus (b) Malaria
(c) Measles (d) Mumps
44. Radio waves are reflected back to Earth from the
(a) troposphere (b) exosphere
(c) stratosphere (d) ionosphere
45. In early medieval India, what did the term ‘Jital’ refer to ?
(a) Weight (b) Diet
(c) Coin (d) Game
46. Which waterway separates India from Sri Lanka?
(a) Eight degree Channel (b) Palk Strait
(c) Ten degree Channel (d) Andaman Sea
47. Bar is the unit of which one of the following?
(a) Force (b) Energy
(c) Pressure (d) Frequency

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48. The site of Harappa is located on the bank of river?
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(a) Saraswati (b) Indus
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bo
ob
(c) Beas (d) ravi
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or
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49. Which of the Vedas was divided into ‘Shukla’ and ‘Krishna’ parts?
re
ss
.c
(a) Rig (b) Sama
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(c) Yajur (d) Athrva
50. Match the following columns:
List I List II
(Mineral) (Producing Are(a)
A. Manganese 1. Bilaspur
B. Bauxite 2. Hazaribagh
C. Coal 3. Balaghat
D. Mica 4. Dhanbad
ANSWER SET - 15
1 a 11 a 21 d 31 c 41 c
2 c 12 d 22 c 32 a 42 a
3 b 13 c 23 a 33 a 43 b
4 c 14 d 24 d 34 c 44 d
5 c 15 c 25 c 35 b 45 c
6 c 16 d 26 c 36 b 46 b
7 c 17 c 27 c 37 c 47 c
8 c 18 a 28 d 38 a 48 d
9 c 19 b 29 c 39 b 49 c
10 a 20 d 30 d 40 d 50 a

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SET- 16
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ah
1. What was the name given to India’s first lunar mission?
bo
ob
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(a) Vikram-I (b) Kalpana-II
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(c) Chandrayaan-I (d) Insat-V
re
ss
2. What is the maximum number of the elected members of Rajya Sabha?
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om
(a) 250 (b) 238
(c) 245 (d) 248
3. Who constitutes the finance commission after every five years?
(a) The Council of Minister
(b) The Parliament
(c) The President
(d) The Comptroller and Auditor General
4. The title ‘Indian Napolean’ has been attached to
(a) Chandra Gupta Maurya (b) Samudragupta
(c) Chandragupta-I (d) Harshvardhana
5. An ordinary bil passed by the State Assembly can be delayed by the
Legislative Council for a maximum period of
(a) 1 month (b) 6 months
(c) 3 months (d) 4 months
6. The metal present in insulin is
(a) Copper (b) Iron
(c) Zinc (d) Magnesium
7. Guru Kelucharan Mohapatra was a maestro of which of the following
dance forms?
(a) Kathak (b) Odissi
(c) Kuchipudi (d) Bharatnatyam
8. The battle led to the foundation of Muslim power in India was-
(a) The first battle of Tarain (b) The second battle of Tarain
(c) The fist battle of Panipat (d) The second battle of Panipat
9. Kalinga Prize was given in which of the following fields?

General Awareness
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(a) Arts (b) Medicine
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ur
sm
(c) Creative writing (d) Science
ah
bo
10. Which of the following is the biggest head of the non-plan expenditure of
ob
.w
Government of India?
or
dp
re
(a) Interest payments (b) Subsidies
ss
.c
(c) Defence (d) Salaries and Wages
om
11. Roundworm is a human parasite found in the
(a) Small intestine (b) Liver
(c) Stomach (d) Large intestine
12. The term ‘Butterfly Stroke’ is referred to in which sport?
(a) Tennis (b) Volleyball
(c) Wrestling (d) Swimming
13. Equatorial regions experience
(a) warm and dry climate (b) hot and humid climate
(c) wet and windy climate (d) moderately pleasant climate
14. Which of the following States produce the maximum manganese in
India?
(a) Madhya Pradesh (b) Andhra Pradesh
(c) Uttar Pradesh (d) Orissa
15. When the barometer reading dips suddenly, it is an indication of
(a) Hot weather (b) Calm weather
(c) Storm (d) Dry weather
16. Who is the author of the book ‘Conquest of Happiness’?
(a) Thomas Hardy (b) Aldous Huxley
(c) Bertrand Russell (d) George Bernard Shaw
17. Who is known as ‘the father of Geometry’?
(a) Pythagoras (b) Euclid
(c) Aristotle (d) Kepler
18. The Gandhara Art flourished during the period of
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(a) Guptas (b) Mauryas
yo
ur
sm
(c) Satavahanas (d) Kushans
ah
bo
19. Who among the following was adjudged ‘Man –of-the-Match’ in the ICC
ob
.w
World Cup 2011?
or
dp
re
(a) Ms Dhoni (b) Mahela Jayawardhne
ss
.c
(c) Yuvraj Singh (d) Sachin Tendulkar
om
20. Which of the following States was first to adopt the Panchayati Raj?
(a) Andhra Pradesh (b) Bihar
(c) Gujarat (d) Rajasthan
21. Who was the National leader who wrote history of India on the walls of
the Andaman Cellular Jail?
(a) Nandanlal Bose (b) Ambedkar
(c) Vir Savarkar (d) Jyotiba Phule
22. The ‘Doctrine of Lapse’ was first applied to the Princely State of
(a) Satara (b) Jhansi
(c) Oudh (d) Jaunpur
23. Who is known as the “Lady with the Lamp”?
(a) Joan of Arc (b) Helen Keller
(c) Florence Nightangle (d) Sarojini Naidu
24. In which city is the presentation ceremony of Nobel Prize held?
(a) Stockholm (b) Oslo
(c) Geneva (d) The Hague
25. Mount Everest is named after
(a) The king of England (b) The first climber of the peak
(c) A Survey General of India (d) The Viceroy of India
26. Which of the following has got more heat capacity?
(a) Iron piece (b) water
(c) Gold piece (d) Benzene
27. The polymer used in making plastic crockery is
(a) Decron (b) Nylon
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(c) Bakellite (d) Melamine
yo
ur
sm
28. Which of the following is not a true Snake?
ah
bo
(a) Glass snake (b) Sea snake
ob
.w
(c) Tree snake (d) Blind snake
or
dp
re
29. Which of the following has no skeleton at all?
ss
.c
(a) Star fish (b) Sponge
om
(c) Jelly Fish (d) Silver fish
30. World health day is observed on
(a) June 5 (b) April 7
(c) June 7 (d) July 11
31. In which plan was self-reliance first emphasised
(a) Second plan (b) Third plan
(c) Fourth plan (d) Fifth plan
32. Which one of the following is not the example of planetary winds?
(a) Monsoon (b) Trade wind
(c) Land and sea breezes (d) Chinook
33. When was Mahatma Gandhi arrested during the ‘Quit India Movement’ of
1942?
(a) 7th August 1942 (b) 30th April 1942
(c) 9th August 1942 (d) 5th July 1942
34. Name the continent where ‘Tundra’ type of climate is not found?
(a) Europe (b) Asia
(c) Africa (d) North America
35. STTP stands for
(a) Special Thermal Power Project
(b) Semi Thermal Power project
(c) Super Thermal Power Project
(d) Super Thermal Power Production
36. The book ‘The Inheritance of Loss’ is written by
(a) Salman Rushdie (b) Arundhati Roy
(c) Anita Desai (d) Kiran Desai
General Awareness
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37. Thomas Cup is associated with
yo
ur
sm
(a) Hockey (b) Football
ah
bo
(c) Badminton (d) Basket Ball
ob
.w
38. The articles 17 and 18 of constitution provide
or
dp
re
(a) Social equality (b) economic equality
ss
.c
(c) Political equality (d) Religious equality
om
39. The demand curve for a Giffen good is
(a) upward rising (b) downward falling
(c) parallel to the quantity axis (d) parallel to the price axis
40. Who said “The Simon Commission Report should be thrown on a heap of
rubbish?
(a) Mahatma Gandhi (b) Shivaswami Ayyar
(c) Mohammad Ali Jinnah (d) Jawaharlal Nehru
41. The total number of bones in our body is-
(a) 226 (b) 206 (c) 256 (d) 236
42. The poison of honey bee is-
(a) Acidic (b) Alkaline
(c) Saltish (d) Protein
43. Birds which swim in water have-
(a) Webbed feet (b) Broad wings
(c) Long beak (d) Toes with claws
44. The sound produced by a bat is-
(a) Audible (b) Subsonic
(c) Infrasonic (d) Ultrasonic
45. Glass is a-
(a) Pure Solid (b) Supercooled liquid
(c) Gel (d) Polymer
46. A parallel port is most often used by a-

General Awareness
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(a) Printer (b) Monitor
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ur
sm
(c) Mouse (d) External storage device
ah
bo
ob
47. X-rays were discovered by-
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or
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(a) Faraday (b) Roentgen
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ss
(c) H. Davy (d) Lavoisier
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om
48. Golden Revolution refers to-
(a) Sericulture (b) Horticulture
(c) Apiculture (d) Viticulture
49. Arthasastra was written by-
(a) Dhanananda (b) Kauitlya
(c) Bimbisara (d) Pushyamitra
50. ‘Cod’ is variety of-
(a) Goat (b) Fish
(c) Crop (d) Coral
Answer Set-16
1 c 11 a 21 a 31 d 41 b
2 b 12 d 22 a 32 d 42 a
3 c 13 b 23 c 33 c 43 a
4 b 14 a 24 a 34 c 44 d
5 c 15 c 25 c 35 d 45 b
6 c 16 c 26 b 36 d 46 a
7 b 17 a 27 d 37 c 47 b
8 b 18 d 28 a 38 a 48 b
9 d 19 a 29 d 39 a 48 b
10 a 20 d 30 b 40 a 50 b
General Awareness
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General Awareness

1 Adda247 | No. 1 APP for Banking & SSC Preparation

2 Adda247 | No. 1 APP for Banking & SSC Preparation

India's gross domestic product (GDP) grew by 7 per cent year-on-year in

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Stands for Gross Domestic Product Gross National Product

Definition An estimated value of the GDP (+) total capital

Layman Total value of products & Total value of Goods and

Formula for GDP = consumption + GNP = GDP + NR (Net

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4. Net National Product (NNP) at Factor Cost (National Income): NNP at

MEASUREMENT OF NATIONAL INCOME

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Salient features of Indian Agriculture

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Dual Price Policy

Minimum Support Price (MSP)

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Public Distribution System (PDS)

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Land Reforms Programs in India include

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Two major crops of India:

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Having Navratna status

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List of Navratna CPSEs

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Small Enterprises Sector

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BHARAT NIRMAN YOJANA

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EMPLOYMENT GUARANTEE ACT, 2005

Some Important Development & Employment Programmes

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Swarn Jayanti Shahari Rozgar Yojana

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