Cable Net .FINAL

APPLICATION OF CABLE NET STRUCTURES IN KERALA 2019
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that dissertation named ‘APPLICATION OF CABLE NET
STRUCTURES IN KERALA’, submitted to the Department of Architecture, TKM
College of Engineering, is a record of an original work done by me, under the guidance of
Prof. SHAHANA USMAN ABDULLA, Department of Architecture TKMCE.
The information and given data in this report is authentic to the best of my knowledge and
is not submitted in any other university or institution for the award or any degree or
fellowship.
Kollam JULIE K. JOSE
24/04/2019
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DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE, TKMCE, KOLLAM
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I consider myself extremely privileged to compile this dissertation to the best of

my knowledge and ability.
I am greatly indebted to Prof. Shahana Usman Abdhulla, Department of

Architecture, TKMCE for the support and for the clarity that she provided for the
proceedings with my dissertation and guided me throughout for the completion of this
dissertation.
I also thank all teachers and friends for their kind hearted cooperation.
Finally, I express my sincere gratitude to my family members and parents for their
constant support, prayers and encouragement over the years. Above all, I bow my head
before God Almighty for his blessings showered upon me in all my difficulty.
JULIE K. JOSE
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ABSTRACT
Nowadays we search the results that are better and options that can sustain more.
Combined with new materials and construction techniques, that are lighter, stronger and
more flexible, we can achieve more in the field of construction and architecture. Cable net
structures can extend architects' imagination due to construction lightness unlimited length
and flexibility, those are innovative and comparatively new solutions, getting more and
more popular. Such structures are becoming bigger and more sophisticated, combining
modern tensional construction systems and membrane structures in architecture can give
great results thanks to their properties, build ability and physics principles. There is a need
for professional to be better informed about the general behavior, physical aspects, the
advantages and disadvantages of using cable net structures.
To take a practical approach to my research I decided to base on case studies of existing

tensional and membrane structures used within architecture. A few examples of how such
structures have been successfully applied in contemporary constructions. They will show
the real-life aspect to the problem and tell more about its construction, lifespan
performance, durability, and maintenance and users response.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 AIM 9
1.2 OBJECTIVES 9
1.3 SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS 9
1.4 METHODOLOGY 9
1.5 LIMITATIONS 10
CHAPTER-2 CABLE NET STRUCTURE 11
2.1 INTRODUCTION 11
2.2 HISTORY 12
2.3 CLASSIFICATION OF TENSILE STRUCTURES 14
2.4 CABLE STRUCTURES 14
2.4.1 CABLE NET STRUCTURES 15
3. CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS 16
3.1 CABLES 16
3.2 CLADDING MATERIALS 18
3.2.1 FABRIC 18
3.2.2 PVC POLYSTER REINFORCED, COATED EITH PVDF 19
3.2.3 POLYTETRAFLUOROETHYLENE (PTFE) 19
3.2.4 ETHYLENE TETRA FLUORO ETHYLENE (ETFE) 20
3.2.5 GLASS 20
3.3 CONNECTIONS 21
3.3.1 CABLE-TO-CABLE CONNECTION 21

3.3.2 CABLE-TO-FRAME CONNECTION 23
3.3.3 CABLE-TO-GROUND CONNECTION 24
4. DESIGN PROCESS 25
4.1 FORM FINDING 25
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4.2 LOAD ANALYSIS 26

4.3 CUTTING PATTERN GENERATION 29
4.4 DYNAMIC ANALYSIS 29
4.5 MANUFACTURE AND TRANSPORATION 30
4.6 CONSTRUCTION PROCESS 31
4.7 TESTING STANDARDS AND DESIGNING CODES 32
5. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CABLE NET STRUCTURES 36
5.1 ADVANTAGES 36
5.2 DISADVANTAGES 36
5.3 ENVIRONMENT IMPACT 37
6. GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 37
6.1 PLANNING 37
6.2 ECONOMIC 38
6.3 DURABILITY AND FIRE RESISTANCE 38
6.4 SAFETY 39
7. APPLICATION OF TENSILE CABLE NET STRUCTURES 40
CHAPTER-3 CASE STUDIES 42
8.1 OLYMPIC STADIUM, MUNICH, GERMANY 42

8.2 KHAN SHATYR ENTERTAINMENT CENTER, KASAKHSTAN 49
8.3 EXPO ‗67 GERMAN PAVILION, MONTREAL, CANADA 55
8.4 KING FAHAD CAUSEWAY STOP, MUHARRAQ, BAHRAIN 58
8.5 JAWAHARLAL NEHRU STADIUM, KALOOR, KERALA 61
CHAPTER-4 LONG SPAN STRUCTURES IN KERALA 63
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CHAPTER-5 ANALYSIS 64
9.1 GENERAL ANALYSIS 64

9.2 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS 65
CHAPTER-6 CONCLUSION 69
9.3 GENERAL INFERENCE 69

9.4 CONCLUSION 69
CHAPTER-7 REFERENCE 71
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LIST OF FIGURES
SPECIFICATION PAGE NOS.
Fig.2.1. Frei Otto, Olympic Stadium Munich, 1972 12
Fig.2.2 Herzog de Meuron, Allianz Arena München, 2005 12
Fig.2.3 Vladimir Shukhov, First tensile steel structure,

Nizhny Novgorod, 1895 13
Fig.2.4 Buckminster Fuller, U.S. Pavilion, 1967 13
Fig.2.5 Fundamental forms of cable structures 15
Fig.3.1 Types of steel cables strands 18
Fig.3.2 Detail of cable nets with dual-strand cable system 22
Fig.3.3 Fit-on-site cable clamp connection. 22
Fig.3.4 Prefabricated and factory installed clamp. 22
Fig.3.5 Single U bolt connection for cable net 22
Fig.3.6 Double U bolt connection for cable net 22
Fig.3.7 Detail showing clamp for connection of

interior net cable to edge cable 22
Fig.3.8 (a) Socket terminal with pin connector

(b) Socket terminal with screw terminal. 23
Fig.3.9 Attachment of cable with socket terminal 23
Fig.3.10 Types of tension anchors 24
Fig.4.1 Work Flow of Optimization and Analysis 26
Fig.4.2 Flowchart illustrating the general approach to

tensile membrane structures design and engineering. 35
Fig.8.1.1 Public viewing during Fifa World Cup 2006 43
Fig.8.1.3 Plan of the cable net roof structure; provides

shelter from natural elements 45
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SPECIFICATION PAGE NOS.
Fig.8.1.4 Aerial view of the Olympic stadium 46
Fig.8.1.5 Metal framework and membrane coverings 46
Fig.8.1.6 Section showing the details of the materials

and construction 47
Fig.8.1.7 Roof net with acrylic cover glass supported by masts 48
Fig. 8.2.1 Conceptual views of the tripod 51
Fig. 8.2.2 Plan view of the tripod 52
Fig. 8.2.3 Section through the Khan Shatyr 53
Fig. 8.2.4 Cables view 54
Fig.8.2.5 Hub and pin connection 54
Fig.8.3.1 Night lightings of the pavilion 55
Fig.8.3.2 Hyper parabolic curves 56
Fig.8.3.3 Basic design showing the structure and openings 56
Fig.8.3.4 Interior view of the pavilion during exhibition 57
Fig.8.4.1 Views of the check posts 57
Fig.8.4.2 Site- King Fahd Passport Island 59
Fig.8.4.3 Mast and cables supporting the structure 59
Fig.8.4.4 Check post cabins 59
Fig.8.4.5 Bale rings 60
Fig.8.4.6 Corner/ membrane plate 60
Fig.8.4.7 PVC polyester cladding sheet 60
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CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 AIM
To find the prognosis for future development of cable net structures and its benefits in
Kerala.
1.2 OBJECTIVES
 To study about the types of tensile structures and their general design
considerations.
 To study about the design processes and construction materials used for these
structure.
 To study about their advantages, disadvantages and applications.
 To analyze their efficiency and parameters through various case studies and
comparisons.
 To find how they can be future developed and used in Kerala.
1.3 SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS
Nowadays, cable net structures are a highly technical subject where architecture plays a
great role in its design. Since the design of cable structures is a highly specialized field it
requires skillful expertise. Tensile cable net structure can be either custom made i.e. these
can be set up initially by manual laborers and later testing the factors like its strength by
professionals or else in cases these can be prefabricated i.e. factory made products which
come with a set of instructions and these can be set by ordinary laborers.
There are very limited tensile cable net structures in India and none in Kerala thus the case
study was done in Bahrain. As the subject is too vast the study cannot be done in a limited
time period. Technical data being vast and quite complex is not explained in detail. Also
the structural analysis being a topic dealt by the structural engineers, the trade secret has
not been revealed by the manufacturers.
1.4 METHODOLOGY
This dissertation is based on qualitative research and empirical quantitative

methodologies. Most the data in the report is provided by books and articles.
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TENSILE STRUCTURES AND THEIR

GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
STUDY
Relevant data collection DESIGN PROCESS AND CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS
APPLICATIONS, ADVANTAGES AND

DISADVANTAGES
ANALYSE THE DATA COLLECTED

ANALYSIS
COMPARISION OF CASE STUDIES WITH A
LONG SPAN PROJECT IN KERALA
INFERENCE
CONCLUSION
FURTHUR DEVELOPMENT AND USE OF
THESE STRUCTURES IN KERALA
1.5 LIMITATIONS
This dissertation provides information on tensile and membrane structures, range of choice
for materials available in the building industry. A form-finding solution and structural
principles are being analyzed, but this research does not provide quality assurance,
formulas, or methods of calculating such structures. All of this information has been
complied with the best of my knowledge. It is based on the information provided in the
literature and excludes any liability. All rights to the photographs are property of
photographer; refer to the list of figures.
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CHAPTER-2 CABLE NET STRUCTURE s
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Present development in architecture is triggered by many factors; probably most important

is how building industry is driven by construction and technical advancements, and vice
versa. One of the most interesting and exciting part of recent architecture development are
undoubtedly tensile structures. They go under few categories, which are membrane
structures, pneumatic structures, grid shells and cable domes. Their unconventional design
attract attention, and physical properties, have a very good performance, and a new range
of materials provide better properties both aesthetically and structurally. A tensile
structure is a building that is made from materials under tension. The materials could be
either cable net supporting a fabric or sheet material. Tensile members are usually opted
for the construction of roofs. Most tensile structures are supported by some form of
compression or bending elements such as mast compression rings or beams. In a tensile
structure the membrane is supported at selected points by means of cables and is tensioned
around the edges. The cables are normally of steel and they support tension force only.
They have been mostly applied in the major event centers, airports, expos and stadiums
built in recent years. Due to their ability of spanning long distances without it can be found
in such groundbreaking structures such as for example Fentress Bradburn Architects‘
Denver International Airport, SOM Architects‘ Jeddah International Airport, which is the
largest structure in the world.
Today, textile structures are found in almost all climate zones and serve a wide variety of
functions. The materials used to fabricate these membranes have changed much since the
beginning and now high-tech fabrics, with upgraded properties are being used. The
materials commonly used in the temperature, sultry and arid. But they also have good
performance in windy and cold zones- while combined with other construction systems.
The textile architecture is no longer used solely for the design of roofs, domes or canopies,
but is also used to cover the facades of buildings with by pneumatic cushions, like ones in
Munich new stadium -Allianz Arena.
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Fig.2.1 Frei Otto, Olympic Stadium Fig.2.2 Herzog De Meuron, Allianz

Munich, 1972 Arena Munich, 2005
The suspension or support of the load bearing structure provides a means of reducing the
cross section of the structural members. This form of construction has only become more
rigorously analyzed and widespread in large structures in the latter part of the twentieth
century. Tensile structures have long been used in tents where the guy ropes provide pre-
tension to the fabric and allow it to withstand loads.
2.2 HISTORY
Simple tensile structures were used as shelters or tent like structure for centuries, primarily
by nomadic culture, as Indians tipis, or Mongolians Yurt taking advantage of their
simplicity relocation possibilities and small footprint. As the cover materials they were
using animal skins primitive woven mats or an inter wined plant fibers.
Throughout their form and use was developing depending on region and times. They are
still used in impoverished parts of the world but in develop countries these kind of
constructions were forgotten for a long time, pushed to a side as antiquated and inefficient.
Gladly in 19th century they were reinvented and are used and developed ever since..
The history shows that such types of structures have been built before their structural
behavior was fully understood and described. The early practitioners had to relay on
intuition and courage rather than on written knowledge. Even though the idea of tensile
architecture is based on a long known tent like structures methodologies needed for the
modern tensile structures were developed not so long ago. That‘s why it‘s said to be a
relatively new kind of construction. In the modern era their attributes and structural
elements found appreciation and then the search for new forms started. Finally in 19th
century at the times of industrial revolution, many engineers and architects were looking
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for new construction possibilities, something that will give height and strength but at the
same time could be light. Among the first ones to further develop the idea of tensile
structures were American architect and systems theorist Richard Buckminster engineer,
Russian architect Vladimir Shukhov and German architect and engineer Frei Otto.
Shukhov worked on light weight hyperbolic towers and roof systems and also heir
mathematical analysis. His research structured around the various construction forms as
grid shell structures. He was the one to design the first steel tensile structure. Richard
Buckminster contributed significantly to the development of tensigrity technology and was
a precursor to applying a membrane structure in architecture. He was able to create his
largest geodesic dome in the shape of the sphere the U.S. pavilion for expo in 1967.
Frei Otto accomplished his pioneering work by using physical modals conductive to the
precise determination of the membrane structural characteristics. He incorporated tensile
structure idea in architecture for example in construction of German pavilion at expo 67 in
Montreal and later designed tensile membrane roof of the Olympic stadium for the 1972
summer Olympics in Munich.
Once boundaries were pushed in the field of tensile architecture amazing results were
created and can admire beautiful futuristic architecture landmarks which enraptured
attention back in the times they were built as they still do now.
Fig.2.3 Vladimir Shuklov, double curvatur Fig.2.4 Buckminster Fuller, U.S. Pavilion, 1967
steel lattice shell, 1897
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2.3 CLASSIFICATION OF TENSILE STRUCTURES
2.4 CABLE STRUCTURES
The general class of cable structures can be further divided into four sub classes.
1. Single cables in which single cable segments, or several simply connected segments,
are subjected to loads predominantly in a single plane of action e.g. suspension cables,
tether or mooring lines, guy lines for towers or tents.
2. Cable trusses in which prestressed segments are multiply connected in a single plane
and loaded in that same plane e.g. cable-stayed bridges, double layer cable-supported
roofs.
3. Cable nets in which prestressed segments are multiply connected in a curved surface
(synclatsic or anticlastic) and loaded predominantly normal to that surface e.g. hanging
roofs, suspended nets.
4. Cable networks in which cable segments are multiply connected to form a three
dimensional framework e.g. suspension networks, trawl nets, multiple-leg systems.
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2.4.1 CABLE NET STRUCTURES
A cable net structure is an example of a tensile structure, i.e. a structure that is stabilized
by tension rather than compression. For example, a piece of fabric pulled in opposite
directions.
Cable nets were developed and popularized as a minimalist structural system in the 1960s
and 70s by Frei Otto, with a new permanence was heralded by the plexi glass clad cable
net of the 1972 Munich Olympic Stadium. The architect Helmut Jahn is often credited
with using the system in the most innovative application, when designing the
Kempinski Hotel, Munich, in the early-1990s. Jahn adopted the cable net system, creating
a structural form of pre-tensioned cables to provide support for a sheer glass curtain wall.
To increase height and load capabilities, horizontal cables can be combined with vertical
cable arrangements. By doing so, system designs can be developed for double
curvature walls as well as flat walls.
Cable nets are capable of being very simplistic structures. The clean aesthetic and large-
spanning potential can be integrated with adjacent structures to reduce the need for
conventional supports. Typically, the cables are locked together at their intersections using
a clamping component which may also fix any cladding to the net. Complex
hydraulic jacking processes may then be used to apply the cable prestress.
BASIC SHAPES
By handling of the boundary conditions of tensile cover material cables can take three
fundamental forms such as hypar, conus or barrel vault. Hypar or hyperbolic paraboloid is
formed by the raise of two corners with cable supported edge. Conic shape can be
achieved by the introduction and lift of central ring. To form barrel vault typed cable
structure it is needed to set the curvature to two continuously clamped edges.
Figure 2.5: Fundamental forms of cable structures
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Cable structures are categorized into suspension structures or cable – stayed structured
suspension structures with three sub-classifications:
1. Single Curvature Structures - Single curvature structures are parallel cables which
support exterior beams. Its number decreases by the growth of the amount of dead load
applied to the structure.
2. Double Curvature Structures - Double curvature structures represent the area of crossed
cables which form a system fading itself. They resist tremble very well.
3. Double Cable Structures - Double cable structures indicate a composition of low and up
series of cables. They are pre – tensioned by the mean of compression braces or ties. Their
stiffness and resistance to buckling is very high.
Steel cables are the ideal structural element for large spanning because of its high tensile
strength capacity of simple tension. Cables are flexible because of their greater dimensions
compared to the lengths. The tensile load is equally divided between the cable strands
when irregular stresses to bending are denied by flexibility. Levity of the flexible cable in
a suspended condition is the minus of the structural system. It can be widely liquidated by
pre-stressing so cables will gain friction force that is directed upward.
3. CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS
3.1 CABLES
Cables have been made of steel, fiberglass, and polyester. Steel is mostly used for cables
because it has low cost, availability and long life. Structural strands and ropes are
commonly utilized as cables. A strand consists of steel wires wound helically around a
center wire in symmetrical layers. A rope consists of several strands wound helically
around a core. A high tensile breaking strength is a primary property of the wire rope.
There are other important properties which a required material should satisfy, they are
given below.
These properties depend on the rope manufacture and wire control.
 Small cross-section
 Low weight
 Long fatigue life
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 Resistance to corrosion and abrasion

 High flexibility
 Good stretch and rotational behavior
Cables act principally as axial elements; however, because of the helical wires, a torque
may be induced as the helical wires try to unwind during axial loading. The effects of
induced or externally applied torque may be significant; induced torque decreases the
ultimate strength. A torque-balanced cable is one designed to yield zero or very small
amounts of rotation under load. In addition to the stresses in the wires due to the axial
force, the wound wires are subjected to bending stresses, which are difficult to evaluate
because of relative movements of the individual strands. Cable materials typically have
linear stress-strain relationships over only a portion of their usable strength. Beyond the
elastic limit, the proportional relationships do not hold. Breaking-strength efficiency is the
ratio of cable strength to the sum of the individual wire strengths and is greater for ropes
and strand lay. The breaking-strength efficiency is reduced as the number of wires in the
strand is increased. A rope made up of brittle wires will be less able to bear overstressing
due to unequal distribution of strains and consequently will develop lower breaking-
strength efficiency than could be obtained with more ductile wire.
TYPES OF STEEL CABLES
Wire rope is consists of several strands of metal wire twisted into a helix as shown in steel
wire ropes are normally made of non-alloy carbon steel with a carbon content of 0.4 to
0.95%. Cross lay strands have the wires of the different layers cross each other. In the
mostly used parallel lay strands, the wires of any two superimposed layers are parallel.
Spiral ropes are round strands as they have an assembly of layers of wires laid helically
over a center. Spiral ropes can be dimensioned in such a way that the rope torque is nearly
zero. The half-locked coil rope and the full-locked coil rope always have a center made of
round wires. The locked coil ropes have one or more outer layers of profile wires. They
have the advantage that their construction prevents the penetration of dirt and water to a
greater extent and it also protects them from loss of lubricant. Stranded ropes are an
assembly of several strands laid helically in one or more layers around a core. This core
can be one of three types. The first is a fiber core, made up of synthetic material. Fiber
cores are the most flexible and elastic. The second type, wire strand core, is made up of
one additional strand of wire, and is typically used for suspension. The third type is
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independent wire rope core (IWRC), which is the most durable in all types of
environments.
Fig.3.1 Types of steel cables strands
3.2 CLADDING MATERIAL
Although most of the cladding material in a cable net does not function as a structural
element, the choice of material used may affect the overall performance of the structure.
And since roof cladding forms a significant part of a net structure, it is important that
designers understand the intrinsic qualities of the cladding material and their implications
to the structure.
Requirements:
 As a primary structural element, it must have strength to span between supporting
elements, carry snow and wind loads and be safe to walk on.
 As enclosure element, it needs to be airtight, waterproof, fire resistant and durable.
 As daily use element, it requires to transmit daylight, reflect heat, control sound,
and be easy to keep clean.
3.2.1 FABRIC
The most widely used cladding material for cable net structure is fabric. This is only
natural as the inspiration for cable net structures first comes from traditional tents. Besides
historical reasons, fabric does indeed have the material properties which are suitable for
use with cable nets. Like cables, fabrics have strength when placed in tension. This
additional strength is negligible and will not contribute to the strength of the cable net.
This characteristic, however, ensures that the cladding will not fail when subjected to
tensile action in instances of excessive deflection. Fabric is also valued because it is light,
cheap and easy to install. The choice of fabric to be used is usually driven by lifespan and
cost. The least expensive fabric material for architectural applications is the woven
polyolefin such as polyethylene and polypropylene. These polymers are flame retardant
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and UV resistant. Their lifespan however is relatively short (5 years and less). Thus, they
are used only in temporary structures.
Later, as the demands have become stricter, this field started developing. That is why the
search for materials more durable than fabric started. As a result now we have a vast
choice of materials for membranes and this industry is growing rapidly, more and more
new covering materials are created.
3.2.2 PVC-POLYESTER REINFORCED, COATED WITH PVDF
Nowadays diverse types of membranes are used among them we have PVC, PVDF,
Teflon-coated Fiberglas and silicon-coated Fiberglas. One of the newest architectural
membrane materials that is proven to be most cost effective and the most prevalent in
Tensile Architecture is PVC-Polyester Reinforced coated with PVDF lacquer on both
sides. In general, the service year of a PVC membrane material with coated PVDF surface
course is over 25 years, while the service year of PVC membrane material with coated
PVDF surface course is 10 to 15 years. In order to improve the durability and self-cleaning
of this type of membrane material, a PVF or PVDF surface course can be added to the
surface of coating. PVC membrane material is cheap and is can come in various colors.
PVC (polyvinyl chloride) and PVDF (polyvinylidene fluoride) coated polyester fabrics are
the most common waterproof membranes. Depending on fabric weight and coating,
warranties of up to 15 years are offered making these an extremely attractive long term
solution for any waterproof covered area. Offering good light transmission, they allow
diffused natural light to fill the area, eliminating the need of artificial lighting.
3.2.3 POLYTETRAFLUOROETHYLENE (PTFE)
PTFE (polytetrafluroethlyene) coated high translucency fabric is a dynamic tensile

material unmatched for its aesthetics and durability making it ideal for large scale roof and
tensile membrane structures. PTFE coating is chemically inert and capable of withstanding
a wide range of temperatures in any climate. The low-surface adhesion properties of the
material result in a fabric membrane which is easily cleaned by rainwater and is immune
to UV radiation.
Fabric performance: PTFE translucent fabric membrane provides exceptional strength

and durability. These features allow designers the ability to push the envelope of design
and realize extraordinary results. Structurally, PTFE glass fiber fabric is waterproof,
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resists UV rays and is chemically inert. As a result, it is exceptionally stain resistant and
easy to clean. PTFE fabric can reflect as much as 60 percent of visible light to make it a
cost-effective, low-maintenance option for building owners and developers who demand a
material that stays looking great for many years of service.
Non-stick attributes: PTFE‘s ―non-stick‖ attributes, when coated with titanium dioxide
(TiO2) photo-catalyst provide self-cleaning properties that are superior to conventional
PTFE coating. Called the Photo-catalytic decomposition process, a self-cleaning action
that occurs as the TiO2 causes any organic matter (stain or pollutant) to decompose
through simple oxidation. The residue does not adhere to the surface and is washed away
by an occasional rinsing or naturally with rain.
Natural lighting: PTFE high translucency fabric is ideally suited for all commercial and
retail market sectors. By evenly dispersing daylight, this material is a very attractive
option for facilities such as shopping malls, auto dealerships, sports or office complexes
where interior landscaping is present. Inside tensile translucent roof systems plants have
the opportunity to grow more naturally. This tensile roof material also provides a great
stage for lends dramatic illumination. With the fabric membranes highly reflective coating,
PTFE fabric serves as a beautiful backdrop for night time, interior lighting or for graphic
displays for advertising or brand awareness. It is however costly, and is used only when
the quality and durability of the fabric is important, such as in the case of Georgia Dome
in Atlanta and the new Millennium Dome in Greenwich, England.
3.2.4 ETHYLENE TETRA FLUORO ETHYLENE (ETFE)
One of the most exciting membrane materials in the design industry Ethylene Tetra Fluoro
Ethylene (ETFE) foil has set the construction world alight with the huge range of potential
applications. It is the most commonly used membrane building material of the moment,
ETFE foil is a high translucency fabric which is very economically friendly, practical and
show the best properties for big scale projects. An ETFE roof can be formed either by
stretching the ETFE.
3.2.5 GLASS
Another cladding material which is becoming more popular for cable structures is glass
panels. Glazed cable net structure is preferred by many architects today for its
transparency and modern look. Glass also has a longer life span than most fabric. Glass,
however, has not been used very widely as a cladding material in cable net structure
because it is very sensitive to deflection and breaks when subjected to excessive stress. To
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date, many of the glazed cable net structures are flat, vertical cable wall façade. The only
anticlastic glazed cable net structure built in the world is the canopy over Rhon Clinic in
Bad Neustadt, Germany.
Glass has a theoretical tensile strength of 10,000 N/mm2, but experience shows that the
effective tensile strength reaches a maximum of only 8ON/mm2 .This steep reduction is
due to the fact that glass is not a homogeneous material, but instead contains flaw and
weak points. Glass is also brittle, such that when it is stressed beyond its elastic limit, it
will suddenly break. This poses as a potential hazard, especially if glass is used as a
roofing material. With recent technology, tensile strength of glass can be improved up to
120N/mm2 through appropriate treatment such as thermal or chemical toughening.
Thermally toughened plane of glass also, on breakage, disintegrates into many small
pieces with no sharp edges, making it a safer roofing material. Beside improvement in
glass' material strength, recent formulation of effective connection between glass panels
and cables also contribute to the increased use of glass as a cladding material. The
increased use of glass can also be attributed to a new form finding method with which
cables in nets can be arranged such that flat glasses can be used for cladding. The use of
flat glasses, instead of the currently used curved glasses, would substantially decrease the
cost, making glass a more popular choice.
3.3 CONNECTIONS
There are three types of connections and they are cable-to-cable connection, cable-to-
frame connection and cable-to-ground connection (tension anchors).
3.3.1 CABLE-TO-CABLE CONNECTION (CLAMPS)
Cable-to-cable connections are used to hold two criss-crossing cables so that they do not
slide against each other. This connection simulates a pin joint which prevent relative
vertical and horizontal displacement between two cables, but does not provide any
rotational restrain. In order to design roofs with minimum cable dimensions and clamps
that are simple to fit, nets have often been designed with two small-size cables in place of
a larger one, as indicated in Fig. 3.2. Clamps can generally be classified into two types,
one which can be fitted on site (Fig.3.3), and the other which has to be fitted to the cable
strands in the factory (Fig.3.4). The prefabricated system is suitable in nets where the
lengths of the individual cable links are fixed. This system has the advantage of being
relatively easy to assemble and erect. An error in the manufacture or assembly of the
connections, however, cannot be remedied on site and will result in difficult pre-
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tensioning of the structure. This problem can be avoided by including a number of

turnbuckles in the design to enable the length of the cables to be adjusted. With the
addition of turnbuckles into the design, prefabricated connections tend to be more
expensive than connections that are fitted on site. In cable net where cables are free to
assume their positions under the prestressing force, cable to cable connections need to be
fitted on site, after all the cables have been pretensioned.
Fig.3.2
Fig.3.3 Fig.3.4
For nets in which only two cables intersect at each joint, clamps of the types shown in Fig.
3.5 and Fig. 3.6 can be used. Where the cables are attached to edge cables, special clamps
are required (Fig. 3.7).
Fig.3.5 Fig.3.6
Fig.3.7
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3.3.2 CABLE-TO-FRAME CONNECTION
Cable-to-frame connection is employed in cable beams and cable nets with self-balancing
structures. It forms the connection between a cable and a rigid structural frame, which
could be steel or concrete. In the design of cable-to-frame connections, both cable
termination sockets and connection between the cable and the frame need to be
considered. Cable termination sockets are steel casting fitted near the end of a cable to
hold the strands in a cable together (Fig. 3.8). The external shape of sockets can be varied
to suit individual design requirement, but for each shape variation, the basic dimensions of
the socket cone or basket will remain the same for a given size cable. Generally, the length
of the conical basket is approximately 5.5 to 6 times the cable diameter and the diameter
of the cone is approximately 2 to 3 times the cable diameter. The clamp connections
between cables and frames need to be well designed to ensure that the value of the
pretension in the cables is maintained. The clamps must provide sufficient frictional
resistance to ensure that the cables will not slide out. Any slight sliding of the cable will
result in the loss of pretension and lead to floppy structures.
Fig.3.8
Fig.3.9 Attachment of cable with socket terminal
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3.3.3 CABLE-TO-GROUND CONNECTION (TENSION ANCHORS)
Tension anchors are used to hold cables to the floor when forces from the cables need to
be transmitted directly to the ground. Anchors may be adopted in both cable beams and
nets. There are many different types of tension anchors, each of which is suitable for a
given ground condition. The commonly used anchors are gravity anchors, plate and
mushroom anchors, ground anchors and tension piles. Gravity anchors work by using the
dead weight of the anchor to balance the vertical component of the cable forces while the
ground balances the horizontal components (Fig. 53a). Gravity anchors are therefore
bulky, but they may be used in soil with poor force resisting properties such as gravel and
sand or fine sand. Plate, mushroom and other footings rely primarily on the weight of the
soil to resist the force from the cable (Fig. 53 b, c and d). Compact soil condition, such as
that in clay, is thus necessary to provide the necessary weight. Ground anchors 65
equilibrate the upward thrust from the cable through shear frictional forces between the
anchor and the soil while the horizontal pull is resisted by the weight of the soil (Fig.53 e).
This anchor is thus suitable for use in soil which provide good amount of frictional
resistance such as earth which contains much granular material or clay soil. Tension pile
resists vertical force in the same way as ground anchors. However, the horizontal thrust in
this system is resisted by the friction between soil and another tensile pile which is angled
in the opposite direction to that of the cable (Fig. 53f).
Fig.3.10 Types of tension anchors
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4. DESIGN PROCESS
The mechanical characteristics of the cable as a structural member are that the force is
transmitted only by the tensile forces, and the material characteristics of cables have high
strength and light weight. The cable system is rich in shape finding and flexibility. There
is no restriction on the member length and easy to carry. Cables having these advantages
can be applied to the large span structures with lightweight roof alone or in combination
with other structural elements. The use of cable systems in the large span roof and the
structure with free form design can widen the possibility of the building construction in
terms of economy and formability. When using cables as structural members, it is difficult
to expect the stability of cable system in a relaxed state. In order to ensure a stable tensile
rigidity of the cable, a suitable tensile stress must be introduced into the cables, and in
particular, in the case of a twisted rope, the effect of initial stiffness on structural behavior
should be designed carefully. Even small errors in length or fixed location when installing
cables can have a significant influence on the stress and strain of other structures
connected to the cables. Therefore, a systematic review of the entire structure, details and
methods of construction are required. However, before the spreading of the computerized
design methods, these steps were carried out by means of physical models with accuracy
and scales of representation depending on the technical aspects investigated.
4.1 FORM FINDING
The first sketches to capture an idea are always free of any thoughts of loads or
compulsory form finding processes. At this stage, the designer is as free to draw a curved
line as to outline a box. It is crucial not to focus attention on loads or computational
modeling. It‘s only the second step that involves complementary design features. With
respect to form finding beyond the initial sketch, tensile constructions follow completely
different principles to other structures. The main difference lies in the self-regulation
mechanisms of tensile membrane constructions.
The initial decision for an overall form implies reactions from the material that must not
be undermined by contradictory features. Furthermore, the geometry of a tensioned
membrane system cannot be precisely defined before analysis. Nonetheless, permanent
tensile membrane structures are designed to resist the same basic loading criteria as
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conventional buildings. Imposed minimum live loads and wind pressures are derived from
the requirements of the local building code or the governing model code.
As part of a preliminary design process, a provisional load analysis will give typical load
directions. One output of the so derived computer model is figures of the loads to be
transferred to the supporting structure. The architect will usually already cooperate with an
engineer at this early stage in the design process. A prompt cooperation not only makes
sense concerning the handling of modeling software, but also simplifies the integration of
different parts of the structure – often there is a combination of tensile and non-tensile
architecture. The architect and engineer together can make the best of this combination.
Fig.4.1 Work Flow of Optimization and Analysis
4.2 STATISTIC ANALYSIS

The static analysis is performed assuming as initial configuration the one determined in
the form-finding stage. Through the static analysis it is possible to predict the stress and
the displacements which arise in the tensioned surface due to the presence of external
loads such as snow or wind. Here, the material properties are introduced. As mentioned
before, the behavior of the material is highly non-linear and different for each fiber
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direction. Moreover, the bending and compressive stiffness is very small and can be
neglected in calculations for wind and snow load. Different approaches for load analysis
are available. Firstly, the surface can be discredited in smaller components, seen as a cable
network. The second option is to carry out a continuum based analysis. A third option is
the combination of those two. The loads to be considered for tensile roofs are the same as
that of any other type of roof loads include:
Dead load
The dead loads (the self-weight of the structural members), superimposed dead loads and
loads due to filling materials are referred as loads. Dead loads are loads which are constant
in magnitude and fixed in position throughout the life time of the structure. Dead load in a
building comprises the self-weight of the structure and all other super-imposed loads (all
permanent constructions and installations including weight of walls, partitions, floors, and
roofs). Dead load in a tensile roof consists of the weight of cladding, insulating materials,
cables, fittings etc.
Live load
Live loads are the loads which vary in magnitude and/or in positions. Live loads are also
known as imposed or transient loads. Live loads include any external loads imposed upon
the structure when it is serving its normal purpose. Live loads are assumed to be produced
by the intended use of occupancy in buildings including distributed, concentrated, impact
and vibration and snow loads. Live loads are expressed as uniformly distributed static
loads. Live loads include the weight of materials stored, furniture and movable equipment.
Snow load
In areas where snowfall occurs, the load corresponding to the expected intensity of snow
has to be considered. The intensity of load will vary with the geographical location of the
structure. In cases alternate freezing and thawing will lead to non-uniform accumulation of
snow. There is a possibility that great amount of snow will be accumulating in the flatter
parts of the roof and eventually this can lead to deflection of the roof. Also when there is a
possibility of accumulation of melted snow and rainwater on the roof this should be
treated as an additional load.
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Wind load
Wind forces are the most important factor which governs the design tensile structures.
However, there are no standard specifications like in the case of concrete structures for the
calculation of wind load for tensile structures.
Assembling loads
Loads to which the structure is subjected during assembling are quiet heavy even though
these
are temporary. Such loads need to be calculated during each stage of construction of the
roof.
Earthquake load
In addition to the wind load earthquake loads are to be considered during the roof design.
Pre-stress
Like the dead load these are also permanent load. Pre tensioning is achieved either by pre
loading the cables, or by employing counter stressed systems. The magnitude of pre-stress
will vary from structure to structure.
Creep effects
The term creep refers to the continued deformation with time of material under constant
stress level. Plastics and plain concrete tend to creep greatly under load. But steel does not.
Long term deflections in structures due to creep can be significant. Creep can also cause
unfavorable stress redistributions. The creep will result in the relaxation of fabric and the
cable tension thus reducing the overall stiffness of the structure. Slippage of the cables at
the anchors will occur.
The loss of pre stress due to creep in some buildings are given below:
a) The German pavilion at the Montreal exposition (1967) was of the order of25 %.
b) In the Munich stadium roof (1972) it was of the order of 10%.
Temperature effects
Low temperature often causes many materials that are normally ductile such as steel to
begin to exhibit brittle behavior. In many cases, the effects of low temperature on
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materials are equivalent to those of high strain rates. The increase in temperature also has
the same effect as the creep effect.
4.3 CUTTING PATTERN GENERATION

There are three main processes involved in the design of membranes for architectural
structures; Form finding, Load Analysis and Cutting Pattern Generation. Form-finding is
the name given to the problem of determining a structural form, in most cases a surface,
which is in force equilibrium and satisfies additional design constraints. Statically Load
Analysis must typically be performed using geometrically structural analysis software in
order to check that the form-found surface satisfies ultimate and serviceability constraints.
Finally, the form found surface must be converted into a set of planar cloths for
fabrication; this is termed Cutting Pattern Generation. Consideration of Cutting Pattern
Generation, however, usually deals exclusively with the problems of defining cloth
subdivisions of large surfaces, and ensuring that these sub-surfaces are two-dimensionally
developable. The specification of the actual layout itself is handled, at best, by interactive
input from the design engineer.
With synclastic and anticlastic surfaces the lengths must be cut in rounded contours
according to their form. The less flexible the material and the less the possibility of
generous deformation, the smaller the surface elements must be which comprise the total
form.
When geometrically different partial forms are put together, then various membrane
tensions occur which can easily lead to wrinkles forming at the transition areas. In order to
predetermine such tensions and to adapt the cutting pattern accordingly, exact
dimensioning models are necessary. Cutting pattern drawings of standard halls are today
being prepared by programmed controlled plotters. Further simplification will be brought
by automatic pattern cutters, which are directly linked with computers to avoid the
intermediate step drawing.
4.4 DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
The scope of dynamic analyses is the evaluation of the interaction between a fluctuating
external load and the structure. For membrane structures this issue is generally related
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with the fluctuation of wind pressure. In the presence of certain conditions, a negligible
deflection can lead to the collapse of the structure. The accuracy and reliability of the
simulating software has increased considerably in the last decade, allowing their wide use
for preliminary investigation and standard realizations. More accurate investigations aim
to reproduce the dynamic interaction between wind pressure and the flexible surface
which reproduce, in scale, the in situ elastic material properties.
4.5 THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS
Once the design phase is completed, the working drawings are transmitted to the
companies in charge of the realization of the structure which can be subdivided in the
foundation, the supporting frame and the membrane. Through the manufacturing process,
the flat membrane produced in rolls is converted in a double curved continuous surface.
The use of a membrane envelope intensifies the level of industrialization of the

construction, reducing the number of processing phases and workers involved in the on-
site construction, and increases the proportion of factory-built components which are only
assembled on-site. This has several advantages in terms of efficiency (1–10 m2 of material
processed for each hour of work, according to the material and the type of joints chosen)
and quality of the final product.
The working drawings are the result of the flattening of the three-dimensional shape
obtained through the patterning process; the initial shape should be adequately
compensated and provided with the extra material necessary for the welding process and
joint realization. The layout used for the cutting pattern is generally chosen in order to
emphasize the aesthetic result and to minimize the material waste and the number and
length of the seams (manufacturing costs). The shape of the patterned panels is related to
the cutting lines, with the curved boundaries of the long thin strips relatively straight when
generated by geodesic lines.
One of the most common techniques for the development of the patterns is based on the
subdivision of each ‗strip‘ of the surface in triangles which are then laid down on a plane.
Once the fabricator receives the necessary material from the material producer, which for
orders that exceed one thousand meters can personalize the color and other treatments, the
material correspondence to the required specifications are controlled through tests such as
the uniaxial strip tensile tests. Then, the roll of material is controlled through a light table
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in order to individuate the presence of local defects (which should be already marked by
quality control of the material producer) and positioned on the manual or automated
cutting table. The strips of fabric are cut out of the roll, with a maximum width generally
between 1.8m and 3m, avoiding local damages. They are then joined together in order to
obtain the biggest panel of fabric transportable and mountable, reducing the use of
welding machines or other high precision processes on the building site. The seams
between the panels of fabric are generally based on heat or high-frequency welding which
provide a higher level of water-and air tightness. However, glued or mechanical stitching,
clamping or lacings are also possible according to the specific requirements and then
these packed structure can be delivered all over the World using trucks, railways,
waterways or even airplanes. However, this operation is critical for the membrane, which
could easily be damaged by an incorrect folding process or by the presence of rigid
elements which can lacerate the fabric or compromise the protective layers.
Depending on the material, special attention should be paid to the maximum allowable
folding radius. This is particularly important for PTFE/Glass fibre fabrics which generally
require the use of soft cushions which reduce the folding radius and the risk of damage to
the yarns with the consequent lacerations. For complex realizations, the folding and
unfolding procedures should be carefully considered in order to follow and facilitate the
mounting plan and reduce unnecessary movements on site. Once on site, the assembly
process is relatively fast and efficient due to the high level of accuracy of manufacture, the
adjustable boundary details and the reduced weights and volumes to be handled, which
require less (and smaller) lifting equipment. In addition, there are no limitations in terms
of combination with others building materials such as steel, aluminum, wood, reinforced
concrete, composites etc.
4.6 CONSTRUCTION PROCESS

1. Prefabrication
Cable bench fabrication:
a. Prefabrication bench
b. Strand marking
c. Storage
d. Marking and unsheathing
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2. Clamp connections
a. Strand bundle compaction

b. Clamp connection with precurved cable
c. Clamp installation
d. Pre-tightening
3. Launching
a. Cable launching with mast installation

b. Cable net launching
c. Initial reference strand launching and adjustment (sag)
d. Strand launching
4. Lifting of prefabricated cable net
5. Separation and mast installation
6. Stressing
Fabrication at length
 Adjustment at sag if possible
 Pre-load: Central node release
 Application of roof
4.7 TESTING STANDARDS AND DESIGNING CODES
At present, the international normative concerning the design and realization of tensioned
structures is characterized by considerable deficiencies especially on the aspects
concerning the membrane surface (or the cable net). Despite the structural behavior of
tensile membrane structures is based on well-established principles of mechanics these
structures are often outside the realm typically considered for building structures. The
structural analyses are based on the most unfavorable load combinations; however, the
direct use of the load distributions prescribed by the designing codes, developed for
standard buildings, leads to several inaccuracies due to the non-linear behavior of
membrane structures and their large deflection behavior. Super position of load effects is
not applicable to membrane structures and a different load distribution can easily result in
an unexpected deflection which can lead to water ponding and snow drift with the
progressive collapse of the structure. On the other hand, seismic loads, which are
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particularly insidious for standard building, are generally negligible due to the low mass of
tensioned membrane structural systems. In addition, the unique surface forms prevent the
direct use of the coefficients for the snow distribution and the wind pressure provided by
the designing codes for standard geometries. Their area of applicability is extremely wide
from the basis of structural design to the actions on structures; in addition they describe
the design procedures and the theoretical aspects concerning each main building system
(concrete, steel, composite steel and concrete structures, timber, masonry, geotechnical
design, design of structures for earthquake resistance, aluminum).
The design of the rigid frame supporting the tensile structure is generally carried out
according to the prescriptions reported in each code (steel, timber and aluminum);
however, the most demanding part of the project, the membrane or the cable net, is at the
discretion of the designer. Its area of applicability is mainly restricted to the safety
requirements for tents which need to be observed at design, calculation, manufacture,
installation, maintenance, operation, examination and testing of mobile, temporary
installed tents of more than 50m2 ground area. Nonetheless, it offers the only reference to
membrane structures and deals with the fundamental terms and definitions, the general
requirements for design, analysis and examination, principles of numerical analysis, the
design actions, the verification of stability and equilibrium, the ground anchorages, the
other structural components, the special design and manufacture criteria, the manufacture
and supply, the examination, the competence, procedures for approval, examination and
tests etc.
The characteristics, the requirements and the test methods for coated fabrics intended for
temporary structure and tents are summarized in the European Standard EN
15619:2008+A1:2010 ‗Rubber or plastic coated fabrics—Safety of temporary structures
(tents)—Specification for coated fabrics intended for tents and related structures.‘ It
introduces the idea of different level of performance for each characteristic which allows
the choice of the appropriate level of each characteristic (mass per unit area, tensile
mechanical behavior, tear strength, coating adhesion, dimensional stability, color fastness
to weathering and light, susceptibility to the development of microorganisms, appearance,
elongation under load after heat exposure, residual deformation after heat exposure and
load, water penetration) or reaction to fire in order to obtain a ‗product profile‘ which
satisfy the requirements of a specific type of use.
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A similar approach is proposed by the Japanese Standard ‗Test methods for membrane
materials (coated fabrics)—Qualities and performances‘ developed by the Membrane
Structures Association of Japan (MSAJ/M-03:2003). The guide is divided in ten sections
(engineered fabric architecture, form, internal environment, detailing and connections,
structural design basis and safety criteria, design loading conditions, form-finding, load
analysis and patterning, material properties and testing, fabrication, installation and
maintenance) and contains detailed appendix concerning Cp Values, testing methods and
standards.
In the United States, the activity of the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) and
the Structural Engineering Institute (SEI) contributed to the development of several
standards and manuals of practice. The most relevant is the ASCE Standard 55-10 ‗Tensile
Membrane Structures.‘ The standard offers an overview of the membrane materials, the
connections, the design approach and the prescriptions for an appropriate fabrication and
erection of the structure. The section concerning the design of tensile membrane structures
provides a set of Load Combinations and Strength Reduction Factors in accordance with
the design loads prescribed by the standard ASCE Standard 7-98 ―Minimum design loads
for buildings and other structures.‖
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Fig.4.2 Flowchart illustrating the general approach to tensile

membrane structures design and engineering.
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5. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CABLE NET

STRUCTURE
5.1 ADVANTAGES
 Extremely light weight

 Large span
 Minimum amount of structure
 An open and unobstructed interior
 The low weight of the materials makes construction easier and cheaper than the
standard design.
 Cost efficiency: Depending on the requirement, the shaped cladding material under
tension is able to reduce construction by increasing its spanned area under tension. In
addition the membrane provides both structural and roofing shell.
 Design freedom: With the flexible and highly formable system provided from the
tensile membrane, this provides the architect to go all out by using conventional
construction materials. It also improves its functionality by providing a well-designed
structure which adds aesthetics to the building.
 Noise pollution: The membrane curved construction is able to diffuse both internal and
external sound whilst absorbing them at the same time.
 Lower energy costs:
o The fabrics have high sun reflecting properties and low absorbency of sunlight.
o Translucent materials provide a comfortable and natural light source by removing
all artificial lighting during the time.
o This greatly reduces the solar energy and heat that enters the structure.
o The woven base cloth combined with the appropriate coating allows light
transmission value of around 10%.
o This provides a very comfortable level of illumination compared to full brightness
of outside.
 Semi-permanent nature: Tension membrane structures historically have been closely

tied to major events such as exhibition where shelters are needed for short period of
time.
5.2 DISADVANTAGES
 Poor performance (thermal and acoustic)

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 Exterior moisture and dehumidifier addresses condensation.

 Difficult making meaningful connections.
 Easy to be damaged
 Difficulty of maintenance: Dirt can be clearly seen on glass or polycarbonate;
however the light diffusing properties of fabric mean that the surface dirt is not
easily identified.
5.3 ENVIRONMENT IMPACT
 Longer life cycles of materials.

 Materials can be reused in form
 Most materials are completely recyclable
 Less impact on site
 Less construction debris after demolition
6. GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
6.1 PLANNING
According to modern architectural concepts, functional flexibility and variety of purpose

put new demands on space clearance. Quite often the geometry and in many cases the
structural type will be governed by the variations in required clearances. As a well-
conceived cable net structure serves such a function admirably.
If the building is to be put varying uses, large span cable roofs offer much flexibility in
using the space enclosed provided this is properly planned in initial stages. The cable
flexibility cannot however be assumed for future expansion. Cable roofs are used in both
temporary as well as permanent space structures of long spans like in circus tents,
exhibition halls, stadiums etc. they can with suitable design be put to repetitive use must
effectively.
The conditions can have a strong influence on the basic structural form of the cable net
roof. For example, if there is a space restriction around the building of a self-supporting
structure will have to be designed because cables cannot be anchored to the adjoining
ground.
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6.2 ECONOMY
With the increasing span cost per unit area of a roof structure also rises and will not be
from the truth to approximate the increase to be linearly related to the span. In terms of the
direct structural cost, therefore long span roof may not prove more economical than
shorter spans, but their construction may well affect the usefulness of the covered space.
But among the many structural systems in use for long span, cable roof systems claims
several attributes through with grater structural efficiency and economy can be achieved.
It‘s a well-established fact that a structural member, who is subjected to axial force, only
utilizes the materials more effectively than a member in bending. It is also true that sheet
is the most suitable structure material where tensile forces are to be sustained. In carrying
applied loads by developing purely tensile stresses, a cable which is made of high strength
steel wires satisfies both conditions.
6.3 DURABILITY AND FIRE RESISTANCE
Cable roofs are designed for both permanent and temporary use, and a study of these
structures show that a number of them have been built sports halls, airports and exhibition
halls. Some roofs are constructed to last many years, while others may be designed for a
span of more or less 1-2 years. In some seasonal structures the roof is removable and that
it can be used only for small periods each year. But for many years the material used and
as cladding. It may also be possible to permit higher permissible stresses in the material,
reduce minimum thickness, and make the design of the details less elaborate. The
advantage of using cheaper forms of cladding as mentioned above cannot be had to the
same extent for conventional temporary structures because of the limitation on the choice
of materials in such cases.
In so far as fire protection is concerned, there are no building codes for conventional
buildings for application to these structures because of their long span and sometimes
unusual geometry.
Higher temperatures due to fire cause the cable material to creep. There are decrease in the
modulus and also a relaxation of pretension and consequently an overall decrease in the
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stiffness of the system, leading to greater deformations. Also in redundant

cable assemblies there is a redistribution of stresses. A qualitative study of the problem
yields the following points.
1. At increased temperatures the cables sag increases, thus affecting a decrease in

cable tension due to superimposed loads. Further already mentioned, there is
relaxation of pretension. Thus an increase in temperature affords a relief in tension
and stresses are reduced.
2. It is unlikely that in a large span roof the full design loads will occur together with
a full fiber.
3. Therefore, although the strength of a cable is reduced at high temperatures, this
may not be a major problem owing to points I and 2 above. Reduction of tension
may, however be so large that pre tensioning members in counter stressed systems
may become slack, reducing them to simply suspended systems, with all the
disadvantages of unconstrained cable systems.
4. Large deformations will occur at high temperatures and cladding or detail may
cause damage to the cladding or detail.
5. Roots of longer spans will usually be high, and fire proofing of the roof may not be
dominant consideration.
6. In steel tension systems there is a better possibility of redistribution among the
members than in rigid framed structures, where local failures due to buckling may
occur at high temperature. At a reasonable margin of time before collapse occurs
should be normally expected. Jawerth has shown through tests on some of his
structures that they remain stable for 30 to 60 min. after a fire has started.
6.4 SAFETY
For cable roofs, which are normally large in, span and may also be housing expensive
equipment‘s or machineries, the safety of the roofs must be ensured through conservative
design. In term of structural responses to loads cable roofs enjoy several advantages over
the other systems, such as shells or latticed domes, used for large span. The latter carry the
load in compression and can fail through instability. It is worth nothing that cable systems,
network in particular are highly indeterminate structures and being made from steel and as
such ductile members, they are likely to offer considerable overload capacity beyond the
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working loads. If the main cable of truss begins to yield it will lead to increasing
deformations and collapse. In this respect, trusses differ from nets, in which the capability
of redistribution of forces between cables is distinctively better. Further, if one of the
carrying cables in a tensioned truss system snaps or slips out of anchorage the damage can
indeed be serious and has to be guarded against. It is also important to prevent ponding of
water in saucer like roofs, by providing an efficient drainage system.
7. APPLICATIONS OF CABLE NET STRUCTURES
BUILDING ENVELOPES INTERIORS

Tensile building envelopes have the Transform an interior space with sculpted
ability to synthesize form, expression, tensile fabric elements. Lightweight and
and utility. They complement the economical, tensile fabric can be
existing architecture and natural customized to create a unique visual
environment, and are a more cost experience
effective solution.
SCULPTURES SPECIAL USE FACILITIES

Tensile membranes are an ideal choice Special use structures fabricated from
for iconic outdoor sculptures. They can tensile materials combine the thoughtful
be formed into almost any shape and presence of a permanent structure with
retain their structure over time without the economy, easy assembly, and
any slacking or buckling. mobility of a temporary structure.
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FLEXFAÇADES
OPEN AIR PROJECTS
Tensile facades are an innovative, cost-
Open air structures provide the best parts effective way to incorporate screening and
of an outdoor experience with protection
shading to office buildings, parking
from the elements. Whether you‘re
garages, and stadiums. These tensile
designing a golf resort, amphitheatre,
outdoor mall, or even a wharf, tensile materials are an economical alternative to
membrane structures provide year-round perforated metal and metal mesh, at 50% of
protection from factors like solar glare, the cost of installed screening.
heat, rain, and snow.
STADIA & ATHLETIC FACILITIES ENVIRONMENTAL & OTHER

PROJECTS
Whether a stadium or an indoor athletic Tensile fabrics can create solutions to the
facility, tensile fabric solutions create common environmental disasters.
optimal environments for both spectators
Lightweight and easy to transport, tensile
and athletes. From the optimization of fabrics are ideal for rapidly creating easy-
daylight to shading and thermal control,
to-assemble command facilities and
there‘s no sport that can‘t benefit from emergency response shelters in times of
tensile fabric. environmental crisis.
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CHAPTER-3 CASE STUDIES
ARCHITECT:
GÜNTHER BEHNISCH, FREI OTTO
8.1 OLYMPIC STADIUM, YEAR:
1968 - 1972
MUNICH, GERMANY LOCATION:
MUNICH, GERMANY
The architects Günther Behnisch and Frei Otto were in charge of designing and building
the stadium would host the Olympic Games in Munich 1972. They raised a lightweight
structure where tensions are nullified by a system of supports and cables, allowing both
economy and new way. They pioneered the use of mathematical calculations based on
computational procedures to determine the shape and behaviour of the surface of the
cover. Otto had to adapt their design to the preconceived form above for the winner
Günther Behnisch.
HISTORY
In 1916, Berlin was selected to host the VI Olympic Games, but the event was suspended
for the initiation of World War II. The city was rewarded in 1936 to host the eleventh
edition of the Games, the last before the long hiatus caused by the outbreak of World War
II and marked by notable war conditions.
In 1972 the honour was awarded to another German city, Munich, far and warlike
atmosphere around the Games were overshadowed this time by a terrorist attack. When
there were six days for the completion of the Games, eight Arab commands gained access
to the Olympic Village, killing two members of the Israeli Olympic representation and
seizing nine others hostage, the group demanded the release of 234 Palestinian prisoners in
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Israeli jails and two imprisoned in Germany and Egypt transfer insurance. Israel‘s
response was immediate and overwhelming: there would be no negotiation. That night the
hostages were killed in a shootout between terrorists and police in West Germany, at a
military airport.
The Olympics were only suspended for one day, September 5, to pay tribute at the
Olympic Stadium athletes killed before the abandonment of the Israeli delegation to the
competition.
Fig.8.1.1 Public viewing during Fifa World Cup 2006
SITE
When the International Olympic Committee awarded the 1972 Olympic Games to
Munich in 1966, the city had no large sports arenas. Previous planning however had
already selected he best site for the new facility, an empty tract of land about three miles
north of central Munich. The site was originally the setting of a 1930‘s airfield, a former
training ground for the Bavarian Royal Army and the site of Munich‘s first civil airport.
During the cleanup after the second World War, the ground had been used as a dump yard
for ruined buildings‘ rubble. Moreover a 300m tall broadcast tower, which is still present
today, is a major landmark of the site.
Stadium Center Athletic arena Swimming arena
Fig.8.1.2 Section of the Olympic stadium
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CONCEPT
The first Olympic Games in Germany were held in 1936 in Berlin. For the latter to be held
in Munich in 1972, Frei Otto Günther Behnisch and were responsible for teaching the
world a new Germany, in a new light. Their goal was to design a structure that emulates
the motto of the games: ―The Happy Games‖, ―The Happy Games‖ as a whimsical
architectural response to cover the heavy and overbearing shadow left by the Berlin
games.
Otto and Behnisch voltage conceptualize a structure that continuously flow along the site
mimicking the draping and the rhythmic elevations of the Swiss Alps, a structure
suspended like a cloud that seems to float over the place branching between the pools,
gym and the main stadium.
Through its planning, development and current perception, Olympia park manages to set
several keynotes. First of all the tensile structure and translucent skin were revolutionary
at the time and remain both visually and technically impressive today. The formal
language as it was interpreted by architects Behnisch and partners is a strong statement
about Germany and its industrial capabilities. As the whole park has been constructed on
an abandoned airfield covered with remnants of the war, the city has reclaimed an
important green area. Contrary to what happens to many other venue halls, the whole
complex has been put to permanent use as soon as the primary purpose had been served: it
has now become a sports stadium, and a frequently visited park with a main focus on
sports.
CLIMATE
Despite Munich‘s temperate weather, the design of a cable net roof structure had to
address two critical factors: wind and snow. Freezing rain, snow or hail falls an average of
75 days per year in Munich, and wind gushes can exceed 120 km/h during stormy weather.
Heavy snow and ice accumulations on the unheated roof could impose dangerous
structural loads. Basically this issue could be resolved by placing large fans under the
canopy to melt snow off the top. This technique had a proven record in the Otto‘s German
Pavilion at the 1967 World Fair in Montreal. Given the climate conditions in Munich and
especially the prevailing wind direction, both the tensile roof and the main seating area are
oriented at the western edge. Approximately 65% of the stadium‘s visitors are thus given
shelter from the natural elements. The roof and the higher seating area on the western side
also guarantee the eastern seats to be somewhat more protected from wind.
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Fig.8.1.3 Plan of the cable net roof structure; provides shelter from natural elements
AREAS
Although the name of Olympic Park, Olympic Park, has been used to designate the
whole area in general, there is no official name for the area. On the contrary, the
general area Comprises four separate sub-areas:
 Area Olympic Games, including the Olympic sports facilities such as the Olympic
Stadium and the Olympic Hall in the Olympic Tower. Alsobelonging to this
area and Olympic Swimming Hall for events.
 Olympic Village, consisting of two residential areas, one for men and one for
women.
 Press Room Olympic City, ―Pressestadt‖, today the Olympic Mall. Strictly speaking,
this portion belongs to the area of the district ―Moosach‖.
 Olympic Park, south of the Olympic area, this park includes Olympic Mountains and
Lake water for some competitions.
TELECOMMUNICATIONS TOWER: The concrete tower with 290 meters high was
the work of Behnisch, as well as the park crossed by the Nymphenburg pore in the center a
small pond. The tower, plus transmission services offers a revolving restaurant every half
hour makes a complete rotation on its axis, with capacity for 216 people.
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STADIUM
The construction of the stadium for

games, work of Frei Otto, was the most
important and the most impacted
worldwide. Shop transparent campaign
consists of three structures that became a
landmark for the city center. The stadium
has dimensions of 105x68m capacity for
69,250 spectators, with a grassy field
Fig.8.1.4 Aerial view of the Olympic stadium
surrounded by track.
INTERIOR SPACES
MINIMAL SURFACES
The roof of the Olympic Stadium in Munich, which covers and unifies the stadium,
tracks and pools, was developed based on the use of computerized mathematical
procedures in determining their form and behavior, resulting in an architectural form of
―minimal surfaces‖ first used in voltage covered with these dimensions, 74.800m2.
First, the metal frame, whose small spaces

were coated with PVC, created numerous
minimal surfaces and as such was also
minimal weight, allowing the construction
of architectural cover lightness.
Second, the surface tension of these forms
is completely balanced, providing very
stable construction. Away from the rigid
orthogonal patterns of modern
architecture, minimal surfaces have
organic forms of extraordinary elegance.
Is elegance eye view as far imposed on the
Fig.8.1.5 Metal framework and
membrane coverings medium, it suits him.
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The surface of the DC voltage that connects all the main buildings of the Olympic Games
is subject to a structural hierarchical system that creates a series of volumes through the
site. The cover membrane is suspended by a multitude of vertical masts enabling sharp
bends winding surface draping dynamically changing flow through the space so, scale and
sectional characteristics. Large decks are stabilized laterally through a network of smaller
cables that connect to cable largest steel that extends over all space within the concrete
foundation each end.
ROOF
Without doubt the most remarkable feature of the stadium and the adjacent buildings is the
tensile roof structure. It has become not only a landmark for the city of Munich, but has
been a precedent for many more innovations in this field of study in later years. It is
especially the size and the grandeur of the roof which has inspired many architects and
designers.
Fig.8.1.6 Section showing the details of the materials and construction
The roof grid over the main stadium is formed by nine saddle-shaped nets of 25mm steel
cables spaced in a 762mm square grid. The saddle spans up to 65m and reaches a
maximum height of 58m. The nets are supported over the seating areas by eight tapering
masts behind the stadium, ranging from 50 to 70m high. Smaller bow-shaped nets connect
the larger membranes and wrap around the supporting masts.
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CLADDING MATERIAL
Originally one intended to hang a canvas fabric below the cable net, just as Otto did in
Montreal. As television companies became involved however, the issue of excessive
contrast for broadcast, photography suggested modification. In the end, bronze-tinted
acrylic plastic panels measuring 2,9 by 2,9m were installed above the cable wires.
Connections between the panels had to allow for thermal expansion and structural
movement of up to 1m deflection under heavy wind loads. The acrylic panels were
attached to the supporting net at the intersection points of the cables. However, because of
the irregularity of the net, the panels sometimes overlapped the cable grid at varying
angles. Apart from offering enough color contrast for improved photography, the bronze
tinting also helped reduce heat gains and glare without casting shadows as a canvas
canopy would have.
SPECIFICATIONS:
• Area covers 74,000 m²
• Membrane element 75 x 75 cm
• Cables edge laces closed
• Straps tendons parallel cords
• Knots and cast steel clamps
• Masts steel tubes
Fig.8.1.7 Roof net with acrylic cover glass
• Acrylic (Plexiglas) Cover glass supported by masts
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ARCHITECT:
NORMAN FOSTER
8.2 KHAN SHATYR ENTERTAINMENT YEAR:
2010
CENTER, ASTANA, KASAKHSTAN LOCATION:
ASTANA, KASAKHSTAN
Khan Shatyr Entertainment Center is the cultural and social typed structure with the
climatic shelter that proposes convenient microclimate all year in the Astana, second
coldest capital of the world, with the temperature -35º C in winter and +35º C in summer.
Building was opened in July, 2010 and has the traditional nomadic tent form. Khan Shatyr
means ―the Tent of the Khan‖ or ―largest tent‖. Project of this large scale cable structure
was designed by Norman Foster.
150 m tall mast – stayed building has 200 m by 195 m elliptical base located at the north
end of the city's axis and it represents the highest point on the Astana skyline. Khan Shatyr
is considered as the world‘s tallest tent structure. Total covered area is 100,000 m² and it
covers an urban – scale park with a 450 m running lane, shopping and spare – time
facilities such as restaurants, cinema and entertainment areas for exhibitions and events.
Landscape of the building is represented in green terraces, water park, wave swimming
pools and slides.
HISTORY
Following the construction of the Palace of Peace and Reconciliation (opened in 2006), a
glass pyramid, the Khan Shatyr Entertainment Center was the second national project in
Astana designed by UK architect Norman Foster (of Foster and Partners), (Partners in
Charge Filo Russo and Peter Ridley), and UK engineers Buro Happold led by Mike Cook.
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Construction documentation architects were Linea and Gultekin. The construction of the
tent-city was the responsibility of the Turkish company Sembol.
Khan Shatyr was unveiled by the President of Kazakhstan, Nursultan Nazarbayev in 2006
and after a series of delays, the main mast was eventually erected in December 2008, and
the whole complex was completed and opened on July 5, 2010, on the 70th birthday of
Nazarbayev. Almost a contained city to itself, Khan Shatyr provides a near-vacation
destination in the center of Astana.
SITE
The tent-like, cable-net structure is located at the northern end of the new city axis and
soars 150 meters from an elliptical base to form the highest peak on the Astana skyline.
The building encloses an area in excess of 100,000 square metres within an ETFE dome,
with dramatic views over the city and the Steppes beyond. Contained within it is an urban-
scaled park, along with a wide variety of entertainment and leisure facilities, including
retail, cafes, restaurants, cinemas, and flexible spaces that can accommodate a varied
programme of events and exhibitions. The different levels form undulating terraces, the
uppermost terrace forming a water park.
CLIMATE
Khan Shatyr Entertainment Center is the cultural and social typed structure with the
climatic shelter that proposes convenient microclimate all year in the Astana, second
coldest capital of the world, with the temperature -35º C in winter and +35º C in summer.
In winter, to prevent the formation of ice on the inside of the envelope, warm air currents
run up the inner surface of the fabric - a strategy which also prevents downdraughts. In
summer, fritting on the outermost foil layer provides solar shading. Inside, low-level jets
direct cool air across the space, while opening vents at the apex induce stack-effect
ventilation.
INITIAL CONCEPT
Challenged with creating a giant, free-spanning enclosure with the minimum of support,
the engineers (Buro Happold) felt that a single-masted cable net in a conical form was the
natural choice due to its simplicity and efficiency of material. With a single compression
mast to lift the net and create a large volume underneath, the roof skin is in tension and
can use cables rather than beams to carry all loads. It also creates a very strong ―iconic‖
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form on the skyline – a critical consideration for such an important building in the
capital city.
Fig. 8.2.1 Conceptual views of the tripod
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
The 19,000m2 transparent roof of the Entertainment Centre comprises ETFE (Ethylene
tetrafluoroethylene) cushions supported on a cable net structure. The roof cables are
collected 90m above ground on a ring at the top of the steel tripod and span to the
sloped concrete perimeter which forms the base of the building. Four intersecting arcs
define the 140m long, 120m wide plan of the roof.
The shape of the cable net is based on a classic cone which has been pulled over to one
side to better relate to the internal layout. This gives the Entertainment Centre its
distinctive sloping architectural form. Radial cables span from the top ring of
the steel compression mast to the outer concrete perimeter and are prestressed against
hoop cables to form an anticlastic surface. 192 pairs of 38mm diameter radial cables
vary in length from 125m at the front of the tent to 70m at the back. The hoop cables are
arranged perpendicular to the ridge line of the radials. A relatively high prestress of
about 80% of the peak cable forces is utilized in the tent to control deflections to around
800mm over the longest cable span.
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The tripod provides the single point of support to the centre of the cable net and is an
important element for the architecture of the building. Traditionally the central support of
a conic tent is a single mast, pinned at both the top and the bottom and stabilized by the
tent that it supports. This only ever places axial force in the mast which moves with the
tent under asymmetric loads and reduces the peak tensions within the cable net. However,
it was felt impractical to temporarily support a fully articulated 150m high single mast
during construction so this principle was adapted for the Entertainment Centre. The
tripod structure which is used provides a robust constructible base while the articulated top
ring that it supports provides some movement to relieve the forces in the cable net. The
movable part of the mast is then a much smaller element that was easier to temporarily
brace during construction.
Each tripod leg is formed from a three chord truss with 1000mm diameter circular hollow
main sections, the back leg resists 140MN while each front leg resists 50MN. The legs
meet at a hub which supports 12 pin ended struts reaching to the cable net top ring. The
pin connections for the 800mm diameter struts allow the articulation of the top ring. The
hub is located so that its centre line corresponds with the resultant axial force from the
cable net under prestress loads.
Fig. 8.2.2 Plan view of the tripod
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CONSTRUCTION
Despite the harsh climate, construction on the Khan Shatyr took place all year round
undertaken under the direction of Sembol using a number of specialist contractors to
enable the opening for President Nazarbayev‘s birthday in 2010.
The greatest challenge to overcome in the construction process was the erection of the
tripod. Buro Happold developed the design in discussion with Samko who were
the specialist steelwork sub-contractor. The general arrangement of the tripod was
configured to allow a dramatic single lift process where the whole 1,700 ton tripod was
pivoted around pins at the bases of the two front legs. Strand jacks, attached to the top of a
temporary tower in front of the tripod, pulled on lifting cables attached to a frame on the
tripod hub. As the front legs pivoted up, the top of the back leg lifted on a temporary pin
connection under the hub whilst its base slid in on a bogey running on a rail track.
Temporary bracing to the cable ring remained in place until the cables had been installed
and correctly prestressed.
Fig. 8.2.3 Section through the Khan Shatyr
Although the tripod provided the most dramatic sequence in the construction of the Khan
Shatyr, the installation of the cable net was also challenging. The radial cables were lifted
individually into a slack condition with cable clamps attached ready to accept the hoop
cables which were placed over the top of the radials. Once all the cables were
in place tension was pulled into them using a jacking detail at the base of the radial cables
to bring the net into shape and allow the installation of the cushions to proceed.
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Fig. 8.2.4 Cables view Fig.8.2.5 Hub and pin connection
CLADDING MATERIAL
The ETFE or ethylene tetrafluoroethylene cladding is used to allow flooding of natural

light into large spaces. Also the three layer ETFE technology, the 150m high tent
construction resists the extreme climatic conditions.
The ETFE cushions are put into extrusions from the ground and dragged to the top. The
foil cushions have three layers fixed together and have inflated middle layer.
Entertainment Center has high insulation by filling the ETFE cushions with air to contain
high thermal range. Dimensions of each cushion are 3.5 m width by 30 m length. The
length if it relies on the interval of the peripheral cables. They taper as the radial cables
approach to the cone. The ETFE cushion panels are fixed to the cables with the
aluminum clamping plates to endure the motion of the cables under climatic conditions.
Flexible ETFE conducts with the cable net‘s diapason of stripping. The cables get closer
and the cushions change their form from an eye to a cylinder when the structure deviates.
This motion bow the use of continuous edge extrusions paralleled to the hoop cables
which may produce shift collars.
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ARCHITECT:
ROLF GUTBROD, FREI OTTO
8.3 EXPO ‗67 GERMAN PAVILION, YEAR:
1967
MONTREAL, CANADA LOCATION:
MONTREAL, CANADA
The first large scale cable – net roof used in construction, rather than simple shelter,
appeared at the Montreal World Expo in 1967.
The origin of Otto‘s fascination with tensile structures and minimally resource-intensive
design dates to his experiences during the Second World War. Drafted into the Luftwaffe
as a pilot, Otto was captured and imprisoned in a POW camp near Chartres, France, where
he worked constructing tent-like shelters for other prisoners using the limited material
means at his disposal. After the war ended, he translated these efforts into a full-time
architectural pursuit, investigating their potential application on an industrial scale. His
radically simple design premise—creating an architecture guided by resource
conservation, structural intelligence, and construction efficiency—found warm reception
in the optimistic intellectual culture of the 1950s and 60s. Like Fuller‘s
contemporaneous geodesic spheres, Otto believed that his tensile canopies promised an
architectural solution that was cheap, durable, and highly versatile.
Fig.8.3.1 Night lightings of the pavilion

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Sensitive to the ever-changing needs of occupants and the impact of the human footprint,
Otto also preached the need for temporary structures that were easy to assemble, and just
as easy to take down and recycle. With few components, all of which could be adapted to
virtually any site and terrain condition, his systems of masts and canopies were a radical
simplification of traditional building methods that valued rigidity and permanence. Once it
had been designed and pre-fabricated, the German Pavilion in Montreal was assembled
on-site in a mere six weeks, only to be dismantled shortly after the fair.
The topographic complexity of the pavilion—a sweeping landscape of hyper parabolic

curves—captured the intrinsic beauty of natural mathematical and physical relationships.
Generated simply by the connection between suspension points and anchors, the form
reflected the undistorted give and take of forces on material fabric with minimal artificial
interference. A reporter at the Expo likened the effect to the simplicity of ―a tight, white
sheet draped over tent poles.‖ Within this whimsical gesture, the calculated machinations
of a master engineer were nonetheless quite obvious.
Fig.8.3.2 Hyper parabolic curves Fig.8.3.3 Basic design showing the

structure and openings
The canopy itself was constructed of a pre-stressed steel cable mesh covered in a
translucent, polyester textile membrane. At several points within the perimeter of the
pavilion, the surface of the tent dipped to the ground in dramatic funnel-like cavities, only
to rise up again to the soaring height of the masts. Otto‘s system was technologically
sophisticated yet conceptually simple, carefully calculated yet animated by the irregularity
and compositional freedom of unrestrained expression. The pavilion was a little more than
a big tent – mankind‘s most primitive structure – but it had a beauty in its movements that
man, despite all of his machines and fine inventions, had rarely managed to achieve.
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Fig.8.3.4 Interior view of the pavilion during exhibition
Amidst the current saturation of digitally produced forms far more outrageous than the
German Pavilion, and with, consequently, structures far more complicated, it is perhaps
difficult to appreciate the formal frontiers that were opened up by Otto‘s work or the
engineering feats he achieved in Montreal in a time before computers. But to dwell on
either the structural or the formal facets of his work is to overlook the far more important
sentiment that fueled Otto‘s adventurous form finding. His intentions were never to build
fodder for the appreciation of architects and aesthetes; they were to build for the benefit of
humanity. As Thom Mayne recently remarked in a tribute to the late architect, this
technological humanitarianism will only ―become increasingly relevant as we move into
this digital age.‖
DIMENSIONS
MATERIAL SPECIFICATIONS
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YEAR:
8.4 KING FAHAD CAUSEWAY STOP, 2010
LOCATION:
PASSPORT ISLAND, BAHRAIN PASSPORT ISLAND, BAHRAIN
A one-stop border crossing post to ease pressure on travellers and help them save time at
the Bahrain-Saudi borders on King Fahd Causeway was implemented in 2010. Drivers
will go through only one post, under this new concept, where all the routine border
procedures that include passport control, car clearance and customs take place.
Presently, drivers have to go through the Bahraini and the Saudi formalities, resulting in
traffic congestion and long queues of cars at the borders on the 25-kilometres causeway.
People driving from Saudi Arabia into Bahrain will go through a Saudi post without the
need for any formalities from the Bahraini authorities while those driving out of Bahrain
will have their travel documents processed in Bahrain without the need to go through
Saudi formalities. King Fahd Causeway was officially inaugurated on November 26,
1986 and has since become one of the busiest traffic sectors in the Arab world.
Fig.8.4.1 Views to the structure
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SITE
Passport Island is an artificial
island located on the Bahrain–Saudi
Arabia border. It is 25 km (16 mi) west
of Bahrain's capital, Manama. The
bridge opened in 1986 and included the
building of the artificial island. Its route
was chosen as the shortest path between
the island of Bahrain and mainland
Saudi Arabia. The island is located on
the King Fahd Causeway. Fig.8.4.2 Site- King Fahd Passport Island
CLIMATE
Summers are very hot. The seas around Bahrain are very shallow, heating up quickly in
the summer to produce very high humidity, especially at night. Summer temperatures
may reach up to 50 °C under the right conditions. Rainfall in Bahrain is minimal and
irregular. Rainfalls mostly occur in winter, with a recorded maximum of 71.8 mm. There
are low-level winds to be directed toward Bahrain.
CHALLENGE
The challenge was to design a series of structures that would completely cover the check
post, where all the routine border procedures that include passport control, car clearance
and customs take place all under all-weather protection. In order to not make the area feel
dark, canopies needed to over sail one another, letting in an abundance of natural sunlight.
The strict sustainability goal of rainwater collection led to the design of the Inverse
Conics.
Fig.8.4.3 Mast and cables supporting the structure Fig.8.4.4 Check post cabins
STRUCTURAL DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

The inverted conical form with the option of single stand-alone structure joined to form a
larger covering shade. A series of bespoke Inverse Conics were designed, patterned,
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engineered and installed between the eight check posts. Each structure has integrated
lighting and is patterned in a way that created crown like visuals for each mast. Bale rings
are used at the bottom of conical shapes. Bale rings are a good way to control stresses in
fabric roof at high or low roof. Used at high points they must be covered to make the
structure water tight. Membrane plates accept centery cables and pin connection hardware.
In this type of corner, plates work with two steel plates that are clamped to the fabric. Here
the tensioning of each cable coming from the edge of the fabric will be easy and accurate.
Fig.8.4.5 Bale ring Fig.8.4.6 Corner/ membrane plate
CLADDING MATERIAL
The cover material used in PVC Membrane
structures is a special type of fabric obtained by
weaving of the fibers (polyester-woven) which are
the main carrying element of the membrane cover.
The fibers are covered with various chemicals to
protect the membrane against external factors and
to provide water/air impermeability. An additional
cover is applied on these coatings having too little Fig.8.4.7 PVC polyester cladding sheet
contribution to the main strength in order to give
them the feature of self-cleaning and to increase their resistance against ultraviolet and
other external impacts.
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YEAR:
1996
8.5 JAWAHARLAL NEHRU STADIUM, LOCATION:
KALOOR, KERALA KALOOR, KERALA, INDIA
Jawaharlal Nehru International Stadium, locally known as Kaloor Stadium is a

multipurpose international stadium situated in Kochi, Kerala. It is used mostly
for cricket and football matches the stadium has a capacity of 60,000 but is limited to
39,000 for the Indian Super League. The building of a world-class international sports
stadium in Kerala was sanctioned by the government of the late Chief minister of
Kerala, K. Karunakaran. The stadium was completed ahead of schedule in 1996 by
the Greater Cochin Development Authority (GCDA) led by V. Joseph Thomas IPS. The
stadium is widely touted to be one of the noisiest football stadiums in the world due to its
distinctive architecture.
The stadium has played host to a number of international cricket and football matches. The
extensive grounds of the stadium serve as venue for important exhibitions, cinema events
and political rallies in the city. The most innovative aspect of the stadium is its unique
lighting towers of 2 kW Floodlights which when switched on fully can provide lighting
levels for HD telecast. The Structure of the tower is itself one of a kind in India.
SITE
The Jawaharlal Nehru International Stadium is located in the heart of the city. It lies
beside the Banerjee Road between Kaloor and Palarivattom, a common stretch among
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many city bus routes. The Stadium Link Road from the southern side allows access from
Thammanam and Kathrikadavu, although there is no public transport along this route.
The stadium is situated at 2.5 km and 5.2 km from the North (Town) and South
(Junction) railway stations respectively.
CLIMATE
This city has a tropical climate with significant rainfall in most months of the year. The
average climate of the city is 27°C.
STRUCTURAL SYSTEM
A truss which is essentially a triangulated system of straight interconnected structural
elements is used here. It supports the roof. The loading subjected by the truss is
transferred through the purlins directed to the nodes and top member span. The seated
area is shaded using aluminum sheets which are supported by the trusses.
CLADDING MATERIAL
Aluminum sheet is used for shading because of its desirable characteristics such as light
weight, corrosion resistant, durable and economical to work with. Stainless steel trusses
and purlins coated with approved materials to prevent corrosion.
CONSTRUCTION METHOD
Hoisting and connecting of the individual steel trusses are first lifted in place using
cranes and then they are secured to the bearing supports. Then the aluminum sheets is
lifted and fixed in the truss.
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CHAPTER-4 LONG SPAN STRUCTURES IN KERALA
SPACE FRAMES
A Space Frame or Space Structure is a truss like, light weight rigid structure constructed
from interlocking struts in a geometric pattern. Space frames usually utilize a
multidirectional span, and are often used to accomplish long spans (up to 100 m) with few
supports. Space Frames are excellent in resisting the loads in different angles; due to the
three dimensional inter connectivity of members and continuity of the truss in the three
dimensions. To utilize the maximum structural advantage of the space truss technology,
continuous members are used as bottom and top chord members, joined together with the
diagonal members. Space Frames are ideal for use in Shopping Malls, Food Court,
Transport Terminals, indoor stadiums, Convention centers, Warehouses, factories, Centre
Courtyards etc. Space Frames are most recommended for large span structures with
minimum columns, Cantilever structures, structures with inbuilt roof drainage and cat
walk, structures with irregular supports or concentrated loads etc.
TENSILE STRUCTURES
Tensile Structures are light weight and flexible, which allows incredible free span roofing
making construction easier and economical than standard designs which are light in
weight because their structural stability derived from their pre-stressed shape rather than
mass of the material used. The range of Tensile Structures is much lighter than
conventional building structure and yet it offers high stability. A tensile structure is one
supported by steel cables forming the structural elements of the roof which include Tensile
Structures, Frame Supported Structures, Air Supported Structures, Air Inflated Structures,
Cable Network Structures, etc. It can be flat or anticlastic, covered by a membrane or
simply a network of cables. It offers numerous structural and architectural possibilities.
Tensile structures appropriate for a variety of settings including airports, special events
and sports arenas, not only tension structures, but also manufactures Car Parking Shades,
Entrance Tensile Structures, Roof Tensile Structures, Awning, Garden Gazebo, Tarpaulin,
Cricket Pitch Tarpaulin, Tensile Membrane, PVC Coated Tarpaulin, Pool Enclosures,
Retractable Pool Enclosures, Swimming Pool Enclosures, Automatic Swimming Pool
Safety Covers in Kerala, India. Such structures use a wide variety of materials and
techniques. Modern technology and innovations permit extensive spans. Their coverings
require the use of sophisticated, fireproof synthetic fabrics such as PVC, FG / PTFE,
ETFE or other light materials.
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CHAPTER-5 ANALYSIS
9.1 GENERAL ANALYSIS
Cable net structures are in general lighter and more flexible than most other forms of
roof/large span constructions. Their height-to-span ratios are usually also relatively small.
As a result they are more resistant to earthquakes, but more sensitive to turbulent wind,
than other conventional structures. In general, the dynamic sensitivity of pretensioned
cable net systems increases with increasing gravitational load. Experience has shown that
cable roofs that possess adequate curvatures and cable tensions arc dynamically stable.
Where problems have occurred these have usually been due to insufficient pretensioning
of the cables or insufficient or faulty curvatures, such as nets with locally flat or basket-
formed areas. The fact that so far, no known cable roof has failed due to vibration should
not lead to complacency. There have been a few failures, but these have been thought to
have been caused by corrosion fatigue due to flutter and not by resonance vibration. Other
forms of cable structures such as suspension bridges and guyed masts have occasionally
proved to be dynamically unstable and have failed either in resonance or due to the
development of fatigue cracks.
Cable roof structures have a vast future a head of it, cable roof structures full potential is
not utilized, it feels like it's it could be further used, not saying it not properly used but
each times people find different uses for old materials itself.
Cable structures have different classification based on their properties and the materials
used for its construction. The main constituent element of cable structures is the high-
strength steel cables that present particularly favorable load-bearing properties. The high
tensile strength of steel cables, their main characteristic, allows them to take up large axial
forces with small cross-sections, and thus they are more economical in terms of
price/offered strength than structural steel. Cable can only develop tension, and this allows
the complete exploitation of the cable cross section as the danger of buckling does not
exist. The aforementioned characteristics generally make cable structures the most
economic ones.
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9.2 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS
Khan Shatyr
Millennium Dome, Jawaharlal Nehru
Parameters Entertainment Center, Inference
London, US Stadium, Kaloor, Kerala
Astana, Kazakhstan
- South bank of River - Northern end of city‘s axis - The stadium is located in - Its observed that cable
Thames, London, US and highest point on Astana Kaloor, Kochi. net structures can be
skyline, Kazakhstan. used for a wide range of
- Warm and temperate - Second coldest capital of - This city has a tropical weather whereas metal
climate with significant the world, -35°C in winter climate with significant sheeting cannot since it
rainfall throughout the and 35°C in summer. rainfall in most months of absorbs more heat.
Site and year. the year. The average
climate - To prevent formation of ice
on inside of the envelope, climate of the city is 27°C. - Therefore cable net
- Dome‘s not heated or warm air currents run up structures are more
air conditioned. inner surface in winter and weather resistant than
APPLICATION OF CABLE NET STRUCTURES IN KERALA
fritting on the outermost foil metal roofing.

layers provides solar shading
in summer.
- ETFE and PTFE are
foil membranes.
Cladding - Aluminum sheet is used
- PTFE coated glass fiber - ETPE cladding – resists - Aluminum is
material for shading.

extreme climatic conditions. comparatively more
- Higher recycling rate
- Recyclable - Recyclable recyclable than PTFE or
ETPE.
Joinery of - Sewn, welded glued - Sewn, welded glued - Welded or bolted together. - Cable net membranes
cladding together or heat sealed. together or heat sealed. have more ways of
materials joining.
2019
65 | P a g e
Khan Shatyr
Astana, Kazakhstan
Ease of - The initial institution is - The initial installation is - The trusses are made off - Space frame trusses
installation crucial and requires highly difficult and requires site and installed in the site. are much easier to
skilled laborers and highly skilled laborers and It is quick process. install than cable nets.
designers. designers.
- Super lightweight - Super lightweight - Lightweight structure. - Cable net membranes
Weight structure. structure. - Comparatively more are much lighter than
- High speed installation - High speed installation heavy thus more time taken aluminum sheets. Thus
it‘s easy to lift.
- Translucency 7 to 15% - Transparent coating - Translucent roofing - PTFE and ETPE are
Transparency 9-12% light transmission. material. transparent and easier
to handle.
- The initial cost is high - The initial cost is high - The initial and - Cable nets are more
Expense but negligible maintenance but negligible maintenance maintenance cost are quite expensive and difficult
cost. cost. high. to obtain.
- Highly durable can last - Highly durable can last - Aluminum has a
- Highly durably, if
over 25years. over 50years. longer life when
Durability properly installed can last
- Less durability if used for - Less durability if used for compared to ETFE or
up to 25-50 years.
temporary structure. temporary structure. PTFE.

- Low flammability and - Low flammability and - Water and fire resistant. - Overall ETPE and
considered self- considered self- - Not dirt resistant PTFE are more
Fire, water extinguishing. extinguishing. - Requires periodic resistant to fire, water
and dirt - Water resistant. - Water resistant. maintenance. and dirt. It also has
resistance - Dirt resistant and has self- - Dirt resistant and has self-cleansing
cleaning ability because self-cleaning ability properties.
2019
smoothness. because smoothness.
66 | P a g e
Khan Shatyr
Astana, Kazakhstan
- The translucent PTFE - ETFE cladding allows - Does not allow the - Solar light
canopy allows some light to flood large spaces transmission of light. transmission in PTFE
Light sunlight to filter into the while protecting the and ETPE can be
transmission Dome thus reducing the structures interiors from controlled by
need for interior lighting powerful sunlight, wind introducing dot matrix.
and lowering power usage. and snowfall.
- Canopy itself is a 1mm - Thermal insulation here - Though metal is a good - The number of layers
white PTFE fabric with an depends on the number of conductor of heat, its high of membranes
interior lining designed to layers of air sealed in reflectivity of radiant heat determines its thermal
Thermal reduce thermal gain, and between. and light keeps the interiors performance in case of
performance improve thermal cooler in summer while its cable nets.
performance – in essence low emission rate cuts heat - Aluminum shows
absorb condensation. loss during winter. comparatively better

thermal performance.
- Has an interior lining - Has an interior lining - Sound proofing is done. - Both the membranes
Acoustic designed to improve designed to improve - Acoustic damping provide minimal
performance acoustic performance – in acoustic performance – in material used to reduce degree of absorption
essence absorb sound. essence absorb sound. noise of rainfall on metal. and noise attenuation.

- Less expensive due to - Less expensive due to - Touch up paint regularly - It is much easier to
nonstick properties. nonstick properties. to avoid rust (corrosion maintain cable net
- Can be punctured by knife - Can be punctured by resistant) structures after its
Maintenance or birds but ears or holes knife or birds but ears or - If there are any open installation when
don‘t propagate or lengthen holes don‘t propagate or seams or holes repair them compared to spaces
easily due to its chemical lengthen easily due to its as soon s possible. frames hat need
properties. chemical properties. periodic attention.
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67 | P a g e
Khan Shatyr
Astana, Kazakhstan
- Roof pretension - Radial cables span from the - A truss which is essentially
straight cable system. top ring of the steel a triangulated system of
- Steel stringer cable compression mast to the straight interconnected
arranged radially on outer concrete perimeter and structural elements is used
dome surface is anchored are prestressed against hoop here. It supports the roof. - The structural system
to the ground. cables to form an anticlastic - The loading subjected by of cable nets are more
Structural - These stringers are surface. the truss is transferred complex and difficult
system supported using through the purlins directed to install when
circumferential cables - The tripod provides single to the nodes and top member compared to space
which are in turn point of support to the center span. frames.
supported by upper of the cable net. - The seated area is shaded
hanger and lower tie using aluminum sheets
down cable - attached to which are supported by the
the steel mast. trusses.

- Masts and pyramid - Tripod underwent a single - Hoisting and connecting-
support welded in an lift process where it was The individual steel trusses
area adjacent to the site. pivoted at the bases of the 2 are first lifted in place using
- Pyramid placed on the front legs. cranes and then they are
concrete piled foundation - Radial cables lifted secured to the bearing - The construction time
taken for cable net

followed by the mast. individually with cable supports.
Construction - Then the cable net is clamps to accept the cable structures is more and
process erected and lifted in four hoop on top of the radials - Then the aluminum sheets involves a lot of
main sections. - Placed in tension the cables is lifted and fixed in the processes as opposed to
- After installation, were pulled using jacking truss. space frames.
cables were tensioned by detail at the base of radial
jacking the anchor cable to bring the net into
2019
68 | P a g e
points. shape.
CHAPTER-6 CONCLUSION
9.3 GENERAL INFERENCE
Cable net structures are usually opted when a clear large span is necessary. Also these are
when a dramatic effect is required. It creates feeling of space this is because the build
space under the tensile structure is very vast and also one gets a feeling of waking in an
open ground even if the space is thickly crowded with people, such as in a circus or an
exhibition pavilion. There are different types of tensile structures which also play with
light. This is mainly achieved by using different forms of fabric and changing the tilt of
the framework and varying the strain of the cables.
9.4 CONCLUSION
Supported by precedent case studies I have researched that Cable net Structures can be
successfully applied in various construction types. Those examples could serve as an
illustration to the feasibility of application of a lightweight structure to cover large spans
buildings but as well taking advantage of these structures in small-scale projects. Its
parameters can vary significantly depending on design type and materials used.
Unfortunately the disadvantage showed in the big- scale projects are economical aspect.
Using this kind of structure is expensive and due to limited number of previous examples
of such buildings there are often unexpected hidden costs. To search for the kind of
covering membrane materials that can give the good results and assure durability. In the
material section I was able to look into fabrics available in the field now and compare
them. As diverse types of membranes used in tensile structures, such as PVC, PVDF
Teflon-coated Fiberglass are commonly used. PVC and PVDF are more cost effective.
Advancements in the technology of tensile and membrane structures are continually

occurring and there is no doubt that as technology increases the quality of the materials
used and their durability will also get better. Thus, the prognosis for future development in
the Cable net Structures field is positive in Kerala. The on-going innovation in computing
techniques, material and digital fabrication technology is changing the field. It will
revolutionize the design, analysis and construction of tensile membrane structures. A new
analysis tools will enable the accurate prediction of structural behavior and manufacturing
69 | P a g e
processes. In order to improve cost-related aspects and sustainability it is important that

new techniques are developed. It is hoped that new methods and modern materials will be
developed to make membranes structures more durable and architecturally.
Cable structure, since a few years seem to be a booming structure in the field of
architecture. Even though its maintenance cost is too high this is given negligible
consideration when other factors like its structural performance and architectural beauty is
taken into account. Since the design of tensile structure is a highly specialized field its
construction requires skillful expertise. Also the construction techniques, as these are trade
secrets of the manufactures they are not revealed to others. Yet this has achieved great
importance like stadiums and exhibition pavilions.
Society wants more functional and impressive buildings. If tensile structures are to meet
their full potential, then they need to be well designed. The further research in his branch
of construction is needed to make it not only more technologically developed but as well
environmentally friendly. There are still many aspects that have to be advanced and more
sustainable approach is needed. It will make the application of such structures more
common and economically efficient practice.
CHAPTER-7 REFERENCE
BOOKS
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1.Berger H., 2005, Light Structures – Structures of light: The art of engineering of
tensile architecture, Bloomington, USA: Author house
2.Michael Seidel, 2006, Tensile surface structures – A practical guide to cable and
membrane construction.
3.Bing W. B., 2004, Free standing tension structures from tensegrity systems to cable
strut systems, London, UK: Spon Press
4. Rene Motro, 2006, Tensegrity Structural systems for the future, USA: Kogan Page
Science
5. Jerksa S., 2009, Transparent plastics design and technology, Berlin, Germany.
ARTICLES
1. Carnegie Mellon, An introduction to tensile structures

2. Bradshaw R., Special structures: Past present and future
WEBSITES
1. Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/
2. Tensinet: http://www.tensinet.com/
3. Cable net structure: https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/
4. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/81e6/79d6384d5561ed1d003d75d018dcb2a658f8.
pdf
5. http://nisee.berkeley.edu/leonhardt/index.html/
6. http://www.redskyshelter.com/
7. http://www.meliar.com/
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APPLICATION OF CABLE NET STRUCTURES IN KERALA 2019

I hereby declare that dissertation named ‘APPLICATION OF CABLE NET

STRUCTURES IN KERALA’, submitted to the Department of Architecture, TKM

Prof. SHAHANA USMAN ABDULLA, Department of Architecture TKMCE.

Kollam JULIE K. JOSE

I consider myself extremely privileged to compile this dissertation to the best of

I am greatly indebted to Prof. Shahana Usman Abdhulla, Department of

To take a practical approach to my research I decided to base on case studies of existing

CHAPTER-2 CABLE NET STRUCTURE 11

2.4.1 CABLE NET STRUCTURES 15

3.3.1 CABLE-TO-CABLE CONNECTION 21

4.1 FORM FINDING 25

4.2 LOAD ANALYSIS 26

5. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CABLE NET STRUCTURES 36

6. GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 37

7. APPLICATION OF TENSILE CABLE NET STRUCTURES 40

CHAPTER-3 CASE STUDIES 42

8.1 OLYMPIC STADIUM, MUNICH, GERMANY 42

CHAPTER-4 LONG SPAN STRUCTURES IN KERALA 63

9.1 GENERAL ANALYSIS 64

9.3 GENERAL INFERENCE 69

Fig.2.1. Frei Otto, Olympic Stadium Munich, 1972 12

Fig.2.2 Herzog de Meuron, Allianz Arena München, 2005 12

Fig.2.3 Vladimir Shukhov, First tensile steel structure,

Fig.2.4 Buckminster Fuller, U.S. Pavilion, 1967 13

Fig.2.5 Fundamental forms of cable structures 15

Fig.3.1 Types of steel cables strands 18

Fig.3.2 Detail of cable nets with dual-strand cable system 22

Fig.3.3 Fit-on-site cable clamp connection. 22

Fig.3.4 Prefabricated and factory installed clamp. 22

Fig.3.5 Single U bolt connection for cable net 22

Fig.3.6 Double U bolt connection for cable net 22

Fig.3.7 Detail showing clamp for connection of

Fig.3.8 (a) Socket terminal with pin connector

Fig.3.9 Attachment of cable with socket terminal 23

Fig.3.10 Types of tension anchors 24

Fig.4.1 Work Flow of Optimization and Analysis 26

Fig.4.2 Flowchart illustrating the general approach to

Fig.8.1.1 Public viewing during Fifa World Cup 2006 43

Fig.8.1.3 Plan of the cable net roof structure; provides

SPECIFICATION PAGE NOS.

Fig.8.1.4 Aerial view of the Olympic stadium 46

Fig.8.1.5 Metal framework and membrane coverings 46

Fig.8.1.6 Section showing the details of the materials

Fig.8.1.7 Roof net with acrylic cover glass supported by masts 48

Fig. 8.2.1 Conceptual views of the tripod 51

Fig. 8.2.2 Plan view of the tripod 52

Fig. 8.2.3 Section through the Khan Shatyr 53

Fig. 8.2.4 Cables view 54

Fig.8.2.5 Hub and pin connection 54

Fig.8.3.1 Night lightings of the pavilion 55

Fig.8.3.2 Hyper parabolic curves 56

Fig.8.3.3 Basic design showing the structure and openings 56

Fig.8.3.4 Interior view of the pavilion during exhibition 57

Fig.8.4.1 Views of the check posts 57

Fig.8.4.2 Site- King Fahd Passport Island 59

Fig.8.4.3 Mast and cables supporting the structure 59

Fig.8.4.4 Check post cabins 59

Fig.8.4.5 Bale rings 60

Fig.8.4.6 Corner/ membrane plate 60

Fig.8.4.7 PVC polyester cladding sheet 60

1.3 SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS

This dissertation is based on qualitative research and empirical quantitative

TENSILE STRUCTURES AND THEIR