GENERAL NAVIGATION

BASICS OF NAVIGATION - EXPLANATIONS

The Solar System

001. Declination of the sun varies between 23°27’N and 23°27’S. As such sun will
reach an altitude of 90° over all points within this band twice every year.

002. At the time of spring equinox and autumn equinox, length of day and night is
equal, and the rate of change of declination is maximum.

003. Orbit of the earth is elliptical, as such the distance between earth and sun varies
between 91,405,000 statute miles (147,098,074 km) at perihelion, which occurs
during the first week of January, and 94,511,700 statute miles (152,097,701 km)
at aphelion, which occurs during the first week of July.

004. See explanation for 003.

005. Seasons are due to the combined effect of inclination of earth’s axis and
revolution of earth around the sun.

The Earth

006. At A the great circle track will be 237°, while at B it will be 243°. So the track
increases by 6°. (Rhumbline track A to B is 240° and conversion angle is 3°)

007. Exact value of this angle is 23°27’ 00”.

008. Ellipticity = ( semi-major axis – semi-minor axis ) ÷ semi-major axis.

Solution: Suppose the value of semi-minor axis is = X
→ 1/297 = ( 6378.4 – X ) ÷ 6378.4 → X = 6378.4 × 296 ÷ 297 → X = 6,356.9.

009. Exact value of this latitude is

010. GEOCENTRIC LATITUDE – Geocentric Latitude of any given point is the angle
that the line joining the given point to the centre of the earth makes with the
plane of equator.
GEODETIC LATITUDE – Geodetic Latitude of any given point is the angle that
the line normal to the surface of the earth at the given point makes with the plane
of equator.
On a spherical earth the value of the two latitudes will be equal. But on a
spheroidal earth the value of the two is different. This difference is zero at 0°
and 90°, and is maximum at 45° north and south.

011. Reference: Extract from air almanac in General Navigation Diagrams.

Interpolating between sunrise time for 50°N and 45°N on 4 th and 7th, the local
mean time for sunrise at 49°N on 6th would be 07h 38m 12s. Adding the time
difference of 8h 14m the UTC would be 1552.

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012. On the surface of the earth on arc minute of latitude, at any latitude and one arc
minute of longitude along the equator is very nearly equal to one nautical mile.
Circumference of the earth is 360° × 60 = 21,600 arc minutes, as such it is
approximately 21,600 nautical miles.

013. Only the rhumbline crosses all the meridians at a constant angle.

014. Circumference of the earth is taken as 40,000 km, as such the diameter of the
earth will be 40,000 ÷ π = 12,732.4 km.

015. See explanation for 003.

016. While the length of the mean solar day remains constant at 24 hours, the length
of the apparent solar day varies between approximately 24 hours 16 minutes
and 23 hours 46 minutes. This variation is caused by two factors, firstly because
of ellipticity of earth’s orbit around the sun, and secondly due to variation in
declination of the sun. To correct for this variation in the length of the day a
mean sun has been assumed. The mean sun is a hypothetical body which
moves over the earth’s equator, completing one revolution in exactly 24 hours.
Difference in the local mean time and local apparent time is termed as ‘Equation
of Time’. The minimum value of this difference is – 14 m15s which occurs around
11th February, and its maximum value is + 16m25s which occurs around 3rd
November.

017. On aeronautical charts variation at different points on the surface of the earth is
shown by drawing lines connecting points where magnetic variation is equal.
These lines are called isogonic lines or isogonals.

018. The circumference of the earth along the equator is 21,600 nautical miles. As
the distance between meridians varies as a function of cosine of latitude,
circumference of 60° parallel is 21,600 × cosine 60° = 10,800 nautical miles.

019. As parallels of latitude intersect all meridians at a constant angle of 90°, they are
rhumb lines. However as they are complete circles and their planes do not
divide the earth into two equal parts, they are also small circles.

020. the exact angle between the ecliptic (apparent path of the sun in the background
of stars) and equinoctial (celestial equator) is 23°27’.

021. An antipodal point is the point on the surface of the earth diametrically opposite
to the given point. So this point will be S48 o50’ W177o43.5’ (180° – E002o16.5’).

022. 685 km = 369.87 nm, as such the change of latitude is 06° 09’ 52” S. So at the
end of the flight the latitude will be 06° 09’ 52” S – 02 o20’N = 03° 49’ 52” S.

023. 120 × 6 = 720 nm. 720 nm ÷ cos 40o 00’ = 940’ = 15° 40’. As the A/c is
maintaining a constant true track of 270o, change of longitude is = 15° 40’as
such after 6hr its position will be N40o 00’ E064o 20’.

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024. Circumference of the equator is 21,600 nm, so the circumference of parallel of
60° is 21,600 × cosine 60° = 10,800 nm. As such speed along the equator must
be 960 kt.

025. Change of longitude between Point A and Point B is 18° so conversion angle
between ruhmb line track and great circle track will be 18 × sine 60° ÷ 2 =
7.794°.

026. Suppose the A/c starts from Point A, first it goes to Point B 600 nm south of A,
then it goes to Point C 600 nm east of B, the it goes to Point D 600 nm north of
C, finally it goes to Point E 600 nm west of D. Point A is N04°00’ W030 o00’,
change of latitude between A and B is 10°S so Point B is S06 o00’ W030o00’,
change of longitude between B and C is = 600 ÷ cosine 6 ÷ 60 = 10°03’18”E so
Point C is S06o00’ W019°56’42”, change of latitude between C and D is 10°N so
Point D is N04o00’ W019°56’42”, change of longitude between D and E is = 600
÷ cosine 4 ÷ 60 = 10°01’28”W so Point E is N04 o00’ W029°58’10”.

027 The core of the earth behaves as a huge weak magnet. The blue pole of the
earth’s magnetic field is located in the vicinity of earth’s geographic north pole
and the red pole is located in the vicinity of earth’s geographic south pole. The
location of these poles is not constant they keep on drifting slowly and randomly
about the geographic poles. Presently the blue pole of the earth’s magnetic field
is located in northern Canada in the Hudson bay area.

028 As the two points are located on the same parallel rhumb line direction is 090°,
as the the two points are located in the northern hemisphere great circle passing
through them will lie towards north of the rhumb line and the angle between the
two lines will be equal to the conversion angle between these two points, that is
“.5 × ch.long × sine lat.”:
Conversion Angle = .5 × 27° × sine 45° = 9° 32’ 45”
So the initial great circle direction will be = 90° – 9° 32’ 45” = 80° 27’ 15”
Or roughly 80.4°.

029 Convergency between two points = change of longitude × sine mid-latitude:

Convergency = 12° × sine 54° = 9.71°

030 As radio waves travel along great circle paths, all radio bearings are great circle
bearings.

032 As the polar diameter of the earth is smaller than its equatorial diameter so earth
is referred to as an Oblate Spheroid.

033 See explanation for Q-29.

039 Earth moves around the sun on an elliptical orbit, it is nearest to the sun
(perihelion) during the first week January when its distance from the sun is
147,098,074 km (91,402,505 sm) and farthest from the sun (aphelion) during the
first week of July when its distance from the sun is 152,097,701 km (94,509,130
sm). At equinox the distance between sun and earth is 149,597,871 km
(92,955,807 sm), this distance is referred to as one astronomical unit (AU).

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040 Standard time of Kuwait is 3hours ahead of UTC while standard time of Algeria is
one hour ahead of UTC, so when it is 1000 hrs in Kuwait it will be 0800 hrs in
Algeria.

041 Evening civil twilight starts with sunset and ends when centre of sun’s disc is 6°
below the horizon. Similarly morning civil twilight begins when the centre of
sun’s is 6° below the horizon and ends with sunrise. Nautical twilight is the
period when centre of sun’s disc is between 6° and 12° below the horizon and
astronomical twilight is the period when centre of sun’s disc is between 12° and
18° below the horizon.

042 Standard time of Guam is 10 hrs ahead of UTC while summer time of California
is 7 hrs behind UTC. LST departure from Guam 2300 hrs on 30 th April , UTC
departure from Guam is 1300 hrs on 30th April. As flight time is 11 hrs 15 min,
UTC arrival at Los Angeles would be 2415 hrs on 30 th April and LST Los Angeles
would be 1715 hrs on 30th April.

043 Estimated time of arrival over the initial approach fix is taken as the estimated
arrival time.

044 See explanation for Q 16.

046 The latitude of north and south polar circles is 66° 33’ N and S. In all latitudes
between 66° 33’ N and 66° 33’ S sunrise and sunset will occur in 24 hours.

047 For any given latitude, regardless of longitude, sunrise occurs at the same local
mean time. As UTC sunrise is 0243 hrs, LMT sunrise at 40°E would be 0523
hrs. When it is 0523 hrs at 35°W, UTC would be 0743 hrs.

048 LST in Queensland (Australia) is 10 hrs ahead of UTC while LST in Hawaii is 10
hrs behind UTC. When it is 1200 hrs on 10th July in Queensland, UTC would be
0200 hrs on 10th and 1600 hrs on 9th July in Hawaii.

049 LMT at 123°45’W would be 8hrs 15min behind UTC so when it is 2200 hrs UTC,
LMT would be 1345 hrs.

050 As the axis of the earth is inclined by 23°27’ from vertical, declination of sun
varies throughout the year, this causes variation in the length of day and night.

053 See explanation for Q 41.

054 Referring to figure 61-04 at Winnipeg sunrise will occur at 0742 LMT. As
Winnipeg is 97°30’W it LMT would be 6 hrs 30 min behind UTC, as such UTC
would be 1412 hrs.

055 Distance between X and Y is 30 nm while distance between Y and Z is 20 nm.

As flight time between X and Y is 18 minutes, flight time between Y and Z would
be 12 minutes.

056 Mean sun moves over the celestial equator at the rate of 15° per hour or 1° in
four minutes, as such in 8hr 8min it will move 122°.

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057 See explanation for Q 41.

058 See explanation for Q 56.

059 See explanation for Q 56.

060 When International Date Line is crossed on an easterly course one day is
subtracted and when it is crossed on a westerly course on day is added.

061 When two places are located on the same latitude, on the same date, local mean
time for sunrise will be the same. In this question LMT sun rise at 40°E and
35°W would be 05hr 10min. So UTC sunrise at 35°W would be 07hr 30min.

062 LST of Queensland is 10hrs ahead of UTC while LST of Hawaii is 10hrs behind
UTC. As such when LST is 1200hrs on 10th July UTC would be 0200hrs on 10th
July and LST Hawaii would be 1600hrs on 9th July.

063 See explanation for 016.

064 See explanation for 003.

065 LST of Kuwait is 3hrs ahead of UTC while LST of Algeria is 1hr ahead of UTC.

066 Lines connecting points of equal grivation (grid-variation) are called isogreves.

067 A magnetic needle which has freedom of movement in the vertical plane will lie
horizontally at the magnetic equator, but as we move northwards its blue pole
(north seeking pole) will move downwards until the needle becomes vertical at
magnetic north pole. Similarly if we move southwards from the magnetic equator
its red pole (south seeking pole) will move downwards until it becomes vertical at
the south magnetic pole.

068 Lines connecting points of equal magnetic variation are called isogonic lines or
isogonals.

071 Convergency between meridians passing through two given points can be
calculated by the following formula:
Convergency = Change of longitude × sine mid-latitude

072 Between any two given points infinite number of small circles can be drawn.
However when these points are antipodal (diametrically opposite) then no small
circle can be drawn. Because any circle that is drawn will become a great circle.

073 All parallels, with the exception of equator, are small circles as well as rhumb
lines.

074 All meridians are great circles as well as rhumb lines, similarly equator is a great
circle as well as a rhumb line.

075 When a rhumb line and a great circle is drawn between two points, the rhumb
line cuts all the meridians at a constant angle, while a great circle lies on the

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 polar side of a rhumb line and cuts the meridians at varying angles. In southern
hemisphere the great circle lies towards south of the rhumb line and when an
aeroplane is flying on a westerly track the track angle will go on increasing.

076 Conversion factors for distance:

to 084 The basic conversion factors are (i) 1 inch = 25.4 mm and (ii) 1 international
nautical mile = 1,852 metres. All other factors for distance conversion can be
derived from the above two factors.
1 Statute Mile = 3 × 1,760 = 5,280 feet. 1 Admiralty Nautical Mile = 5,080 feet.
1 International Nautical Mile = 1,852 m = 1,852 × 3.28084 = 6,076.1157 feet.
1 kilometre = 3.28984 feet.
One nautical mile is defined as one average arc minute of any meridian,
however one arc minute of any great circle is taken as one nautical mile. As
such one degree change of latitude and one degree change of longitude along
the equator is 60 nautical miles.

085 See explanation for 067.

086 See explanation for 067.

MAGNETISM AND COMPASSES – General Principles

The core of the earth behaves as huge magnet of weak magnetic intensity.
North pole of the earth’s magnetic field is not co-located with the north
geographic pole, but located some distance away in the northern parts of
Canada. In 2005 its position was estimated as N 82°42’ W 114°24’, about 438
nautical miles south of the north geographic pole. Similarly, the south pole of the
earth’s magnetic field is not co-located with the south geographic pole. In 2005 it
position was estimated as S 63°06’ E 137°30’, about 1,614 nautical miles north
of south geographic pole. Magnetic poles do not maintain a constant position
but keep on drifting slowly. Lines joining these two poles are called magnetic
meridians. A magnetic needle which has freedom of movement in the horizontal
plane will lie along the magnetic meridian passing though its location.

A magnetic needle which has freedom of movement in the vertical plane will lie
along the direction of the earth’s total magnetic field at that location. Such a
needle is known as a Dip Needle and the instrument is known as a Dip Circle. At
the magnetic equator the dip needle is horizontal, as this needle is moved
northwards its north seeking pole moves downwards until it becomes vertical at
north magnetic pole. Similarly as we move south from the magnetic equator the
south seeking pole moves downwards until it becomes vertical at the south
magnetic pole.

The earth’s total magnetic field at any location can be divided into two
components the horizontal component and the vertical component. At the
magnetic equator the horizontal component is maximum and the vertical
component is zero. As we move towards the magnetic poles horizontal
component goes on decreasing and the vertical component goes on increasing
until at the magnetic poles the horizontal component becomes zero and the
vertical component becomes maximum. In the case of a magnetic compass the
horizontal component furnishes the directive force for compass direction and the
vertical component produces turning error and speed error.

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 As the magnetic poles are not collocated with the geographic poles, at most of
the locations on the surface of the earth the direction indicated by a compass is
different from the true or geographic direction. This difference is known as
variation, it can be either east or west. On aeronautical charts variation is
indicated by broken lines passing through points of equal magnetic variation.
These lines are called isogonic lines. There are two lines passing through
locations where variation is zero, these are called agonic lines. As the magnetic
poles drift the isogonic lines also drift slowly with time. Similarly lines passing
through locations of equal magnetic dip are known as Isoclinals.

North Magnetic Pole Positions:

Actual Position 2001 – N 81°18’ W 110°48’
Estimated position in 2004 – N 82°18’ W 113°24’.
Estimated position in 2005 – N 82°42’ W 114°24’.

South Magnetic Pole Positions:

Actual Position 1998 – S 64°36’ E 138°30’.
Estimated position in 2004 – S 63°30’ E 138°00’.
Estimated position in 2005 – S 63°06’ E 137°30’.

16307. If compass HDG is 340o and deviation +3, what is magnetic heading?

A – Deviation is plus therefore East, so compass is least, so magnetic is 343 o

B – Deviation is plus therefore West, so compass is least, so magnetic is 343 o
C – Deviation is plus therefore East, so compass is best, so magnetic is 337 o
D – Deviation is plus therefore East, so compass is best, so magnetic is 343 o

Ans: A

16308. If true HDG is 165o and variation -3 what is magnetic heading?

A – Variation is minus therefore West, so magnetic is best, so magnetic is

168o
B – Variation is minus therefore West, so magnetic is least, so magnetic is
162o
C – Variation is plus therefore East, so magnetic is best, so magnetic is 162 o
D – Variation is plus therefore East, so magnetic is best, so magnetic is 168 o

Ans: A

Deviation is caused by iron, magnets and magnetic fields (from electronic equipment),
all of which influence the Earth's magnetic field around the boat.

On a course of 135°C, the deviation was 6°E.

Deviation is applied in the same manner as variation, but there is a correct sequence to
follow.

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If you start with a compass course of 270°C (one with variation and deviation), you
must find the deviation first, 4°W. Then using CADET; we subtract the deviation to get a
magnetic course of 266°M. Using CADET again; we subtract the 7°W variation, to
result in a true course of 259°T, which we can plot on the chart. So the sequence can
be illustrated as follows:

From the adjacent diagram, if you start with a true bearing of 154°T, and apply 7°W
variation the magnetic bearing is 161°M, we then enter the deviation table above to find
that the deviation is 5°E, and the compass bearing is 156°C.

It is a good idea to check by running the calculation backwards like this, from a
compass bearing to the true, hopefully you will get the number you started with!
Occasionally you will find that once you have applied the deviation, that it may be more
accurate to choose the next figure for deviation from the table. This occurs because the
table is set up for use with compass bearings, but we may be entering it with a
magnetic bearing, an example is:

293°T

7°W variation

300°M deviation 5°W is nearest

305°C

Re-entering the table with the compass course of 305°C, the deviation is found to be
6°W.

• A magnetic bearing is a true bearing, to which variation has been applied,

• A compass bearing is a true bearing, to which variation and deviation have been
applied.

Many people use the word:

CADET

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Compass bearings are magnetic, which is where the C of CADET comes from. From
Compass, AD East to get a True bearing.

If you have a Magnetic bearing of 100°M with a variation of 5°E, the True bearing would
be 100 + 5 = 105°T

If you have a Magnetic bearing of 100°M with a variation of 5°W, the True bearing
would be 100 - 5 = 095°T

From this one idea we can deduce all the other situations. If we are changing a bearing
from Magnetic to true, when there is a west variation, we reverse the sign and subtract
the variation.

For changes from True to Magnetic the situations are reversed. See the full diagram
above.

If you have a True bearing of 100°T with a variation of 5°E, the Magnetic bearing would
be 100 - 5 = 095°M

If you have a True bearing of 100°T with a variation of 5°W, the Magnetic bearing would
be 100 + 5 = 105°M

It can be useful to print the CADET rule on to a label and stick one on your training
charts or navigation plotter.

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If you wish to make up a deviation table you could find transits all the way round from
000° to 360° and workout the deviation. If this is done at intervals of 30°, you will be
able to plot a deviation table of your own.

Compass readings

Compasses are used to determine the direction of true North. However, the compass
reading must be corrected for two effects. The first is magnetic declination, the angular
difference between magnetic North (the local direction of the Earth's magnetic field) and
true North. The second is magnetic deviation, the angular difference between magnetic
North and the compass needle due to nearby sources of iron.

Magnetic anomalies

The Earth's magnetic field is modified by local magnetic anomalies. These include
variations of the magnetization in the Earth's crust caused by geomagnetic reversals as
well as nearby mountains and iron ore deposits. Generally, these are indicated on maps
as part of the declination. Because the Earth's field changes over time, the maps must
be kept up to date for accurate navigation. Short term errors in compass readings are
also caused by fields generated in the Earth's magnetosphere, particularly during
geomagnetic storms.

VARIATION :

Variation means the angle between the “TRUE NORTH” and the “MAGNETIC NORTH”.
Positive variation
Positive variation means:
The “MAGNETIC NORTH” is situated TO THE EAST OR RIGHT of the
“TRUE NORTH” (sign + clockwise)
Negative variation
Negative variation means:
The “MAGNETIC NORTH” is situated “TO THE WEST or LEFT” of the
“TRUE NORTH” (sign - clockwise)

DEVIATION:

Deviation is the angle between the “MAGNETIC NORTH” and the “COMPASS NORTH”

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 Positive deviation
Positive deviation means:
The “COMPASS NORTH” is situated “TO THE EAST or RIGHT” of the
“MAGNETIC NORTH” (sign + clockwise)
Negative deviation
Negative deviation means:
The “COMPASS NORTH” is situated “TO THE WEST or LEFT” of the
“MAGNETIC NORTH” (sign - clockwise)

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