The Effect of Choir Formation On The Acoustical PDF

THE EFFECT OF CHOIR FORMATION ON THE ACOUSTICAL ATTRIBUTES OF
THE SINGING VOICE
An Essay
Presented for the
Doctor of Arts
Degree
The University of Mississippi
Debra S. Atkinson
May 1, 2006
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Atkinson, Debra Sue
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ii
To the Graduate Council:
I am submitting herewith a thesis written by Debra F. Atkinson entitled “The Effect of

Choir Formation on the Acoustical Attributes of the Singing Voice.” I have examined
the final copy of this thesis for form and content and recommend that it be accepted in
partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Arts, with a major in
Music Education.
Dr. Debra L. Spurgeon, Asso, ssor of Music
We have read this thesis

and recommend its acceptance:
Dr. Alan L. Spurgeon, Associate Professor of Music
Dr. Donald L. Trott, Associate Professor of Music
Dr. Michael D. Worthy, Assistant Professor of Music
D r^ohn M. Latartara, Assistant Professor of Music
tiuujnmi S. ______
Dr. Edward B. Sisson, Associate Professor of Sociology
and Anthropology
Accepted for the Council:
Dean of the GnaSuare School
STATEMENT OF PERMISSION TO USE
In presenting this thesis in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a Doctoral
degree at The University of Mississippi, I agree that the Library shall make it available to
borrowers under rules of the Library. Brief quotations from this thesis are allowable
without special permission, provided that accurate acknowledgment of the source is
made.
Permission for extensive quotation from or reproduction of this thesis may be
granted by my major professor or in her absence, by the Head of Interlibrary Services
when, in the opinion of either, the proposed use of the material is for scholarly purposes.
Any copying or use of the material in this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed
without my written permission.
Signature _______________________
Date
DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to my husband, James. Without his unselfish love and
encouragement I would not have been able to pursue this degree. His support gave me
the courage to go after my dream and succeed in ways that I would have never dreamed
possible.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
There are so many people that must be acknowledged for their help, advice, and
input on this doctoral thesis. First of all, I must say a very special thank you to Dr. Debra
Spurgeon, the major professor on this project. Her encouragement and support have
helped me to pursue this topic with excitement and enthusiasm. She has been a mentor, a
teacher, a confidant, and most importantly, a treasured friend throughout the last three
years. She unselfishly allowed me to be her assistant in Women’s Glee and has given me
the opportunity to conduct and accompany some of the most wonderful ensembles I have
ever worked with.
Dr. Alan Spurgeon, my graduate advisor, has been an invaluable help as I have
pursued this seemingly insurmountable task. He has always been there to lend an ear and
to give words of encouragement when it felt like the load was a little too much to handle.
Most of all, he helped make the transition from teacher to non-traditional college student
an easy one.
Dr. Donald Trott welcomed me with open arms into the Concert Singers. I have
learned so much from his kind, gentle spirit about how to be the conductor of a first-class
ensemble. His knowledge of choral literature and choral conducting has been an
enormous help as I have pursued this degree. I always knew that if I needed advice, or a
score, or even a recording, he probably had it tucked away somewhere in his vast
collection of choral literature or choral recordings.
Dr. John Latartara and Dr. Michael Worthy are the two members of my
committee who led me through the acoustical and statistical aspects of this paper.
Without their knowledge and expertise in these areas I would still be floundering for the
iv
correct procedures to use in analyzing the data that was gathered.
I would be remiss if I did not thank Dr. Ed Sisson who graciously agreed to serve
on my committee as the member outside the music department and Dr. Lee Bolen who
visited with me on numerous occasions to discuss the acoustics of music. Dr. Sisson did
this as a favor to me and I appreciate his taking time out of his busy schedule to serve as a
committee member. Dr. Bolen, a retired physics professor, was able to explain acoustics
in language that I was able to understand so that I could better analyze the data gathered
for this paper.
Finally, I must say thank you to my husband, James and my daughter, Kelsey.
They are the ones who have really had to sacrifice in order for me to go back to school to
pursue this dream. There is no way that I can express to them what it means to have them
as my family.
ABSTRACT
Research shows that many things can influence choral tone and choral blend.
Some of these are vowel uniformity, vibrato, choral formation, strategic placement of
singers, and spacing between singers. This study sought to determine the effect that
changes in choral formation and spacing between singers would have on four randomly
selected voices of an ensemble as revealed through long-term average spectra (LTAS) of
the individual singers. All members of the ensemble were given the opportunity to
express their preferences for each of the choral formations and the four randomly selected
choristers were asked specific questions regarding the differences between choral singing
and solo singing.
The results indicated that experienced singers preferred singing in a mixed-spread
choral formation. However, the graphs of the choral excerpts as compared to the solo
recordings revealed that the choral graphs for the soprano and bass were very similar to
the graphs of their solos, but the graphs of the tenor and the alto were different from their
solo graphs.
It is obvious from the results of this study that the four selected singers did sing
with slightly different techniques in the choral formations than they did while singing
their solos. The members of this ensemble were accustomed to singing in many different
formations. Therefore, it was easy for them to consciously think about how they sang in
each of the four formations (mixed-close, mixed-spread, sectional-close, and sectional-
spread) and answer the questionnaire accordingly. This would not be as easy for a group
that never changed choral formations. Therefore, the results of this study cannot be
generalized to choirs who only sing in sectional formation.
vi
As researchers learn more about choral acoustics and the effects of choral singing
on the voice, choral conductors will be able to make better decisions about the methods
used to achieve their desired choral blend. It is up to the choral conductors to glean the
knowledge from the research that is taking place and use it for the betterment of choral
music.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
I. INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................ 1
Purpose----------------- 2
Research Questions — ..... ....... 3
Sub-questions................................................ 3
Scope and Limitations ....... 3
Definition of Terms.................. 4
II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE.................................................................................... 7
III. PROCEDURE..........................................................................................................35
IV. RESULTS................................................................................................................40
V. CONCLUSIONS............................................. 73
LIST OF REFERENCES............................................. 86
VITA..................................................................................................................................91
viii
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE PAGE
1. Sample LTAS Graph...................................................................................................34
2. Choral Formations Chart.........................................................................................—37
3. LTAS of Soprano in four choralformations and solo................................................ 52
4 LTAS of Alto in four choral formations and solo...................................................... 53
5. LTAS of Tenor in four choral formations andsolo............................................ 54-55
6 LTAS of Bass in four choralformations andsolo.....................................................56
7. Waveform and illustration of isolated vowelsound ................................... 57
8. Soprano isolated [a] vowel..........................................................................................58
9. Soprano isolated [e] vowel.........................................................................................59
10. Soprano isolated [i] vowel.....................................................................................60-61
11. Alto isolated [a] vowel................. ......................................................................61 -62
12. Alto isolated [e] vowel.............................................................................................63
13. Alto isolated [i] vowel.............................................................................................64
14. Tenor isolated [a] vowel................. .................................................................. 65-66
15. Tenor isolated [e ] vowel.....................................................................................66-67
16. Tenor isolated [i] vowel........................................................................................... 68
17. Bass isolated [a] vowel............................................................................................ 69
18. Bass isolated [e] vowel.......................................................................................70-71
19. Bass isolated [i] vowel........................................................................................ 71 -72
ix
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
There are many benefits to be gained from singing in a choral ensemble. A recent
paper written by members of the American Academy of Teachers of Singing and
published in the NATS Journal (2005) suggests that singing in a choir is where young
singers first develop a love for singing. It also suggests that students begin to develop
musicianship in the areas of ear training, sight singing and listening, and gain experience
in different musical styles and performance practices while singing in choir. Performing
in an ensemble can foster a spirit of cooperation and camaraderie and can help diminish
the negative aspects of competition that sometimes arise in solo study. It is, therefore,
imperative that choral conductors, teachers of voice, and singers communicate with each
other so that the experience in the choral ensemble will be a vocally healthy and
musically enriching experience.
There are some aspects of choral singing that can cause disagreements between
choral conductors and teachers of voice. One such aspect is the concept of choral blend.
Choral blend has been described in the following ways: “an ensemble sound in which
individual voices cannot be separately discemable by a listener” (Goodwin, 1980, p.
119); “an ideal ensemble sound in which individual voices are imperceptible” (Ekholm,
2000); “a product of sound where each element becomes unified or homogenized”
(Knutson, 1987, p. 4); “the resulting choral sound in relationship to the combination of
various voice types” (Tocheff, 1990, p. 14); and “homogeneity of tone quality” (Darrow,
1975, p. 17). Some choral conductors and voice teachers have differing opinions as to
how choral blend can and should be achieved. Many choral conductors are criticized for
asking members of their ensembles to sing in a “more blended manner” while in choir, a
manner that some voice teachers feel conflicts with the methods being taught in the voice
studio.
While there are many similarities, researchers believe that choral singing and solo
singing are unique forms of singing that make different demands on the singer (Rossing,
Sundberg, and Temstrom, 1986). Some voice teachers are reluctant to allow their
students to participate in choral singing groups because they are asked to sing in a way
that is different from what is being taught in the voice studio. Many singers, however,
develop the skills that are needed to sing in both solo and choral modes.
As researchers learn more about choral acoustics and the effect of choral singing
used to achieve their desired choral blend. This study sought to determine the effect that
changes in choral formation and spacing between singers would have on select voices of
an ensemble.
PURPOSE
The purpose of the present study was to determine the effects of choral formation
(mixed or sectional) and spacing (close or spread) on the voices of four select singers in
the ensemble as revealed through spectral analysis (long-term average spectra, LTAS) of
the individual singers. The LTAS detects differences in energy patterns created by
singers over time. It reveals the characteristic frequency energy of a sound, thereby
identifying timbres of a tone, whether instrumental or vocal (Maher, 1990). Additionally,
all singers in the ensemble were asked questions regarding their preferences for singing
in each of the four formations. The four individuals that were recorded were also asked to
describe the differences, if they felt there were any, between solo singing and choral
singing.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1. How do the LTAS readings of four randomly selected voices differ in each of four
choral formations?
2. What effect does spread spacing vs. close spacing have on the LTAS of the four
selected voices?
3. Is there a difference between the LTAS found in solo mode versus the LTAS found in
the four choral formations?
SUB-QUESTIONS
1. Do the members of the ensemble prefer one formation to another?
2. Is this preference different for men and women?
3. Is this preference related to the voice part being sung?
4. Is this preference related to the singer’s experience in choral singing?
5. Can the singers describe any differences they feel when singing choral music
versus solo literature?
SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS
The members of the ensemble used for the present study were accustomed to
singing in both mixed and sectional formations. And, the soloists who were recorded had
all studied voice privately. The results of this study, therefore, cannot be generalized to
choirs who have no experience singing in more than one formation or whose singers have
not studied voice privately.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
ACOUSTICS - In reference to the singing voice, this term refers to the nature, quality
(timbre) and production of the singing voice with special emphasis being placed on the
phenomena that occurs when voices are combined in a choral setting.
ACOUSTICAL PLACEMENT OF SINGERS - Positioning the singers in an acoustically

correct position where they and their neighbors will sound the best.
CENTROID FREQUENCY - The middle part of the total power spectrum. A low
centroid frequency means that low frequencies dominate the spectrum (Temstrom, 1992).
CHEST VOICE - The mid and low ranges of the voice while singing or speaking, so-
called because the vibrations of the pitches are often felt in the chest or thorax.
CHORAL SEATING AND STANDING ARRANGEMENTS - The way in which

singers are seated or stand within the ensemble.
CHORAL BALANCE - The relative levels of volume among the different sections of
the choir. Methods to achieve choral balance are dictated by personal preference, number
of singers, and placement.
CHORAL BLEND - A product of sound where each element becomes unified or

homogenized (Knutson, 1987). An ideal ensemble sound in which individual voices are
imperceptible (Ekholm, 2000). An ensemble sound in which individual voices are not
separately discemable to a listener (Goodwin, 1980).
FORMANT - The peaks that occur in the sound spectra of vowels, independent of the
pitch. They appear as envelopes that modify the amplitudes of various harmonics of the
source sound. Each formant corresponds to one or more resonances in the vocal tract.
(Rossing, 1990).
FOURIER ANALYSIS - The determination of the harmonic components of a periodic

waveform; named after the mathematician Joseph Fourier (1768-1830), who formulated
an important mathematical theorem dealing with periodic vibration (Rossing, 1990).
FUNDAMENTAL - What the ear perceives as the pitch of a given sound. It is the base
pitch from which a series of harmonics is produced.
HEAD VOICE - The higher ranges of the voice while singing or speaking, so- called
because the vibrations of the notes are often felt in the head.
LOMBARD EFFECT - A phenomenon in which a speaker or singer involuntarily raises
his or her vocal intensity (volume) in the presence of high levels of sound (Tonkinson,
1990).
LONG-TERM AVERAGE SPECTRUM - Detects differences in energy pattern created

by singers over time and reveals the characteristic frequency energy of a sound, thereby
identifying timbres of a tone, whether instrumental or vocal (Maher, 1990).
MIXED FORMATION - A choral seating arrangement where voice parts are scattered
throughout the ensemble, either randomly or with a predetermined plan (quartets). This
may be done with or without regard to acoustical placement of the singers.
SECTIONAL FORMATION - A choral seating arrangement where all like voices

(soprano, alto, tenor, bass) are grouped together either with or without regard to the
acoustical placement of the singers.
SELF-TO-OTHER RATIO ( SOR) - The ratio between the sound pressures of feedback
(the sound of one’s own voice) and the reference (the sound of the rest of the choir)
(Temstrom, 1994). The difference in level between self and other, expressed in decibels.
(Temstrom, 1999).
SINGER’S FORMANT - A peak in the frequency spectrum between the third and fourth
formants that is associated with the projection of the voice and is a strong component of
the individual voice characteristics. The singers’ formant is the formant frequency that is
responsible for the “ring” heard in a singer’s or speaker’s voice. The singer’s formant
occurs in males between 2500 and 3200 Hz; for mezzo and contraltos around 3200 Hz,
and up to 4000 Hz for sopranos (Miller, 1986).
SPECTRUM - A specification of the strengths of the various harmonics (usually in the

form of a graph) (Rossing, 1990).
STRAIGHT-TONE SINGING - Singing without the use of vibrato.
TIMBRE - The characteristic sound quality of a tone created, in large part, by the
strength or weakness of the fundamental plus its upper partials.
VIBRATO - The pulsating or vibrating element of some sounds that is produced by a

full, resonant quality of tone. Vibrato is a very slight fluctuation of the pitch of a note; it
was known as early as the 16th century, but until the 19th century it was used mainly as
ornamentation. Since the 19th century, vibrato has been used almost constantly because
of its enhancement of tone.
VOICE MATCHING - The acoustical placement of voices so that a natural blend of
sound occurs without any manipulation of vocal production. The original practice of
voice matching dates to F. Melius Christiansen, founder of the St. Olaf Choir.
Modifications were made to the procedure by Weston Noble.
VOWEL MODIFICATION - A term frequently used in reference to the altering of vowel

quality in certain ranges by singers in order to blend more effectively; i.e: going to ah on
the top for sopranos or tenors going to a closed vowel on top. In solo singing this term is
used when modifying the vowel to allow a more beautiful tone quality, not necessarily
for blend.
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Choral Blend
Choral blend has been described in the following ways: “an ensemble sound in
which individual voices cannot be separately discemable by a listener” (Goodwin, 1980,
p. 119), “an ideal ensemble sound in which individual voices are imperceptible”
(Ekholm, 2000, p. 124), “a product of sound where each element becomes unified or
homogenized” (Knutson, 1987, p. 4), “the resulting choral sound in relationship to the
combination of various voice types” (Tocheff, 1990, p. 14), and “homogeneity of tone
quality” (Darrow, 1975, p. 17). There are several differing opinions as to how choral
blend can and should be achieved and many choral conductors are criticized for asking
members of their ensembles to sing in a “more blended manner” while in choir. Some
voice teachers feel that singing in this manner is different from the techniques that are
being taught in the voice studio and could be detrimental to the singer.
Today’s choral conductors face many challenges when trying to achieve choral
blend in their ensembles. Several different schools of thought have developed throughout
the country with regard to this controversial subject. Brian Knutson (1988) conducted a
study to investigate the methods used by leading choral conductors between 1900 and
1988. Knutson found a trend away from the practice of subordinating individual vocal
quality to achieve a desired blend. Instead, the choral conductors he studied strive for an
acceptable level of uniformity that does not sacrifice healthy vocal technique.
Goodwin (1980, p.l 19) describes choral blend as “a sound from the ensemble in
which individual voices are not separately discemable to the listener.” Achieving choral
blend, according to Goodwin, is often a primary objective of choral singing. However,
he suggests the diversity of concepts as to how this objective should be achieved has
resulted in “a profusion of pedagogical theories on how the phenomenon occurs” (p.
119). The results of Goodwin’s study suggest that singers adjust the intensity of their
vocal sounds not only to affect the loudness of the tone, but also to create changes that
they perceive as helpful in achieving choral blend.
Uniform vowels are considered essential to choral blend by several prominent
conductors. Dehning (2003, p. 54) suggests concentrating on the vowel because “the
sound is the vowel.” His definition of blend is “everyone singing the same shape of the
same vowel at the same time” (p. 53.). Neuen (2002) also feels that uniform vowels will
quickly improve the overall quality of the sound. He suggests that all vowels should be
produced with a round or a vertical shape of the mouth or articulators.
Stevens (2003) suggests that creating an integration of registers (mixing head
voice with appropriate percentages of chest voice) often “opens the throat, rounds the
timbre, fixes vowel production and placement, relaxes the larynx, fixes intonation, and
loosens the jaw and tongue” (p. 58). He suggests it may also “fix” the blend problems in
and between sections of the choir, giving it a more natural, mature, and round sound.
Howard Swan (1988, chap. 1) feels that if one spends too much time trying to
secure a perfect choral blend, the choir will not sing with a tone that has energy,
animation, and expressive communication. Neuen (2002) believes that constant
manipulation of the voice is wrong and potentially harmful. He feels that voices should
be allowed to blend naturally and even those with larger voices need not worry about
singing softly enough to blend in a choral ensemble.
In an article entitled “Balance or Blend? Two Approaches to Choral Singing,”
Perry Smith (2003) compared two techniques that conductors use to achieve the sound
they want from their ensembles. The balancing technique attempts to match voice types,
allowing the singers to continue to sing in a more soloistic manner. The blending
technique asks singers to sing so that no individual voices stand out. He asserts that
straight-tone singing, usually required in the blending technique, can cause tension in the
intrinsic laryngeal musculature which leads to vocal strain.
One can easily see how choral conductors could become confused about how to
achieve the desired choral blend, but blend is not the only thing that causes disagreement
between choral conductors. There are also many differences of opinion about choral
sound or tone.
Choral Tone
Two basic schools of thought developed in America during the early part of the
20th century. These two schools were at opposite ends of the choral tone spectrum; one,
from the Lutheran tradition, was developed by F. Melius Christiansen and the other, from
Westminster Choir College, was developed by John Finley Williamson. The Lutheran
tradition favored straight-tone singing and supported manipulation of vocal technique to
achieve similar tone color from all singers whereas the Westminster tradition was
developed for the purpose of singing 19th century romantic works with a symphony
orchestra and recognized differences in individual voices as an asset to the choral sound
(Tocheff, 1990). In the middle, between these two extremes, were Robert Shaw, Roger
Wagner and Robert Fountain who, according to Neuen (2002), brought the choral sound
to a more central approach giving individual singers the freedom to sing with full
expression without compromising their voices.
Howard Swan (1988, chap. 1) actually identifies six schools of thought and theory
that have greatly influenced American choral singing. He contends that every choral
conductor has received help from and used the principles of one of these six schools of
thought. Swan sums up the basic philosophies of each of these schools in this way:
School A represents the principles of John Finley Williamson, the founder and
first conductor of the Westminster Choir. It focuses on the physical and
emotional development of each singer in the choir and gives less attention to the
needs of the group.
School B is concerned with the techniques for the development of choral tone
taught by Father William J. Finn. According to its principles, a singer’s tone is
like the color of an orchestral instrument.
School C is a review of the principles formulated by F. Melius Christiansen, the
first conductor of the St. Olaf Choir. Every singer in the chorus has a primary
responsibility to subordinate his own ideas to the blended and unified sound made
by the total ensemble.
School D utilizes the principles of Fred Waring and his associates. It asserts that
by following the natural laws of good speech that are related to proper
10
pronunciation and articulation, a singer and an ensemble can develop a beautiful
quality of tone.
School E includes the following group of teachers: Joseph J. Klein, Douglas
Stanley, and John C. Wilcox. It asserts that good tone quality is induced by the
physical motivation of an individual or a chorus.
School F is a compilation of the principles and rehearsal procedures of Robert
Shaw. According to Shaw, good tone has three concomitants: a rhythmic drive
subordinated to the demands of the score, a knowledge on the part of the
conductor and singer of the shape of a musical phrase, and an understanding of
the laws of vocal energy as they may be applied to a musical composition.
Swan believes the first decision that any choral conductor must make when
standing in front of an ensemble is to determine what choral skills he/she feels are
important to the sound they desire. That decision will determine which school’s practices
should be followed (1988. chap.l).
In an article entitled “Style, Performance Practice and Choral Tone” (1987, p. 67),
Swan proposes that there are those who “worship at the shrine of choral tone.” However,
as seen from the descriptions of the six schools above, conductors do not agree as to what
constitutes the ideal choral tone, nor do singers and teachers of singing. Because there
are disagreements about dynamic emphasis, vibrato rate, attack and release methods,
balance, color of pronunciation, etc., there are many different views and opinions. Swan
suggests that choral conductors will have more success with their ensembles if they select
11
literature that supports the tone that is used by the singers in their ensemble. If the choir
has singers with big voices, they should probably sing Romantic literature. If they have
small, light voices, they would probably be very successful with selections from the
Renaissance or Baroque periods.
Hylton (1995) proposes that there is a relationship between the choral tone of the
choir and the music that we like to hear them sing. This choral tone (singing style) will
vary according to the style of music being performed by the ensemble. Stanton (1971)
feels that every choir has a unique tone quality that can be attributed to the amalgamation
of distinctly individual voices that make up the ensemble. Dehning (2003) believes an
ensemble will have a good tone if the choral conductor has a working knowledge of the
voice, and that knowledge is applied to the singers.
Choral Singing vs. Solo Singing
According to Rossing, et al. (1986), choral singing and solo singing are two
distinctly different modes of musical performance. For this reason, some voice teachers
are reluctant to allow their students to participate in choral ensembles. The demands of
solo singing are different from those facing the choral singer; however, Stanton (1971)
feels that these demands are not necessarily contradictory. A well trained voiced should
be flexible enough to meet the demands of either mode of performance (Rossing, et al.,
1986).
Slusher (1991) found that most respondents to his study felt there was a definite
conflict between what students were taught to do in the voice studio and what they were
12
expected to do in choir. He suggests that choral conductors should have enough private
voice study to be knowledgeable of the voice and how it works. He also believes it is
helpful if the choral conductor is able to model a good singing technique, as choir
members will imitate the vocal traits that are demonstrated by the conductor.
Darryl Edwards (2005) suggests that conflicts between choral conductors and
voice teachers are not a new phenomenon. He says “voice teachers complain that choral
singing promotes vocal constriction, limits the healthy growth of solo singing, and
curtails interpretive imagination” (p.36) while choral conductors, on the other hand,
continue to testify to their dedication to nurturing healthy singers. In order to eliminate
some of the conflicts, Edwards suggests that voice teachers should invite students to
spend time in voice lessons on issues concerning their choral repertoire.
Rossing, et al. (1986) studied the use of the solo voice in choral singing in an
experiment that recorded the voices of eight bass singers singing a vocal solo and a
section from the Poulenc Gloria. By studying the singer’s formant of each of the singers,
they determined that each singer adjusted the volume of his singing in order to blend with
the other singers in the group. According to Rossing, et al., this finding supports the
reasons that many voice teachers give for not wanting their students to participate in
choir; they are convinced that voice usage in choral singing is very different from voice
usage in solo singing. Some teachers of voice feel that “these two types of voice usage
cannot be effectively negotiated by the same singer” (p. 1975).
Hansel, Theimer and Thurman (2001) state that most college/university voice
teachers believe there is only one correct way to sing: the way one sings Western opera.
13
Moore (1990) is very concerned about solo voices in choral situations, especially
sopranos with large voices that have operatic potential. He feels that nothing is more
difficult for a singer with a big voice than being made to sing at low dynamic levels or
always having to hold the voice back. Haaseman (1987), on the other hand, believes that
trained singers may have to reduce the vocal force as well as vibrato when singing in a
choir but feels that anyone who has a good vocal technique should be able to do this
without damaging the voice.
Minter (1999) states that “unlike an opera singer, a choral singer cannot listen to
himself but must bend to the conductor’s will, summoning a “sweet” sound through an
act of imagination and faith” (p. 16). He references a position paper written by Richard
Westenburg that extols the benefits to be gained by opera singers who also work as
choral singers. Westenburg, according to Minter, recognizes the fact that choral singing
might cause the singers to alter their vocal production, but thinks the benefits of choral
singing outweigh the vocal adjustments, once the proper vocal techniques have been
acquired.
In a study by Allen Goodwin (1980), the phenomenon of choral blend was studied
by performing spectral analyses on the vocal sounds of women both in solo and unison
ensemble singing. This study clearly identified two modes of performance, one for solo
singing and one for singing in an ensemble. Goodwin also found that in solo singing
there is an emphasis on the partials of a tone (3rd and 4th formants), whereas in choral
singing the emphasis is placed on the fundamental. Sopranos in the choir will use a
14
softer voice and weaker higher partials when asked to blend with other voices in the
choir.
Demands on choral singers and solo singers are different according to Temstrom
(1999). Choral singers are expected to blend with each other while opera singers do just
the opposite. They have developed vocal strategies that allow them to be heard over the
symphony orchestra. Bolster (1983) and Gordon (1989) believe that some large voices
simply will not blend in a choral situation and should not be forced to do so.
Ekholm (2000) feels that in order to attain an ideal choral blend, singers may have
to significantly modify their normal solo vocal production. She states that this
modification is probably due to opposing aesthetic requirements of the two modes with
regard to projection and the auditory environment of the choir that requires a lower level
of individual auditory feedback. This statement is supported by Daugherty (2001) who
says that singers in a choral ensemble do not phonate the same way they do as soloists.
Voice students are sometimes advised not to use a singing technique in choir that
differs from what they are being taught in the private voice studio. These students can
become very confused when they get conflicting information about singing from choral
conductors and teachers of voice. Garretson (1998) says that voice teachers must
understand that some deviation in vocal production is necessary in order to achieve
historical authenticity in the performance of choral music from different periods of music
history.
According to Weiss (2002), Renaissance music can sometimes cause problems for
operatically trained singers. The style used for singing this music is often thought to be
15
“thin, straight, and lifeless” (p. 28). However, one must remember that the 16th century
cathedrals provided an acoustic that supported vocal resonance without force. During the
19th century, singers developed vocal techniques that allowed them to meet the demands
of being heard over large orchestras in large concert halls. Therefore, it may be
necessary for some 21st century singers to slightly modify their technique in order to
legitimately perform Renaissance music. Unfortunately, many singers and voice teachers
are unwilling to make any kind of adjustments, fearing that some damage could be done
to the voice.
Jean Westerman Gregg (1994) believes that singers who regularly perform early
music must have trained themselves to use just enough adductory force to obtain a
straight tone without using a tight, pressed phonation that would be unpleasant to hear as
well as damaging to the vocal folds. The tone produced in this manner is an artistically
produced straight tone that is pleasing to the listener.
Edwards (2005) points out that the singers who think singing softly in choir is
unhealthy are the same ones who think nothing of singing sotto voce in an art song such
as Schubert’s An die Musik. He feels that responsible choral conductors will balance
personal ideals of choral tone with healthy vocal production by each singer in the
ensemble.
Lamartine (2003) developed a curriculum of voice pedagogy for the choral
conductor that sought to help singers develop the vocal skills demanded by choral
literature. Several of the vocal exercises developed for her study were determined to
have a positive effect on the sound of the ensemble as judged by a panel of auditors. The
16
results of the study showed that building individual singer technique will improve the
overall sound of the choral ensemble
The disagreements that are faced by American choral conductors and teachers of
voice were not seen to the same extent in Sweden. Anderson (2001) observed Swedish
choral conductors and voice teachers who seem to understand and agree that there is a
difference between choral and solo singing and were surprised to learn that this is such a
big issue in America.
Resonances of the Vocal Tract: Formants
The vocal tract consists of the larynx, the pharynx, the oral cavity, and the nasal
cavity. The shape of the vocal tract can change because of the movement of the tongue,
the lips, and the soft palate. Air from the lungs is forced through the glottis, causing them
to vibrate. This buzz from the vocal chords is then transformed into musical sound as it
travels through the vocal tract (Rossing, 1990).
The vocal chords control the pitch of the sound while the vocal tract determines
the vowel sounds through its formants. The pitch and formant frequencies are
independent of each other in the speaking voice, but trained singers learn to tune their
vowel formants in order to match one or more harmonics of the sung pitch. In most cases
the formants enhance the higher harmonics of the fundamental (Rossing, 1990).
It is important to understand that the vocal tract is different from the instruments
found in the orchestra. The vocal tract creates its formants by constantly changing the
size and shape of the resonators and articulators (Rossing, 1990).
17
According to Rossing(1990):
The peaks that occur in the sound spectra of the vowels, independent of the pitch,
are called formants. They appear as envelopes that modify the amplitudes of the
various harmonics of the source sound. Each formant corresponds to one or more
resonances in the vocal tract. Formant frequencies are virtually independent of
the source spectrum, (p. 319)
Benade (1976) describes vowel formants in this way:
The peaks that are observed in the spectrum envelope are called formants.
Conventionally one assigns an identifying serial number to these formant peaks,
formant 1 being the one having the lowest frequency. For males the first formant
peak lies in the frequency range between 150 and 850 Hz, the second in the range
between 500 and 2500 Hz, and the third and fourth in the 1500-to-3500 Hz and
2500-to-4800 Hz regions, (p.374)
The Singer’s Formant
There is another formant that is sometimes found in the voices of trained singers.
It has often been call the singer’s formant. Sundberg (1981) describes it in this way:
Acoustically, it [the singer’s formant] can be described as a peak in the spectrum

envelope appearing somewhere in the neighborhood of 3 kHz. In this frequency
range, then, the partials radiated from the lip opening are particularly strong.
Articulatorily, the singer’s formant can be generated by adjusting the pharynx
width so that it is considerably wider than the area of the entrance to the larynx
tube. If this is done, the formants number three, four and probably five are
clustered and the ability of the vocal tract to transport sound in this frequency
is much improved. The result, of course, is that the voice source partials in this
frequency range gain in amplitude... (p. 13)
However, in an article entitled '‘Research on the Singing Voice in Retrospect”,
Sundberg (2003) says the term formant can cause problems. He adds:
The singer’s formant is a spectrum peak rather than a formant. Calling it a

formant is in accordance with the idea that a formant equals a peak in the
spectrum envelope. This idea may be useful for speech applications, but not
for singing: at a fundamental of 880 Hz, each partial is a peak in the spectrum
envelope. Hence, with this definition of a formant, each partial becomes a
formant. A more adequate term would be the singer’s formant cluster, (p. 11)
18
Rossing (1990) agrees that trained singers, especially male opera singers, show
this strong formant somewhere around 2500-3500 Hz. He states that it is more or less
independent of the particular vowel and pitch and lies between the 3rd and 4th formants.
Rossing goes on to say that sopranos do not exhibit the singers’ formant because much of
their singing is in a range where the pitch exceeds the frequency of the 1st formant.
Therefore, they have learned to “tune their formants over a reasonable range of frequency
in order to make a formant coincided with the fundamental or one of the overtones of the
note being sung.” (p. 353)
Several studies have determined that singers are able to change their singing style
while singing in a choir from a soloistic style to a more blended style (Ford, 2003;
Goodwin, 1980; Rossing et al., 1986). Do auditors have a preference for a particular
style? A panel of auditors was asked this question in a study conducted by J. Kevin Ford
(2003). His results indicated that a panel of auditors made up of music majors with
choral training, music majors with no choral training, and undergraduates with no music
training at all, preferred the recordings of choral ensembles with a nori-resonant tone
quality (weak singer’s formant) to a tone with a fully resonant singer’s formant. Ekholm
(2000), however, found that choral conductors preferred blended singing over soloistic
singing while voice teachers indicated that the singers in the ensemble had difficulty
maintaining freedom of vocal production, accuracy of pitch, and resonance when asked to
blend.
According to Temstrom (1999), the presence or absence of a singer’s formant in a
choir is determined by the length of time the members of the ensemble have studied
19
voice. Therefore, a choir with mostly amateur singers would exhibit no singer’s formant
at all while an opera chorus would probably exhibit a strong one. Smith and Sataloff
(2000) suggest that choral singing, in general, gives very little emphasis to the singer’s
formant, thereby neutralizing soloistic qualities and creating a blend of the voices.
According to Goodwin (1980), minimizing the singer’s formant would enhance choral
blend because the differences in vocal timbres would be obscured. With most young
singers, the singer’s formant would not be present.
Many voice teachers believe that the use of the singer’s formant is the healthiest
and most efficient kind of vocal production. Bolster (1983) suggests that the removal of
the singer’s formant from a singer’s voice is harmful. Weiss (2002), however, suggests
there is no research in voice physiology and function that actually supports this theory.
Vibrato
Neuen (2002) suggests the vocal characteristic that is most often manipulated by
choral conductors is vibrato. He strongly discourages the total elimination of vibrato as a
consistent way of singing. Darrow (1975) reports that a study of the published writing
concerning vibrato revealed that no author since 1945 has recommended straight-tone
singing. In fact, there have been frequent criticisms of this technique while many
statements have favored the use of vibrato.
Skelton (2004) says voice teachers generally agree that a good vibrato is essential
for artistic singing. However, they cannot seem to agree on exactly what constitutes good
vibrato. Because the phenomenon of vibrato is difficult to describe and because there is
20
an ever-changing aesthetic where vocal tone is concerned, the concept of good vibrato
has became a subjective issue. Generally, the acceptable vibrato rate is considered to lie
between six and seven cycles per second.
According to Weiss (2002), no scientific data suggest that any one type of vibrato
is healthier than any other. Exactly what constitutes an acceptable vibrato is dependent
upon musical context. However, a vibrato that gets in the way of the clarity and texture
of the musical line is not appropriate for any stylistic period of music. Stanton (1971)
also feels that musical style affects the amount of vibrato that is required. He thinks
groups that sound the same singing Palestrina, Brahms, and Webern should not be
praised for their consistency. Instead, the conductor’s good taste should determine the
choral tone needed for each piece and each style of music.
According to Dehning (2003, p. 53), “vibrato is the individual character of a voice
which is a result of efficient, free production in a post-pubescent human; it is
characterized by an easy oscillation slightly above and below a pitch.” Willetts (2000)
states when a tone is produced freely, it will oscillate above and below the center of the
pitch at a unified rate and in equal amounts. Temstrom (1991) says the fluctuations in
the fundamental (F0) are important to the naturalness of vocal sound production. Straight
tones sound mechanical and a truly straight tone is impossible for the human voice to
produce.
Vibrato extent, according to Michael Smith (1972), is determined by the
individual singer and the acoustical situation in which he is able to monitor his/her own
voice. In an experiment, Smith allowed singers to listen to a tape loop while singing a
21
sustained pitch. This tape loop served as a straight-tone feedback device. It was
determined that vibrato was decreased when the singers heard a straight-tone through
headphones thereby supporting the view that vibrato is diminished when the ear is
deprived of the ability to detect a variation in pitch.
Goodwin (1980) found that singers who have strong upper partials tend to reduce
their vibrato when trying to blend with other singers of the same voice type. Dromey,
Carter, and Hopkin (2003) found that a singer’s rate of vibrato can be modified, and it
does not seem to be totally dependent on the phonatory anatomy of an individual. It is
possible, however, that anatomical and physiological differences influence the range of
rate adjustments that a singer can make. Dromey, et al. asked singers to match the pitch
and vibrato rate of stimuli heard through headphones. They suggest that further research
is needed to determine whether or not singers can maintain vibrato adjustments without
the presence of any auditory stimuli. If the adjustments can be maintained, then singers
might be able to improve vocal technique by purposefully refining their rate of vibrato.
Stanton (1971) says tone color, pitch, and accurate vowels will be blurred by conflicts in
vibrato rates, but uniformity of vibrato rate produces clarity of the choral tone.
Glover (2001) suggests that trained singers in a choral situation are often asked to
use less vibrato than in solo performance in order to better tune harmonies and improve
the clarity of textures in polyphonic music. The ability to adjust their technique is
dependent on the choral conductor and his or her personal concept of choral tone. The
challenges that come with adjusting a singer’s technique can be minimized by using well-
constructed choral warm-ups.
22
The choral conductor must be knowledgeable about performance practice and
vocal pedagogy in order to make educated decisions concerning how, when, and where to
adjust vibrato in the choral tone.
Voice Placement and Choir Formation
Research shows that the specific placement of voices within the ensemble based
on vocal compatibility, frequency of the tone, and singer’s formant has definite effects on
choral tone and blend. (Sataloff & Smith, 2000). According to Willetts (2000), careful
placement of singers with vibratos that are not even will solve blend problems as well as
intonation problems. Ekholm (2000) agrees, stating that arranging choristers so that the
voices are acoustically matched may enhance blend, phrasing, and overall tone quality. It
is possible that this may also benefit vocal production, vocal comfort, and aesthetic
satisfaction of the choristers.
Gerald Langner (2002) discusses the pros and cons of different choral formations
and the rationale for each formation. In summary, Langner states that individual
placement of singers in an ensemble should not be left to chance. The conductor should
categorize the quality of each voice in order to optimally place them in the ensemble.
Placement is an art and science that, when combined with listening by the conductor, can
significantly affect the choral sound. Even more micro decisions could include the exact
placement of each individual singer within the rows of the ensemble. Fenton & Johnson
(1990) feel the actual placement of the singers will have a definite impact on the sound of
the ensemble. Howard Swan (Decker & Hereford, 1988, chap. 1) believes in spending
23
several weeks to properly place singers within the section. Changes will need to be made
as the voices mature and the choral sound evolves.
According to Gordon Lamb, (1974) mixed seating arrangements are being used
extensively by choral conductors. He believes the advantage to this arrangement is a
homogenous sound, better balance of the voices, and improved intonation. However,
Lamb feels that this formation is best used for homophonic music of the 19th and 20th
centuries. Polyphonic music may suffer in mixed formation because of the clarity of line
that is needed in its performance. Hylton (1995) agrees, stating that different seating
arrangements can enhance different styles of music.
Lambson (1961) found that the sectional block formation appears to be the best
acoustical formation for the performance of polyphonic choral music in more than four
parts. However, it is inferior to other formations with regard to recording, radio
broadcasting, and other events that might require the use of microphones. The quartet
plan (placing singers in heterogeneous groupings of four singers each, a soprano, an alto,
a tenor and a bass) appears to be the preferred formation for the performance of four part
homophonic music.
Ehmann (1968) states the formation of the choir should be determined by the
music that is to be sung. Neuen (2002) agrees, adding that choral seating arrangements
will be affected by the strengths and weaknesses of the members of the ensemble as well
as the preferences of the conductor.
According to Daugherty (2001), one of the pioneers in choral acoustics, empirical
studies suggest that mixed formation does not produce a noticeably better sound for the
24
audience. However, experienced singers may prefer mixed over sectional formations.
He also suggests that compatibility placement of voices in an ensemble could be
beneficial to choirs of all ages because it encourages sensitivity to the ensemble sound
and allows singers to consider their own phonation. Daugherty adds that perhaps this
method would work best if members of the ensemble had a voice in deciding the
placement of voices within the ensemble. Keyne (1992) suggests that individuals who
sing in mixed formation prefer to sing with individuals from different voice parts. She
believes that individual musical growth and individual responsibility can be enhanced in
mixed formation.
Some feel that mixed formations should only be used by experienced choirs.
However John Bertalot (1994) uses mixed formation even for his youth choir. He
suggests that having the choir divide in half with a complete quartet of voices on either
side of the aisle makes it easier for singers to hear themselves as well as the other parts.
According to Gordon (1989), the formation of the choir should be based on
several factors: the number of singers, the balance between the parts, the abilities of the
singers, contrast between the individual voices, and the structure of the music. He
suggests placing strong singers toward the back or strong next to weak. Soloistic voices
should never be placed on the ends of the rows but should be put in the middle of the
rows toward the back. He also suggests trying several formations while rehearsing a
piece: starting in a circle or semi-circle, using sectional formation to learn the parts, using
mixed quartets or circle within a circle to polish, and returning to the original plan for
interpretation and staging.
25
James Daugherty (1996,1999,2003) has conducted several studies that deal with
the placement of singers in the choral ensemble and the effect of that placement on the
perceived blend of a choir. In the study conducted in 1999, Daugherty used a high school
ensemble to determine preferences of auditors for singers in sectional or mixed formation
and close, lateral or circumambient spacing. For close spacing, the choristers stood with
upper arms no farther than one inch apart. For lateral spacing, a twenty-four inch dowel
was used to measure the distance between singers. Circumambient spacing used the
same twenty-four inch spacing between singers, but an extra row of space was added
between each row of singers. Auditors were able to detect differences between the
formations, but the greatest difference was attributed to spacing and not formation.
In his 2003 study, Daugherty found, once again, that spacing between singers in
the ensemble had more effect on the auditors’ perceived blend than a particular
arrangement of the singers. The auditors, as well as the choristers, favored the sound of
spread spacing with little difference in preference between sectional or mixed
arrangement of singers. Singers stated that the spacing improved their vocal production
and the ability to hear both self and others. Daugherty’s findings suggest that spacing
influences choral sound preferences more so than choral formation.
Durrant (2003) has found that, in addition to spacing, singers who are fairly
confident on their parts realize the benefits to the choral sound of singing in mixed
formation to the choral sound. Singers feel more confident and have better self-esteem
when they feel that they are independently contributing to the sound of the ensemble. He
does feel, however, that singers should rehearse in a variety of formations so as not to
26
become dependent on any one person or persons in the choir.
A study by Aspaas, McCrea, Morris, and Fowler (2004) took Daugherty’s
findings a step further. The researchers felt that many of the earlier acoustical studies had
been flawed because they did not provide acoustic information that compared a choir
performing in several different arrangements for a variety of musical selections. The
study was, therefore, designed to make acoustic comparisons by using spectral analyses
of the examples, as well as assess the preference of the choristers who were singing
during the experiment. Singers expressed preferences for formation along gender lines:
women preferred mixed formation while men preferred the sectional in columns
formation. There were no acoustic differences found between the formations. Aspaas, et
al. felt these results could be attributed to the fact that the microphone was placed far
enough away from the choir that the blend of the voices maintained a similar pattern
across the different choral formations used in the study. They suggested placing the
microphones closer to the singers or at the position of the conductor for more accurate
readings in further studies.
Mustafa (2005) evaluated the acoustic differences produced by three choral
formations at three microphone locations. Her results indicated no differences in the
spectra at any of the microphone locations. However, upon closer inspection, it was
found that the signal of the recording taken closest to the choir exhibited a much greater
spectral slope than the other two recordings. Since the difference was found in the close
field microphone recording, it seems that choristers must hear the choral sound
differently than the conductor or the audience. Thus, it was concluded that the
27
arrangement of the singers may effect how the choristers hear themselves in relation to
the other singers.
Neil Woodruff (2002), in a study involving male singers, found that combining
acoustical placement of voices (how voices respond to adjacent voices) with spacing
(how voices respond to differences in the space between adjacent voices) was preferred
by auditors and singers over acoustic placement alone. In this study male singers were
recorded in solo, duet, and trio formations and evaluated by a panel of auditors. The
results suggest that when no attention is given to voice matching, lateral spacing may
reduce the amount of vocal change experienced by the singers and, therefore, contribute
to the blend of the ensemble.
Robert Tocheff (1991), in an experiment that was done with judges sitting behind
a screen while the choir performed, investigated the effect of carefully placing singers in
their best acoustical positions. Two intact college choirs were used to assess the effect of
choral formation on choral sound, blend, balance, rhythmic precision and interpretation.
The methods used by Weston Noble and John Williams for placing singers were
followed. Approximately one hour was spent with each section of the choirs to assess
vibrato, intensity and unique vocal characteristics in order to establish compatibility with
the surrounding singers. Tocheff found that acoustical placement of voices in an
ensemble had an effect on the overall choral sound, but mixed formation had little, if any
effect at all. This was the only study reviewed that used live performances rather than
recordings to be rated by the auditors.
Every choral conductor has a preference for a particular formation or seating
28
arrangement. Robinson & Winold (1976) discuss the seating arrangements of six of the
most influential choral conductors in America. All are different and all are based on
personal preferences of the individual conductors and include both sectional and mixed
formations. In order to achieve the choral tone and blend that one desires, it is necessary
to experiment with placement of singers in the ensemble.
Self-to-Other Ratio
Temstrom (1989) found that the performance of a choral singer is based on two
acoustical signals, his/her own voice (the feedback) and the rest of the choir (the
reference). The loudness of each individual choral singer has both an upper and a lower
limit. The upper limit is determined by the singer’s desire to blend with the other
members of the ensemble. He/she must rely on the conductor for feedback regarding
individual volume. The lower limit is determined by the singer’s need to hear his/her
own voice. Olson (2004) suggests that because it is impossible to hear one’s own voice
the way that others hear it, it is imperative that singers develop the ability to sing by
sensation while in the choral setting. Temstrom (1991) feels that mixing the sections
could help with personal feedback since standing next to a colleague who is singing the
same part is the biggest mask to individual feedback.
Temstrom (1994,1999) has made investigations into what he calls Self-to-Other
Ratio (SOR) in choral singing. The singers in a choir apparently have very definite
preferences for the balance between self-sound and others-sound. If spacing is too close,
there is a masking of the individual voice by the sound of the surrounding voices creating
29
a decreased amount of auditory feedback. In this situation, the chorister will push or
force his/her voice in order to be able to hear himself. This is known as the “Lombard”
effect (Daugherty, 2001; Olson, 2004). The Lombard effect will occur if the other-sound
overpowers the self-sound, causing over-singing, intonation problems and vocal fatigue.
However, Tonkinson (1990) found that singers can be taught to resist the “Lombard”
effect with proper training.
Temstrom (1994) suggests that the SOR may be influenced by an individual’s
placement in the ensemble. Knowing the SOR preferences of the singers could help in
stage design and in finding preferred choral formations for ensembles. Singers need
room to breathe according to Dehning (2003). He suggests three feet from side to side
and front to back. Daugherty (2003), however, suggests twenty-four inches.
The exact amount of space that is needed between singers has not been clearly
determined. However, research does show that spacing of twenty-four and thirty-six
inches provided positive comments from singers in the ensemble as well as from the
auditor’s who were rating their performances.
Voice Matching
In an interview with R. Paul Crabb (2002), Weston Noble described the voice
matching technique that he developed for use with the Nordic Choir at Luther College.
The first step in the procedure is to find two voices in a section that have a natural blend.
Gradually, singers are added one by one until all singers in the section are in one
horizontal line. Noble says the blend must be present on both sides of the singers and he
30
has learned that like voices are not always the best choices to stand next to each other.
Opposites also have the potential for blend (differences in tone color, vibratos, etc.)
Proponents of voice matching claim that choral blend is enhanced through the
phenomenon of voice matching. It also allows singers to have individual vocal timbres
and freedom in vocal production while singing in a choral ensemble (Giardiniere, 1991).
Ekholm’s study (2000) suggests that arranging singers so that voices are acoustically
matched may “enhance blend, dynamic range, phrasing and overall tone quality” (p. 134).
It may also benefit vocal production, comfort, and satisfaction in choral singing. Neil
Woodruff (2002) proposes that voice matching reduces the vocal changes for singers in
an ensemble and could possibly begin to reduce tensions between choral directors and
teachers of voice because of perceived differences in pedagogical practices.
William Dehning (2003) is aware of the methods used by Weston Noble in the
voice matching technique. However, he feels that Noble’s method of “voice matching”
takes too much rehearsal time. Instead, he periodically moves singers around and listens
for differences in the blend.
Indeed, there are many techniques used by choral conductors to achieve the
desired choral tone and/or choral blend. It is, therefore, imperative that today’s choral
conductors become knowledgeable about the positive and negative aspects of each of
these techniques in order to make informed decisions regarding choral formation, spacing
needed between singers, and voice matching. Research shows that these elements can
have a significant impact on an ensemble’s choral tone and choral blend. In addition,
conductors must also be knowledgeable about the styles of singing that are appropriate
31
for each period of music history. Armed with the acoustical knowledge that is being
gleaned from current research, conductors will be able to produce beautifully blended
choral tones.
Spectral Analysis
The ability to present a sound in graphic form has been an area of interest for
many years. Early on, light beams and the oscilloscope were used to give a graphic
representation of the “vibratory nature of sound” (Courtney, 1992). In the eighteenth
century scientists were aware that musical sounds were characterized by vibrations
around a fundamental tone, but they had no method or technology for analyzing these
harmonics. Sir Isaac Newton coined the phrase “spectrum” when describing the bands of
color showing different frequencies passing through a glass prism (Roads, 1996).
In 1822, Jean-Baptiste Joseph, Baron de Fourier published his thesis entitled
Analytical Theory o f Heat. Fourier’s theory states: any periodic vibration, however
' complicated, can be built up from a series o f simple vibrations, whose frequencies are
harmonics o f a fundamental frequency, by choosing the proper amplitudes and phases o f
these harmonics (Rossing, 1990). Fourier proved that any periodic function could be
represented as an infinite summation of sine and cosine terms and this eventually became
known as harmonic analysis. In 1843 Georg Ohm applied Fourier’s theory to acoustical
signals. And later Hermann von Hemholtz used the theory to determine that instrumental
timbre is determined by the Fourier series of instrumental tones (Roads, 1996).
Advances in the design of oscilloscopes generated a wave of new research in
32
spectrum analysis. In 1930 Norbert Wiener published a paper that shifted the emphasis
from harmonic components to a continuous spectrum. In 1965 the fast Fourier transform
(FFT) was developed. By the 1970’s and 80’s spectrum analysis had become a familiar
tool for analysis, transcription, and sound transformation in the musician’s studio (Roads,
1996).
Today’s spectrum analyzers can be either digital or analogue. Digital spectrum
analyzers begin by sampling one period of a wave into the computer at regular intervals.
The computer then calculates the amplitude and phase of each harmonic. The analogue
spectrum analyzers isolate the harmonics very quickly one after another. If this is done
quickly enough, the analyzer is called a real-time spectrum analyzer and can be used to
study changes in sounds such as attack and decay. Some very interesting information can
be learned about the timbre of sounds by averaging many spectra together. A long-term-
average spectra (LTAS) contains information about the music, the performance, the
instrument, and the room in which it is performed (Rossing, 1990). It detects differences
in energy patterns created by singers over time and reveals the characteristic frequency
energy of a sound, thereby identifying timbres of a tone, whether instrumental or vocal
(Maher, 1990).
Musical sounds are usually presented as waves that vibrate with a particular
frequency that is expressed in cycles per seconds or “Hertz” (Hz). The range of human
hearing, the “audio spectrum,” extends from 20 Hertz (Hz) to 20 Kilohertz (KHz).
Everyday sounds are made up of a mixture of many different frequencies. This mixture
of frequencies helps determine the timbre or color of a particular sound. By looking at
33
the component frequencies of a given sound one is able to better understand the timbre of
that sound (Courtney, 1992).
The spectral graphs that can be produced by computers today can give us much
information about musical sounds. This particular study used spectral analysis graphs to
analyze the long-term-average spectra of the singing voice in four different choral
formations in order to determine what differences could be seen as the singers changed
positions within the ensemble. Figure 1 shows the LTAS graph of a singer that
represents a 25.4 second song sample. They axis represents power level in decibels (dB)
while the x axis represents frequency in Hertz (Hz). The peaks that occur at around 500
and 1500 Hz represent the 1st formant (Fi) and the 2nd formant (F2). A smaller peak
occurs at around 2500 Hz (F 3 ), and a blending of the 4th and 5th formants (F 4 and F5) can
be seen between 3000 and 4500 Hz. These peaks are characteristic of the singing voice
and will be explained in greater detail in Chapter 4.
FFT points: 882/1024 Bandwidth 100 Hz Hanning window of 20 ms Centroid

frequency 0 HzAveraged over 25.4 s
-20 _
-40 _
CL
-60.
-80 _ . ..... t ,.,.
ZA
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 8000
Frequency [Hz]
Figure 1. LTAS o f a soprano song sample averaged over 25.4 seconds. The vertical line at around 800Hz
represents the centroid frequency (the middle part o f the total power spectrum). A low centroid frequency
means that low frequencies dominate the spectrum (Temstrom, 1992).
34
CHAPTER III
PROCEDURE
the individual singers. The LTAS detects differences in energy patterns created by
singers over time. It reveals the characteristic frequency energy of a sound, thereby
identifying timbres of a tone, whether instrumental or vocal (Maher, 1990). Additionally,
all sixteen members of the ensemble were asked questions regarding their preferences for
singing in each of the four formations. The four randomly selected individuals (one
soprano, one alto, one tenor and one bass) were asked to describe the differences, if they
felt there were any, between solo singing and choral singing.
Several research questions regarding the effects of choral formations were
devised for the study. Do the LTAS readings of the four randomly selected voices differ
in each of four choral formations? If so, what effect does spread spacing vs. close
spacing have on the LTAS of the four selected voices? Additionally, does the LTAS
found in any of the choral formations resemble the LTAS found in the solo mode of
singing?
The four selected singers were randomly chosen from a select chamber ensemble
with 16 members. Each of the singers in the ensemble had studied voice privately and
each had been a member of choral ensembles for several years. The ensemble singers
ranged in age from 19 to 24 years with a mean age of 21 years and the number of years of
35
private vocal instruction ranged from 1 to 8 years with a mean of 4.59 years.
The music used for the study was the familiar art song “Caro mio ben” by
Giordani and the choral song “Flower of Beauty” by John Clements. “Caro mio ben”
was chosen as the solo selection because it was felt that most students learn this piece
early in private vocal instruction. “Flower of Beauty” was selected from the ensemble’s
current literature because it was felt that a romantic style piece would be sung in a
manner that was closer to the singers’ normal solo style of singing.
The recording session took place during a regularly scheduled rehearsal time in
the choral rehearsal hall. It was felt that since the singers were accustomed to the
acoustics in this space, they would not have to make any vocal adjustments that might be
required for singing in a new space. The ensemble was instructed that “Flower of
Beauty” would be sung in four different choral formations. All sixteen singers were
instructed to pay attention to any differences that were felt or heard while singing in each
of the four formations. The four selected singers were aware that they would be
individually recorded during the procedure, but they did not know that their choral
singing would be compared to their solo singing.
Four Shure ULX 14-85 wireless lavaliere microphones with receivers and two
Shure UA844US antennae were used to record the four individual singers as they sang
within the ensemble in the four choral formations. The wireless microphones were
attached to the bill of a baseball cap worn by each singer to insure that the microphones
remained in one position during the entire recording procedure. The four formations
were: sectional formation with one inch spacing between the shoulders of the singers
36
(sectional-close), sectional formation with twenty-four inch spacing between singers
(sectional-spread), mixed formation with one inch spacing between the shoulders of the
singers (mixed-close), and mixed formation with twenty-four inch spacing between
singers (mixed-spread). A twenty-four inch dowel was used to measure the spacing
between the singers. The twenty-four inch spacing was chosen because previous studies
(Daugherty 1996,1999) have determined that auditors preferred the sound of a choir
using a spacing of twenty-four inches between the singers. Once the microphones were
in place on the bill of the baseball cap, they were not moved during the entire recording
session.
For the two sectional formations, the basses stood on the first row of the risers
directly behind the altos. The tenors stood on the first row of the risers directly behind
the sopranos. In the mixed formations, no two singers of the same voice part stood
contiguously in the two-row formation. In the spread formations, the choir utilized more
floor space in addition to the first step of the risers because of the limited width of the
risers. Diagrams of the formations can be found in Figure 2.
Sectional-Close TTTTBBBB
SSSSAAAA
Sectional-Spread: T T T T B B B B
S S S S A A A A
Mixed-Close STABSTAB
ABSTABST
Mixed-Spread S T A B S T A B
A B S T A B S T
Figure 2. Diagram o f the four choral formations.
37
The recording session began with the choir in sectional-close formation. A chord
was given on the piano followed by a preparatory beat, but the singers were not
conducted during the thirty-second excerpt so as not to influence the sound of the
ensemble in any way. The second formation to be recorded was sectional-spread. This
was chosen as the second formation since the only movement needed by the singers
would be to spread apart by using the twenty-four inch dowel to measure the spacing.
Mixed-close formation was the third formation to be recorded. The chart in Figure 1
shows the arrangement of the singers in this formation. Finally, mixed-spread formation
was recorded. Once again, the only movement needed was to spread apart and measure
the spacing with the twenty-four inch dowel. A chord played on the piano and a
preparatory beat preceded each of the recordings. Tempi of the four recordings were
compared using a metronome to assure that there was no difference. All four recordings
were charted at 56 beats per minute.
After the choral recording session was completed, the four selected singers were
recorded while singing nine measures of “Caro mio ben” (the A section). The soprano
and tenor sang the song in the key of E-flat major while the alto and bass sang it in the
key of C major. A two-measure introduction was given by the piano and each of the
singers sang the nine measures accompanied by piano. The singers were then asked to
sing the same nine measures unaccompanied. Since the choral selection was a capella, it
was felt that the unaccompanied solo would be a better comparison to the choral
recordings.
A professional recording engineer hired specifically for this project monitored the
38
entire procedure. A NEVE 1073 Class A Pre-amp, an ART DPSII Digital Pre-amp, a
Crane Song HEDD (Harmonically enhanced Digital Device) D/A converter, and a
Macintosh G4 933 MHz Pro Tool version 5.3 recorder (recording at a sample rate of 44.1
MHz and a bit rate of 16) were used for recording the choir and the soloists. The
recording engineer transferred the data files to compact disc for analysis by the
researcher. This analysis was done in order to determine any differences in the LTAS of
the selected voices while singing within the choir. The LTAS of the four formations were
compared to the readings from the solo recordings.
Immediately following the recording session all sixteen choristers answered a
questionnaire regarding their preferences for singing in the four choral formations. The
questionnaire can be found in Appendix A and the results are in Table 1. In addition, the
four select members of the ensemble answered a questionnaire regarding the differences
between solo singing and choral singing. This questionnaire can be found in Appendix B
and the responses to the questions are located in Table 2.
39
CHAPTER IV
RESULTS
the individual singers. The LTAS detects differences in energy pattern created by singers
over time. It reveals the characteristic frequency energy of a sound, thereby identifying
timbres of a tone, whether instrumental or vocal (Maher, 1990). Additionally, all sixteen
singers in the ensemble were asked questions regarding their preferences for singing in
each of the four formations. The four randomly selected individuals (one soprano, one
alto, one tenor, and one bass) were also asked to describe the differences, if they felt there
were any, between solo singing and choral singing.
Several research questions regarding the effects of choral formations were
devised for the study. Do the LTAS readings of the four randomly selected voices differ
in each of four choral formations? If so, what effect does spread spacing vs. close
spacing have on the LTAS of the four selected voices? Additionally, does the LTAS
found in any of the choral formations resemble the LTAS found in the solo mode of
singing?
The four selected singers were randomly chosen from a select chamber ensemble
with 16 members. Each of the singers in the ensemble had studied voice privately and
each had been a member of choral ensembles for several years. The ensemble singers
ranged in age from 19 to 24 years with a mean age of 21 years and the number of years of
40
private vocal instruction ranged from 1 to 8 years with a mean of 4.59 years.
Immediately following the recording session all sixteen choristers answered a
questionnaire regarding their preferences for singing in the four choral formations. Each
member of the ensemble was asked to rank the four choral formations from 1 to 4 (with 1
being best and 4 being worst) for each of the five questions. The results can be found in
Table 1.
Table 1
Mean Ranks for Questions About Choral Formations (N=16).
Choral Ease of Ease of Hearing Ease of Choral Preference

Formation Singing & Blending With Hearing Sound for
Section Others Preference Sineine
Sectional-Close 3.1+ 2 .6 3.7*+ 3.3* 3.7*+
Sectional-Spread 2.3 . *
1 6 2 .6 2.4 2 .6
Mixed-Close 3.1* 3.3* . +

2 1 2 .6 2.4+
Mixed-Spread 1.5*+ 2 .6 . *
1 6 1.7* 1.4*
X ? (16.72) (14.02) (22.27) (12.75) (25.88)

df==3
level of significance .0 0 1 .005 .0 0 1 .0 1 .0 0 1
Note. Xr2 = a version o f the chi square statistic calculated by the Friedman test,
d f = degrees o f freedom.
* and + = significant difference between means in columns indicated in post hoc
comparisons.
41
A Friedman ANOVA indicated significant differences among preference rankings
for the ease of singing their parts (xr^ = 16.72, df = 3, p < .001). Post hoc comparisons
found significant differences between mean rankings for mixed-spread and mixed-close
and between mean rankings for mixed-spread and sectional-close. No other comparisons
were significant.
For Question two, the Friedman ANOVA indicated significant differences among
preference rankings for ease of hearing and blending with their section (xr^ = 14.02, d f =
3, p < .005). A post hoc test on the mean rankings revealed that there was a significant
difference between rankings for sectional-spread and mixed-close. No other comparisons
were significant for this question.
Significant differences among preference rankings for ease of hearing others (xr^
= 22.27, df = 3, p < .001) were indicated by the Friedman ANOVA for question three.
The post hoc test on the mean rankings revealed a significant difference between
sectional-close and mixed-spread and between sectional-close and mixed close. No other
comparisons were found to be significant.
The Friedman ANOVA for question four found significant differences among
preference rankings for preferred choral sound ((Xr^ = 12.75, df = 3, p < .01). The post
hoc test on the mean rankings revealed a significant difference between sectional-close
and mixed-spread. No other comparisons were significant.
For question five the Friedman ANOVA found significant differences for
preferred formation in which to sing (xr^ = 24.88, df = 3, p < .001). The post hoc test on
42
the mean rankings for this question revealed significant differences between sectional-
close and mixed-spread and between sectional-close and mixed-close. No other
comparisons were found to be significant.
In addition, the four select members of the ensemble answered a questionnaire
regarding the differences between solo singing and choral singing. This questionnaire
can be found in Appendix B and the responses to the questions are located in Table 2.
The singers were encouraged to add comments to the questionnaire.
Table 2
Answers to the Questionnaire given to the four selected singers
How do you classify your voice? How many years of

private voice instruction?
Soprano - An average size voice 8
Alto - An average size voice 3
T enor- A big voice VA
Bass - A big voice 6
1. Do you place or focus your tone while singing in the choir in the same way you do
while singing a solo?
Soprano (often) “It really depends on the type of music I am singing”

A lto - (seldom) ;‘We are encouraged to sing with a straighter, smaller
tone and volume in choral singing.”
T enor- (always) “In choral singing I’m always trying to blend and
hold back because I stick out easily. In solo
singing I just let my voice go.”
B ass- (seldom) “I focus on straight tone and working with less
vibrato in choral singing.”
2. Do you use the same dynamic levels of forte or mezzo forte in the choral ensemble
that you use in solo singing?
43
Soprano - (often)
A lto- (never)
Tenor - (seldom)
Bass - (seldom)
3. Are you asked to sing at dynamics which are too soft to be sung in an efficient manner
while in a choral ensemble?
Soprano - (often)
Alto (often) “I feel that sometimes to achieve a smaller,
more blended choral sound, I have to use
much less of my voice than would be
acceptable in solo singing.”
Tenor - (seldom)
Bass - (often) “At times I have a hard time sustaining soft
dynamics above a certain high range in my
voice.”
4. Private voice study improves my ability to perform in the choir.
Soprano - (strongly agree)

A lto - (strongly agree) “Private study helps me learn to use my
voice - differentiation between solo and
choral techniques is important to healthy
singing.
Tenor - (agree)
Bass - (agree)
5. If there is a voice that does not seem to “blend” with the ensemble, how often do you
think it to be the voice of someone who has had formal voice lessons?
Soprano - (no answer)

Alto- (often) “A person with formal training may
sometimes be unwilling to relinquish vocal
color and beauty for the good of a more
blended choral sound.”
Tenor - (often)
Bass - (often) “A lot of people who’ve had private voice
lessons are too stubborn to tone down their
voices and blend.”
44
6 . If a balance or blend problem is caused by a trained singer, it is usually because
Soprano - the singer will not change his/her individual vocal style
the singer is not aware that he/she has a problem
Alto - the singer will not change his/her individual vocal style
Tenor - the singer is uncertain about how to sing in choir
Bass - the singer will not change his/her individual vocal style
7. I am able to participate in choir with little or no effect on my individual vocal

technique.
Soprano - (agree)
Alto - (strongly disagree)
Tenor - (don’t know)
Bass - (agree)
8 . Does singing with a “straight tone” cause vocal problems for you?
Soprano - (seldom) “I don’t have a heavy vibrato, so it doesn’t

really bother me.”
Alto - (often) “I find that because I sing in straight tone so
much in choir, this sneaks into my solo
singing.”
Tenor - (seldom) “Sometimes it’s difficult to switch between
solo singing and choral singing.”
Bass - (seldom) “At times it can wear my voice out a little
quicker.”
9. There is a way to sing a “straight tone” that will not cause vocal problems.
Soprano - (strongly agree)

Alto - (don’t know)
Tenor - (agree) “I don’t exactly know what it is.”
Bass - (agree) “with the correct air flow it doesn’t cause
problems”
45
10. What do you think is the best method that can be used to achieve choral blend?
Soprano - “listening to the people around you and making sure you don’t
sick out. Also vowel modification.”
Alto - “placing singers so that they can hear all parts and thereby
encourage a beautiful sound”
Tenor - “mezzo piano straight tone”
Bass - “singers who are willing to adjust their voices and listen to each
other”
11. Briefly comment about how you think singing in choir affects your voice and/or your
overall musicianship.
Soprano - “I believe singing in choir has helped me to greatly improve in

sightreading. Choir also makes me more aware of rhythmic
accuracy. Although at times my voice becomes tired from over
singing, singing in choir has strengthened my voice because I have
grown accustomed to using it more often.”
Alto - “Singing in choir benefits my musicianship because I am
introduced to new styles and technical challenges, but it hurts my
voice in that holding it straight for an extended period of time
seems to have a tiring effect on my voice.”
Tenor■ “Sometimes I think it makes my voice slightly weaker.”
Bass - “I think it makes me a better singer because I am able to work and
blend with others to achieve great music.”
For question one (Do you place or focus your tone while singing in the choir in
the same way you do while singing a solo?) the alto and bass singers felt that they seldom
place or focus the tone the same way for both modes of singing, but the soprano and tenor
answered “often” and “always”. However, the tenor’s comments to this question indicate
that he does sing differently in choir than he does when singing a solo.
Question two asked if the choristers use the same levels offorte and mezzo forte
in the choral ensemble that are used in solo singing. The tenor and bass both replied that
they seldom use the same levels for the two modes of singing and the alto answered that
46
she never uses the same levels. The soprano, however, indicated that she often uses the
same dynamic levels in choir that she uses in solo singing.
When asked if they are asked to sing at dynamics which are too soft to be sung in
an efficient manner while in a choral ensemble, the soprano, alto, and bass all chose
“often” as their response. The tenor, however, said that he was seldom asked to sing too
softly. The fact that the tenor part is sometimes sung in falsetto (head voice) during very
soft passages could account for this response.
All singers were in agreement for question four. They all felt that private voice
study improves the ability to perform in the choir. The alto added that “private study
helps me learn to use my voice - differentiation between solo and choral techniques is
important to healthy singing.”
Question five dealt with voices that do not seem to “blend” in the ensemble and
how often it is thought to be the voice of someone who has had formal voice lessons.
The soprano did not choose an answer to this question. However, the alto, tenor, and
bass agreed that this is often the case. “A person with formal training may sometimes be
unwilling to relinquish vocal color and beauty for the good of a more blended choral
sound.”
All singers agreed that if there is a balance or blend problem created by a trained
singer, it is usually because the singer will not change his/her individual vocal style. As
seen in the related literature, this could be the case if the voice teacher has advised the
student not to make any changes in vocal production when singing in the choir.
When asked if they are able to participate in choir with little or no effect on
47
individual vocal technique, the soprano and bass agreed that this was possible. However,
the alto strongly disagreed with this statement and the tenor selected “don’t know” as his
response. The differences in opinion could be attributed to the amount of time that each
of these students has studied voice privately.
For question eight, the alto was the only singer to respond that singing with a
“straight tone” causes vocal problems for her. The other three singers felt that it was not
a problem but added that it “can wear my voice out a little quicker,” and “sometimes it’s
difficult to switch between solo singing and choral singing.”
Three of the four singers felt that there is a way to sing a “straight tone” that will
not cause vocal problems. For question nine, the alto responded that she did not know if
there was a way to sing a straight tone that would not cause vocal problems.
When asked what they felt was the best method to achieve choral blend, two of
the four singers mentioned listening to the singers around them while one mentioned the
placement of singers so that all parts could be heard.
The singers were asked to comment about how choral singing affects their overall
musicianship. Two of the four singers remarked that it benefits their musicianship, but
can have a tiring effect if straight tone singing is required for too long a period of time.
One singer mentioned improvement in sightsinging and rhythmic accuracy.
The Spectral Analysis
The music used for the study was the familiar art song “Caro mio ben” by
48
early in their private vocal instruction. “Flower of Beauty” was selected from the
ensemble’s current literature because it was felt that a romantic style piece would be sung
in a manner that was closer to the singers’ normal solo style of singing. Using the
Soundswell Signal Workstation (Hitech, Sweden), a long-term-average spectral analysis
(LTAS) was performed on the first phrase of each choral recording as well as the first
phrase of the solo recordings in order to determine whether the LTAS of any of the choral
formations was similar to the LTAS of the solo recording. The LTAS was obtained for
each of the tasks using FFT points of 882/1024, frequency range of 6615 Hz, an analysis
bandwidth of 100 Hz, and a Hanning window of 20 ms. The spectra of the graphs were
normalized such that the highest LTAS level was set to zero dB. The length of the
samples for the LTAS analyses varied slightly across the four choral formations ranging
from 24.54 seconds to 26.48 seconds. See Figures 3,4,5 and 6 for LTAS data of each of
the four selected singers.
It is important to understand that the vocal tract is different from the instruments
found in the orchestra. The vocal tract creates its formants by constantly changing the
size and shape of the resonators and articulators (Rossing, 1990).
According to Rossing:
The peaks that occur in the sound spectra of the vowels, independent of the pitch,
are called formants. They appear as envelopes that modify the amplitudes of the
various harmonics of the source sound. Each formant corresponds to one or more
resonances in the vocal tract. Formant frequencies are virtually independent of
the source spectrum, (p. 319)
Benade (1976) describes vowel formants in this way:
49
The peaks that are observed in the spectrum envelope are called formants.
Conventionally one assigns an identifying serial number to these formant peaks,
formant 1 being the one having the lowest frequency. For males the first formant
peak lies in the frequency range between 150 and 850 Hz, the second in the range
between 500 and 2500 Hz, and the third and fourth in the 1500-to-3500 Hz and
2500-to-4800 Hz regions, (p.374)
The Singer’s Formant
There is another formant that is sometimes found in the voices of trained singers.
It has often been call the singer’s formant. Sundberg (1981) describes it in this way:
Acoustically, it [the singer’s formant] can be described as a peak in the spectrum

envelope appearing somewhere in the neighborhood of 3 kHz. In this frequency
range, then, the partials radiated from the lip opening are particularly strong.
Articulatorily, the singer’s formant can be generated by adjusting the pharynx
width so that it is considerably wider than the area of the entrance to the larynx
tube. If this is done, the formants number three, four and probably five are
clustered and the ability of the vocal tract to transport sound in this frequency
is much improved. The result, of course, is that the voice source partials in this
frequency range gain in amplitude... (p. 13)
However, in an article entitled “Research on the Singing Voice in Retrospect”,
Sundberg (2003) says the term formant can cause problems. He adds:
The singer’s formant is a spectrum peak rather than a formant. Calling it a

formant is in accordance with the idea that a formant equals a peak in the
spectrum envelope. This idea may be useful for speech applications, but not
for singing: at a fundamental of 880 Hz, each partial is a peak in the spectrum
envelope. Hence, with this definition of a formant, each partial becomes a
formant. A more adequate term would be the singer’s formant cluster, (p.l 1)
Rossing (1990) agrees that trained singers, especially male opera singers, show
this strong formant somewhere around 2500-3500 Hz. He states that it is more or less
independent of the particular vowel and pitch and lies between the 3rd and 4th formants.
Rossing goes on to say that sopranos do not exhibit the singers’ formant because much of
50
their singing is in a range where the pitch exceeds the frequency of the 1 st formant.
Therefore, they have learned to “tune their formants over a reasonable range of frequency
in order to make a formant coincided with the fundamental or one of the overtones of the
note being sung.” (p. 353)
Soprano LTAS Graphs
The selected soprano demonstrates slightly more power at around 3800 Hz in the
sectional-spread formation than in the other three choral formations. Figure 3 shows a
rounding of the peak in the sectional-spread and mixed spread formations in the 3000-
4000 Hz range. This is an indication of a blending of several formants into one peak
(Sundberg, 1974). Formants 3,4, and 5 are clustered together into one large envelope.
Sopranos usually do not exhibit a singer’s formant because of the range of the pitches
they normally sing. Since the range of pitches they normally sing exceeds the frequency
of the first formant, they would not receive any benefit from formant resonance.
However, “trained sopranos have learned to tune their formants by opening the jaw and
or lips in order to make a formant coincide with the fundamental or one of the overtones
of the note being sung”(Rossing, 1990).
The graphs of the LTAS of the selected soprano in all of the choral formations
appear to be very similar to the graph of the solo excerpt with only slightly less power in
the 3000 - 5000 Hz range in the choral formations than in the solo excerpt. The least
power is exhibited in the 3200 - 4200 Hz range in the mixed-spread formation indicating
that she is not singing with as much power in that formation. Indications are that the
soprano appears to be singing with slightly less power in the mixed-spread formation.
51
Figure 3a-3e. LTAS o f the soprano in each o f the four choral formations and a solo.
FFT points: 082/1024 Bandwidth 100 H2 Hannhgwindowof20ms Centroid FFT points: 882/1024 Bandwidth 100 Hz Hanning window of 20 ms Centroid
frequency 0 HzAveraged over 25.4 s frequency 0 HzAveraged over 26.24 s
[dB]
-20.,
-40.
-60.
-80. •80.
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Frequency [Hzl Frequency [Hz]
a) Soprano (Sectional-close) b) Soprano (Sectional-spread)
FFT points: 882/1024 Bandwidth 100 Hz Hanning window of 20 ms Centroid FFT points: 882/1024 Bandwidth 100 Hz Harming window of 20 ms Centroid
9 -60 -60.
-80.
1000
“I
2000
1-------4000
3000
1-------5000
r------6000
r 1000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Frequency (Hz) Frequency [Hz]
c) Soprano (M ixed-close) d) Soprano (Mixed-spread)
FFT points: 882/1024 Bandwidth Iff) Hz Hanning window of 20 ms Centroid

-20.
•40.
-80.
1000 2000 4000 5000

Frequency [Hz]
e) Soprano Solo
Alto LTAS Graphs
The graphs of the selected alto shown in Figure 4 do not show the presence of a
singer’s formant in any of the four choral formations. However, the wide peak between
3000 and 4000 Hz in the solo graph shows a blending of the 3rd, 4th, and 5th formants. All
of the choral formation waveforms for the alto are similar to her solo with slightly less
power shown between 3000 and 4000 Hz. Her 1st and 2nd formants in the choral
formations show a decreased power level when compared to the same formants in the
52
solo excerpt indicating a reduction in volume level. None of the four choral formations
appears to change the manner in which the alto sings while in the choral singing mode.
Figure 4a - 4e. LTAS o f the alto in each o f the four choral formations and a solo.
FFT points: 892/1024 Bandwidth 100 Hz Hanning window of r s idijs bur/era pomr FFT points: 882/1024 Bandwidth 100 H2 Hanning window of 20 ms Centroid
frequency 0 HzAveraged over 25.34 s frequency 0 HzAveraged over 26.12 $
•40. •40.
-60.
-80.
1000 2000 3000 5000 6000 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
646.00 Hz.-46.82 dB 1 Frequency [Hz] 689.06 Hz.47,70 dB Frequency [Hz]
a) Alto (Sectional-close) b) Alto (Sectional-spread)
FFT points: 682/1024 Bandwidth 100 Hz Hanning window of 20 ms Centroid FFT pohts: 882/1024 Bandwkfth 100 Hz Hanning window of 20 ms Igs current point
[dB]
-20. •20.
-40.
•60. -60.
-80.
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 3000 4000 5000 6000

689.06 Hz.-48.39 dB Frequency [Hz] 689.06 Hz.-48.87dB Frequency [Hz]
c) Alto (M ixed-close) d) Alto (Mixed-spread)

[dB]
-20 .
-40.
-60.
-80.
2000 3000 4000 5000 6000

732.13 Hz.-45.58 dB Frequency [Hz]
e) Alto Solo
53
Tenor LTAS Graphs
Figure 5 reveals that the selected tenor clearly exhibits a singer’s formant in the
solo excerpt at around 3400 Hz. This singer’s formant is not seen in any of the choral
formations. However, there are very clear peaks between 3000 and 4000 Hz in both of
the mixed formations. The sectional-close formation shows the least amount of power in
this range. None of the spectral analyses of the choral formations resemble the analysis
of the solo excerpt. These LTAS graphs indicate that this particular tenor does sing
differently in solo mode than in choral mode. When listening to the recordings, it was
apparent that the tenor was singing with a head (falsetto) voice in the choral excerpts.
Rossing, (1990) says “this results in fewer harmonics of the fundamental and less
efficient conversion of breath power into sound power” (p. 360). None of the choral
formations appear to have any great effect on the way that the selected tenor performed.
Figure 5a - 5e. LTAS o f the tenor in each o f the four choral formations and solo.
FFT points: 882/1024 Bandwidth 100 Hz Hanning window of rt» «5gs buttera potni FFT porits: 882/1024 Bandwidth 1CO Hz Hanning window of 20 ms Centurrert point
frequency OHzAveraaedover 25.4s frequency 0 HzAveraged over 28.48 s
IdB] [dB]
•20. -20.
-80.
1000 3000 4000 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000

473.73 H2.-46.75dB Frequency [Hz] Frequency [Hz]
a) Tenor (Sectional-close) b) Tenor (Sectional-spread)
54
FFT points: 88 2 /1 0 2 4 Bandwidth 100 Hz H anning window of 2 0 ms Centroid FFT points: 8 8 2 /1 0 2 4 Bandwidth 100 Hz H anning window of 20 ms Centroid
frequencyuHzAverageaovei40.34 s liequency U HzAvetagedova db.J s
tdB] (cfi]
■20.
•80. ■80.
1000 3000 4000 5000 6000 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
516.80 Hz,-45.65 cfi Frequency [Hz] 473.73 Hz.-51.50d8 Frequency [Hz]
c) Tenor (mixed-close) d) Tenor (mixed-spread)
FFT points; 882/1024 Bandwidth 100 Hz Hanning window of 20 ms Centroid

frequency UHzAveraged over it t l b s
IdBJ
-20.
-40.
-80.
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000

646.00 Hz.-27.46dB) Frequency [Hz]
e) Tenor Solo
Bass LTAS Graphs
No singer’s formant can be seen in Figure 6 in any of the bass’ spectral analyses.
He does show a wide peak from 2900-3500 Hz in the solo graph. There is a subtle
difference in the power shown between 3000 and 4000 Hz in the mixed-close and mixed-
spread formations. These peaks are similar to the one seen in the solo spectral analysis
with slightly less power exhibited in the choral formations. The selected bass appears to
sing with more power in both of the mixed formations between 3000 and 3200 Hz.
55
Figure 6a - 6e. LTAS o f the bass in each o f the 4 choral formations and a solo.
FFT points: 882/1024 Bandwkfth 100 Hz Hanning window of 20 ms Centioid FFT point* 892/1024 Bandwidth 1WJ Hz Hanning window of < i-ti id&s current point
frequency 0 HzAveraged over 24.54 s frequency 0 HzAveraged over 24.33 c
{dB] m
•20. -2Q_
•80. •80.
1000 3000 4000 5000 6000 1000 2000 3000 5000 6000
689.06 Hz.-55.61 dB Frequency |Hz) 775.20 H2.-57.81 dB Frequency [Hz!
a) Bass (Sectional-close) b) Bass (Sectional-spread)
FFT points: 882/1024 Bandwidth 100 Hz Hanning window of 20 ms Centroid FFT points: 882/1024 Bandwidth 100 Hz Hanning window of 20 ms Centroid
[dB] [dB]
•20. -20.
•40.
•60 . -60.
•80 .
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 1000 3000 5000 6000
775.20 Hz.-51.11 dB Frequency [Hz] 732.13 Hz,-49.Q4dB Frequency [Hz]
c) Bass (M ixed-close) d) Bass (M ixed-spread)
FFT points: 882/1024 Bandwidth 100 Hz Honing window of 20 ms Centroid

m
•20.
•8 0 ,
1000 3000 4000 5000 6000

775.20 Hz.-45.83d8 Frequency [Hz]
e) Bass Solo
LTAS of Isolated Vowel Sounds
In order to determine if any of the isolated vowels sounds were sung differently in
the four choral formations, an LTAS o f a selected ah [a], eh [e], and ee [i] vow els was
performed for each selected singer in each of the four choral recordings as well as the
solo recording. Since the range is different for each of the singers, the pitches sung are
56
not the same for each singer. However, the exact same vowel sounds were isolated for
each singer in each of the five examples by selecting the vowel sound from the
waveform. Using the sound editor, a particular segment of the waveform (i.e. an isolated
vowel sound) can be selected and an LTAS can be performed on that segment. Figure 5
illustrates the method that was used to isolate the vowel sounds.
Figure 7. Waveform and illustration o f isolated vowel sound.
os.
..mu tt 1 llfj l l i i mi jj|n
30
Waveform o f Soprano choral selection 1
W aveform o f Soprano choral selection with isolated vowel selected
Soprano Isolated Vowel Sounds
As indicated by Figure 8 for the ah [a] vowel, the soprano solo shows the
presence of a third major peak around 4000 Hz. This peak is not pronounced enough to
be called a singer’s formant, rather it represents a tuning of the formants over a range of
frequencies in order to make it coincide with the fundamental of the note being sung
(Rossing, 1990). According to Rossing, this is characteristic of the soprano voice. The
least amount of power in the 3000-4000 Hz range is shown in the mixed-spread
formation. None of the choral formations show a great deal of difference in the power
exhibited in the 1st and 2nd formants between 500 and 1000 Hz. Spacing and/or
57
formation do not seem to effect this soprano’s ah [a] vowel.
Figure 8a- 8e. Soprano isolated ah [a] vowels in all four choral formations as well as the solo.
FFT points: 882/1024 Bandwidth 100 Hz Hanning window of 20 ms Centroid FFT points: 882/1024 Bandvddfh 100 Hz Hanning window of 20 ms Centroid
[dB] [dB]
*20 •20.
-40.
-60.
-80. -80.
21
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Frequency IHzl Frequency [Hzl
a) Soprano [a] vowel 1 (Sectional-close) b) Soprano [a] vowel 2 (Sectional-spread)
FFT points: 882/1024 Bandwidth 1ft) Hz Hanning window of 20 ms Centroid FFT points: ^2/1 0 2 4 Bandwidth 100 Hz Hanning window of 20 ms Centroid
frequency 0 HzAvetaged over 0.8 s frequency 0 HzAveraged over 0.8 s
[dB] [dB]
-20.
-40 •40.
•60. -60.
•80. •80.
1000 3000 4000 6000 1000 2000 3000 4000 6000

Frequency [Hz] Frequency [Hz]
c) Soprano [a] vow el 3 (M ixed-close) d) Soprano [a] vowel 4 (M ixed-spread)

[dB]
-20
•60.
•80.
1000 2000 3000 4000 6000

Frequency [Hz]
e) Soprano [aj vowel (Solo)
Figure 9 shows the eh [e] vowel for the soprano. Again, there is no evidence of a
singer’s formant in the solo or in the choral formations. According to Rossing (1990),
this is what is expected. Notice the wide peak that occurs in the 3000-5000 Hz range in
the solo sample. Again, this represents a blending of several formants in order to tune to
the fundamental frequency of the pitch being sung. There is more evidence of power in
58
both the sectional-close and sectional-spread formations for this particular vowel sound,
but none of the choral formations show as much power in the first formant (Fi) as the in
the solo graph. The 2nd formant, which occurs at around 1750 Hz for the [e] vowel,
shows more power (volume) in the sectional-close and sectional-spread formations. It
appears that the selected soprano sings with more volume in both of the sectional choral
formations than in the spread formations on this isolated [e] vowel.
Figure 9a - 9e. Soprano isolated eh [e] vowels in the four choral formations as well as the solo.
FFT points: 882/1024 Bandwidth 100 Hz Hanning window of 20 ms Centroid FFT points: 882/1024 Bandwidth 1Q0 Hz Hanning window of 20 ms Centroid
frequency 0 HzAveraged over 1.1 s frequency 0 HzAveraged over 1.061
[dB] [dB]
•20. •20.
•40. -40.
•80. •80.
1000 2000 3000 4000 6000 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Frequency Hil Frequency [Hz]
a) Soprano [s] vowel 1 (Sectional-close) b) Soprano [e] vowel 2 (Sectional-spread)
FFT points: 082/1024 Bandwidth 100 Hz Hanning window of 20 ms Centroid FFT points: 882/1024 BandwkfthlOGHz Hanning window of 20 ms Centroid
[dB] [dB]
■20. _
•40.
•60. -60 .
-80. -80 .
1000 2000 3000 4000 6000 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
c) Soprano [e ] vowel 3 (M ixed-close) d) Soprano [e ] vowel 4 (Mixed-spread)

-20.
-40.
-60.
-80.
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000

Frequency [Hi]
e) Soprano [e ] vowel (Solo)
59
The ee [i] vowel shown in Figure 10 shows no singer’s formant in any of the
spectral analyses for the selected soprano. The solo analysis shows an almost perfect
sound wave with very little presence of vibrato. There is a higher peak at around 4200
Hz in the solo graph with a gradual rise in power level immediately preceding it. None of
the graphs of the four choral formations resembles the graph of the solo. When looking
at the power exhibited in the 1st formant at around 500 Hz, it is clear that the sectional-
close and sectional-spread formations more closely resemble the power seen in the solo
graph. The least amount of power is shown in the mixed-spread formation for the
soprano on this particular vowel sound.
Figure 10a - lOe. Soprano isolated ee [i] vowels in four choral formations as well as the solo.
FFT points: 882/1024 Bandwidth 100 H2 Hanning window of 20 ms Centroid FFT points: 882/1024 Bandwidth 100 Hz Hanning window of 20 ms Centroid
fdB]
•20. •20. v
•40.
•80. •80.
1000 2000 3000 4000 6000 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
a) Soprano [i] vow el 1 (Sectional-ciose) b) Soprano [i] vowel 2 (Sectional-spread)
FFT points: 882/1024 Bandwicfth 100 Hz Hanning window erf 20 ms Centroid FFT points: 882/1024 Bandwidth 1(XI Hz Hanning window of 20 ms Centroid
WBj [dB]
•20. -20.
-80. -80.
1000 2000 3000 6000 1000 2000 3000 5000 6000

c) Soprano [i] vowel 3 (M ixed-close) d) Soprano [i] vowel 4 (M ixed-spread)
60
FFT points: 8 8 2 /1 0 2 4 Bandwidth 100 Hz H anning window of 2 0 ms Centroid
frequency 0 HzA veraged over 0.&1 s
0 1000 2000 3000 4000

Frequency
e) Soprano [i] vowel (Solo)
Alto Isolated Vowel Sounds

Figure 11 represents the isolated ah [a] vowels for the alto. She shows no signs of
a singer’s formant in any of the choral formations. There are clear peaks between 3000
and 4300 Hz but not enough power to be considered a singer’s formant. The graph of the
solo ah vowel represents a blending of several formants and could be classified as a
singer’s formant. This singer exhibits more power in the 3000-4300 frequency range in
the sectional-close formation for this particular vowel sound and the LTAS of the
sectional-close formation more closely resembles the LTAS of the solo for the isolated ah
[a] vowel.
Figure 11a - l i e . Alto isolated ah [a] vowel in all four choral formations as well as the solo.
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Frequency Frequency
a) Alto [a] vowel 1 (Sectional-close) b) Alto [a] vowel 2 (Sectional-spread)
61
FFT points: 88 2 /1 0 2 4 Bandwidth 100 H2 H anning window of 2 0 m s Centroid FFT points: 8 8 2 /1 0 2 4 Bandwkfth 100 H z H anning window of 20 ms Centroid
frequency 0 H zA veraged over 0.8 $ frequency 0 H zA veraged over 0.8 s
m [dB]
■20.
-40.
■60.
•80.
1000 2000 4000 5000 6000 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
c) Alto [a] vow el 3 (M ixed-close) d) Alto [a] vowel 4 (M ixed-spread)

[dB]
-20.
•40.
•80
1000 2000 3000 4000 6000

Frequency [Hz]
e) Alto [a] vowel (Solo)
In Figure 12, the alto once again exhibits more power around 3000 Hz in the
sectional-close formation. She does not exhibit a singer’s formant in her solo example,
but rather a broad peak from 2900 - 4200 Hz representing a blending or tuning of several
formants into a wider peak. None of the LTAS for the isolated eh [e] vowel resembles
the solo example for the same vowel sound. This particular alto is singing with less
power in all of the choral formations than she exhibits in the solo mode. Notice that the
1st formant in the solo graph reaches about 35 dB compared to between 40 and 45 dB in
the choral formations. The alto sings with the least amount of power in the mixed-spread
formation.
62
Figure 12a - 12e. Alto isolated eh [e] vowels for all four choral formations as well as the solo.
frequency 0 HzAveraged over 1.1$ frequency 0 HzAveraged over 1.4 $
IdB]
•20. -20.
•40.
•80.
1000 3000 4000 6000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000

Frequency [Hz] Frequency [Hz)
a) Alto [e] vowel 1 (Sectional-close) b) Alto [a] vowel 2 (Sectional-spread)
FFT points: 882/1024 Bandwidth 1CM3Hz Hanning window of 20 ms Centroid FFT points: 882/1024 Bandwidth 100 Hz Hanning window of 20 ms Centroid
m
■20. -20.
•40.
-60.
-80.
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
c) Alto [s] vow el 3 (M ixed-close) d) Alto [e ] vowel 4 (Mixed-spread)
FFT points: 882/1024 Bandwidth 1CO Hz Hanning window of 20 ms Centroid

[dB]
-20.
•40.
•60.
•80.
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000

Frequency [Hz]
e) Alto [e] vowel (Solo)
Figure 13 represents the isolated ee [i] vowel for the alto. Once again, there is no
clear evidence of a singer’s formant in any of the choral formations. All of the LTAS
graphs of the choral formations resemble the LTAS of the solo with less power shown in
the 2000-4200 Hz range. Her 1st formants for all four choral formations are quite similar,
indicating that she is singing with approximately the same volume on this particular
vowel sound in all of the formations. For this particular singer, the mixed-close and
63
mixed-spread formations exhibit slightly more power for the isolated [i] vowel sound.
Figure 13a - 13e. Alto isolated ee [i] vowels for all four choral formations as well as the solo.
frequency 0 HzAveraged over 0.92 s frequency U HzAveraged over U.34 s
[dB]
-20. •20.
-60.
-80.
2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
a) Alto [i] vowel 1 (Sectional-close) b) Alto [i] vowel 2 (Sectional-spread)
FFT points: 882/1024 Bandwidth 100 Hz Hanning window of 20 ms Centroid FFT points 882/1024 Bandwkfth 100 Hz Hanning window of 20 ms Centroid
frequency 0 HzAveraged over 0.92 s frequency U HzAveraged over U.Ub s
m [dB]
-20.
-4 0 .
-80 -80.
1000 2000 3000 4000 1030 2000 3000 4000 5000

0.00 H2.-65.50 dB JB Frequency [Hz] Frequency [Hz]
c) Alto [i] vowel 3 (M ixed-close) d) Alto [i] vowel 4 (M ixed-spread)
FFT points 882/1024 Bandwidth 100 Hz Harming window of 20 ms Centroid

frequency 0 Hleveraged over 0.72 s
[dB]
-20.
1000 2000 3000 5000 6000

Frequency [H2 ]
e) Alto [i] vowel (Solo)
Tenor Isolated Vowel Sounds
There are clear peaks for the tenor’s [a] vowel in the mixed-close and mixed-
spread formations between 3000 and 4000 Hz as shown in Figure 14. The mixed-close
64
peak is slightly higher than the peak seen in the mixed-spread formation. Sectional-
spread and mixed-spread show approximately the same power in this frequency range but
there are more definite peaks shown in the mixed-spread example. The solo example
clearly indicates the singer’s formant between 3000 and 3500 Hz. The singer’s formant
is not seen in any of the choral formation graphs. The 1st and 2nd formants of the
sectional-spread formation more closely resemble those of the solo. For the tenor, it
appears that less power is used in the sectional-close formation indicating that he is
singing with less volume in this particular formation.
Figure 14a - 14e. Tenor isolated ah [a] vowel for all four choral formations as well as the solo.
frequency 0 HzAveraged over 0 .8 1 frequency 0 HzAveraged over 0.88 s
m
*2 0 . ■2 0 .
-80.
-80.
1000 3000 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000

Frequency (Hzj Frequency [H*]
a) Tenor [a] vowel 1 (Sectional-close) b) Tenor [a] vowel 2 (Sectional-spread)
FFT points: 862/1024 Bandwicfch 10GHz Hanning window of 20 ms Centroid FFT points: 882/1024 Bandwidth 100 H2 Hanning window of 20 ms Centroid
frequency 0 HzAveraged ovei 0.86 s frequency 0 HzAveraged over 0.86 s
IdB] [dB]
-2 0 . -2 0 .
-60.
-80.
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 2000 5000 6000

Frequency (Hz) Frequency [Hz]
c) Tenor [a] vowel 3 (M ixed-close) d) Tenor [a] vowel 4 (M ixed-spread)
65
FFT points: 8 8 2 /1 0 2 4 Bandwidth 100 Hz H anning window of 2 0 rrw Centroid
frequency Q H z A v rp g e d over 0.74 s _____
[dB]
•20 _
1000 3000 4000 5000

Frequency [Hz]
e) Tenor [a] vowel (Solo)
The tenor shows no indication of a singer’s formant in any of the four choral
formations on the isolated eh [e] vowel as seen in Figure 15. He does, however, show a
clear singer’s formant in the solo example at around 3300 Hz. When listening to the
recordings of this particular singer, it was noted that he was singing in head (falsetto)
voice for this particular vowel sound in the choral formations. Therefore, there are fewer
harmonics seen in the 3000-4000 Hz frequency range along with a lower power level.
Figure 15a-15e. Tenor isolated eh [e] vowels in all four choral formations as well as the solo.
FFT points: 8)2/1024 Bandwidth 100 Hz Hanning window of 20 ms Centroid FFT points: 882/1024 Bandwidth 100 Hz Hanning window of 20 ms Centroid
m
*2 0 . *20 .
-40. •40.
-80 -80.
2000 30)0 4000 6000 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
a) Tenor [s] vow el 1 (Sectional-close) b) Tenor [s] vowel 2 (Sectional-spread)
66
FFT points: 8 8 2 /1 0 2 4 Bandwidth 100 Hz H anning window of 20 ms Centroid FFT points: 882/1024 Bandwidth 100 Hz Hanning window of 20 ms Centroid
frequency 0 H zA vetaged ovet 1.14 s frequency 0 HzAvetaged over 1.14 s
[dB] [dB]
•2 0 .
•80. ■80.
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 1000 2000 3000 4000 0000 6000
c) Tenor [e] vowel 3 (M ixed-close) d) Tenor [e] vowel 4 (Sectional-spread)
FFT points: 882/1024 BandwkfthlQOHz Harming window of 20 ms Centroid

■2 0 .
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000

Frequency [Hz]
e) Tenor [c] vowel (Solo)
For the isolated ee [i] vowels represented in Figure 16, the tenor exhibits no
singer’s formant in any of the four choral formations. There are very clear peaks at 2100
and 3500 Hz in the solo example which represent a perfect example of the F2 and F3
formant frequencies for the [i] vowel. There is less power exhibited in this range in all of
the choral formation graphs indicating a decrease in volume. Once again, the tenor is
singing with a head (falsetto) voice on this particular vowel sound. Notice that the
mixed-spread LTAS more closely resembles the LTAS of the solo with less power in the
3rd and 4th formants.
67
Figure 16a - 16e. Tenor isolated ee [i] vowels for all four choral formations as well as the solo.
FFT points: 8)2/1024 Bandwidth 1(Xl H2 Hanning wridcw of 20 ms Centroid FFT points: 882/1024 Bandwidth 1X Hz Hanning window of 20 ms Centroid
frequency 0 HzAveraged over 0.62 $ frequency 0 HzAveraged over U.6 s
[dB] [dB]
•2 0 .
•40.
•60. ■60.
-80
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
a) Tenor [i] vow el 1 (Sectional-close) b) Tenor [i] vowel 2 (Sectional-spread)
FFT points: 882/1024 Bandwidth 100 Hz Hanning window of 20 ms Centroid FFT points: 882/1024 BandwkfchlQQHz Hanning window of 20 ms Centroid
frequency 0 HzAveraged over 0.62 s frequency U HzAveraged over u.b'4 s
W B! [dB]
•2 0 . -2 0 .
•40. •40.
■60.
-80
1000 4000 5000 6000 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
c) Tenor [i] vow el 3 (M ixed-close) d) Tenor [i] vowel 4 (M ixed-spread)
FFT points: (832/1024 Bandwidth 1CHDHz Hanning window of 20 ms Centroid

[dB]
-40.
-60.
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000

Frequency [Hz]
e) Tenor [i] vow el (Solo)
Bass Isolated Vowel Sounds
In Figure 17 the bass exhibits a strong peak on the [a] vowel in both mixed-close
and mixed-spread formations at around 3000 - 3100 Hz. The peak seen in the mixed-
close formation is very similar to the peak seen at 3000 Hz in his solo example. The peak
at around 3000 Hz in the mixed-spread formation has almost as much power as the solo
at that frequency but with a more rounded top indicating more of a blending of the
68
formants. The selected bass appears to sing with more power on the 1st and 2nd formants
in the mixed-close and mixed-spread formations, but the graph of the mixed-spread
formation more closely resembles that of the solo for this particular vowel sound. The
power level seen in the 500-1500 Hz range in the mixed close and mixed-spread
formations indicates that the bass is singing with slightly more volume in these particular
formations.
Figure 17a - 17e. Bass isolated ah [a] vowels for all four choral formations as well as the solo.
FFT points: 882/1024 Bandwidth 1CBDHz Hanning window of 20 ms Centroid FFT points: 882/1024 Bandwidth 100 Hz Hanning window of 20 ms Centroid
frequency 0 HzAveraged over 0.92 s frequency 0 HzAveraged over 0.88 $
[dB]
-2 0 . -2 0 .
•40.. •40.
•60. •60.
•80. -80.
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 1000 2000 4000 5000 6000
a) Bass [a] vowel 1 (Sectional-close) b) Bass [a] vowel 2 (Sectional-spread)
FFT points: 882/1024 Bandwidth 100 Hz Hanning window of 20 ms Centroid FFT points: 882^1024 Bandwidth 100 Hz Hanning window of 20 ms Centroid
frequency 0 HzAveraged over 0.8B s frequency 0 HzAveraged over 0.86 s
[dB] m
•2 0 .
•60. ■60 .
■80. •80.
1000 3000 4000 5000 6000 1000 2000 3000 4000 6000
c) Bass [a] vowel 3 (M ixed-close) d) Bass [a] vowel 4 (Mixed-spread)

[dB]
•2 0 ,
1000 2000 3000 4000 6000

Frequency [Hz]
e) Bass [a] vowel (Solo)
69
The eh [e] vowel shows no singer’s formant in any of the choral formations or in
the solo example for the bass as shown in Figure 18. However, there is more power seen
in the 2500 - 3500 Hz range in the mixed-close formation than in any of the other three
choral formations. The bass is not singing with as much volume in any of the choral
formations as he uses in the solo. The graph of the mixed-close formation is very similar
to the graph of the solo for the same vowel sound with lower power levels seen for all
frequencies.
Figure 18a - 18e. Bass isolated eh [e] vowels for four choral formations as well as the solo.
frequency U HzAveraged over 1.1 s frequency 0 HzAveraged over 1.12 s
W B]
-2 0 . -2 0 .
•40.
•GO.
-80.
1000 2000 3000 5000 6000 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Frequency [Hzj Frequency [Hz]
a) Bass [a] vowel 1 (Sectional-close) b) Bass [e] vowel 2 (Sectional-spread)

FFT points; 882/1024 Bandwidth 100 Hz Hanning window of 20 ms Centroid frequency 0 HzAveraged over 1.08 s
[dB]
[dB]
■2 0 .
•2 0 .
•GO.
•80. -80.
2000 3000 4000 5000 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 8000
Frequency Frequency [Hz]
c) Bass [a] vow el 3 (M ixed-close) d) Bass [e] vowel 4 (M ixed-spread)
70
FFT points: ^ 2 / 1 0 2 4 Bandwidth 100 Hz H anning window of 20 ms Centroid
frequency 0 H zA veraged over 0.7 8 s
m
-2 0 .
-40.
-80.
1000 5000
Frequency [Hz]
e) Bass [e] vowel (Solo)
Figure 19 shows very clear peaks at around 3200 - 3300 Hz for the bass’ ee [i]
vowel in all four choral formations as well as the solo example. However, the mixed-
close and mixed-spread graphs exhibit more power around 1900 Hz. The 1st and 2nd
formant frequencies are similar for all four choral formations, and indicate that he is
singing with approximately the same volume in all formations and with only slightly less
volume than is shown in the solo.
Figure 19a-19e. Isolated ee [i] vowels for all four choral formations as well as the solo.
FFT points: 882/1024 Bandwidth 100 Hz Hanning window of 20 ms Centroid FFT mints: 882/1024 Bandwidth 1&) Hz Hanning window of 20 ms Centroid
[dB] IdBJ
-2 0. •2 0 .
•40. 40.
•60. -60.
•80. -80.
2000 4000 6000 2000 4000 6000

Frequency [Hz] Frequency [Hr]
a) Bass [i] vowel 1 (Sectional-close) b) Bass [i] vowel 2 (Sectional-spread)
FFT pewits: 882/1024 BandwkSh 1(® Hz Hanning window of 20 ms Centroid FFT points; 882/1024 Bandwidth 100 Hz Hanning window of 20 ms Centroid
[dB] [dB]
-2 0 .
-60. -60.
-80. -80.
2000 4000 6000 4000 6000

Frequency [Hz] Frequency IHz]
c) Bass [i] vowel 3 (Mixed-close) d) Bass [i] vowel 4 (Mixed-spread)
71
FFT points: 962/1024 Bandwidth 100 Hz Hanning window erf 20 ms Centioid
frequency u HzAveraged over U.S6 s
-60.
-80.
2000 4000 6000

Frequency [Hz]
e) Bass [i] vowel 5 (Solo)
72
CHAPTER V
CONCLUSIONS
There are many benefits to be gained by singing in choral ensembles. Performing
in an ensemble can foster a spirit of cooperation and camaraderie and can help diminish
the negative aspects of competition that sometimes arise in solo study. It is, therefore,
imperative that choral conductors, teachers of voice, and singers communicate with each
other about choral singing so that the experience in the choral ensemble will be a vocally
healthy and musically enriching experience. While there are many similarities,
researchers believe that choral singing and solo singing are unique forms of singing that
make different demands on the singer (Rossing, Sundberg, and Temstrom, 1986). Some
voice teachers are reluctant to allow their students to participate in choral singing groups
because they are asked to sing in a way that is different from what is being taught in the
voice studio. Many singers, however, can develop the skills that are needed to sing in
both solo and choral modes.
Research shows that there are many things that can influence choral tone and
choral blend. Some of these include vowel uniformity, vibrato, choral formation, and
strategic placement of singers. This study sought to determine the effect that changes in
choral formation and spacing between singers would have on select voices of an
ensemble as revealed through long-term average spectra (LTAS) of the individual
singers. Singers were also given the opportunity to express their preferences for each of
the choral formations.
From the results of the questionnaire given to all the members of the ensemble
73
immediately following the recording session, it was found that there were significant
differences in preference rankings for each of the five questions. The choristers ranked
mixed-spread significantly higher than mixed-close and sectional-close for “ease of
singing.” For question two, “ease of hearing and blending with their section,” the
choristers ranked sectional-spread significantly higher than mixed-close. Mixed-spread
and mixed-close were ranked significantly higher than sectional-close for “ease of
hearing others.” For question four, “choral sound preference,” the choristers ranked
mixed-spread significantly higher than sectional-close. Finally, for “preference of
formation in which to sing,” die choristers ranked mixed-spread and mixed-close
significantly higher than sectional-close.
These results were not necessarily reflected in the LTAS of the four randomly
selected singers. The soprano appeared to sing with slightly more power in the sectional-
spread formation, but all of her LTAS graphs were similar to her solo graph.
The selected alto appeared to have slightly more power in the 3rd and 4th formants
while singing in the sectional-close formation. There was no notable difference between
the four choral formation graphs for this particular singer.
Even though the tenor clearly sings with a singer’s formant in the solo excerpt, he
does not exhibit this formant in any of the four choral formations. He does appear to sing
with slightly more power in the higher frequencies while singing in the two mixed
formations.
The bass does not exhibit a singer’s formant in his solo excerpt, but rather a
blending of several formants in the 2900-3500 Hz range. From the graphs of the choral
74
formations, it appears that he sings with just slightly more power in the two mixed
formations.
Isolating individual vowel sounds was a little less conclusive than the LTAS of
the entire choral excerpt. The singers appeared to sing with slightly more power in the
3rd and 4th formant region in the mixed-spread formation and mixed-close formation for
eight of the twelve isolated vowel sounds. Sectional-close and sectional-spread showed
slightly more power in this region for the remaining four isolated vowel sounds. These
results can be seen in Table 3.
Table 3
Isolated vowel sounds and the corresponding choralformations which appear to produce
the most power in the fundamental frequency ranges.
Vowel Soprano Alto Tenor Bass
[a] mixed-close sectional-close mixed-close mixed-spread
[e] mixed-close sectional-close sectional-close mixed-close
H sectional-spread mixed-spread mixed-spread mixed-spread
The four randomly selected singers’ comments provided some interesting insights
into the way different singers approach the differences between solo and choral singing
modes. They agreed on several of the answers. One item that was thought to be a
problem for all but the tenor was that they are asked to sing at dynamic levels that are too
soft to be sung in an efficient manner in a choral ensemble. They all agreed that private
75
voice study improves their ability to sing in the choir and that if there is a voice that does
not seem to “blend with the ensemble it is often thought to be the voice of someone who
has had formal voice lessons because these singers can sometimes be ‘unwilling to
relinquish vocal color and beauty for the good of a more blended choral sound.1”
All of the singers except the alto felt that singing with a “straight tone” does not
cause problems for them and that there is a way to sing a “straight tone’ that will not
cause vocal problems. All of the four selected singers felt that singing in the choir has
had a positive effect on their musicianship and sight reading skills, in agreement with two
things that were mentioned in the NATS Journal (2005) article referenced in the
introduction. This article suggested that students begin to develop musicianship in the
areas of ear training, sight singing and listening, and gain experience in different musical
styles and performance practices while singing in choir.
From these comments by the singers, it appears that they have experienced
differences in the techniques used while singing in the choir and those used when singing
in the private voice studio. The comments also suggest that some singers, for whatever
reason, are sometimes unwilling to modify their singing style in order to “blend” with the
choral ensemble. Perhaps acknowledging that choral singing and solo singing are two
different modes of vocal performance and giving students “permission” to explore
different singing techniques would help eliminate some of the problems these students
have experienced with respect to blend.
The results of the questionnaire also indicate that experienced singers preferred
singing in a mixed-spread choral formation and their LTAS graphs showed that this
76
formation exhibited slightly more power (intensity) for several of the isolated vowel
sounds. However, the graphs of the choral excerpts as compared to the solos revealed
that the choral graphs for the soprano and bass were very similar to the graphs of their
solos, but the graphs of the tenor and the alto were very different from their solo graphs.
The tenor was singing in head (falsetto) voice dining the choral recordings and all
indications are that the alto was singing at a reduced volume level during the choral
recordings.
Clearly, four different singers could have produced entirely different results and
therefore the LTAS of the choral formations needs to be explored further to see if the
results would be different for different singers. It is obvious from the results of this study
that the four selected singers did sing with slightly different techniques in the choral
formations than they did while singing their solos. Further study should attempt to record
more than one person per part in order to determine if all sopranos, altos, tenors, and
basses are affected in the same ways by change of formation and spacing.
A different choice of choral literature could have also had different effects on the
singers. The music used for the study was the familiar art song “Caro mio ben” by
early in their private vocal instruction. “Flower of Beauty” was selected from the
ensemble’s current literature because it was felt that a romantic style piece would be sung
in a manner that was closer to the singers’ normal solo style of singing. Obviously,
Renaissance and Baroque literature would not be good choices to compare to solo
77
recordings. However, literature from the Romantic period might provide interesting
comparisons.
The members of this ensemble were accustomed to singing in many different
formations. Therefore, it was easy for them to consciously think about how they sang in
each of the four formations (mixed-close, mixed-spread, sectional-close, and sectional-
spread). This would not be as easy for a group that never changed choral formations.
Therefore, the results of this study cannot be generalized to choirs who only sing in
sectional formation.
Choral conductors must make intelligent and informed decisions about what
students are asked to do in the choral ensemble, both in rehearsal and in performance.
The selected choristers reported that singing with a straight tone for an extended period of
time can cause vocal fatigue. They also reported that singing too softly can be very tiring
when it is continued for an extended period. These are choral techniques that enable us
to produce artistically beautiful music. However, rehearsals should be structured so that
choristers are not asked to sing at extremely soft dynamic levels or use a straight tone for
the entire rehearsal period.
It is also important for the conductor to constantly listen to the singers in the
ensemble with a critical ear. Voices change as singers grow and mature. Therefore, it is
imperative that the positioning of singers is constantly analyzed. Research shows that it
does make a difference to the blend of the ensemble when voices are strategically placed.
Many problems with blend and balance can be solved by moving students around in the
ensemble.
78
As researchers learn more about choral acoustics and the effects of choral singing
used to achieve their desired choral blend. It is imperative that choral conductors glean
the knowledge from the research that is taking place in choral acoustics and use it for the
betterment of choral music.
79
APPENDIX A
Ensemble Member Questionnaire
Choral Formations
College Rank________ Voice Part___________

Age_______ # Years Private Voice Study________
(Jr. Hi, High School, and College)
How do you classify your voice? a. a big voice b a small voice c. an average size
Please rank the 4 choral formations for each of the following questions with 1 being best
and 4 being worst.
1. In which formation did you find it easiest to sing your part?

(1 is easiest to sing your part, 4 is hardest to sing your part)
a. mixed-close
b. mixed-spread _________
c. sectional-close _________
d. sectional-spread_________
2. Rank the 4 choral formations regarding the ability to hear and blend with your section
(1 is easiest to hear & blend, 4 is hardest to hear & blend)
a. mixed close _______
c. sectional-close
d. sectional-spread _________
3. Rank the 4 formations regarding the ability to hear the other sections of the ensemble.
(1 is easiest to hear other sections, 4 is hardest to hear other sections)
a. mixed-close _________
d. sectional-spread _____
80
4. Rank the choral sound of each of the 4 formations
(1 is best choral sound, 4 is worst choral sound)
5. In which formation did you prefer to sing?

(rang for 1 to 4 with 1 being most preferred)
81
APPENDIX B
Ensemble Member Questionnaire

Choral Singing vs. Solo Singing Technique
College Rank_____________________ VoicePart________
Age____________ # Years Private Voice Study_________

(Jr. Hi, High School, and College)
How do you classify your voice?

a. a big voice b. a small voice c. an average voice
(Please circle the answer of your choice. You are encouraged to comment further in the
space provided.)
1. Do you place or focus your tone while singing in the choir in the same way you do
while singing a solo?
a. always b. often c. seldom d. never
2. Do you use the same dynamic levels offorte or mezzo forte in the choral ensemble
that you use in solo singing?
3. Are you asked to sing at dynamic levels which are too soft to be sung in an efficient
manner while in a choral ensemble?
82
4. Private voice study improves my ability to perform in the choir.
a. strongly agree b. agree c. don’t know d. disagree e. strongly disagree
5. If there is a voice that does not seem to “blend” with the ensemble, how often do you
think it to be the voice of someone who has had formal voice lessons?
6. If a balance or blend problem is caused by a trained singer, it is usually because

a. the singer is uncertain about how to sing in choir.
b. the singer will not change his/her individual vocal style
c. the singer does not have enough vocal control to be able to change techniques
d. the singer is not away that he/she has a problem
e. other (explain)
7. I am able to participate in choir with little or no effect on my individual vocal

technique.
83
8. Does singing with a “straight tone” cause vocal problems for you?
a. always b. often c. seldom d. never.
9. There is a way to sing a “straight tone” that will not cause vocal problems,
10. What do you think is the best method that can be used to achieve choral blend?
11. Briefly comment about how you think singing in choir affects your voice and/or your
overall musicianship.
84
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85
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90
VITA
Debra Sue Atkinson

Born: March 6,1956
Greenwood, MS
ACADEM IC PREPARATION:
DA in Music Education: University of Mississippi, May 2006
Concentration: Choral Music Education
Assistant Conductor/Accompanist - Women’s Glee 2003-06
Conductor - Women’s Ensemble 2004-05
Instructor - Music Appreciation 2003-06
Staff Accompanist - voice studios 2004-2005
Research Topics: The Effect of Music Education on Other Areas of a Student’s
Life - Including Academic Achievement, Behavior, and Self Esteem.
The Effect o f Choral Formation on the Perceived Blend and
Balance of the Choral Sound.
The Effect of Choral Formation on the Acoustical Attributes
of the Singing Voice
Master of Music Education: Delta State University, Cleveland, MS - 2002
Concentration: Choral Music Education
Research Topic: Does Music Make You Smarter? The Effect of Formal Musical
Training on the Academic Scores of Students.
Bachelor of Music in Vocal Performance: Delta State University, 1978
Concentration: Vocal Performance
PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE:
Organist/Children’s Choir Director: October 2004 - present
St. Peter’s Episcopal Church, Oxford, Ms 38655
Director, Oxford Children’s Choir: 2004-2005
■ Served as accompanist and Assistant Director 2003-2004
■ Planned and coordinated the activities and performances of the Choir 2004-2005
Accompanist, Oxford Civic Chorus: 2005-2006
Choral Director/Elementary Music Teacher: 1999-2003
Pillow Academy (Private School), Greenwood Ms 38930
* Directed High School Choir and Junior High choral feeder program.
■ Taught elementary general music to grades K-5.
» Directed the annual school musicals.
Organist/Choir Director: 1992-October 2004
Episcopal Church of the Nativity, Greenwood, Ms 38930
Choral Director: 1979-1999
Harmony - (community women’s ensemble)
Organist: 1985-1994
N orth G reenw ood B aptist Church, G reenw ood, M s
Organist: 1972-1985
First Baptist Church, Greenwood, Ms
91
RESEARCH PRESENTED
■ The Effect o f Choral Formation on the Perceived Blend and Balance o f the Choral Sound
presented at the Missouri Music Teachers Association conference on January, 28,2005 during
the poster session.
* The Effect o f Choral Formation on Choral Blend and Balance published in Mississippi Music
Educators Journal, February 2005.
* The Effect o f Choral Formation on Choral Blend and Balance presented at the Mississippi
Choral Directors Camp on June 14, 2005, Morton, MS.
■ The Effect o f Choral Formation on Choral Blend and Balance presented at the University o f
Alabama Research Session, July 2 5 ,2005, Mississippi ACDA Convention, April 2006.
PROFESSIONAL MEMBERSHIPS:
* MENC
■ ACDA
■ American Guild o f Organists
■ Choristers Guild
■ Former member Mississippi Federation o f Music Clubs
Past President, Greenwood Matinee Musicale
* Mu Phi Epsilon alumni, Delta State University Collegiate Chapter
* Phi Kappa Phi
■ Pi Kappa Lambda - initiated at Delta State University 2002
PROFESSIONAL SERVICE:
■ Served as Director o f the Choir at Diocesan Annual Council, Episcopal Diocese o f
Mississippi, February 2006
■ Former Member State Liturgy and Music Commission - Episcopal Diocese o f Mississippi
■ Judge for District 1 Choral Festival, February 2005
■ Accompanist, Oxford Children’s Choir - 2003-04
■ Director, Oxford Children’s Choir - 2004-05
■ Accompanist, Oxford Civic Chorus - 2005
■ Director o f HARMONY (a community women’s ensemble) 1979-1999
■ Former District and State Festival Chairman, Mississippi Federation o f Music Clubs -1 9 8 5 -
1994
HONORS AND AW ARDS

■ Selected Outstanding Graduate Music Student, University o f Mississippi, May, 2005
■ Graduate Achievement Award in Music, awarded by University o f Mississippi Graduate
School, April, 2005
■ Selected Outstanding Graduate Choral Student, University o f Mississippi 2004
■ Selected to join Pi Kappa Lambda, Delta State University, 2002
■ Selected to join Omicron Delta Kappa, Delta State University 1978
■ Selected to join Phi Kappa Phi, Delta State University 1977
■ Selected to perform on Delta State University Honors Recitals 7 out o f 7 semesters o f
eligibility
92

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THE EFFECT OF CHOIR FORMATION ON THE ACOUSTICAL ATTRIBUTES OF

THE SINGING VOICE

Presented for the

The University of Mississippi

All rights reserved.

ProQuest Information and Learning Company

I am submitting herewith a thesis written by Debra F. Atkinson entitled “The Effect of

Dr. Debra L. Spurgeon, Asso, ssor of Music

We have read this thesis

Dr. Alan L. Spurgeon, Associate Professor of Music

Dr. Donald L. Trott, Associate Professor of Music

Dr. Michael D. Worthy, Assistant Professor of Music

D r^ohn M. Latartara, Assistant Professor of Music

Accepted for the Council:

Dean of the GnaSuare School

In presenting this thesis in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a Doctoral

without special permission, provided that accurate acknowledgment of the source is

Permission for extensive quotation from or reproduction of this thesis may be

granted by my major professor or in her absence, by the Head of Interlibrary Services

without my written permission.

ever worked with.

collection of choral literature or choral recordings.

for this paper.

selected voices of an ensemble as revealed through long-term average spectra (LTAS) of

and solo singing.

The results indicated that experienced singers preferred singing in a mixed-spread

each of the four formations (mixed-close, mixed-spread, sectional-close, and sectional-

generalized to choirs who only sing in sectional formation.

Research Questions — ..... ....... 3

Scope and Limitations ....... 3

II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE.................................................................................... 7

1. Sample LTAS Graph...................................................................................................34

2. Choral Formations Chart.........................................................................................—37

3. LTAS of Soprano in four choralformations and solo................................................ 52

4 LTAS of Alto in four choral formations and solo...................................................... 53

5. LTAS of Tenor in four choral formations andsolo............................................ 54-55

6 LTAS of Bass in four choralformations andsolo.....................................................56

7. Waveform and illustration of isolated vowelsound ................................... 57

8. Soprano isolated [a] vowel..........................................................................................58

9. Soprano isolated [e] vowel.........................................................................................59

10. Soprano isolated [i] vowel.....................................................................................60-61

11. Alto isolated [a] vowel................. ......................................................................61 -62

12. Alto isolated [e] vowel.............................................................................................63

13. Alto isolated [i] vowel.............................................................................................64

14. Tenor isolated [a] vowel................. .................................................................. 65-66

15. Tenor isolated [e ] vowel.....................................................................................66-67

16. Tenor isolated [i] vowel........................................................................................... 68

17. Bass isolated [a] vowel............................................................................................ 69

18. Bass isolated [e] vowel.......................................................................................70-71

19. Bass isolated [i] vowel........................................................................................ 71 -72

paper written by members of the American Academy of Teachers of Singing and

musically enriching experience.

individual voices cannot be separately discemable by a listener” (Goodwin, 1980, p.

2000); “a product of sound where each element becomes unified or homogenized”

identifying timbres of a tone, whether instrumental or vocal (Maher, 1990). Additionally,

1. Do the members of the ensemble prefer one formation to another?

2. Is this preference different for men and women?

3. Is this preference related to the voice part being sung?

4. Is this preference related to the singer’s experience in choral singing?

SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS

not studied voice privately.

ACOUSTICAL PLACEMENT OF SINGERS - Positioning the singers in an acoustically

CHORAL SEATING AND STANDING ARRANGEMENTS - The way in which