Module 1

Introduction to Projects

Table of Contents

Introduction .............................................................................................................. 3

Learning Outcomes ..................................................................................................... 3

Module Topics ........................................................................................................... 3

Introduction ........................................................................................................ 4

Definitions of “Project” .......................................................................................... 5

Project Attributes ................................................................................................. 7

Projects vs. Operations ......................................................................................... 11

Types of Projects................................................................................................. 13

Identifying a Project ............................................................................................. 16

Required Reading ...................................................................................................... 17

Additional Resources .................................................................................................. 17

Summary ................................................................................................................ 17

References .............................................................................................................. 18

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Introduction
Hello and welcome to Module 1 of Project Management Overview – Introduction to Projects.

In this module you will examine the fundamental characteristics of projects. Organisations undertake
two types of work – projects and operations. In order to understand project management, there is a
need to firstly appreciate the nature of projects. Projects have distinctive characteristics, which set
many challenges for project managers. These distinctive characteristics require the process of project
management to differ from that of operations management. This module describes the features of
projects and delves into the strategic nature of projects.

Subsequent modules will build on the foundational understanding of projects gained by completing this
module. It is important that one have a sound understanding of the unique nature of projects prior to
continuing on in the curriculum for this unit and attempting the assessments.

Learning Outcomes
In this module you will learn how to:

• Identify the core attributes of projects;

• Describe the differences between projects and operations; and
• Analyse a case study to identify projects.

Module Topics
This module is broken into the following topics:

• Introduction;
• Definitions of “Project”;
• Project Attributes;
• Projects vs. Operations;
• Types of Projects; and
• Identifying a Project.

Let’s look at each one in detail.

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Introduction
Discussion Board

To start this unit, head to the Discussion Board and post an introduction
in the Student Lounge.

Introducing ourselves is an important part of our unit as it lets us all to

learn more about each other to work together better and also to network
and build a learning community which looks after its members and shares
resources. Not only is networking valuable for this unit, it can benefit
your future career as you build a network of similarly experienced project
managers.

Here are some suggestions of the things you might like to share with your
class colleagues:
• Photograph of yourself;
• Introduction: who you are, where you work, background
education and experience, city/country where you live;
• Your Expectations as a Project Management Student: why have
you decided to study Project Management? Why do you think
Project Management skills will be useful for you personally?
• Your Expectations from completing this Project Management
Overview unit: what skills do you hope to develop? Have you ever
studied the subject before?
• Personal Interests: anything you feel you might like to share
about yourself (hobbies, interests, languages spoken, special
skills); and
• Favourite Links: web sites you enjoy and would like to share with
other students, favourite quote, favourite food/recipe, etc. You
may also wish to include a link to your LinkedIn profile, Twitter
account or other relevant personal web site or blog.

Please do not hesitate to reply to someone else’s contribution e.g. ask a

question, offer a suggestion, etc.

Required Reading

It is recommended you read the following required reading before you

begin the module, the article is available via your Leganto Reading List

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 accessible from this units Blackboard menu:

• Turner, Rodney J. 2007. “Chapter 5: Projects and their

th
management.” In Gower Handbook of Project Management. 4 ed.
Hampshire, England: Gower Publishing Limited.

iLecture

To start this module watch 8.06 minutes of the following recording by

Brad Carey, this will introduce you to the unit as well as what is meant by
the term Project Management. At the 8.06 minute mark, pause and
return to this module, although note you will be referred back to the
recording further on in the module.

You can access this recording via the iLectures link on Blackboard, aptly
named Module 1.

Definitions of “Project”
As is common within most professions, there are many industry specific definitions, terms, acronyms
and jargon that are used by project management professionals. In order to better manage projects, it
is important that all parties involved in a project have the same understanding of these definitions,
terms, acronyms and jargon. Thus, it is important that we start with the definition of a project. Once
we have defined what a project is, we can build the foundations of our understanding of the strategic
nature of projects.

Self-Test

Before reading the following definitions for the term “project” write down
your own definition for “project” so that you can compare your baseline
understanding to the definition that will be used in this program of study.

Your Definition:

Next, identify four distinctive features of projects:

1.
2.
3.
4.

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The term “project” has been defined by many different researchers, governments, professional bodies
and standards. As time has gone on, the definitions for “project” have become increasingly concerned
with strategy. Below is a chronological list of definitions and the organisations or authors that those
definitions come from:

A project is a solution to a problem.

(Einsiedel 1984)

Unique process, consisting of a set of coordinated and controlled activities with start and end
dates, undertaken to achieve an objective conforming to specific requirements, including
constraints of time, cost and resources.
(British Standards Institution 2000, 10)

An endeavour in which human, material and financial resources are organised in a novel way,
to undertake a unique scope of work, of given specification, with constraints of cost and
time, so as to achieve beneficial change defined by quantitative and qualitative objectives.

(Turner 1993, 8)

A temporary organisation that is created for the purpose of delivering one or more business
products according to an agreed Business Case.

(AXELOS 2017, sec. 2.1)

A unique set of processes of coordinated and controlled activities with start and end dates,
performed to achieve project objectives.

(International Organization for Standardization 2012, 3)

A temporary endeavour undertaken to create a unique product, service or result.

(PMBOK® Guide 2017, 4)

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For the purposes of this unit we will use the Project Management Institute (PMBOK® Guide) definition
for project.

Project Attributes
Projects have several different attributes that can be used to identify them. Knowing these attributes
is important in that it helps us to separate projects from operations, where operations are an
organisation’s ongoing or routine work. Some of the key project attributes are as follows:

Process & Specified Deliverable

A project can be viewed as a process. A process is: “A systematic series of activities directed towards
causing an end result such that one or more inputs will be acted upon to create one or more outputs”
(PMBOK® Guide 2017, 18). In order to produce the outputs in a process, it is necessary to do work
(Turner 2007). So, the term "project" refers to a process that culminates in the creation of
deliverables. A deliverable is any unique and verifiable (PMBOK® Guide 2017, 4):

• Product –a unique product can be either a component of another item, an

enhancement or correction to an item, or a new end item in itself (e.g., the
correction of a defect in an end item);
• Result – a unique result, such as an outcome or document (e.g., a research project
that develops knowledge that can be used to determine whether a trend exists or a
new process will benefit society);
• Service – a unique service or capability to perform a service (e.g., a business
function that supports production or distribution).

(PMBOK® Guide 2017, 4)

So, a project consists of activities by which the deliverable is created and the project process ends
once the deliverable is completed. The deliverables must conform to specific requirements (ISO 2012)
i.e. according to specification. The deliverables define the scope of the project. The deliverable from
the process usually has an operational life beyond the project process.

Project Life Cycle

The project process has a distinctive and unique life cycle that passes through several distinct phases.
The activities and resource inputs change as the project progresses through the project phases. Thus,
today is different from yesterday. The progressive elaboration of work builds upon previous work in
order to create the deliverable. The life cycle is typically characterised by a slow start, through a
progressive build-up and peak, followed by decline and final termination. At termination "some
projects end by being phased into the normal, on-going operations of the parent organisation"
(Meredith & Mantel 2006, 10). The uniqueness of projects means that their specifications are

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progressively elaborated through their life cycle so that the project scope will be broadly described in
the early phases of the project. As the project progresses, specifications will be made more explicit
and detailed as the project team develops a better and more complete understanding of the objectives
and deliverables (PMBOK® Guide 2017).

Change
“A project produces a change” (Turner 2016, 98). A project always introduces brings something new to
the world, e.g. a product, a process or new behaviour. So, projects are generated to create change -
"projects are the change efforts of society" (Webster 2000, 4). The aim of a project is to bring about
change through revolutionary improvements (Turner 2008). The past 30 years or so have witnessed a
shift in the environment within which organisations operate - from one of bureaucracy, stability and
certainty to one where change is rapid, accelerating and endemic. Consequently "all managers must
manage change through projects ... We undertake projects because we cannot produce, or achieve the
benefit, by doing routine things" (Turner 2008). As Verzuh (2005, 5) notes:

the most irrepressible trend favouring project management is the increasing pace of change
… riding the tsunami of change becomes critical to success. This emphasis on change
increases the importance of project management, because a rapid rate of change brings a
greater need for projects … Greater changes = more innovations = more projects.

(Verzuh 2005, 5)

Projects drive change in organisations and are the result of business objectives. Thus from a business
perspective a project is aimed, a project is aimed at moving an organisation from one state to another
state in order to achieve a specific objective (PMBOK® Guide 2017). The good news for you is that this
is driving the demand across all industries for project managers. Because projects bring change,
Project Managers are by default agents of change.

Business Benefit – Solve a Problem or Seize an Opportunity

The deliverables produced by the project process are used to achieve business benefits. So projects are
created to produce deliverables that are then used to achieve predetermined benefits, which may be
financial or non-financial. The change brought about by projects is expected to be beneficial (Turner
2005). The change delivered by the project will be of value if the benefit justifies the cost (Turner
2007). Organisations are constantly reacting to stimuli – to solve problems or exploit opportunities -
that require a response in the form of a project. So the business benefit results in resolving problems
or exploiting opportunities, As stated by Juran (1989, 35) “a project is a problem scheduled for
solution” (Juran 1989, 35).

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Strategic Objectives
The project process produces deliverables that are used to achieve benefits that are ultimately linked
to the organisation’s strategic goals. Many organisations are recognising that translating organisational
strategies into actions requires projects - “Linking all projects to the strategic direction of the
organisation is crucial to success” (Gray & Larson 2002). The business value of each project should link
to the objectives of the organisation (PMBOK® Guide 2017). “Strategic change in firms is largely
delivered through multiple simultaneous projects” (White and Patton 2002).

Finite
A project is a temporary process having a finite duration. A project has a beginning and the end is
reached when the project’s objectives have been achieved; or when the project is terminated because
its objectives will not or cannot be met, funding is exhausted or no longer available for allocation to
the project, the need for the project no longer exists, the human or physical resources no longer exist,
or the project is terminated for legal cause or convenience (PMBOK® Guide 2017). So, a project is not
an activity that will go on and on as a normal part of an organisation's operations. The managerial focus
for the project is on the timely completion on a predetermined end date. Projects are temporary but
their deliverables may exist beyond the end of the project (PMBOK® Guide 2017). For example, a
project to build a bridge will end upon the completion of the bridge, but the bridge will continue to
exist after its completion.

Resources
Projects require resources (e.g. human, material, equipment financial) for their completion. Resources
are required to perform the inputs in project process. In many projects, humans are the major
resource. Resources invariably have limited availability, can be scheduled and sourced either internal
or external to the organisation. The scarcity of resources further emphasises the need for projects to
be strategic and contribute to an organisation’s overall goals. Projects that don’t deliver benefits that
contribute to an organisation’s goals are inherently a waste of resources.

Temporary Organisation
Projects require the creation of a temporary orgnisation of people, resources, materials, and facilities
in order to achieve the project’s goals. The concept that a project is a temporary organisation in now
quite popular (Turner 2005). “Whenever people gather together to do something they form an
organisation. So a project is an organisation” (Turner 2016, 97). As a temporary organisation, the
project is an agency established by a parent organisation to achieve specific objectives (Turner &
Muller 2003). So, “projects can be seen as temporary, dynamic organisations created and disseminated
within existing organisations” (Shenhar 2001, 239). Turner (2014, sec. 1.1) differentiates between a
temporary task in a permanent organisation and a project: “A temporary task can be unique, novel and
transient, but it is undertaken by the routine organisation… When I take my car to be serviced, the
service is unique, novel and transient, but it is performed by the garage as part of their routine work,
so it is a temporary task, not a project. For a project, we create a temporary organisation”. A project
can be a single person, a single organisational unit or multiple organisational units (PMBOK® Guide
2017).

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Unique
A project is a unique, one-off, discrete undertaking. Projects may contain repetitive elements, but a
project is never repeated exactly. An example of this would be the construction of an office building:
“Office buildings can be constructed with the same or similar materials and by the same or different
teams. However, each building project remains unique in key characteristics (e.g., location, design,
environment, situation, people involved” (PMBOK® Guide 2017, 4). Projects can differ in terms of
deliverables provided, stakeholders, resources, constraints and processes (ISO 2012). The presence of
repetitive elements (e.g., testing and retesting of software in software development project) does not
eliminate the fundamental uniqueness of the overall effort (PMBOK® Guide 2017). The uniqueness of
projects provides little or no opportunity for learning because they do not allow the production of a
prototype from which to predict precisely in advance all the work to be done. This uniqueness creates
a degree of unfamiliarity and uncertainty not normally encountered in stable conventional operations-
based enterprises. In terms of uniqueness, project can be categorised as (Turner 2016, 102):
• Repeaters – virtually routine processing;
• Runners – quite similar to previous projects;
• Strangers – essentially different from previous projects but with some common elements; and
• Aliens – unlike anything we have done before.
(Turner 2016, 102)

Complex
Projects are inherently complex. Much of the complexity can be attributed to the uniqueness of a
project. Whilst a project may involve only an individual, requiring few activities, most projects consist
of interdependent tasks i.e. the output of one task is the input to another task. These tasks typical
require a team of people with discrete skills, technologies and resources, which are often used on a
part-time basis sharing them with other projects or operations. These inputs are frequently supplied by
separate sections of one organisation and/or from different organisations, each with its own
perspective, motivation, goals and values, whilst being all involved in the achievement of the same
end result. The complexity of projects leads to the need for co-ordination and integration, which
becomes the work of the project manager.

Risk
As stated previously, projects are characterised by some degree of uniqueness - 'the uniqueness creates
uncertainty: you cannot predict the future, and therefore you cannot be certain that the planned ways
of working will deliver the objectives you want" (Turner, 2008). So uniqueness creates unfamiliarity,
leading to the existence of risk and uncertainty - “risk and unanticipated change ... are endemic to
project environments” (DeWeaver & Gillespie 1997).

Stakeholders
Projects have stakeholders. Stakeholders are: “an individual, group, or organisation that may affect,
be affected by, or perceive itself to be affected by a decision, activity, or outcome of a project”
(PMBOK® Guide 2017, 550). A project is governed on behalf of all project stakeholders (Turner 2007).

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 iLecture

Return to the recording and watch from where you left off (8.06 minutes)
until 19.28 minutes, this section contains a discussion as to how projects
are used to achieve goals.

Projects vs. Operations

Now that we have examined some of the major attributes that make a project a project, it is
important to take a look at how projects differ from operations. The fundamental differences between
projects and operations need to be understood in order to better manage each. All work undertaken by
organisations falls into one of two categories: operations or projects. Before continuing on try to
identify some of the differences between projects and operations by completing the following activity.

Activity

Identify three differences between projects and operations by filling out

the table below. Use the example in number one to guide you. You can
check your responses against the information in the following section.

OPERATIONS PROJECTS

1. Permanent business 1. Temporary process that

process that produces a produces a unique output
repetitive output.

2. 2.

3. 3.

4. 4.

Projects create a different management environment compared to operations-based work and these
differences are highlighted below (Turner 2008; ISO 2012, 6):

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Table 1: Differences between Operations and Projects (Adapted from Turner 2008 and ISO 2012, 6)

OPERATIONS PROJECTS

Permanent business process that produces a Temporary process that produces a unique
repetitive output. output

Stable teams. Roles & relationships well

understood having developed and adjusted over
Temporary, flexible, novel teams of people
lengthy periods. People do same tasks each time
business process is run

Precedents set people’s roles and they lose sight

Goal orientated rather than role orientated
of the operations' objectives.

Tasks repetitive or substantially similar. Unique effort

Equilibrium: Today is not radically different from Disequilibrium: Today is different from
yesterday yesterday

Tasks ongoing, creating a lasting stable Temporary & finite, specific time constraints,
environment, stable resources transient shared resources

Traditional hierarchies, lines of authority,

Informal relationships
centralised control

Manage steady state & evolutionary improvements

Bring change by revolutionary improvements
(incremental changes)

Continuous search for efficiency of existing Aim for effectiveness i.e. achievement of
processes, specific objectives

Decisions codified and low management New situations and high management
involvement. Management involved only by involvement as a matter of course. New or
exception modified management systems

High certainty in meeting objectives achieved in

Uniqueness creates uncertainty and risk.
the past.

Example: manufacturing products Examples: developing a new product

Requires operations management Requires project management

The difference between operations and projects is between maintaining the ongoing production of
goods or services (operations) and creating something new (projects). However, operations and
projects do share some characteristics, for example (PMBOK® Guide 2017):
• Performed by people;

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 • Limited by constraints, such as resource constraints;
• Describable as processes and sub-processes;
• Planned and controlled; and
• Performed to achieve organisational objectives or strategic plans.
(PMBOK® Guide 2017)

It is important to know whether you are working in an operation or project.

To use project management to run a business process is highly inefficient. Suppose every
time you shipped an overnight package, the carrier put together a project team to plan and
then monitor that shipment? That’s ridiculous, of course; but why? Because you already know
the customer requirements. Because you already have a budget and a schedule for the
process – it’s part of the yearly budget planning process. You already have people in place to
do the tasks of the process. You don’t need project management.
(Martin & Tate 2001)

iLecture

Again starting where you finished above (19.28 minutes), view a discussion
as to why using Project Management to run an operational process is
inefficient. This section runs from 19.28 through until 21.10 minutes.

If you have since closed the recording, don’t worry you can access it as
many times as necessary via the iLectures link on Blackboard.

Types of Projects
Projects have many different variables that contribute to their uniqueness (i.e., scope, inputs,
outputs, resources required, team members, organisations involved, etc.). Because of the varying
nature of projects, classifying projects helps organisations to identify what type of project they have.
Classifying projects helps organisations to identify the most suitable project management strategies to
achieving the goals of the project. This section explores three of the classification techniques that
have been developed by researchers and by industry.

Hard or Soft
It is not uncommon for projects to be categorised as ‘hard’ or soft’, and each type requires appropriate
management methods and responses in order to achieve project success. Examples of soft projects are
research or organisational change, where the result is not a in itself a tangible asset. An example of a

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hard project would be a construction project (the result is a tangible product). Crawford & Pollack
(2004) have identified seven dimensions to aid the analysis of hard and soft aspects of projects:
• Goal clarity – Soft projects typically do not have clearly defined goals at the outset, thus
requiring soft methods that acknowledge ambiguity and focus on exploration, negotiation and
problem definition. Hard projects are typically highly defined and use hard methods that focus
on how to achieve already clearly defined goals.
• Goal tangibility – Soft projects tend to have intangible goals
• Success measures – Hard projects are typically associated with quantitative measures for
success (e.g. cost, time) whilst the success of soft projects is linked to qualitative measures
(e.g. morale)
• Project permeability – This refers to the degree to which project goals and processes are
affected by influences outside project control. Short projects in stable environments and well-
developed fields tend to have an impermeable boundary, so hard methods that concentrate on
delivering the goal would suffice. In soft projects the determination of the project’s boundary
is more problematical, requiring the tailoring of deliverables to the environment and it is
beneficial to include a variety of stakeholders to gain insights from multiple perspectives.
• Number of solution options – This refers to the project approach to exploring and refining
goals. Hard methods focus on efficient delivery and the optimisation of a predetermined
solution. Where the opportunity exists to question assumptions about goals, then soft methods
in terms of exploring alternatives and innovative solutions can be applied.
• Degree of participation and practitioner role – This refers to the roles of team members in
managing a project. Hard methods tend to be non-participative as team members are seen as
experts with defined roles and boundaries. A soft approach entails a collaborative approach
where many views are sought and people encouraged to cross professional boundaries
• Stakeholder expectations – A greater degree of interaction between stakeholder is expected
in soft projects, than in hard projects where emphasis in on clear logical relationships between
project elements and management is based on control.
(Crawford & Pollack 2004)

Project Types - Goals and Methods

Another popular method for categorising projects is highlighted by Turner (2008) and Buttrick (2005),
whereby four types of projects are categorised, based on two factors - how well the project goals are
defined (i.e. what) and how well defined the methods are for achieving those goals (i.e. how). See
Figure 1 for further detail.

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Figure 1: Goals & methods matrix (Adapted from Turner & Cochrane 1993, 95)

Type 1 Projects ('Painting by Numbers’)

In Type 1 projects goals and methods are well defined (e.g. engineering projects). It is possible to
move quickly into project planning, so there is an emphasis on activity-based planning. These types of
projects are typical of traditional books on project management that have led to the development of
traditional project management software (e.g. Artemis).

Type 2 Projects (‘Quest’)

In Type 2 projects the goals are well defined, but the methods are poorly defined (e.g., product
development in electronics and manufacturing industry, weapons systems development). Functionality
of the product is well understood, but not how to achieve it. The main aim of the project is to
determine how to achieve the goals so it is not possible to plan activities. Part of the project is
development or unknown work. Thus, milestone planning is used, where milestones represent
components of the product to be delivered. The project team must seek solutions and ensure their
findings are reported by a fixed date. Then, "you can then continue to send them out, again and again
until you have sufficient visibility on how to achieve your objectives" (Buttrick 2005).

Type 3 Projects (‘Movie’)

In Type 3 projects the goals poorly defined, but the methods are well defined (e.g. IT projects). The
determination of users' needs is difficult, so all project managers have to hold on to is the life cycle.
Hence milestone planning is used, where milestones represent completion of life-cycle stages. The
project team needs the appropriate expertise, capability and commitment and the aim is to leverage
these attributes.

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Type 4 Projects ('Fog’)

In Type 4 project the goals and methods are poorly defined (e.g. research or organisational change).
Planning is milestones-based, but the milestones represent go/no-go decision points, through which the
project must pass or be aborted. There needs to be very tight control of costs and time and many
options are investigated. These projects "can end up in delivering nothing of benefit unless formally
controlled" (Buttrick 2005).

Identifying a Project
Discussion Board

Read the following scenario and determine whether or not you believe the
scenario is a project or if it is a part of operational work. Write down your
answer and provide at least two arguments to support your classification or
project or operations. Share your answer on the Discussion Board. Please
respond with a critique or agreement to at least two other student
responses.

Sue Miller, Senior Executive Officer of ABC Candle Co, has just
completed a two-day program on project management and is keen to
apply the new knowledge on a recurring problem faced by her
company. About 60% of ABC’s annual revenue results from the pre-
Christmas sale of the XMAS-PAK, consisting of 12 candles. XMAS-PAK
was introduced 8 years ago, and sales have been increasing by 20%
per annum.

All orders not supplied by 16th December are lost. Sue estimated
that XMAS-PAK sales would have been higher last year if it were not
for lost orders. It was a frustrating problem because the loss was not
due to a shortage of capability. Sales forecast were not very
accurate, and the Manufacturing Manager has strict instructions to
minimise inventory in finished goods. Sue was sure that project
management could somehow help solve this problem without
appreciably increasing inventories.

Sue assigned both Sarah Smith (Marketing Manager) and Ken Knight
(Manufacturing Manager) as project managers for this problem. She
reviewed the problem with them and gave them 8 years of historical
sales data. The objective was to reduce lost sales to 5% within 3
years.

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 Is the scenario a project, yes or no? Why is it a project or why not?

iLecture

After completing the discussion board activity above, watch a brief

discussion about this scenario. This can be viewed by watching the last
section of the recording (from 21.10 minutes through to the end).

Required Reading
For this module, you are required to read the following readings which are available via the unit
textbook or your Leganto Reading List accessible from this units Blackboard menu:

• PMI (Project Management Institute). 2017. A Guide to the Project Management Body of
Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). 6th Edition. Newtown Square, Pennsylvania: PMI, Inc.
o PART 1: SECTION 1 (PAGES 1-36)
o PART 2: SECTION 1 (PAGES 541-560)

• Turner, Rodney J. 2007. “Chapter 5: Projects and their management.” In Gower Handbook of
Project Management. 4th ed. Hampshire, England: Gower Publishing Limited.

Additional Resources
If you would like to read more about this topic, you may also find the following resources useful. They
are available via your Leganto Reading List accessible from this units Blackboard menu:

• Turner, J.R., and R.A. Cochrane. 1993. “Goals-and-methods matrix: coping with projects with
ill-defined goals and/or methods of achieving them.” International Journal of Project
Management 11(2): 93-102.

Summary
This week’s module focused on a number of key topics in regards to project attributes. Some key
takeaways are:

• A project is defined as: A temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product, service
or result (PMBOK® Guide 2017);
• A project is a process and has a lifecycle that is intended to culminate in the creation of a
deliverable;

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 o Deliverables can be a product, a result or a service.
• Projects bring about change; and
• Project benefits should be in alignment with the organisational strategy.

References
AXELOS. 2017. Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2®. London: TSO (The Stationary Office).
British Standards Institution. 2000. Project Management - Part 2: Vocabulary. BSI. (BS6079-2).
Buttrick, Robert. 2005. The Project Workout. London: Prentice Hall Financial Times.
Crawford, Lynn and Julien Pollack. 2004. “Hard and soft projects: a framework for analysis.”
International Journal of Project Management 22(8): 645-653
DeWeaver, Mary Feeherry and Lori Gillespie. 1997. Real-World Project Management: New Approaches
for Adapting to Change and Uncertainty. New York: Quality Resources.
Einsiedel, Albert A. 1984. Improving Project Management. Boston: International Human Resources
Development Corp.
Gray, Clifford F., and Erik W. Larson. 2002. Project Management: The Managerial Process. 2nd ed.
McGraw Hill Higher Education.
ISO (International Organization for Standardization). 2012. Guidance on Project Management. ISO. (ISO
21500).
Juran, Joseph M. 1989. Juran on Leadership for Quality. New York: Free Press.
Martin, P., and K. Tate. 2001. “Not Everything is a Project.” PM Network 15(5): 25.
Meredith, J. R. and S. J. Mantel. 2006. Project Management: A Managerial Approach. 6th ed. New York:
J. Wiley.
PMI (Project Management Institute). 2017. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge
(PMBOK® Guide). 6th Edition. Newtown Square, Pennsylvania: PMI, Inc.
Shenhar, Aaron J. 2001. “Continent management in temporary organizations: the comparative analysis
of projects.” Journal of High Technology Management Research 12(2): 239-271.
Turner, John Rodney and John H. Payne. 1997. “The problem of projects of differing size and skill mix”
Project Management 3(97): 14-17.
Turner, John Rodney and Ralf Müller. 2003. “On the nature of the project as a temporary
organization.” International Journal of Project Management 21(7): 1-8.
Turner, John Rodney. 1993. The Handbook of Project-based Management: Improving the processes for
Achieving Strategic Objectives. London: McGraw-Hill.
Turner, John Rodney. 2007. “Projects and their management.” In Gower Handbook of Project
Management. 4th ed. Edited by John Rodney Turner. Aldershot, England: Gower.
Turner, John Rodney. 2008. The Handbook of Project-based Management: Improving the processes for
Achieving Strategic Objectives. 3rd ed. London: McGraw-Hill.
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