3

DIFFERENTIATION
OVERVIEW In the beginning of Chapter 2 we discussed how to determine the slope of a
curve at a point and how to measure the rate at which a function changes. Now that we
have studied limits, we can define these ideas precisely and see that both are interpreta-
tions of the derivative of a function at a point. We then extend this concept from a single
point to the derivative function, and we develop rules for finding this derivative function
easily, without having to calculate any limits directly. These rules are used to find deriva-
tives of most of the common functions reviewed in Chapter 1, as well as various combina-
tions of them. The derivative is one of the key ideas in calculus, and we use it to solve a
wide range of problems involving tangents and rates of change.

Tangents and the Derivative at a Point

3.1
In this section we define the slope and tangent to a curve at a point, and the derivative
of a function at a point. Later in the chapter we interpret the derivative as the instanta-
neous rate of change of a function, and apply this interpretation to the study of certain
types of motion.

y
Finding a Tangent to the Graph of a Function
y ⫽ f(x)
To find a tangent to an arbitrary curve y = ƒ(x) at a point Psx0 , ƒsx0 dd , we use the procedure
Q(x 0 ⫹ h, f(x 0 ⫹ h)) introduced in Section 2.1. We calculate the slope of the secant through P and a nearby point
f (x 0 ⫹ h) ⫺ f (x 0)
Qsx0 + h, ƒsx0 + hdd . We then investigate the limit of the slope as h : 0 (Figure 3.1). If the
limit exists, we call it the slope of the curve at P and define the tangent at P to be the line
through P having this slope.
P(x 0, f (x 0))

x0 x0 ⫹ h
x DEFINITIONS The slope of the curve y = ƒsxd at the point Psx0 , ƒsx0 dd is the
0
number
FIGURE 3.1 The slope of the tangent ƒsx0 + hd - ƒsx0 d
ƒsx0 + hd - ƒsx0 d m = lim (provided the limit exists).
line at P is lim . h:0 h
h:0 h
The tangent line to the curve at P is the line through P with this slope.

In Section 2.1, Example 3, we applied these definitions to find the slope of the
parabola ƒ(x) = x 2 at the point P(2, 4) and the tangent line to the parabola at P. Let’s look
at another example.

122
 3.1 Tangents and the Derivative at a Point 123

y EXAMPLE 1
y 5 1x (a) Find the slope of the curve y = 1>x at any point x = a Z 0. What is the slope at the
point x = - 1?
slope is – 12
a (b) Where does the slope equal -1>4?
(c) What happens to the tangent to the curve at the point (a, 1>a) as a changes?
x
0 a Solution

(a) Here ƒsxd = 1>x. The slope at (a, 1>a) is

slope is –1
at x 5 –1 1 1
ƒsa + hd - ƒsad - a
a + h 1 a - sa + hd
lim = lim = lim
h:0 h h:0 h h:0 h asa + hd
FIGURE 3.2 The tangent slopes, steep
-h -1 1
near the origin, become more gradual as = lim = lim = - 2.
h:0 hasa + hd h:0 asa + hd a
the point of tangency moves away
(Example 1). Notice how we had to keep writing “limh:0” before each fraction until the stage
y
where we could evaluate the limit by substituting h = 0. The number a may be posi-
tive or negative, but not 0. When a = - 1, the slope is -1>( -1) 2 = - 1 (Figure 3.2).
y ⫽ 1x (b) The slope of y = 1>x at the point where x = a is - 1>a 2. It will be - 1>4 provided
that
⎛2, 1 ⎛
slope is – 1 ⎝ 2⎝ 1 1
4 - = - .
x a 2 4

⎛–2, – 1 ⎛ slope is – 1
⎝ 2⎝
4 This equation is equivalent to a 2 = 4, so a = 2 or a = - 2. The curve has slope
-1>4 at the two points (2, 1>2) and s - 2, -1>2d (Figure 3.3).
(c) The slope - 1>a 2 is always negative if a Z 0. As a : 0 +, the slope approaches - q
and the tangent becomes increasingly steep (Figure 3.2). We see this situation again as
a : 0 - . As a moves away from the origin in either direction, the slope approaches 0
and the tangent levels off to become horizontal.
FIGURE 3.3 The two tangent lines to
y = 1>x having slope - 1>4 (Example 1).
Rates of Change: Derivative at a Point
The expression
ƒsx0 + hd - ƒsx0 d
, h Z 0
h

is called the difference quotient of ƒ at x0 with increment h. If the difference quotient

has a limit as h approaches zero, that limit is given a special name and notation.

DEFINITION The derivative of a function ƒ at a point x0, denoted ƒ¿(x0), is

ƒ(x0 + h) - ƒ(x0)
ƒ¿(x0) = lim
h:0 h
provided this limit exists.

If we interpret the difference quotient as the slope of a secant line, then the deriva-
tive gives the slope of the curve y = ƒ(x) at the point P(x0, ƒ(x0)). Exercise 31 shows
124 Chapter 3: Differentiation

that the derivative of the linear function ƒ(x) = mx + b at any point x0 is simply the slope
of the line, so
ƒ¿(x0) = m,
which is consistent with our definition of slope.
If we interpret the difference quotient as an average rate of change (Section 2.1), the
derivative gives the function’s instantaneous rate of change with respect to x at the point
x = x0 . We study this interpretation in Section 3.4.

EXAMPLE 2 In Examples 1 and 2 in Section 2.1, we studied the speed of a rock falling
freely from rest near the surface of the earth. We knew that the rock fell y = 16t 2 feet dur-
ing the first t sec, and we used a sequence of average rates over increasingly short intervals
to estimate the rock’s speed at the instant t = 1. What was the rock’s exact speed at this
time?

Solution We let ƒstd = 16t 2 . The average speed of the rock over the interval between
t = 1 and t = 1 + h seconds, for h 7 0, was found to be

ƒs1 + hd - ƒs1d 16s1 + hd2 - 16s1d2 16sh 2 + 2hd

= = = 16sh + 2d.
h h h

The rock’s speed at the instant t = 1 is then

lim 16sh + 2d = 16s0 + 2d = 32 ft>sec.

h:0

Our original estimate of 32 ft > sec in Section 2.1 was right.

Summary
We have been discussing slopes of curves, lines tangent to a curve, the rate of change of a
function, and the derivative of a function at a point. All of these ideas refer to the same
limit.

The following are all interpretations for the limit of the difference quotient,

ƒsx0 + hd - ƒsx0 d
lim .
h:0 h

1. The slope of the graph of y = ƒsxd at x = x0

2. The slope of the tangent to the curve y = ƒsxd at x = x0
3. The rate of change of ƒ(x) with respect to x at x = x0
4. The derivative ƒ¿(x0) at a point

In the next sections, we allow the point x0 to vary across the domain of the function ƒ.
 3.1 Tangents and the Derivative at a Point 125

Exercises 3.1
Slopes and Tangent Lines Tangent Lines with Specified Slopes
In Exercises 1–4, use the grid and a straight edge to make a rough esti- At what points do the graphs of the functions in Exercises 23 and 24
mate of the slope of the curve (in y-units per x-unit) at the points P1 have horizontal tangents?
and P2 . 23. ƒsxd = x 2 + 4x - 1 24. g sxd = x 3 - 3x
1. y 2. y 25. Find equations of all lines having slope -1 that are tangent to the
curve y = 1>sx - 1d .
P2
2 26. Find an equation of the straight line having slope 1>4 that is tan-
2 P2 gent to the curve y = 2x .
1

1 x Rates of Change
–2 –1 0 1 2 27. Object dropped from a tower An object is dropped from the
P1 –1 top of a 100-m-high tower. Its height above ground after t sec is
P1
x 100 - 4.9t 2 m. How fast is it falling 2 sec after it is dropped?
0 1 –2 28. Speed of a rocket At t sec after liftoff, the height of a rocket is
3t 2 ft. How fast is the rocket climbing 10 sec after liftoff ?
29. Circle’s changing area What is the rate of change of the area of
a circle sA = pr 2 d with respect to the radius when the radius is
3. y 4. y r = 3?
4 30. Ball’s changing volume What is the rate of change of the vol-
ume of a ball sV = s4>3dpr 3 d with respect to the radius when the
2
3 radius is r = 2 ?
31. Show that the line y = mx + b is its own tangent line at any
P1 P2 2 point (x0, mx0 + b).
1 P1 P2
32. Find the slope of the tangent to the curve y = 1> 2x at the point
1
where x = 4.
x x
0 1 2 –2 –1 0 1 2
Testing for Tangents
33. Does the graph of
In Exercises 5–10, find an equation for the tangent to the curve at the
x 2 sin s1>xd, x Z 0
given point. Then sketch the curve and tangent together. ƒsxd = e
0, x = 0
5. y = 4 - x 2, s - 1, 3d 6. y = sx - 1d2 + 1, s1, 1d
1 have a tangent at the origin? Give reasons for your answer.
7. y = 22x, s1, 2d 8. y = , s -1, 1d
x2 34. Does the graph of
1 1
9. y = x 3, s - 2, - 8d 10. y = , a - 2, - b x sin s1>xd, x Z 0
x3 8 g sxd = e
0, x = 0
In Exercises 11–18, find the slope of the function’s graph at the given
point. Then find an equation for the line tangent to the graph there. have a tangent at the origin? Give reasons for your answer.

11. ƒsxd = x 2 + 1, s2, 5d 12. ƒsxd = x - 2x 2, s1, - 1d

Vertical Tangents
x 8
13. g sxd = , s3, 3d 14. g sxd = 2 , s2, 2d We say that a continuous curve y = ƒsxd has a vertical tangent at the
x - 2 x
point where x = x0 if lim h:0 sƒsx0 + hd - ƒsx0 dd>h = q or - q .
15. hstd = t 3, s2, 8d 16. hstd = t 3 + 3t, s1, 4d
For example, y = x 1>3 has a vertical tangent at x = 0 (see accompa-
17. ƒsxd = 2x, s4, 2d 18. ƒsxd = 2x + 1, s8, 3d nying figure):
In Exercises 19–22, find the slope of the curve at the point indicated. ƒs0 + hd - ƒs0d h 1>3 - 0
19. y = 5x 2, x = -1 20. y = 1 - x 2, x = 2 lim = lim
h:0 h h:0 h
1 x - 1 1
21. y = , x = 3 22. y = , x = 0 = lim 2>3 = q .
x - 1 x + 1 h:0 h
126 Chapter 3: Differentiation

y 36. Does the graph of

0, x 6 0
Usxd = e
y
f (x)
x 1兾3 1, x Ú 0
have a vertical tangent at the point (0, 1)? Give reasons for your
answer.
x
0 T Graph the curves in Exercises 37–46.
a. Where do the graphs appear to have vertical tangents?
b. Confirm your findings in part (a) with limit calculations. But
before you do, read the introduction to Exercises 35 and 36.
37. y = x 2>5 38. y = x 4>5
VERTICAL TANGENT AT ORIGIN
39. y = x 1>5
40. y = x 3>5
However, y = x 2>3 has no vertical tangent at x = 0 (see next figure): 41. y = 4x 2>5 - 2x 42. y = x 5>3 - 5x 2>3
43. y = x 2>3
- sx - 1d1>3
44. y = x 1>3 + sx - 1d1>3
g s0 + hd - g s0d h 2>3 - 0
lim = lim - 2ƒ x ƒ , x … 0
h:0 h h :0 h 45. y = e 46. y = 2 ƒ 4 - x ƒ
2x, x 7 0
1
= lim 1>3
h :0 h COMPUTER EXPLORATIONS
does not exist, because the limit is q from the right and - q from the Use a CAS to perform the following steps for the functions in Exer-
left. cises 47–50:
y a. Plot y = ƒsxd over the interval sx0 - 1>2d … x … sx0 + 3d .
y
g(x)
x 2兾3 b. Holding x0 fixed, the difference quotient
ƒsx0 + hd - ƒsx0 d
qshd =
h
at x0 becomes a function of the step size h. Enter this function
x
0 into your CAS workspace.
NO VERTICAL TANGENT AT ORIGIN c. Find the limit of q as h : 0 .
d. Define the secant lines y = ƒsx0 d + q # sx - x0 d for h = 3, 2 ,
35. Does the graph of and 1. Graph them together with ƒ and the tangent line over the
-1, x 6 0 interval in part (a).
ƒsxd = • 0, x = 0 5
47. ƒsxd = x 3 + 2x, x0 = 0 48. ƒsxd = x + x , x0 = 1
1, x 7 0 49. ƒsxd = x + sin s2xd, x0 = p>2
have a vertical tangent at the origin? Give reasons for your answer. 50. ƒsxd = cos x + 4 sin s2xd, x0 = p

The Derivative as a Function

3.2
In the last section we defined the derivative of y = ƒsxd at the point x = x0 to be the limit
HISTORICAL ESSAY ƒsx0 + hd - ƒsx0 d
ƒ¿sx0 d = lim .
The Derivative h:0 h
We now investigate the derivative as a function derived from ƒ by considering the limit at
each point x in the domain of ƒ.

DEFINITION The derivative of the function ƒ(x) with respect to the variable x is
the function ƒ¿ whose value at x is
ƒsx + hd - ƒsxd
ƒ¿sxd = lim ,
h:0 h
provided the limit exists.
 3.2 The Derivative as a Function 127

y
f (x) We use the notation ƒ(x) in the definition to emphasize the independent variable x
with respect to which the derivative function ƒ¿(x) is being defined. The domain of ƒ¿ is
Secant slope is
f (z)  f (x) the set of points in the domain of ƒ for which the limit exists, which means that the domain
Q(z, f(z)) zx may be the same as or smaller than the domain of ƒ. If ƒ¿ exists at a particular x, we say
that ƒ is differentiable (has a derivative) at x. If ƒ¿ exists at every point in the domain of
ƒ, we call ƒ differentiable.
f (z)  f (x)
P(x, f(x)) If we write z = x + h, then h = z - x and h approaches 0 if and only if z approaches x.
Therefore, an equivalent definition of the derivative is as follows (see Figure 3.4). This
h
zx formula is sometimes more convenient to use when finding a derivative function.

x z
xh
Derivative of f at x is Alternative Formula for the Derivative
f(x  h)  f (x)
f '(x)
lim ƒszd - ƒsxd
h
h→0
ƒ¿sxd = lim z - x .
z :x
f(z)  f (x)

lim zx
z→x

FIGURE 3.4 Two forms for the difference Calculating Derivatives from the Definition
quotient.
The process of calculating a derivative is called differentiation. To emphasize the idea
that differentiation is an operation performed on a function y = ƒsxd, we use the notation
d
ƒsxd
dx
as another way to denote the derivative ƒ¿sxd . Example 1 of Section 3.1 illustrated the dif-
ferentiation process for the function y = 1>x when x = a. For x representing any point in
Derivative of the Reciprocal Function the domain, we get the formula
d 1 1 d 1 1
a b = - 2, x Z 0 a b = - 2.
dx x x dx x x
Here are two more examples in which we allow x to be any point in the domain of ƒ.

x
EXAMPLE 1 Differentiate ƒsxd = .
x - 1

Solution We use the definition of derivative, which requires us to calculate ƒ(x + h) and
then subtract ƒ(x) to obtain the numerator in the difference quotient. We have

x sx + hd
ƒsxd = and ƒsx + hd = , so
x - 1 sx + hd - 1

ƒsx + hd - ƒsxd
ƒ¿sxd = lim Definition
h:0 h

x + h x
-
x + h - 1 x - 1
= lim
h:0 h

1 # sx + hdsx - 1d - xsx + h - 1d a c ad - cb
= lim - =
h:0 h sx + h - 1dsx - 1d b d bd

1 # -h
= lim Simplify.
h:0 h sx + h - 1dsx - 1d

-1 -1
= lim = . Cancel h Z 0.
h:0 sx + h - 1dsx - 1d sx - 1d2
128 Chapter 3: Differentiation

EXAMPLE 2
(a) Find the derivative of ƒsxd = 1x for x 7 0.
(b) Find the tangent line to the curve y = 1x at x = 4.

Solution
Derivative of the Square Root (a) We use the alternative formula to calculate ƒ¿ :
Function
ƒszd - ƒsxd
d 1 ƒ¿sxd = lim z - x
2x = , x 7 0 z :x
dx 2 2x
1z - 1x
= lim z - x
z :x

1z - 1x
= lim
y z :x A 1z - 1x B A 1z + 1x B
1 1
y
1x1 = lim = .
4 z :x 1z + 1x 21x
(b) The slope of the curve at x = 4 is
(4, 2) y
兹x
1 1
1 ƒ¿s4d = = .
224 4
x
0 4
The tangent is the line through the point (4, 2) with slope 1>4 (Figure 3.5):
1
FIGURE 3.5 The curve y = 1x and its y = 2 + sx - 4d
4
tangent at (4, 2). The tangent’s slope is
found by evaluating the derivative at x = 4 1
y = x + 1.
(Example 2).
4

Notations
There are many ways to denote the derivative of a function y = ƒsxd, where the independ-
ent variable is x and the dependent variable is y. Some common alternative notations for
the derivative are
dy dƒ d
ƒ¿sxd = y¿ = = = ƒsxd = Dsƒdsxd = Dx ƒsxd .
dx dx dx

The symbols d>dx and D indicate the operation of differentiation. We read dy>dx as
“the derivative of y with respect to x,” and dƒ>dx and (d>dx)ƒ(x) as “the derivative of ƒ
with respect to x.” The “prime” notations y¿ and ƒ¿ come from notations that Newton
used for derivatives. The d>dx notations are similar to those used by Leibniz. The sym-
bol dy>dx should not be regarded as a ratio (until we introduce the idea of “differen-
tials” in Section 3.11).
To indicate the value of a derivative at a specified number x = a, we use the notation
dy df d
ƒ¿sad = ` = ` = ƒsxd ` .
dx x = a dx x = a dx x=a

For instance, in Example 2

d 1 1 1
ƒ¿s4d = 1x ` = ` = = .
dx x=4 21x x = 4 224 4

Graphing the Derivative

We can often make a reasonable plot of the derivative of y = ƒsxd by estimating the slopes
on the graph of ƒ. That is, we plot the points sx, ƒ¿sxdd in the xy-plane and connect them
with a smooth curve, which represents y = ƒ¿sxd .
 3.2 The Derivative as a Function 129

y EXAMPLE 3 Graph the derivative of the function y = ƒsxd in Figure 3.6a.

Slope 0 Solution We sketch the tangents to the graph of ƒ at frequent intervals and use their
A y
f (x) slopes to estimate the values of ƒ¿sxd at these points. We plot the corresponding sx, ƒ¿sxdd
Slope –1 pairs and connect them with a smooth curve as sketched in Figure 3.6b.
10 ⎧
B
Slope – 4 ⎪
C
3 E ⎪
⎪
What can we learn from the graph of y = ƒ¿sxd? At a glance we can see
⎨ 8
5 D ⎪ 1. where the rate of change of ƒ is positive, negative, or zero;
⎪
Slope 0 ⎪
⎩ 2. the rough size of the growth rate at any x and its size in relation to the size of ƒ(x);
⎧
⎪
⎨
⎪
⎩
 4 x-units 3. where the rate of change itself is increasing or decreasing.
x
0 5 10 15
(a)
Slope Differentiable on an Interval; One-Sided Derivatives
A function y = ƒsxd is differentiable on an open interval (finite or infinite) if it has a
4 derivative at each point of the interval. It is differentiable on a closed interval [a, b] if it
3 y
f '(x)
is differentiable on the interior (a, b) and if the limits
2 E'
ƒsa + hd - ƒsad
1 lim Right-hand derivative at a
A' D'
x h:0 + h
5 10 15
–1 C' ƒsb + hd - ƒsbd
B' lim Left-hand derivative at b
–2 Vertical coordinate –1 h:0 - h
exist at the endpoints (Figure 3.7).
(b) Right-hand and left-hand derivatives may be defined at any point of a function’s do-
FIGURE 3.6 We made the graph of main. Because of Theorem 6, Section 2.4, a function has a derivative at a point if and only if
y = ƒ¿sxd in (b) by plotting slopes from it has left-hand and right-hand derivatives there, and these one-sided derivatives are equal.
the graph of y = ƒsxd in (a). The vertical
coordinate of B¿ is the slope at B and so on. EXAMPLE 4 Show that the function y = ƒ x ƒ is differentiable on s - q , 0d and s0, q d
The slope at E is approximately 8>4 = 2. but has no derivative at x = 0.
In (b) we see that the rate of change of ƒ is
negative for x between A¿ and D¿; the rate Solution From Section 3.1, the derivative of y = mx + b is the slope m. Thus, to the
of change is positive for x to the right of D¿. right of the origin,

s1 # xd = 1.
d d d d
s x d = sxd =
dx ƒ ƒ
smx + bd = m, ƒ x ƒ = x
dx dx dx

To the left,

s - 1 # xd = - 1
d d d
s x d = s - xd =
dx ƒ ƒ dx dx ƒ x ƒ = -x

(Figure 3.8). There is no derivative at the origin because the one-sided derivatives differ
Slope

there:
f (b  h)  f (b)
lim
Slope

h→0 h ƒ0 + hƒ - ƒ0ƒ ƒhƒ
Right-hand derivative of ƒ x ƒ at zero = lim+ = lim+
f(a  h)  f(a) h:0 h h:0 h
lim 
h→0 h
h
= lim+ ƒ h ƒ = h when h 7 0
h:0 h
y
f (x)
= lim+1 = 1
h:0
ƒ0 + hƒ - ƒ0ƒ ƒhƒ
Left-hand derivative of ƒ x ƒ at zero = lim- = lim-
h:0 h h:0 h
x
a ah bh b
h0 h0 -h
= lim- ƒ h ƒ = - h when h 6 0
h:0 h
FIGURE 3.7 Derivatives at endpoints are
= lim- -1 = - 1.
one-sided limits. h:0
130 Chapter 3: Differentiation

y EXAMPLE 5 In Example 2 we found that for x 7 0,

y
⏐x⏐
d 1
1x = .
y'
–1 y'
1 dx 21x

x We apply the definition to examine if the derivative exists at x = 0:

0
y' not defined at x
0:
right-hand derivative 20 + h - 20 1
 left-hand derivative lim+ = lim+ = q.
h:0 h h:0 1h
FIGURE 3.8 The function y = ƒ x ƒ is
not differentiable at the origin where Since the (right-hand) limit is not finite, there is no derivative at x = 0. Since the slopes
the graph has a “corner” (Example 4). of the secant lines joining the origin to the points (h, 1h) on a graph of y = 1x approach
q , the graph has a vertical tangent at the origin. (See Figure 1.17 on page 9).

When Does a Function Not Have a Derivative at a Point?

A function has a derivative at a point x0 if the slopes of the secant lines through Psx0, ƒsx0 dd
and a nearby point Q on the graph approach a finite limit as Q approaches P. Whenever the
secants fail to take up a limiting position or become vertical as Q approaches P, the derivative
does not exist. Thus differentiability is a “smoothness” condition on the graph of ƒ. A
function can fail to have a derivative at a point for many reasons, including the existence of
points where the graph has

P P

Q

Q Q Q

1. a corner, where the one-sided 2. a cusp, where the slope of PQ approaches

derivatives differ. q from one side and - q from the other.

P P
Q

Q
P

Q
Q Q
Q

3. a vertical tangent, 4. a discontinuity (two examples shown).

where the slope of PQ
approaches q from both
sides or approaches - q
from both sides (here, - q ).
 3.2 The Derivative as a Function 131

Another case in which the derivative may fail to exist occurs when the function’s slope is
oscillating rapidly near P, as with ƒ(x) = sin (1>x) near the origin, where it is discontinu-
ous (see Figure 2.31).

Differentiable Functions Are Continuous

A function is continuous at every point where it has a derivative.

THEOREM 1—Differentiability Implies Continuity If ƒ has a derivative at

x = c, then ƒ is continuous at x = c .

Proof Given that ƒ¿scd exists, we must show that limx:c ƒsxd = ƒscd, or equivalently,
that limh:0 ƒsc + hd = ƒscd. If h Z 0, then
ƒsc + hd = ƒscd + sƒsc + hd - ƒscdd
ƒsc + hd - ƒscd
= ƒscd + # h.
h

Now take limits as h : 0. By Theorem 1 of Section 2.2,

ƒsc + hd - ƒscd
lim ƒsc + hd = lim ƒscd + lim # lim h
h:0 h:0 h:0 h h: 0

= ƒscd + ƒ¿scd # 0

= ƒscd + 0

= ƒscd.

Similar arguments with one-sided limits show that if ƒ has a derivative from one side
(right or left) at x = c then ƒ is continuous from that side at x = c.
Theorem 1 says that if a function has a discontinuity at a point (for instance, a jump
discontinuity), then it cannot be differentiable there. The greatest integer function
y = :x; fails to be differentiable at every integer x = n (Example 4, Section 2.5).

Caution The converse of Theorem 1 is false. A function need not have a derivative at
a point where it is continuous, as we saw in Example 4.

Exercises 3.2
Finding Derivative Functions and Values 6. r ssd = 22s + 1 ; r¿s0d, r¿s1d, r¿s1>2d
Using the definition, calculate the derivatives of the functions in Exer-
cises 1–6. Then find the values of the derivatives as specified.
In Exercises 7–12, find the indicated derivatives.
1. ƒsxd = 4 - x 2; ƒ¿s - 3d, ƒ¿s0d, ƒ¿s1d
dy dr
2. Fsxd = sx - 1d2 + 1; F¿s - 1d, F¿s0d, F¿s2d 7. if y = 2x 3 8. if r = s 3 - 2s 2 + 3
dx ds
1
3. g std = ; g¿s - 1d, g¿s2d, g¿ A 23 B ds t dy 1
t2 9. if s = 10. if y = t - t
dt 2t + 1 dt
1 - z
4. k szd = ; k¿s - 1d, k¿s1d, k¿ A 22 B dp 1 dz 1
2z 11. if p = 12. if z =
dq 2q + 1 dw 23w - 2
5. psud = 23u ; p¿s1d, p¿s3d, p¿s2>3d
132 Chapter 3: Differentiation

Slopes and Tangent Lines 27. y 28. y

In Exercises 13–16, differentiate the functions and find the slope of
the tangent line at the given value of the independent variable.
9 1 y
f1(x) y
f 2 (x)
13. ƒsxd = x + x , x = -3 14. k sxd =
, x = 2
2 + x
x + 3 x x
15. s = t 3 - t 2, t = - 1 16. y = , x = -2 0 0
1 - x
In Exercises 17–18, differentiate the functions. Then find an equation
of the tangent line at the indicated point on the graph of the function.
8
17. y = ƒsxd = , sx, yd = s6, 4d
2x - 2 29. y 30. y
18. w = g szd = 1 + 24 - z, sz, wd = s3, 2d y
f3(x) y
f4(x)
In Exercises 19–22, find the values of the derivatives.
x x
ds 0 0
19. ` if s = 1 - 3t 2
dt t = -1
dy 1
20. ` if y = 1 - x
dx x = 23
dr 2 31. a. The graph in the accompanying figure is made of line seg-
21. ` if r =
du u = 0 24 - u ments joined end to end. At which points of the interval
[- 4, 6] is ƒ¿ not defined? Give reasons for your answer.
dw
22. ` if w = z + 1z
dz z = 4
y

Using the Alternative Formula for Derivatives (0, 2) (6, 2)

Use the formula y
f (x)

ƒszd - ƒsxd x
ƒ¿sxd = lim z - x (– 4, 0) 0 1 6
z: x

to find the derivative of the functions in Exercises 23–26.

(1, –2) (4, –2)
1
23. ƒsxd = 24. ƒsxd = x 2 - 3x + 4
x + 2
x
25. g sxd = 26. g sxd = 1 + 1x b. Graph the derivative of ƒ.
x - 1
The graph should show a step function.
32. Recovering a function from its derivative
Graphs
Match the functions graphed in Exercises 27–30 with the derivatives a. Use the following information to graph the function ƒ over
graphed in the accompanying figures (a)–(d). the closed interval [-2, 5] .
i) The graph of ƒ is made of closed line segments joined
y' y' end to end.
ii) The graph starts at the point s - 2, 3d .
iii) The derivative of ƒ is the step function in the figure
shown here.
x
0
x y'
0
y'
f '(x)
(a) (b) 1
y' y' x
–2 0 1 3 5

–2
x x
0 0

b. Repeat part (a) assuming that the graph starts at s - 2, 0d

(c) (d) instead of s - 2, 3d .
 3.2 The Derivative as a Function 133

33. Growth in the economy The graph in the accompanying figure 36. Weight loss Jared Fogle, also known as the “Subway Sandwich
shows the average annual percentage change y = ƒstd in the U.S. Guy,” weighed 425 lb in 1997 before losing more than 240 lb in
gross national product (GNP) for the years 1983–1988. Graph 12 months (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jared_Fogle). A chart
dy>dt (where defined). showing his possible dramatic weight loss is given in the accom-
7%
panying figure.
6
5 W
4 500
3 425
2

Weight (lbs)
1 300
0
1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 200

34. Fruit flies (Continuation of Example 4, Section 2.1.) Popula- 100

tions starting out in closed environments grow slowly at first, t
when there are relatively few members, then more rapidly as the 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
number of reproducing individuals increases and resources are Time (months)
still abundant, then slowly again as the population reaches the
carrying capacity of the environment. a. Estimate Jared’s rate of weight loss when
a. Use the graphical technique of Example 3 to graph the deriva- i) t = 1 ii) t = 4 iii) t = 11
tive of the fruit fly population. The graph of the population is b. When does Jared lose weight most rapidly and what is this
reproduced here. rate of weight loss?
p c. Use the graphical technique of Example 3 to graph the deriva-
tive of weight W.
350
300
Number of flies

250 One-Sided Derivatives

200 Compute the right-hand and left-hand derivatives as limits to show that
150 the functions in Exercises 37–40 are not differentiable at the point P.
100
37. y 38. y
50
y
f (x)
t
0 10 20 30 40 50 y
2x
y
x2 y
f (x)
Time (days) y
2 2
b. During what days does the population seem to be increasing P(1, 2)
fastest? Slowest? y
x
1
35. Temperature The given graph shows the temperature T in °F at
Davis, CA, on April 18, 2008, between 6 A.M. and 6 P.M. x x
P(0, 0) 0 1 2
T

80 39. y 40. y
Temperature (°F)

70 y
f (x) y
f (x)
60 y
2x  1 P(1, 1)
1 y
1x
50
1 P(1, 1) x
40 1
y
兹x y
x
t x
0 3 6 9 12 0 1
6 a.m. 9 a.m. 12 noon 3 p.m. 6 p.m.
Time (hrs)
a. Estimate the rate of temperature change at the times In Exercises 41 and 42, determine if the piecewise defined function is
differentiable at the origin.
i) 7 A.M. ii) 9 A.M. iii) 2 P.M. iv) 4 P.M.
2x - 1, x Ú 0
b. At what time does the temperature increase most rapidly? De- 41. ƒsxd = e
crease most rapidly? What is the rate for each of those times? x 2 + 2x + 7, x 6 0
x 2>3, x Ú 0
c. Use the graphical technique of Example 3 to graph the deriva- 42. gsxd = e
tive of temperature T versus time t. x 1>3, x 6 0
134 Chapter 3: Differentiation

Differentiability and Continuity on an Interval 54. Tangent to y ⴝ 1x Does any tangent to the curve y = 1x
Each figure in Exercises 43–48 shows the graph of a function over a cross the x-axis at x = - 1 ? If so, find an equation for the line
closed interval D. At what domain points does the function appear to be and the point of tangency. If not, why not?
a. differentiable? 55. Derivative of ⴚƒ Does knowing that a function ƒ(x) is differen-
b. continuous but not differentiable? tiable at x = x0 tell you anything about the differentiability of the
function -ƒ at x = x0 ? Give reasons for your answer.
c. neither continuous nor differentiable?
56. Derivative of multiples Does knowing that a function g (t) is
Give reasons for your answers. differentiable at t = 7 tell you anything about the differentiability
43. 44. of the function 3g at t = 7 ? Give reasons for your answer.
y
f (x) y y 57. Limit of a quotient Suppose that functions g(t) and h(t) are
D: –3 ⱕ x ⱕ 2 y
f (x) defined for all values of t and g s0d = hs0d = 0 . Can
2 2 D: –2 ⱕ x ⱕ 3 limt:0 sg stdd>shstdd exist? If it does exist, must it equal zero?
Give reasons for your answers.
1 1
58. a. Let ƒ(x) be a function satisfying ƒ ƒsxd ƒ … x 2 for -1 … x … 1 .
x x Show that ƒ is differentiable at x = 0 and find ƒ¿s0d .
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
–1 –1 b. Show that
–2 –2 1
x 2 sin x , x Z 0
ƒsxd = L
45. 46. 0, x = 0
y y is differentiable at x = 0 and find ƒ¿s0d .
y
f (x) y
f (x) T 59. Graph y = 1> A 21x B in a window that has 0 … x … 2 . Then, on
D: –3 ⱕ x ⱕ 3 D: –2 ⱕ x ⱕ 3 the same screen, graph
3
1x + h - 1x
1 y =
x 2 h
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
–1 1 for h = 1, 0.5, 0.1 . Then try h = - 1, -0.5, - 0.1 . Explain what
is going on.
–2 x
–2 –1 0 1 2 3 T 60. Graph y = 3x 2 in a window that has - 2 … x … 2, 0 … y … 3 .
Then, on the same screen, graph
47. 48. sx + hd3 - x 3
y =
y y y
f (x) h
y
f (x) D: –3 ⱕ x ⱕ 3 for h = 2, 1, 0.2 . Then try h = - 2, -1, -0.2 . Explain what is
D: –1 ⱕ x ⱕ 2 4
going on.
1 2 61. Derivative of y ⴝ 円x 円 Graph the derivative of ƒsxd = ƒ x ƒ . Then
graph y = s ƒ x ƒ - 0d>sx - 0d = ƒ x ƒ >x . What can you conclude?
x x T 62. Weierstrass’s nowhere differentiable continuous function
–1 0 1 2 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
The sum of the first eight terms of the Weierstrass function
ƒ(x) = g nq= 0 s2>3dn cos s9npxd is

Theory and Examples
In Exercises 49–52,
a. Find the derivative ƒ¿sxd of the given function y = ƒsxd .
b. Graph y = ƒsxd and y = ƒ¿sxd side by side using separate sets of
coordinate axes, and answer the following questions.
c. For what values of x, if any, is ƒ¿ positive? Zero? Negative?
d. Over what intervals of x-values, if any, does the function
y = ƒsxd increase as x increases? Decrease as x increases? How
is this related to what you found in part (c)? (We will say more
about this relationship in Section 4.3.)
49. y = - x 2 50. y = - 1>x
51. y = x 3>3 52. y = x 4>4
53. Tangent to a parabola Does the parabola y = 2x 2 - 13x + 5
have a tangent whose slope is - 1 ? If so, find an equation for the
line and the point of tangency. If not, why not?
g sxd = cos spxd + s2>3d1 cos s9pxd + s2>3d2 cos s92pxd
+ s2>3d3 cos s93pxd + Á + s2>3d7 cos s97pxd .
Graph this sum. Zoom in several times. How wiggly and bumpy
is this graph? Specify a viewing window in which the displayed
portion of the graph is smooth.
COMPUTER EXPLORATIONS
Use a CAS to perform the following steps for the functions in
Exercises 63–68.
a. Plot y = ƒsxd to see that function’s global behavior.
b. Define the difference quotient q at a general point x, with
general step size h.
c. Take the limit as h : 0 . What formula does this give?
d. Substitute the value x = x0 and plot the function y = ƒsxd
together with its tangent line at that point.