Compiled by Urav Maniar

FIRST WAR OF INDEPENDENCE, 1857

POLITICAL CAUSES:

POLICY OF EXPANSION
British policy of control and gradual extinction of native Indian states was one of the major grievances of Indians.

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OUTRIGHT WARS
To expand their territorial power and safeguard their economic and political interests the British wages wars like
Battle of Plassey (1757), Anglo Mysore wars, Anglo Maratha wars and Anglo Sikh wars.

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SUBSIDIARY ALLIANCE
Introduced by Lord Wellesley. The Indian states were brought under British domination without actually annexing
them, but the rulers who agreed the subsidiary alliance virtually lost their independence and accepted British as the

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supreme power

DOCTRINE OF LAPSE

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According to this doctrine, heirs adopted without the consent of the company could inherit only the private property
of the deceased ruler and not his territory which would come under company’s rule. Satara, Jhansi and Nagpur were

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annexed this way. This policy was introduced by lord dalhousie

ON THE PRETEXT OF ALLEGED MISRULE

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Lord Dalhousie annexed Awadh to the company’s domination on the pretext of alleged misrule on feb 1856. Lord
Dalhousie justified this annexation on pretext of “the good of the governed”. But on the contrary, the people had to
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face more hardships, they had to pay higher land revenue, additional taxes on food house etc.
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DISRESPECT SHOWN TO BAHADUR SHAH ZAFAR

Lord Dalhousie announced that successors of Bahadur Shah Zafar would not be permitted to use red fort as their
palace.
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In 1856, Lord Canning announced that after the death of Bahadur Shah Zafar, His successors would not be allowed to
use Imperial titles with their names.
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TREATMENT GIVEN TO NANA SAHEB AND RANI LAKSHMI BAI

Nana Saheb was the adopted son of Baji Rao II and became a victim of Doctrine of lapse. This was widely resented in
the Maratha region.
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Rani Lakshmi Bai also became a victim of Doctrine of Lapse as her adopted son was not accepted an heir to the throne
and she became a bitter enemy of the British.
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ABSENTEE SOVEREIGNTY OF THE BRITISH

Absentee Sovereignty of the British rule was resented by the Indians. This meant that India was being ruled by the
British government from England, unlike other empires, from a great distance. People felt that the revenue collected
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from them was not being utilized for their betterment but was drained to England.

SOCIO-RELIGIOUS CAUSES
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INTERFERENCE WITH SOCIAL CUSTOMS

Reforms introduced by the British were aimed for the betterment of the people but the feelings for the people were
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not taken into consideration. Abolition of sati, Widow Remarriage Act and imparting western education to girls are
examples of these reforms which were not welcomed by the masses.

APPREHENSIONS ABOUT MODERN INNOVATIONS

Modern innovations like railways and telegraphs were misunderstood by the people. There were rumours that the
telegraph poles were erected to hang people who went against the domination. Similarly, orthodox Indians noted that
in railway compartments the higher and lower castes were made to sit side by side, this defied their religion.
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ACTIVITIES OF MISSIONARIES
By 19th century the British began to interfere with the local religious and social customs of the people. The Increase in
both, the number and activities of the Christian missionaries was resented by the Indians because they saw this as an

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attempt by the Government to convert them into Christianity.

FEARS REGARDING WESTERN EDUCATION

The shifting emphasis from oriental learning to western education was not received well by the masses, especially the

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pundits and maulvis. People started to suspect that the aim of western education was not to promote literature and
science but to promote their children to Christians.

ECONOMIC CAUSES

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EXPLOITATION OF ECONOMIC RESOURCES

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India was forced to export at cheaper rates raw materials like raw cotton and silk that the British Industries needed
urgently.

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India was made to accept British goods either duty free or at nominal duty rates.
The Indian hand made goods were unable to compete with the cheaper machine-made British products.

DRAIN OF WEALTH
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Till the battle of Plassey, The European traders used to bring gold to buy Indian cotton and silk. However, after the
conquest, they stopped bringing gold into India.
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The transfer of wealth from India to England for which India got no proportionate economic return is called the drain
of wealth.
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ECONOMIC DECLINE OF PEASANTRY

The peasantry bore the heavy burden of taxes to provide money for the trade, cost of administration and the wars for
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expansion of British domination.

Not even a part of these taxes were spent on the development of agriculture or welfare of the cultivator. Hence the
peasants were unhappy with the official land revenue policy.
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GROWING UNEMPLOYMENT
The traditional rulers used to give financial support to scholars, preachers and men of arts. The coming of British led
to the decline of such rulers and gradually their patronage came to an end.
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When the native states were annexed to British domination, thousands of soldiers and officials in administrative,
military and judicial posts became unemployment.

MILITARY CAUSES
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ILL-TREATMENT OF INDIAN SOLDIERS

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Even though the British Empire was established in India with the help of Indian soldiers in the British army, they were
poorly paid, Ill-fed and badly housed. The military authorities forbade the soldiers from wearing cast or sectarian
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marks.

GENERAL SERVICE ENLISTMENT ACT

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As per the general service enlistment act in 1856, the Indian soldiers could be sent overseas on duty.
The act did not take into account the sentiments of Indian soldiers since it was a taboo for a Brahmin to cross the
seas.

LARGER PROPORTION OF INDIANS IN THE BRITISH ARMY

by 1856, the number of Indian soldiers were more than five times the British soldiers in the British army. This made it
easier for the large number of Indian soldiers to take up arms against the British.
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BLEAK PROSPECTS OF PROMOTION

All higher positions were reserved for the British irrespective of their performance. Even the Indian soldiers formerly
occupying high positions could not rise above the ranks of a Subedar.

IMMEDIATE CAUSE

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In 1856, The British authorities introduced a new weapon called Enfield Rifle. There was a rumour that the greased
cartridge which the soldiers had to bite off the top part in loading process was greased with cow and pig fat. Cow was
sacred for the Hindus and pig is a taboo to Muslims and hence they refused to use the cartridges and staged and

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uprising when they were forced to.

GROWTH OF NATIONALISM

Nationalism refers to the feeling of oneness and common consciousness that emerges when the people living in a

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common territory share the same historical, political and cultural background, have the same language, cultural values
and consider them as one nation.

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FACTORS PROMOTING GROWTH OF NATIONALISM.

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ECONOMIC EXPLOITATION
-The peasants were the main victims of British colonial policies. Their produce was taken away in form of land
revenue and other taxes. This money was not used for the benefit of the peasants.
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-The British economic policies were against the interest of the Indians trade and industry and hence the east India
company used its political powers to destroy the Indian handicrafts and Industry which made the Artisans and
craftsmen unemployed.
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-The growing modern industries led to the birth of a new social class in India- The working class. They were exploited
by the factory owners who were generally English men. Less in number but their political thinking was more
significant.
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-The only employment available to the educated Indians was government service in which the competition was high
and the chances of promotions were bleak.
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REPRESSIVE COLONIAL POLICIES

-British Had conquered India to promote their own interests and therefore followed such repressive policies.
-Lakhs of rupees were spent on the proclamation of Queen Victoria(1877(1857 + 20)) but nothing was done for the
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Indians who were in grip of famine.

-Lord Lytton had introduced the vernacular press act (1878(1857 + 21)) and the Indian arms act (1879(1857 + 22)).
-The Vernacular Press act forbade vernacular papers to publish any material that might excite the feelings of
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dissatisfaction against the British government, this act was not applicable for English newspapers.
-Indian Arms act made it a criminal offense for Indians to carry arms without licence.
-Also, the age limit for ICSE was reduced from 21 to 19 making it difficult for Indians to compete.
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SOCIO-REFORM MOVEMENTS
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-The educated Indians realized the need to reform their society and religion. They felt that path progress lay in
acceptance of best of east and the west. These reform movements touched all segments of Indian society.
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-Raja Ram Mohan Roy founded the Brahmo Samaj. He believed in monotheism. He was against the caste system. He
condemned polygamy and child marriages. He was the father of Indian Renaissance, he inaugurated the modern age in
India.
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-Jyotiba Phule was an urban, educated reformer. He belonged to low caste. He established schools for untouchables.
He wanted to liberate the depressed classes. He founded Satya Shodhak Samaj.
-These socio religious movements proclaimed the superiority of Indian culture and civilization and protested against
the British authority. Swami Dayanand Saraswati was first to use the word “Swaraj”.

REDISCCOVERY OF INDIA’S PAST

-Reformers and Philosophers tried to arouse self-confidence and self-respect of Indians. They pointed out richness of
Indian culture and achievements of rulers like Ashoka, Chandragupta, Vikramaditya and Akbar.
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-European scholars like Max Muller, John Marshall, James Princep and Alexander Cunningham contributed in re-
discovery of India’s past.
-The rediscovery of India’s past countered the western propaganda that Indians have never been able to rule
themselves and are destined to be ruled by foreigners.

INFLUENCE OF WESTERN EDUCATION

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-Wester education exposed the Indians to modern western ideas of democracy and nationalism. This gave a new
direction to Indian political thinking and to national awakening. The educated Indians had access to the ideals of
liberty, nationality, equality, rule of law and self-government.

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-Western education also gave a common language, English to the Indians in which they could communicate with one
another. Absence of a common language would make it difficult of Indians speaking different regional language to
communicate and organize an all-India movement.

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ROLE OF PRESS
-Messages of patriotism and modern liberal ideas were broadcasted to the masses by the press

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-Press also criticized the unjust policies of the British, which exposed their true nature.
-It made the Indians aware of the happenings around the world. They shaped their own programmes on the basis of the
development of the outside world.

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-Amrit Bazar Patrika, The Bengali, The Pioneer, The Times of India and The Hindu are some examples of the
newspapers.

DEVELOPMENT OF RAPID MEANS OF TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS

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-Besides promoting trade and commerce, the railways also promoted nationalism.
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-Modern postal system and the telegraph helped to unify the country.
-This enabled the Indians to come in contact with one another and discuss the problems facing the country.
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POLITICAL ASSOCIATIONS
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EAST INDIA ASSOCIATION

-Founded in London by Dadabhai Naoroji in 1866(1857 + 9). This association voiced the grievances of the Indians and
suggested remedial measures.
-Dadabhai Naoroji was known as the grand old man of India. He was under impression that the British were just and
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good
-The association had branches in Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai.
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INDIAN ASSOCIATION
-The association was founded by Sundranath Banerjee in 1876(1857 +19). The association comprised of Lawyers,
Professionals and educated middle class.
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-The objective of this association was to promote friendly relations between Hindus and Muslims and ensure mass
participation in public movements.
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INDIAN NATIONAL CONFERENCE

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In 1883(1885-2), Sundranath Banerjee held the all India conference in Kolkata. In 1886(1885+1), it merged with the INC

INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS (FOUNDED 28 DECEMBER 1885)

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AIMS:
➢ To promote friendly relations between the nationalist political workers from different parts of the country.
➢ To develop and consolidate the feelings of national unity irrespective of caste, religion or province.
➢ To formulate popular demands and present them before the government.
➢ To train and organize public opinion in the country.
1st session: Mumbai (W. C Bonnerjee) & 2nd session: Kolkata (Dadabhai Naoroji).
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EARLY NATIONALISTS (MODERATES)

From 1885 to 1905(10 y), Congress was led by a group of leaders known as early nationalists.
The members included educated middle class consisting lawyers, teachers and officials who were inspired by western
liberal thoughts.

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Leaders: W.C Bonnerjee, Sundranath Banerjee, Dadabhai Naoroji, Gopal Krishna Gokhale

BELIEFS

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➢ Had faith in sense of justice, fair play and integrity of the British.

➢ Hoped that British would grant them home rule.

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➢ Believed that British rule had benefits like cleansing social ills.

➢ Believed that main obstacle in India’s progress was social and economic backwardness.

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➢ Believed in patience and reconciliation rather than violence and confrontation.

➢ Had an objective of achieving self-government within the British Empire.

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DEMANDS

CONSTITUTIONAL REFORMS
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➢ Wanted a larger share in the government of their country, did not ask for immediate achievements of their
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goals because they feared that the government would supress their activities.

➢ Abolition of India Council.

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➢ Increase in the membership of Indians and demanded Indian control over the public purse
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➢ By 20th century they demanded self-government within the British Empire.

➢ Adequate representation of Indians in the executive council of the viceroy and governors.
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ECONOMIC REFORMS
➢ Reduction of land revenue and economic protection of peasants.
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➢ Reduction of money spent on army and spending more on welfare activities.

➢ Enquiry to India’s growing poverty

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➢ Imposing heavy taxes on Imported goods to protect trade and develop Industries.

➢ Abolition of salt tax and duty on sugar.

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ADMINISTRATIVE DEMANDS
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➢ Holding ICSE simultaneously in India as well for Indianisation of services.

➢ Complete separation of executive and judiciary to protect Indians from arbitrary acts of the police.
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➢ Repeal of Arms and Licence Act.

➢ Wider employment of Indians in Administrative services

➢ Improvement of police system to make it honest and efficient.

METHODS
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SET 1(TO INFLUENCE THE INDIANS(TRAIN THEM))

➢ Holding meetings where speeches are given and resolutions are passed.

➢ Using press to criticize the government

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➢ Sending memorandums and petitions to the government officials. Aim behind was this to educate the Indians
by making them draft these petitions

SET 2(TO INFLUENCE THE BRITISH)

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➢ For the government to look into the problems of Indians, prayers, petitions and protests were done.

➢ A weekly journal, India was published in London by British committee of INC, to present India’s case before the

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English.

➢ Deputations of Indian leaders were sent to Britain to carry out active propaganda.

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ACHIEVEMENTS

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-Created a National awakening and made people realize that they belonged to one common country. They made the
Indians conscious about the bonds that united them.
-They had trained people in politics and popularized ideas of democracy, liberty, secularism and nationalism.
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-They had exposed the true nature of British rule in India and weakened the foundation of the British domination.
-Their established the truth that India must be ruled by Interests of the Indians.
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PROMINENT LEADERS
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DADABHAI NAOROJI
-Known as the grand old man of India. Worked at Elphinstone college as a professor.
-Newspaper: Rast Goftar, -Magazine: Dharma Marg Darshak
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-He founded the East India Association in London and was known as India’s unofficial ambassador.
-He was a member of the British Parliament, and brought to the notice of the house important matters related to
India.
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-He took active part in formation of INC and was elected its president thrice.
-He concluded that the root cause of India’s poverty was exploitation by the British. His famous ‘drain theory’
explained how India’s wealth was drained to England. His views on Indian economy are given in his book “poverty and
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un-British rule in India”.

GOPAL KRISHNA GOKHALE

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-He was awarded the title of C.I.E (companion of the Indian Empire). He Was a professor at Fergusson College.
- He had faith in the British liberalism and favoured the use of Constitutional means.
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-He made a strong plea to separate judiciary from the executive.

-He set up the Servants of India Society.
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-Gandhi Ji accepted Gopal Krishna Gokhale as his political mentor because he had helped Gandhi Ji in his fight against
racial discrimination in South Africa.
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SUNDERNATH BANERJEE
-He was the first Indian to qualify for the ICSE. He was a professor at the Metropolitan college
-He founded the Indian association to fight against the wrong policies of the British and educate the Indians.
-He edited a newspaper: Bengalee.
-He was known as the Father of Indian Nationalism.
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ASSERTIVE NATIONALISTS (RADICALS)

From 1905 to 1918(13y), New and younger group of leaders emerged in congress who did not agree with the ideologies
of the early nationalists.

CAUSES FOR THE RISE OF ASSERTIVE NATIONALISM

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RECOGNITION OF THE TRUE NATURE OF THE BRITISH RULE
➢ The efforts of the early nationalists had exposed the true nature of the British rule.

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➢ The British were responsible for growing poverty and economic ruin of India.

➢ The Indians were convinced that they could not progress unless British imperialism was replaced by a

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government run by them.

FAILURE OF THE EARLY NATIONALISTS

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➢ The younger members of congress were dissatisfied by the by the achievements and the efforts of the early
nationalists.

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➢ The assertive nationalists accused the early nationalists of limiting their activities to the educated middle
class of the society.
➢ The failure of Early nationalists to get something substantial from the British government let to the demand
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WORSENING ECONOMIC CONDITIONS
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➢ In late 19th century, India faced many famines that killed lakhs of people but the government did nothing to
help the people but a lot of money was spent on silver jubilee celebrations of Queen Victoria’s accession of
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throne. This exposed the evil economic consequences of the British dominance

➢ The worsening economic conditions of the Indians and the repressive policies of the British provided the
atmosphere fit for the growth of assertive nationalism.
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NEED FOR MASS ACTION

➢ The assertive nationalist leaders taught the masses that the remedy of their sad condition lay in their own
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hands.

➢ There was realization that the masses could make the sacrifices needed to win freedom.
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INFLUENCE OF INTERNATIONAL EVENTS

➢ The assertive nationalists were inspired by the examples of international events.
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➢ For the first time, Japan, an Asian country had defeated Russia. Italian forces were defeated in Ethiopia. The
south Africans had a three year struggle against the British.
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➢ These facts broke the myth of invincibility of the Europeans.

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REPRESSIVE POLICIES OF LORD CURZON

➢ Lord Curzon’s 7-year rule was full of repressive measures. He refused to recognise India as a nation.
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➢ His repressive measures included:

o Act of 1898 which made It on offense to provoke people against the British

o Calcutta corporation act (1899) which reduced the strength of elected members from India.

o The official secrets act

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o The Indian universities act of 1904 which imposed strict control over the Indian universities.

➢ Lord Curzon thought that India was destined to be ruled by the British.

PARTITION OF BENGAL

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➢ Lord Curzon decided to partition Bengal to divide the Hindus and the Muslims. He reasoned the partition by
saying that it was for administrative convenience.

➢ This decision resulted into widespread protest and agitation. People launched Swadeshi and Boycott

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movements.

➢ Curzon’s disregard for public opinion gave evidence that methods of early nationalists could not produce any
results and hence more assertive methods had to be adopted.

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OBJECTIVES OF ASSERTIVE NATIONALISTS

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➢ Attainment of ‘Swaraj’. Complete independence and not just self-government.

METHODS

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SWADESHI
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➢ Swadeshi means producing necessary items in one’s own country and using them without depending on
imported goods.

➢ Swadeshi idea was popularized by occasional bonfires of foreign goods.

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BOYCOTT
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➢ Tilak said ‘when you accept swadeshi, you must boycott foreign goods’

➢ Use of swadeshi and boycott was aimed to encourage Indian industries and provide the people with more
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opportunities for employment.

➢ It also served as an effective weapon to harm the British interests in India.

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NATIONAL EDUCATION
➢ National scheme of education was planned to replace government controlled universities and colleges.
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➢ The assertive nationalists tried to enlist at their service

➢ When the government threatened to take actions against them, the leaders advocated that these national
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universities were free from government control.

➢ Pachaiyappa national college at C

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➢ Chennai and D.A.V movement in Punjab made a considerable effort in spreading education.
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PASSIVE RESISTANCE
➢ The assertive leaders adopted the non-violent resistance and vigorous political action to achieve their aims.
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➢ The leaders asked the people to refuse to cooperate with the government and to boycott government service,
courts, schools and colleges

➢ They advocated courage, self-confidence and a spirit of sacrifice to achieve their goal of Swaraj.

ACHIEVEMENTS
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➢ The leaders inculcated national pride by praising India’s past. Tilak revived Ganpati and Shivaji festivals to
arouse national sentiments.

➢ The leaders were able to convey their message to the masses by writing and editing newspapers in vernacular
languages.

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➢ Their efforts produced a class of revolutionaries willing to sacrifice their lives and property for the sake of
their country.

➢ Self-reliance was promoted by setting up swadeshi stores. Jamshedji Tata established iron and steel industry

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despite the fact that it had a long gestation period.

➢ Swadeshi and boycott movements soon spread from Bengal to other parts of the country and assumed an all-
India character.

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➢ Because of the efforts of the assertive nationalists, the partition of Bengal was annulled in 1911.

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LEADERS (LAL-BAL-PAL TRIO)

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LALA LAJPAT RAI
-Also known as ‘Punjab Kesari’ or “Sher-e-Punjab”. He was a lawyer, a forceful writer and an educator. He joined
congress in 1888 and remained its worker till the end of his life.
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-When he was in the USA he started a magazine ‘Young India’ to spread the message of the right of India to attain
Swaraj.
-He helped in expansion of D.A.V college at Lahore. He opened orphanages, hospital and schools. He set up servants of
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the peoples society. He was a social reformer
-He went abroad to mobilize opinion in favour of India’s struggle for freedom. When he went to America, he joined the
Ghadar party there. This was his political work outside India.
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BAL GANGADHAR TILAK

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-Known as the father of assertive nationalism.

-Tilak was the first one to openly declare the demand for Swaraj. He believed that political rights could be achieved
by aggressively demanding them.
-He organised many akharas and lathi clubs where physical training was imparted to the masses.
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-He started using traditional Ganpati festival to preach nationalism through songs and speeches.
-He started 2 newspapers, viz., Maratta and Kesari.
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-He established the Home Rule League in Pune in 1916.

-Tilak was the forerunner of Mahatma Gandhi in a number of ways. Tilak’s idea of Swaraj, his close contact with the
masses, his preaching of ideas of swadeshi, boycott and prohibition matched with that of Gandhi’s.
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BIPIN CHANDRA PAL

-He was known as the father of revolutionary thought in India.
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-As A journalist he worked for Bengal public opinion, the tribune and New India to propagate nationalism
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-Promoted national education.

-Made social and economic reforms.
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