Chapter Three

Methodology

Methodology of a Conduction Analysis

• Specify appropriate form of the heat equation.
• Solve for the temperature distribution.
• Apply Fourier’s law to determine the heat flux.

Simplest Case: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction with No Thermal

Energy Generation.

• Common Geometries:
 The Plane Wall: Described in rectangular (x) coordinate. Area
perpendicular to direction of heat transfer is constant (independent of x).
 The Tube Wall: Radial conduction through tube wall.
 The Spherical Shell: Radial conduction through shell wall.
Plane Wall
The Plane Wall
• Consider a plane wall between two fluids of different temperature:

• Heat Equation:
d  dT 
k 0 (3.1)
dx  dx 

• Implications:
Heat flux  qx  is independent of x.
Heat rate  qx  is independent of x.
• Boundary Conditions: T  0   Ts,1, T  L   Ts,2

• Temperature Distribution for Constant k :

T  x   Ts ,1  Ts ,2  Ts,1 
x
(3.3)
L
Plane Wall (cont.)

• Heat Flux and Heat Rate:

 Ts ,1  Ts ,2 
dT k
qx  k (3.5)
dx L
 Ts ,1  Ts ,2 
dT kA
qx  kA (3.4)
dx L
 T 
• Thermal Resistances  Rt   and Thermal Circuits:
 q 
L
Conduction in a plane wall: Rt ,cond  (3.6)
kA
1
Convection: Rt ,conv  (3.9)
hA
Thermal circuit for plane wall with adjoining fluids:

1 L 1
Rtot    (3.12)
h1 A kA h 2 A
T,1  T,2
qx  (3.11)
Rtot
Plane Wall (cont.)

• Thermal Resistance for Unit Surface Area:

L 1
Rt,cond  Rt,conv 
k h
Units: Rt  K/W Rt  m2  K/W
• Radiation Resistance:
1 1
Rt ,rad  Rt,rad 
hr A hr

hr   Ts  Tsur  Ts2  Tsur
2
 (1.9)

• Contact Resistance:

TA  TB Rt,c
Rt,c  Rt ,c 
qx Ac

Values depend on: Materials A and B, surface finishes, interstitial conditions, and
contact pressure (Tables 3.1 and 3.2)
Plane Wall (cont.)

• Composite Wall with Negligible

Contact Resistance:

T,1  T,4
qx  (3.14)
 Rt

For the temperature distribution

shown, kA > kB < kC.

1  1 LA LB LC 1  Rtot
 Rt  Rtot       
A  h1 k A k B kC h4  A
• Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient (U) :
A modified form of Newton’s law of cooling to encompass multiple resistances
to heat transfer.
qx  UAToverall (3.17)

1
Rtot  (3.19)
UA
Tube Wall
The Tube Wall

• Heat Equation:
1 d  dT 
 kr 0 (3.28)
r dr  dr 
Note that the temperature distribution associated with radial conduction through a
cylindrical wall is logarithmic, not linear.

• Temperature Distribution for Constant k :

Ts ,1  Ts ,2  r 
T r   ln    Ts ,2 (3.31)
ln  r1 / r2   r2 
Tube Wall (cont.)

• Heat Flux and Heat Rate:

qr   k
dT

k
dr r ln  r2 / r1 
Ts,1  Ts,2  [W/m2]

2 k
qr  2 rqr 
ln  r2 / r1 
 Ts ,1  Ts ,2  [W/m]

2 Lk
qr  2 rLqr 
ln  r2 / r1 
Ts,1  Ts,2  [W] (3.32)

• Conduction Resistance:
ln  r2 / r1 
Rt ,cond  [K/W] (3.33)
2 Lk
ln  r2 / r1 
Rt,cond  [m  K/W]
2 k
Tube Wall (cont.)

• Composite Wall with

Negligible Contact
Resistance

T,1  T,4
qr 
Rtot

 UA T,1  T,4  (3.35)

Note that
For the temperature distribution
1
UA  Rtot shown, kA > kB > kC.

is a constant independent of radius,

but U itself is tied to specification of an interface.
1
U i   Ai Rtot  (3.37)
Exercises

40
Spherical Shell
Spherical Shell

• Heat Equation
1 d  2 dT 
2 dr 
r 0
r  dr 
Note that the temperature distribution could have been obtained using the standard
approach, which begins with the appropriate form of heat equation.

• Temperature Distribution for Constant k :

T  r   Ts ,1  Ts ,1  Ts,2 
 
1  r1/ r

1  r1 / r 2 
Spherical Shell (cont.)

• Heat flux, Heat Rate and Thermal Resistance:

dT
qr  k  2
k
dr r 1/ r1   1/ r2  
 Ts ,1  Ts ,2 

4 k
qr  4 r 2qr 
1/ r1   1/ r2 
 Ts ,1  Ts ,2  (3.40)

Rt ,cond 
1/ r1   1/ r2  (3.41)
4 k

• Composite Shell:
Toverall
qr   UAToverall
Rtot

UA  Rtot 1  Constant

1
U i   Ai Rtot   Depends on Ai
Exercises

0.30

0.36
0.37
Implications

Implications of Energy Generation

• Involves a local (volumetric) source of thermal energy due to conversion

from another form of energy in a conducting medium.

• The source may be uniformly distributed, as in the conversion from

electrical to thermal energy (Ohmic heating):
Eg I 2 Re
q  (3.43)
 

or it may be non-uniformly distributed, as in the absorption of radiation

passing through a semi-transparent medium.

• Generation affects the temperature distribution in the medium and causes

the heat rate to vary with location, thereby precluding inclusion of
the medium in a thermal circuit.
The Plane Wall

The Plane Wall

• Consider one-dimensional, steady-state conduction
in a plane wall of constant k, uniform generation,
and asymmetric surface conditions:
• Heat Equation:
d  dT  d 2T q
k q0 2  0 (3.44)
dx  dx  dx k

Is the heat flux q independent of x?

Note that with genereation, heat flux is no longer
Independent of x
• General Solution:
(3.45)
T  x     q / 2k  x  C1 x  C2
2
Plane wall (cont.)

Symmetric Surface Conditions or One Surface Insulated:

• What is the temperature gradient
at the centerline or the insulated
surface? dT/dx = 0
• Why does the magnitude of the temperature
gradient increase with increasing x?
Temperature distribution is symmetrical midplane
• Temperature Distribution:
q L2  x2 
T  x  1  2   Ts
2k 
(3.47)
L 

• How do we determine Ts ?
Overall energy balance on the wall →
 E out  E g  0

hAs Ts  T   q As L  0

qL
Ts  T  (3.51)
h
Radial Systems

Radial Systems
Cylindrical (Tube) Wall Spherical Wall (Shell)

Solid Cylinder (Circular Rod) Solid Sphere

• Heat Equations:
Cylindrical Spherical
1 d  dT  1 d  2 dT 
 kr q0  kr q0
r dr  dr  r 2 dr  dr 
Radial systems (cont.)

• Solution for Uniform Generation in a Solid Sphere of Constant k

with Convection Cooling:
Temperature Distribution Surface Temperature
dT q r3
kr 2
  C1 Overall energy balance:
dr 3 q ro
 Eout  Eg  0  Ts  T 
q r 2 C1 3h
T    C2
6k r
dT Or from a surface energy balance:
|r  0  0  C1  0
Ein  Eout  0  qcond  ro   qconv  Ts  T  o
dr qr
q ro 2 3h
T  ro   Ts  C2  Ts 
6k
q ro 2  r2 
T r   1    Ts
6k  ro 2 

• A summary of temperature distributions is provided in Appendix C

for plane, cylindrical and spherical walls, as well as for solid
cylinders and spheres. Note how boundary conditions are specified
and how they are used to obtain surface temperatures.
Exercises
 Go through Ex3.7
 Ex 3.8
 Problem 3.100
Chapter Three
Section 3.6
Nature and Rationale

Nature and Rationale of Extended Surfaces

• An extended surface (also know as a combined conduction-convection system
or a fin) is a solid within which heat transfer by conduction is assumed to be
one dimensional, while heat is also transferred by convection (and/or
radiation) from the surface in a direction transverse to that of conduction.

– Fin : Extended surface used to enhance heat transfer between solid and an
adjoining fluid.
- Example: engine heads on motorcycles, cooling electric power transformers,
And tubes with attached fins in air-conditioner.
Three ways to increase heat transfer rate
1. Increasing fluid velocity (costly)
2. Reducing ambient temperature (impractical)
3. Increasing surface area across which convection occurs.
Nature and Rationale (cont.)

–Assume 1-D conditions, even though fin is actually 2-D.

–The rate of which energy is convected to the fluid from any point on the fin
surface must be balanced by the net rate at which energy reaches that point.
–Temperature changes in transverse direction with the fin are small.
–Hence, assume that the temperature is uniform across the fin thickness. Assume steady
state conditions.The thin-fin approximation.
• Extended surfaces may exist in many situations but are commonly used as
fins to enhance heat transfer by increasing the surface area available for
convection (and/or radiation). They are particularly beneficial when h is small,
as for a gas and natural convection.
• Some typical fin configurations:

Straight fins of (a) uniform and (b) non-uniform cross sections; (c) annular
fin, and (d) pin fin of non-uniform cross section.
Fin Equation

The Fin Equation

• Assuming one-dimensional, steady-state conduction in an extended
surface of constant conductivity  k  and uniform cross-sectional area  Ac ,
with negligible generation  q  0  and radiation  qrad
  0  , the fin equation
is of the form:

d 2T hP
2
 T  T   0 (3.67)
dx kAc

or, with m2   hP / kAc  and the reduced temperature   T  T ,

d 2
2
 m 2  0 (3.69)
dx

How is the fin equation derived?

Fin Equation (cont.)

• Solutions (Table 3.4):

Base (x = 0) condition

  0   Tb  T  b
Tip ( x = L) conditions

A. Convection:  kd / dx |x  L  h  L 
B. Adiabatic: d / dx |x  L  0
C. Fixed temperature:   L    L
D. Infinite fin (mL  2.65):   L   0
• Fin Heat Rate:
d
q f  kAc |x 0   h  x  dAs
dx Af
Performance Parameters
Fin Performance Parameters
• Fin Efficiency:
qf qf
f   where 0   f  1 (3.91)
qf , max hA f b

How is the efficiency affected by the thermal conductivity of the fin?

Expressions for  f are provided in Table 3.5 for common geometries.
Consider a triangular fin:
1/ 2
Af  2w  L2   t / 2  
2
 
Ap   t / 2  L
1 I1  2mL 
f 
mL I 0  2mL 

• Fin Effectiveness:
qf
f 
hAc ,bb (3.86)

• Fin Resistance:
b 1
Rt , f   (3.97)
qf hAf  f
Arrays
Fin Arrays
• Representative arrays of
(a) rectangular and
(b) annular fins.

– Total surface area:

At  NAf  Ab (3.104)

Number of fins Area of exposed base (prime surface)

– Total heat rate:

b
qt  N f hAf b  hAbb  o hAtb  (3.105)
Rt , o
– Overall surface efficiency and resistance:
NAf
o  1 
A
1  f  (3.107)
b t 1
Rt , o  
qt o hAt (3.108)
Arrays (Cont.)

• Equivalent Thermal Circuit:

• Effect of Surface Contact Resistance:

b
qt  o  c  hAtb 
Rt , o  c 
NAf   f  (3.110a)
o  c   1  1  
At  C1 
C1  1   f hAf  Rt, c / Ac,b  (3.110b)

1
Rt , o  c  
o  c  hAt (3.109)
 Go through Ex 3.10-3.11