Table of Contents

Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 1
Objective ....................................................................................................................................................... 1
Theory ........................................................................................................................................................... 1
Experimental Apparatus ............................................................................................................................... 2
Test Procedure .............................................................................................................................................. 2
Results and Calculation ................................................................................................................................. 2
Discussion.................................................................................................................................................... 12
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................... 13
References .................................................................................................................................................. 14
Appendices.................................................................................................................................................. 15
Introduction
The frictional resistance to which the fluid is subjected as it flows along a pipe results in continuous loss
of energy. This energy loss manifests itself as a pressure drop along the pipe. Engineers installing pumps
or air conditioning fans need to know the total pressure drop in their pipe or duct system in order to
choose the correct size of pump or fan. This is of the reasons why pipe losses need to be predicted.

Objective
 To investigate the pressure, drop across a straight length of pipe for varying flow rates.

Theory
The Reynolds number Re for flow through a pipe of circular cross-section is given by:
𝝆𝒖𝒅
𝑹𝒆 =
𝝁
Where ρ is the density of the fluid
u is the average velocity in the pipe
d is the pipe diameter
µ is the viscosity (absolute)

One of the uses for calculating this number is that it provides an indication of whether the flow is
laminar or turbulent. When:
 Re < 2300, then it is considered laminar flor
 2300 < Re < 4000, then it is considered transient flow
 Re < 4000, then it is considered turbulent.

For steady laminar flow through a pipe of circular cross section the Poiseuille equation applies:
𝝅𝒅𝟒 ∆𝑷
𝑸=
𝟏𝟐𝟖𝝁𝑳
Where ΔP is the pressure drop over the length
Q is the flow rate

For turbulent flow, The Darcy formula can be used:

∆𝑷
𝒉𝒇 =
𝝆𝒈
𝒇𝑳 𝒖𝟐
=
𝒅 𝟐𝒈
Where
hf is the head loss
f is the friction factor. NB. Some moody charts give a value of f one quarter of this value

In such cases:
𝟒𝒇𝑳𝒖𝟐
𝒉𝒇 =
𝒅 𝟐𝒈

1|Page
Experimental Apparatus
Water from a supply tank is led through a flexible hose to a bell mouthed entrance of the straight pipe.
To measure the pressure, drop over the required flow range the rig uses two manometers, a water one
for the lower flow rates and a mercury one for the higher flow rates. The flow rate is controlled by a
needle valve and is measured by timing a fixed volume flowing into the measuring cylinder. Piezometer
tappings on the pipe are located approximately 50 pipe diameters from the upstream entrance and 20
pipe diameters from the downstream exit.

Test Procedure
1. The valve connecting the inverted U-tube water manometer to the piezometer was opened.
2. The needle valve was opened until the difference of about 25 mm (1 inch) between the
manometer water levels. When the steady flow condition was achieved, the height difference
was recorded and the time for a fixed volume to fill was noted.
3. The temperature of the collected volume of water was measured and the series was repeated
for different settings of the needle valve. When the water manometer became insufficient to
measure the pressure drop, the needle valve was closed and the valve that isolates the water
manometer was closed. The needle valve was opened again and the readings for the mercury
were taking.

Results and Calculation

Trial H1 H2 ΔH(in) ΔH(m) Time(s) Volume(ml) Temp(0C)

Initial 14.6 13.6 1 0.0254 45.5 50 31
1 14.7 12.5 2.2 0.05588 18.23 50 31
2 14.8 11.9 2.9 0.07366 14.75 50 31
3 15 10.9 4.1 0.10414 10.7 50 31
4 15.4 9.8 5.6 0.14224 10 50 31
5 15.7 9.2 6.5 0.1651 9.95 50 31
6 16 8.7 7.3 0.18542 9.73 50 31
7 16.2 8.0 8.2 0.20828 9.37 50 31
8 16.5 7 9.5 0.2413 8.6 50 31
9 16.7 6.5 10.2 0.25908 8.3 50 31
10 17 5.5 11.5 0.2921 7.82 50 31
11 17.2 4.8 12.4 0.31496 7.41 50 31
12 1.6 3.9 13.7 0.34798 7.16 50 31
13 1.8 3 14.8 0.37592 7 50 31
14 18 2.5 15.5 0.3937 6.8 50 31
15 18.2 1.7 16.5 0.4191 6.45 50 31
16 18.4 0.9 17.5 0.4445 6.07 50 31
Table 1A: Shows the raw laboratory results using water based manometers

2|Page
 Trial H1 H2 ΔH ΔH(m) Time(s) Volume(ml) Temp(0C)
Initial 4.3 5.7 1.4 0.03556 12.8 100 31
1 4.1 5.8 1.7 0.04318 10.97 100 31
2 4.0 5.9 1.9 0.04826 10.18 100 31
3 3.9 6.2 2.3 0.05842 9.47 100 31
4 3.7 6.3 2.6 0.06604 8.6 100 31
5 3.6 6.5 2.9 0.07366 8.32 100 31
6 3.5 6.7 3.2 0.08128 7.32 100 31

Table 1B: Shows the raw laboratory results using mercury based manometers

Miscellaneous Data:

Diameter of pipe = 2.99 mm

Length of pipe = 523.875 mm
Gravitational acceleration = 9.81m/s2

Density of Water at 310C:

0.9952 Kg/m3 = approximately 1000Kg/m3

Density of Mercury = 13600 kg/m3

Conversion from Liter to cubic meter:

1000L = 1m3

Conversion from Inches to meter:

1in = 0.0254m

Theoretical Value of Dynamic Viscosity of Water at 310C:

μ = 0.7805 mPa.s

Volume(mL) Volume(m3)
50 0.00005
100 0.0001

Calculated Results
ΔH P = pgΔH(Pa) ΔP/L Flow Rate(m3/s) Velocity(m/s)
1 249.174 475.6364 1.0989E-06 0.15658546
2.2 548.1828 1046.4 2.74273E-06 0.39081944
2.9 722.6046 1379.345 3.38983E-06 0.48302633
4.1 1021.6134 1950.109 4.6729E-06 0.66585406
5.6 1395.3744 2663.564 0.000005 0.71246384
6.5 1619.631 3091.636 5.02513E-06 0.71604406
7.3 1818.9702 3472.145 5.13875E-06 0.73223416
8.2 2043.2268 3900.218 5.33618E-06 0.76036696
9.5 2367.153 4518.545 5.81395E-06 0.82844633

3|Page
 10.2 2541.5748 4851.491 6.0241E-06 0.85839017
11.5 2865.501 5469.818 6.39386E-06 0.91107908
12.4 3089.7576 5897.891 6.74764E-06 0.96148967
13.7 3413.6838 6516.218 6.98324E-06 0.99506123
14.8 3687.7752 7039.418 7.14286E-06 1.01780549
15.5 3862.197 7372.364 7.35294E-06 1.04774094
16.5 4111.371 7848 7.75194E-06 1.1045951
17.5 4360.545 8323.636 8.23723E-06 1.17374603
Table 2A: Shows the calculated values for water manometers from Table 1A

ΔH P = pgΔH(Pa) ΔP/L Flow Rate(m3/s) Velocity(m/s)

0.03556 4744.27296 9056.116 7.8125E-06 1.11322475
0.04318 5760.90288 10996.71 9.11577E-06 1.29893134
0.04826 6438.65616 12290.44 9.82318E-06 1.3997325
0.05842 7794.16272 14877.91 1.05597E-05 1.50467549
0.06604 8810.79264 16818.5 1.16279E-05 1.65689266
0.07366 9827.42256 18759.1 1.20192E-05 1.71265347
0.08128 10844.05248 20699.69 1.36612E-05 1.94662252
Table 2B: Shows the calculated values for mercury manometers from Table 1B

1. Plot a graph of pressure drop per unit length against average velocity of the fluid

ΔP/Length vs Veloctiy
9000 1771.37
1663.88
8000 1593.58
1574.95
1626.21
7000 1677.51
6000 1624.10
1625.43
ΔP/Length

1625.56
5000 1586.47
4000 1652.63
1774.86
2039.56
3000 2433.17
2000 1810.267
1562.17
1000 551.698

Velocity

Graph 1A: Graph shows ΔP/L against average velocity of water (u) utilizing water manometers

4|Page
 ΔP/Length vs Veloctiy
25000
1959.18
20000 1673.40
1746.92
1628.61
15000
ΔP/Length

1706.07
1642.04
1464.53
10000

5000

0
1.113224754 1.298931345 1.3997325 1.504675486 1.656892657 1.712653467 1.94662252
Velocity

Graph 1B: Graph shows ΔP/L against average velocity of water (u) utilizing mercury manometers

∆𝑃
2. Plot the graph of ln ( 𝐿 ) against ln (u) on a linear graph indicating Re values on the velocity axis

ln(ΔP/L) vs ln u
10
1574.95 1663.88
1625.42 1677.52
9 1774.86 1586.47
2433.17 1626.51 1593.58 1771.37
8 1625.56 1624.10
1562.17 1652.63
2039.56
7 551.698
1810.27
6
ln(ΔP/L)

ln u

Graph 2A: Graph shows [ln (ΔP/L)] against ln(u) utilizing water manometers

5|Page
 ln(ΔP/L) vs ln u
1959.18
10
1673.40
9.8 1746.93
1) Discuss the shape of these graphs, how do they compare with theory.
1628.61
9.6
1706.07
According to Graph 1, it can be seen that the shape of the graph possesses a linear shape with
9.4 1642.04
ln(ΔP/L)

minute variations.
9.2 1464.53
According to Graph 2, it can be seen that the shape of the graph resembles the shape of an
9
inverse exponential function.
8.8

8.6
0.107260987 0.261541884 0.336281147 0.408577251 0.504943955 0.538043903 0.66609583
ln u
Graph 2B: Graph shows [ln (ΔP/L)] against ln(u) - utilizing mercury manometers

3. Discuss the shape of these graphs.

Rearranging Equation B in terms of d

𝜋𝑑 4 ∆𝑃
 𝑄=
128𝜇 𝐿
𝑄𝐿 𝜋𝑑 4
 ∆𝑃
= 128𝜇
128𝜇𝑄𝐿
 = 𝑑4
∆𝑃𝜋
4 128𝜇𝑄𝐿
 𝑑=√ ∆𝑃𝜋
Rearranging Equation C into u
𝑓𝐿 𝑢2
 ℎ𝑓 =
𝑑 2𝑔
ℎ𝑓 𝑑 𝑢2
 𝑓𝐿
= 2𝑔
2𝑔ℎ𝑓 𝑑
 𝑓𝐿
2
=𝑢
2𝑔ℎ𝑓 𝑑
 𝑢=√ 𝑓𝐿
Substituting Equation B into Equation C
4 128𝜇𝑄𝐿
2𝑔ℎ𝑓 √
 𝑢=√
∆𝑃𝜋
𝑓𝐿

4 128𝜇𝑄𝐿
2𝑔ℎ𝑓 √
 𝑢=√
∆𝑃𝜋
𝑓𝐿

6|Page
 Taking ln on both sides
4 128𝜇𝑄𝐿
2𝑔ℎ𝑓√
 𝑙𝑛(𝑢) = 𝑙𝑛 (√
∆𝑃𝜋
𝑓𝐿
)

ln(RHS) ln (u)
-4.764658329 -1.854153349
-3.850014592 -0.939509611
-3.638189086 -0.727684105
-3.317189745 -0.406684764
-3.249531096 -0.339026116
-3.244518555 -0.334013574
-3.2221599 -0.311654919
-3.1844591 -0.273954119
-3.098708207 -0.188203226
-3.063201518 -0.152696537
-3.003630558 -0.093125577
-2.949776443 -0.039271462
-2.915455984 -0.004951004
-2.892856152 0.017648828
-2.863868616 0.046636365
-2.811026134 0.099478847
-2.750304608 0.160200372
Plotting the graph gives.

ln(RHS) vs ln(u)
0
-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5
-1
y = x - 2.9105
R² = 1
-2
ln RHS

-3

-4

-5

-6
ln u

ln(RHS) vs ln(u) Linear (ln(RHS) vs ln(u))

Graph 3: Graph shows natural log of both sides of equation previously show

7|Page
 The two graphs, respectively for water and mercury manometer readings, Graph 1A and Graph
1B, possess linear characteristics forming an almost straight line across the graph. It could be said
from this that the two variables used in the graphs are linearly proportional to each other.

The two graphs, respectively for water and mercury manometer readings, Graph 2A and Graph
2B, possess linear characteristics ,however, differs from the two initially as it can also be said that
they both possess a resemblance to an exponential graph.
4. Calculate an experimental value of friction factor f and compare this with the value obtained
from Blausius formula for smooth pipes:
−1
𝑓 = 0.316(𝑅𝑒) 4

a) For values of Re < 2300 This is Laminar Flow. Hence frictional factor is :
64
𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟 =
𝑅𝑒

b) For values of Re > 2300. This is Turbulent Flow. Hence frictional factor is found using
Moody’s diagram or by using Darcy’s formula.

Reynolds Number – Water Manometers Reynolds Number – Mercury Manometers

551.6984277 1464.527893
1562.170821 1642.038918
1810.266443 1706.068504
2433.173778 1628.612743
2039.560125 1746.929473
1774.863758 1673.404652
1652.631396 1959.176136
1586.46869
1625.563847
1625.42967
1624.101596
1677.515101
1626.21487
1574.949903
1593.584203
1663.876799
1771.36928
Table 3: Calculated Reynolds number values from experimental results

8|Page
 f(Experimental Friction Factor – Laminar f( Experimental Friction Factor - Blausius
Formula) Formula)
0.116005406 0.065202109
0.040968631 0.050263758
0.035353912 0.048445279
0.026303095 0.044992881
0.031379315 0.047022201
0.036059106 0.048685073
0.038726119 0.049561345
0.040341168 0.050070186
0.039370954 0.049766383
0.039374204 0.04976741
0.039406402 0.049777581
0.038151668 0.049376519
0.039355193 0.049761401
0.040636213 0.050161486
0.040161041 0.0500142
0.038464386 0.049477391
0.036130242 0.048709066
Table 4A: Shows friction factor for laminar formula compared to Blausius formula – water manometer

f(Experimental Friction Factor – Laminar f( Experimental Friction Factor - Blausius

Formula) Formula)
0.116005406 0.043700089
0.040968631 0.038975934
0.035353912 0.037513148
0.026303095 0.039297249
0.031379315 0.036635709
0.036059106 0.038245382
0.038726119 0.032666792
Table 4B: Shows friction factor for laminar formula compared to Blausius formula – mercury manometer

5.
𝜋𝑑4 ∆𝑃 𝜋𝑑4 ∆𝑃
a) 𝑄 = ⟹ 𝜇=
128𝜇 𝐿 128𝐿𝑄
𝜋𝑑4 ∆𝑃
𝜇= 128∆𝐿𝑄
𝜋𝑑4 ∆𝑃
𝜇2 = 128(𝐿+∆𝐿)𝑄
𝜋𝑑4 ∆𝑃
𝜇1 = 128𝐿𝑄
𝜇1 𝜋𝑑4 ∆𝑃 128(𝐿+∆𝐿)𝑄 𝐿+∆𝐿
%= 𝜇2
= 128𝐿𝑄
× 𝜋𝑑4 ∆𝑃
= 𝐿
× 100

9|Page
 𝐿 ± 0.1′′ −𝐿
%= × 100
𝐿
|0.52387 ±0.00254 −0.52387|
%= × 100 = 0.485%
0.52387

b)
𝜋𝑑4 ∆𝑃 𝜋𝑑4 ∆𝑃
𝑄= ⟹ 𝜇0 =
128𝜇 𝐿 128𝐿𝑄
𝜋(𝑑+∆𝑑)4 ∆𝑃
𝜇1 = 128𝐿𝑄
𝜇1 𝜋(𝑑+∆𝑑)4 ∆𝑃 128𝐿𝑄
%= × 100 = × × 100
𝜇0 128𝐿𝑄 𝜋𝑑4 ∆𝑃
(𝑑 + ∆𝑑)4
%= × 100
𝑑4
|0.00299 ± 2.5×10−5 −0.00299|
%= × 100 = 0.836%
0.00299

6. Use the Moody diagram to solve the problem. A commercial steel water pipe has a length of
100m. The average height of bumps due to surface roughness of the pipe walls can be taken as
0.045mm. The diameter of the pipe is 0.50m. Obtain from the Moody Diagram, the friction
factor, f, and by using Darcy’s formula calculate the pressure drop in the pipe. Take the volume
flow rate Q to be 1m3/s and the water temperature as 250C.

a) Calculate Velocity from Continuity equation:

𝑄 1𝑚3 /s
Q = Av → v = → v= → v = 5.09m/s
𝐴 𝜋(0.5𝑚)2
4
b) Calculating Reynolds Number:
Water at 250C (see appendices Table 1):
μ = 0.89 mPa.s
ρ = 0.997 g/cm3 = 997kg/m3
d = 0.5m

997𝑘𝑔 5.09𝑚
× ×0.5𝑚
ρud 𝑚3 𝑠
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇
→ 𝑅𝑒 = → 𝑅𝑒 = 2852628.823
0.89𝑚𝑃𝑎.𝑠
Since Re > 2300 the flow is turbulent.

c) Calculating Relative Roughness

Roughness (ε) = 0.045mm
Diameter of pipe = 0.5m

10 | P a g e
 𝜀
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝑑
𝜀 0.000045𝑚
= = 0.00009
𝑑 0.5𝑚

d) Approximating from the Moody Diagram(see appendices Moody Diagram):

f (friction factor) = approximately 0.0126

e) Calculating pressure drop utilizing Darcy’s formula:

Transposing Darcy’s formula:
9.81𝑚 5.09𝑚 2 997𝑘𝑔
𝑓gL𝑢 2 0.0126 × × 100𝑚 × ( 𝑠 ) × 𝑚3
∆P = = 𝑠2
2𝑑 2 × 0.5𝑚

= 3196.50 𝑃𝑎

Formulas and Calculations:

Calculation of velocity:
𝑄
u= Where: Q = Flow rate
𝐴
A = Cross-sectional Area of pipe

The Reynolds Number for flow through pipe of circular cross section is given by:
𝜌𝑢𝑑
Re = Where: ρ = density of the fluid
𝜇

u = average velocity of the fluid

d = pipe diameter

μ = absolute viscosity

For steady laminar flow through a pipe of circular cross section the Poiseuille equation applies:

𝜋𝑑 2 ∆𝑃
Q= Where: Q = flow rate
128𝜇 𝐿

For turbulent flow the Darcy formula can be used:

11 | P a g e
 ∆𝑃 𝑓𝐿 𝑢2
ℎ𝑓 = = Where: hf = head loss
𝜌𝑔 𝑑 2𝑔

𝑓 = friction factor
Calculating absolute viscosity by transposition of Poiseuille equation followed by the calculation
of Reynolds number by its formula:
π∆p𝑑4
μ=
128𝑄𝐿
Calculating friction factor for turbulent flow by transposition of Darcy formula:

∆𝑃 2𝑑
𝑓=
𝜌 𝐿𝑢2

Discussion
According to the results in Table 4, all values are less than the value of 2300 meaning the flow within the
pipe maintained laminar even at different flow rates. The values of Reynolds number for laminar and
turbulent flow are calculated in different ways as seen from formulas and calculations provided in the
above captions. Reynolds number is influenced by certain factors, more importantly is the dynamic
viscosity and the velocity. Firstly, the dynamic viscosity is inversely proportional to Reynolds number but
is inversely proportional to temperature. Hence, the Reynolds number is indirectly proportional to
temperature or it increases with increasing temperature. Secondly, the Reynolds number is directly
proportional to velocity and increases as the velocity of the fluid increases.

As seen from the results in Table 1, as the flow rate of water through the pipe increased, the pressure
drops between the manometers also increased. This is due to the friction between the roughness of the
surface of the pipe and the fluid flowing over it. This relationship at the interface eventually creates
eddy current and turbulent flow over the length of the pipe. There are two essential dimensions that
influences the flow of water through the pipe: the length and the diameter. As seen in this experiment,
for a constant length of pipe with varying flow rate the pressure drop caused by turbulent flow was due
to the length of exposure to the roughness of the pipe’s surface. Increasing the diameter of the pipe will
create more turbulent flow due to less control in the inner part of the flow of the fluid. This assumption
is confirmed with the trend observed from Graph 1A and 1B and Graph 2A and 2B.

Errors that may have been introduced in this experiment includes the following: timing of the flow rate,
reading of the height graduands on the water and mercury manometers, and possible malfunction of
the apparatus.

Firstly, there may have been errors introduced during the timing of the flow rate. This is due to reaction
time of the members that were responsible for timing. To deal with this error three members recorded
the time and their average time was taken and recorded.

12 | P a g e
Secondly, the reading of the graduands on the water and mercury manometers. Graduands on the
manometer of the apparatus were at times faded and gave difficulty to the members taking the
readings from it.

Finally, the possible malfunction of the apparatus. During the experiment members taking the reading
from the manometer experienced a situation where the water based manometer’s readings were
fluctuating instead of being steady at a particular height.

Value of the friction factor that was obtained from using the Moody diagram is not an exact value but an
approximate due to the fact that the relative roughness value is not exact to any of the set values found
on the Moody diagram.

Conclusion
Knowing the type of flow occurring in a pipe made of a certain material(s) is essential in designing
hydraulic systems. Knowing this allows the knowledge of essential factors in pipe flow such as velocity,
pressure head, pressure drops along the pipe, energy loss and their effects on the system. Furthermore,
understanding of Reynolds number and how to determine turbulent and laminar flows allow for better
design of pipe systems, minimizing eddy currents and hence turbulent flow as much as possible.

In this experiment, ways to minimize the occurrences of eddy currents, hence turbulent flow and
pressure loss, are as follows:

 To make sure pipe length is no longer than required for its application
 To make sure pipe diameter is no bigger than required for its application
 To select pipes with considerably smooth inner surface
 To control the magnitude of the flow rate per unit length of the pipe. Excessive flow rate
develops turbulent flow and minimum flow rate also develops turbulent flow

This experiment was successful in recording results from an apparatus and using these raw data to
determine the type of flow by ways of calculating Reynolds number. It also allowed for deeper research
into the relationships of Reynolds number to the type of flow and other contributing factors.

This experiment has allowed the building of efficient teamwork and cooperation between members.

13 | P a g e
References
IAPWS. (2008). Viscosity of Water. Retrieved from Anton Paar: https://wiki.anton-paar.com/en/water/

MechanicalInventions. (2014, 05). How to Solve Fluid Mechanics Problems Using Moody Diagram.
Retrieved from Mechanicalinventions:
http://mechanicalinventions.blogspot.com/2014/05/how-to-solve-problem-using-moody-
diagram.html?m=1

Pritchard, P. J. (2011). Introduction To Fluid Mechanincs Eighth Edition. Massachussets: JOHN WILEY &
SONS, INC.

The Engineering ToolBox. (2004, January 15). Retrieved from engineeringtoolbox.com:

http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/water-dynamic-kinematic-viscocity--d_596.html

14 | P a g e
Appendices
Temp. [°C] Dyn. Viscosity Kin. Viscosity [mm² Density [g/cm³]
[mPa.s] /s]
2 1.6735 1.6736 0.9999
3 1.619 1.6191 1
4 1.5673 1.5674 1
5 1.5182 1.5182 1
6 1.4715 1.4716 0.9999
7 1.4271 1.4272 0.9999
8 1.3847 1.3849 0.9999
9 1.3444 1.3447 0.9998
10 1.3059 1.3063 0.9997
11 1.2692 1.2696 0.9996
12 1.234 1.2347 0.9995
13 1.2005 1.2012 0.9994
14 1.1683 1.1692 0.9992
15 1.1375 1.1386 0.9991
16 1.1081 1.1092 0.9989
17 1.0798 1.0811 0.9988
18 1.0526 1.0541 0.9986
19 1.0266 1.0282 0.9984
20 1.0016 1.0034 0.9982
21 0.9775 0.9795 0.998
22 0.9544 0.9565 0.9978
23 0.9321 0.9344 0.9975
24 0.9107 0.9131 0.9973
25 0.89 0.8926 0.997
26 0.8701 0.8729 0.9968
27 0.8509 0.8539 0.9965
28 0.8324 0.8355 0.9962
29 0.8145 0.8178 0.9959
30 0.7972 0.8007 0.9956
31 0.7805 0.7842 0.9953
32 0.7644 0.7682 0.995
Table 1: Dynamic – Kinematic Viscosity of water (IAPWS, 2008)

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Figure 1: Moody diagram [Metzger & Willard, Inc.]

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