Jacob Kounin is known as a classroom
management theorist. Around 1946, he began
working as an educational psychologist at
Wayne State University. Many people believe
that Kounin was highly influenced by Glasser,
and it can be seen throughout his work. He
made people think about the possibility of
discipline and instruction being utilized as one.
Instead of these two techniques being separate,
Kounin explained how you have to incorporate
different aspects from each in order to create
an effective classroom. By utilizing skills within
discipline and instruction, one should be able to
manage a classroom according to Kounin's ideas
and principles.
Kounin believes that teachers need to be
attentive to all aspects of the classroom. He
believes that effective teachers keep students
attentive and actively involved. After Kounin's
research, he realized how teachers handle
misbehavior is how they handle their class from
the beginning of each school year. One day
while Kounin was teaching a class, he told one
student to stop reading a newspaper and to pay
attention to the lecture. While Kounin only told
this one student to get on task, other students
who were not on task suddenly put away what
they were doing and started listening to the
lecture. This effect became known as the
"Ripple Effect," which is when one student's
behavior is corrected it often influences another
student's behavior nearby. Kounin wrote a
book, "Discipline and Group Management in
Classrooms," to sum up his beliefs about
effective and ineffective classroom managers.
After research, Kounin came to the conclusion
that the key to a successful classroom is not the
way a teacher handles misbehavior when it
occurs, but instead what teachers do to
completely prevent classroom management
problems from ever occurring within the
classroom at all. Kounin also found that good
organization and planning are also keys to
effective classroom management while getting
students highly involved and also using
proactive behavior. Kounin believed that
teachers should have good lesson movement in
order for teachers to have an effective
connection between teaching and classroom
management. Kounin described that lesson
movement is achieved through the five things
as follows: withitness, overlapping, momentum,
smoothness, and group focus. The term
"withitness" was Kounins word to describe that
teachers always know what is going on within
his/her classroom. This can be done by scanning
the classroom every now and then so students
will believe you are always looking at what they
are doing.
Some practical ways to apply Kounin's approach
in a classroom is basically to follow what Kounin
stated to be the five ways to achieve lesson
movement. Overlapping can be applied within
the classroom by creating a procedure to use
when two separate situations happen at nearly
the same time. For instance, if a student
finishes an assignment early they can read a
book, start on another assignment, make a
craft, etc. Momentum can be applied within the
classroom making lessons short so students
have time to work with other students in
groups, which will let students elaborate on a
certain subject and gain knowledge from other
student's connections. Smoothness can be
applied within the classroom by constructing
certain body language signs at the beginning of
the year so students can use these signs during
a lesson to notify the teacher if they need help
with a certain portion of the lesson so on and so
forth. Group focus can be applied within the
classroom by always having some sort of group
each day so students have time to collaborate
with one another.
-
Jacob Kounin
Who is he?
Jacob Kounin is known as a classroom
management theorist. Around 1946, he began
working as an educational psychologist at
Wayne State University. Many people believe
that Kounin was highly influenced by Glasser,
and it can be seen throughout his work. He
made people think about the possibility of
discipline and instruction being utilized as one.
Instead of these two techniques being separate,
Kounin explained how you have to incorporate
different aspects from each in order to create
an effective classroom. By utilizing skills within
discipline and instruction, one should be able to
manage a classroom according to Kounin's ideas
and principles. (MW)
What did he believe?
Kounin believes that teachers need to be
attentive to all aspects of the classroom. He
believes that effective teachers keep students
attentive and actively involved. After Kounin's
research, he realized how teachers handle
misbehavior is how they handle their class from
the beginning of each school year. One day
while Kounin was teaching a class, he told one
student to stop reading a newspaper and to pay
attention to the lecture. While Kounin only told
this one student to get on task, other students
who were not on task suddenly put away what
they were doing and started listening to the
lecture. This effect became known as the
"Ripple Effect," which is when one student's
behavior is corrected it often influences another
student's behavior nearby. Kounin wrote a
book, "Discipline and Group Management in
Classrooms," to sum up his beliefs about
effective and ineffective classroom managers.
After research, Kounin came to the conclusion
that the key to a successful classroom is not the
way a teacher handles misbehavior when it
occurs, but instead what teachers do to
completely prevent classroom management
problems from ever occurring within the
classroom at all. Kounin also found that good
organization and planning are also keys to
effective classroom management while getting
students highly involved and also using
proactive behavior. Kounin believed that
teachers should have good lesson movement in
order for teachers to have an effective
connection between teaching and classroom
management. Kounin described that lesson
movement is achieved through the five things
as follows: withitness, overlapping, momentum,
smoothness, and group focus. The term
"withitness" was Kounins word to describe that
teachers always know what is going on within
his/her classroom. This can be done by scanning
the classroom every now and then so students
will believe you are always looking at what they
are doing. (AO)
Why is he important today?
One of the things that makes Kounin important
today is his book, Discipline and Group
Management in Classrooms. This book was on
one of the studies Kounin did on organizational
and management skills, which was done by
videotaping many hours in classrooms that did
not have very many misbehaved students and
then also videotaping in classrooms that had
misbehaved students. The tapes were then
analyzed to see what these teachers did
differently. Shockingly, there was no such
difference, which came to the conclusion that
effective classroom managers and poor
classroom managers were not different in
controlling and responding to students who
were disruptive to the class. (AO
Kounin's key ideas that help make an effective
classroom:
If a teacher can correct a misbehavior by using
one student as the instigator, other students
within the classroom normally will correct their
misbehavior as well! This is what Kounin meant
by the "ripple effect".
All teachers should be aware of what is taking
place within all parts of the classroom at any
given time. "Withitness" is what Kounin
describes this as.
According to Kounin, if the teacher can create
little chaos between activities, keep on task,
and utilize good time management skills they
are modeling effective group management.
All educators should be able to maintain group
alertness, as well as hold each member of the
group accountable for understanding the
content of the lesson. Kounin believes that by
doing this, all students have a chance for
optimal learning.
In order to avoid students getting bored or
uninterested, the teacher should give
assignments and tasks that provide the students
with a feeling of progress or accomplishment
when completing the assigned work. Kounin
also stresses the importance of creating a
diverse curriculum, as well as a change in
environment every now and then. (MW)
Kounin discovered the fact that if students think
that the teacher is alert/aware of what is going
on within the classroom, they are not likely to
misbehave. This is because the teacher has
effective classroom management skills that
leaves little room for misbehavior or discipline
to occur. By having a teacher-directed
curriculum where the classroom students know
who is the "boss" they are less likely to try and
take over the classroom. If misbehavior occurs,
it is crucial to correct the problem within a
timely manner in order for the discipline to be
effective. It is always beneficial to try your best
to discipline the correct student, if you misjudge
and correct the wrong student, your tactics will
be less likely to work on future problems within
the classroom. Always make sure that those
who truly are in the wrong are the ones who get
punished, otherwise students who did nothing
wrong will begin to not enjoy being in your
classroom. (MW)
When reviewing these key ideas that Jacob
Kounin created, one can clearly see that each of
these concepts are used within today's
society/classrooms in order for them to be
effective. (MW)
4. What are some practical ways to apply his
approach in a classroom (be specific with
activities and/or links)?
Some practical ways to apply Kounin's approach
in a classroom is basically to follow what Kounin
stated to be the five ways to achieve lesson
movement. Overlapping can be applied within
the classroom by creating a procedure to use
when two separate situations happen at nearly
the same time. For instance, if a student
finishes an assignment early they can read a
book, start on another assignment, make a
craft, etc. Momentum can be applied within the
classroom making lessons short so students
have time to work with other students in
groups, which will let students elaborate on a
certain subject and gain knowledge from other
student's connections. Smoothness can be
applied within the classroom by constructing
certain body language signs at the beginning of
the year so students can use these signs during
a lesson to notify the teacher if they need help
with a certain portion of the lesson so on and so
forth. Group focus can be applied within the
classroom by always having some sort of group
each day so students have time to collaborate
with one another. If students tend to go into
the same groups, the teacher can write each
student's name down and put all the pieces of
paper in a hat to randomly select the groups.
(AO)
(MW)
During group work, students can read books
together so they can elaborate on their
connections they made to the story. Each
student may connect in a different way than
other students did, which is a great learning
experience for everyone.
Mathematics group work can be helpful
because students who are struggling can
receive help from those who have a good
understanding of the material being taught.
(AO)
Difference Between
Cooperative and
Collaborative Learning
In the 21st century, teamwork was deemed as
essential part of the learning curve in the
classroom. This did not come as a surprise to
many people. Bringing students to work
together for the good of learning can be traced
back even to Socrates, i.e. Socrates' circle.
Socrates was an avid believer that lecturing
was not a method of teaching students that
was effective to all of them. Especially now
because generally the work atmosphere calls
for teamwork. It is the norm in the modern
industry so the children need to learn this skill
even from a tender age. The issue with
integration of children into the teamwork spirit
is the fact that it may result in more work for
the teacher initially. But once a form of order
has been established then the rest is just a
breeze. The only thing remaining for the
teacher is to establish the mode of learning,
either cooperative learning or collaborative
learning. This is the part that brings the
teachers a bit more confusion.
Cooperative learning generally means that the
teacher makes each member of the group in
charge of the academic performance of the
others. Each of the members of the group uses
their knowledge and skills to help the other
members of the group understand the content.
This means that each individual I not only
responsible for their own learning but also for
that of their fellow group members. This
makes all of them feel like teachers creating
an air of achievement.
Collaborative learning on the other hand
means that the students come together to work
on a project as a team. Each student is
responsible for their own individual work
separately. The students are also in charge of
the work of the team as a whole.
Difference Between Cooperative
and Collaborative Learning:
a) Collaborative Learning
In this mode of learning, each student makes
progress individually in-line with the progress
made by others. If this method is properly
directed by the teacher, then the students
themselves can learn to manage the method
with no further instructions. There are
many benefits of collaborative learning. For
example, it helps the students to recognize the
aspect of difference, both in themselves and in
others through working separately but in
tandem. They learn to respect his difference
and use it to their advantage.
The following is the basic layout of the
collaborative learning process:
The learning is group-structured. This means
that the students organize and divide the work
between themselves. They also organize their
workforce by themselves.
The students outsource for material that will
aid them in completing the task.
The activities conducted by the group are
generally not monitored by the teacher.
However the teacher can offer assistance if the
same is requested of them by the members.
The students do their own assessment of both
their individual and group performances.
The success of the group generally depends on
the success of the individuals in the group.
b) Cooperative Learning
This method of learning relies heavily on
interdependence of the students among each
other. It can be likened to the cast of a crew.
All the roles of the cast are clearly mapped out
but can be negotiated. The most important part
of cooperative learning is accountability.
The structure of cooperative learning, in
contrast to collaborative learning, is the
following:
All the activities are structured by the teacher
and each student has been given a specific role
in the activities.
The students are not left to their own devices
in seeking the information relevant to the
content. The teacher supplies the information
or at least directs the students on where the
information can be acquired.
The teacher is heavily involved in the group
work. The teacher listens, observes and can
even intervene in the discussions if he/she
feels this is necessary.
The students submit the complete group work
at the end of the lesson or the discussion. The
teacher then reviews or assesses the same
work and may award marks to the respective
students involved.
Success of the group is highly dependent on
the efforts and the accountability of all the
individual members involved in the
assignment.
Benefits of Both Cooperative and
Collaborative Learning:
The following are the major merits of social
learning:
The students come to recognize, respect and
embrace the differences in culture among their
classmates.
They are more valuable means of building the
performance and progression of the students.
It improve the social skills of the students: The
students get a sense of confidence. This is
because every student realizes their opinion is
relevant and counts for something.
Modernization of the learning process: In
modern times social learning can be easily
done through the use of internet. It can be
achieved through the use of video
conferencing solutions such as ezTalks
Meetings. These help you to communicate
with your students easily. It can also aid the
students themselves to work on a project
together but while at separate locations. That
is the modern learning world.
Conclusion
The modern work environment requires the
workers to have social skills as it is a place
where they have to work together. Imbibing
the skills of teamwork in students is crucial
from a young age. It is these skills that are
propagated by collaborative and cooperative
learning.
Cognitive development is the
construction of thought processes,
including remembering, problem solving,
and decision-making, from childhood
through adolescence to adulthood.
Description
It was once believed that infants lacked
the ability to think or form complex ideas
and remained without cognition until
they learned language. It is now known
that babies are aware of their
surroundings and interested in
exploration from the time they are born.
From birth, babies begin to actively
learn. They gather, sort, and process
information from around them, using the
data to develop perception and thinking
skills.
Cognitive development refers to how a
person perceives, thinks, and gains
understanding of his or her world
through the interaction of genetic and
learned factors. Among the areas of
cognitive development are information
processing, intelligence ,
reasoning, language development ,
and memory.
Historically, the cognitive development
of children has been studied in a variety
of ways. The oldest is through
intelligence tests, such as the widely
used Stanford Binet Intelligence
Quotient (IQ) test first adopted for use in
the United States by psychologist Lewis
Terman (1877–1956) in 1916 from a
French model pioneered in 1905. IQ
scoring is based on the concept of
"mental age," according to which the
scores of a child of average intelligence
match his or her age, while a gifted
child's performance is comparable to
that of an older child, and a slow
learner's scores are similar to those of a
younger child. IQ tests are widely used
in the United States, but they have come
under increasing criticism for defining
intelligence too narrowly and for being
biased with regard to race and gender.
In contrast to the emphasis placed on a
child's native abilities by intelligence
testing, learning theory grew out of work
by behaviorist researchers such as John
Watson (1878–1958) and B. F.
Skinner (1904–1990), who argued that
children are completely malleable.
Learning theory focuses on the role of
environmental factors in shaping the
intelligence of children, especially on a
child's ability to learn by having certain
behaviors rewarded and others
discouraged.
Piaget's theory of cognitive
development
Definition
Cognitive development is the
construction of thought processes,
including remembering, problem solving,
and decision-making, from childhood
through adolescence to adulthood.
Description
It was once believed that infants lacked
the ability to think or form complex ideas
and remained without cognition until
they learned language. It is now known
that babies are aware of their
surroundings and interested in
exploration from the time they are born.
From birth, babies begin to actively
learn. They gather, sort, and process
information from around them, using the
data to develop perception and thinking
skills.
Cognitive development refers to how a
person perceives, thinks, and gains
understanding of his or her world
through the interaction of genetic and
learned factors. Among the areas of
cognitive development are information
processing, intelligence , reasoning,
language development , and memory.
Historically, the cognitive development
of children has been studied in a variety
of ways. The oldest is through
intelligence tests, such as the widely
used Stanford Binet Intelligence
Quotient (IQ) test first adopted for use in
the United States by psychologist Lewis
Terman (1877–1956) in 1916 from a
French model pioneered in 1905. IQ
scoring is based on the concept of
"mental age," according to which the
scores of a child of average intelligence
match his or her age, while a gifted
child's performance is comparable to
that of an older child, and a slow
learner's scores are similar to those of a
younger child. IQ tests are widely used
in the United States, but they have come
under increasing criticism for defining
intelligence too narrowly and for being
biased with regard to race and gender.
In contrast to the emphasis placed on a
child's native abilities by intelligence
testing, learning theory grew out of work
by behaviorist researchers such as John
Watson (1878–1958) and B. F. Skinner
(1904–1990), who argued that children
are completely malleable. Learning
theory focuses on the role of
environmental factors in shaping the
intelligence of children, especially on a
child's ability to learn by having certain
behaviors rewarded and others
discouraged.
Piaget's theory of cognitive development
The most well-known and influential
theory of cognitive development is that
of French psychologist Jean Piaget
(1896–1980). Piaget's theory, first
published in 1952, grew out of decades
of extensive observation of children,
including his own, in their natural
environments as opposed to the
laboratory experiments of the
behaviorists. Although Piaget was
interested in how children reacted to
their environment, he proposed a more
active role for them than that suggested
by learning theory. He envisioned a
child's knowledge as composed of
schemas, basic units of knowledge used
to organize past experiences and serve
as a basis for understanding new ones.
Schemas are continually being modified
by two complementary processes that
Piaget termed assimilation and
accommodation. Assimilation refers to
the process of taking in new information
by incorporating it into an existing
schema. In other words, people
assimilate new experiences by relating
them to things they already know. On
the other hand, accommodation is what
happens when the schema itself
changes to accommodate new
knowledge. According to Piaget,
cognitive development involves an
ongoing attempt to achieve a balance
between assimilation and
accommodation that he termed
equilibration.
At the center of Piaget's theory is the
principle that cognitive development
occurs in a series of four distinct,
universal stages, each characterized by
increasingly sophisticated and abstract
levels of thought. These stages always
occur in the same order, and each
builds on what was learned in the
previous stage. They are as follows:
Sensorimotor stage (infancy): In this
period, which has six sub-stages,
intelligence is demonstrated through
motor activity without the use of
symbols. Knowledge of the world is
limited, but developing, because it is
based on physical interactions and
experiences. Children acquire object
permanence at about seven months of
age (memory). Physical development
(mobility) allows the child to begin
developing new intellectual abilities.
Some symbolic (language) abilities are
developed at the end of this stage.
 Pre-operational stage (toddlerhood and
early childhood): In this period, which
has two sub stages, intelligence is
demonstrated through the use of
symbols, language use matures, and
memory and imagination are developed,
but thinking is done in a non-logical,
non-reversible manner. Egocentric
thinking predominates.
Concrete operational stage (elementary
and early adolescence): In this stage,
characterized by seven types of
conservation (number, length, liquid,
mass, weight, area, and volume),
intelligence is demonstrated through
logical and systematic manipulation of
symbols related to concrete objects.
Operational thinking develops (mental
actions that are reversible). Egocentric
thought diminishes.
Formal operational stage (adolescence
and adulthood): In this stage,
intelligence is demonstrated through the
logical use of symbols related to
abstract concepts. Early in the period
there is a return to egocentric thought.
Only 35 percent of high school
graduates in industrialized countries
obtain formal operations; many people
do not think formally during adulthood.
The most significant alternative to the
work of Piaget has been the information-
processing approach, which uses the
computer as a model to provide new
insight into how the human mind
receives, stores, retrieves, and uses
information. Researchers using
information-processing theory to study
cognitive development in children have
focused on areas such as the gradual
improvements in children's ability to take
in information and focus selectively on
certain parts of it and their increasing
attention spans and capacity for memory
storage. For example, researchers have
found that the superior memory skills of
older children are due in part to
memorization strategies, such as
repeating items in order to memorize
them or dividing them into categories.
Infancy
As soon as they are born, infants begin
learning to use their senses to explore
the world around them. Most newborns
can focus on and follow moving objects,
distinguish the pitch and volume of
sound, see all colors and distinguish
their hue and brightness, and start
anticipating events, such as sucking at
the sight of a nipple. By three months
old, infants can recognize faces; imitate
the facial expressions of others, such as
smiling and frowning; and respond to
familiar sounds.
At six months of age, babies are just
beginning to understand how the world
around them works. They imitate
sounds, enjoy hearing their own voice,
recognize parents, fear strangers,
distinguish between animate and
inanimate objects, and base distance on
the size of an object. They also realize
that if they drop an object, they can pick
it up again. At four to seven months,
babies can recognize their names.
By nine months, infants can imitate
gestures and actions, experiment with
the physical properties of objects,
understand simple words such as "no,"
and understand that an object still exists
even when they cannot see it. They also
begin to test parental responses to their
behavior, such as throwing food on the
floor. They remember the reaction and
test the parents again to see if they get
the same reaction.
At 12 months of age, babies can follow a
fast moving object; can speak two to
fours words, including "mama" and
"papa"; imitate animal sounds; associate
names with objects; develop
attachments to objects, such as a toy or
blanket; and experience separation
anxiety when away from their parents.
By 18 months of age, babies are able to
understand about 10–50 words; identify
body parts; feel a sense of ownership by
using the word "my" with certain people
or objects; and can follow directions that
involve two different tasks, such as
picking up toys and putting them in a
box.
Toddlerhood
Between 18 months to three years of
age, toddlers have reached the
"sensorimotor" stage of Piaget's theory
of cognitive development that involves
rudimentary thought. For instance, they
understand the permanence of objects
and people, visually follow the
displacement of objects, and begin to
use instruments and tools. Toddlers
start to strive for more independence,
which can present challenges to parents
concerned for their safety . They also
understand discipline and what behavior
is appropriate and inappropriate, and
they understand the concepts of words
like "please" and "thank you."
Two-year-olds should be able to
understand 100 to 150 words and start
adding about ten new words per day.
Toddlers also have a better
understanding of emotions, such as
 love, trust, and fear. They begin to
understand some of the ordinary
aspects of everyday life, such as
shopping for food, telling time, and being
read to.
Preschool
Preschoolers, ages three to six, should
be at the "preoperational" stage of
Piaget's cognitive development theory,
meaning they are using their imagery
and memory skills. They should be
conditioned to learning and memorizing,
and their view of the world is normally
very self-centered. Preschoolers usually
have also developed their social
interaction skills, such as playing and
cooperating with other children their own
age. It is normal for preschoolers to test
the limits of their cognitive abilities, and
they learn negative concepts and
actions, such as talking back to adults,
lying , and bullying. Other cognitive
development in preschoolers are
developing an increased attention span,
learning to read, and developing
structured routines, such as doing
household chores.
School age
Younger school-age children, six to 12
years old, should be at the "concrete
operations" stage of Piaget's cognitive
development theory, characterized by
the ability to use logical and coherent
actions in thinking and solving problems.
They understand the concepts of
permanence and conservation by
learning that volume, weight, and
numbers may remain constant despite
changes in outward appearance. These
children should be able to build on past
experiences, using them to explain why
some things happen. Their attention
span should increase with age, from
being able to focus on a task for about
15 minutes at age six to an hour by age
nine.
Adolescents, ages 12 through 18,
should be at the "formal operations"
stage of Piaget's cognitive development
theory. It is characterized by an
increased independence for thinking
through problems and situations.
Adolescents should be able to
understand pure abstractions, such as
philosophy and higher math concepts.
During this age, children should be able
to learn and apply general information
needed to adapt to specific situations.
They should also be able to learn
specific information and skills necessary
for an occupation. A major component of
the passage through adolescence is a
cognitive transition. Compared to
children, adolescents think in ways that
are more advanced, more efficient, and
generally more complex. This ability can
be seen in five ways.
First, during adolescence individuals
become better able than children to
think about what is possible, instead of
limiting their thought to what is real.
Whereas children's thinking is oriented
to the here and now—that is, to things
and events that they can observe
directly—adolescents are able to
consider what they observe against a
backdrop of what is possible; they can
think hypothetically.
Second, during the passage into
adolescence, individuals become better
able to think about abstract ideas. For
example, adolescents find it easier than
children to comprehend the sorts of
higher-order, abstract logic inherent in
puns, proverbs, metaphors, and
analogies. The adolescent's greater
facility with abstract thinking also
permits the application of advanced
reasoning and logical processes to
social and ideological matters. This is
clearly seen in the adolescent's
increased facility and interest in thinking
about interpersonal relationships,
politics, philosophy, religion, and
morality.
Third, during adolescence individuals
begin thinking more often about the
process of thinking itself, or
metacognition. As a result, adolescents
may display increased introspection and
self-consciousness. Although
improvements in metacognitive abilities
provide important intellectual
advantages, one potentially negative
byproduct of these advances is the
tendency for adolescents to develop a
sort of egocentrism, or intense
preoccupation with the self.
A fourth change in cognition is that
thinking tends to become
multidimensional, rather than limited to a
single issue. Whereas children tend to
think about things one aspect at a time,
adolescents can see things through
more complicated lenses. Adolescents
describe themselves and others in more
differentiated and complicated terms
and find it easier to look at problems
from multiple perspectives. Being able to
understand that people's personalities
are not one-sided or that
(Table by GGS Information Services.)
 Cognitive development
Age Activity
SOURCE : Miller-Keane Encyclopedia
and Dictionary of Medicine, Nursing, and
Allied Health, 5th ed . and Child
Development Institute,
http://www.childdevelopmentinfo.com.
One month Watches person when
spoken to.
Two months Smiles at familiar person
talking. Begins to follow moving person
with eyes.
Four months Shows interest in bottle,
breast, familiar toy, or new
surroundings.
Five months Smiles at own image in
mirror. Looks for fallen objects.
Six months May stick out tongue in
imitation. Laughs at peekaboo game.
Vocalizes at mirror image. May act shy
around strangers.
Seven months Responds to own
name. Tries to establish contact with a
person by cough or other noise.
Eight months Reaches for toys out of
reach. Responds to "no."
Nine months Shows likes and dislikes.
May try to prevent face-washing or other
activity that is disliked. Shows
excitement and interest in foods or toys
that are well-liked.
Ten months Starts to understand some
words. Waves bye-bye. Holds out arm
or leg for dressing.
Eleven months Repeats
performance that is laughed at. Likes
repetitive play. Shows interest in books.
Twelve months May understand
some "where is...?" questions. May kiss
on request.
Fifteen months Asks for objects by
pointing. Starting to feed self.
Negativism begins.
Eighteen months Points to familiar
objects when asked "where is...?"
Mimics familiar adult activities. Know
some body parts. Obeys two or three
simple orders.
Two years Names a few familiar
objects. Draws with crayons. Obeys
found simple orders. Participates in
parallel play.
Two-and-a-half years Names
several common objects. Begins to take
interest in sex organs. Gives full names.
Helps to put things away. Peak of
negativism.
Three years Constantly asks questions.
May count to 10. Begins to draw specific
objects. Dresses and undresses doll.
Participates in cooperative play. Talks
about things that have happened.
Four years May make up silly words
and stories. Beginning to draw pictures
that represent familiar things. Pretends
to read and write. May recognize a few
common words, such as own name.
Five years Can recognize and
reproduce many shapes, letters, and
numbers. Tells long stories. Begins to
understand the difference between real
events and make-believe ones. Asks
meaning of words.
social situations can have different
interpretations depending on one's point
of view permits the adolescent to have
far more sophisticated and complicated
relationships with other people.
Finally, adolescents are more likely than
children to see things as relative, rather
than absolute. Children tend to see
things in absolute terms—in black and
white. Adolescents, in contrast, tend to
see things as relative. They are more
likely to question others' assertions and
less likely to accept facts as absolute
truths. This increase in relativism can be
particularly exasperating to parents, who
may feel that their adolescent children
question everything just for the sake of
argument. Difficulties often arise, for
example, when adolescents begin
seeing their parents' values as
excessively relative.
Common problems
Cognitive impairment is the general loss
or lack of development of cognitive
abilities, particularly autism and learning
disabilities. The National Institutes of
Mental Health (NIMH) describes
learning disabilities as a disorder that
affects people's ability to either interpret
what they see and hear or to link
information from different parts of the
brain. These limitations can show up in
many ways, such as specific difficulties
with spoken and written language,
coordination, self-control, or attention.
Such difficulties extend to schoolwork
and can impede learning to read or write
or to do math. A child who has a
learning disability may have other
conditions, such as hearing problems or
serious emotional disturbance.
However, learning disabilities are not
caused by these conditions, nor are they
caused by environmental influences
such as cultural differences or
inappropriate instruction.
Parental concerns
As of 2004 it is widely accepted that a
child's intellectual ability is determined
by a combination of heredity and
environment. Thus, although a child's
 genetic inheritance is unchangeable,
there are definite ways that parents can
enhance their child's intellectual
development through environmental
factors. They can provide stimulating
learning materials and experiences from
an early age, read to and talk with their
children, and help children explore the
world around them. As children mature,
parents can both challenge and support
the child's talents. Although a supportive
environment in early childhood provides
a clear advantage for children, it is
possible to make up for early losses in
cognitive development if a supportive
environment is provided at some later
period, in contrast to early disruptions in
physical development, which are often
irreversible.
When to call the doctor
If, by age three, a child has problems
understanding simple directions or is
perplexed when asked to do something
simple, the parents or primary caregiver
should consult a physician or
pediatrician. The child may have a delay
in cognitive development. Parents
should also consult a healthcare
professional if, after age three, their
child's cognitive development appears to
be significantly slower than their peers.
KEY TERMS
Autism —A developmental disability that
appears early in life, in which normal
brain development is disrupted and
social and communication skills are
retarded, sometimes severely.
Cognition —The act or process of
knowing or perceiving.
Egocentric —Limited in outlook to things
mainly relating to oneself or confined to
one's own affairs or activities.
Learning disabilities —An impairment of
the cognitive processes of
understanding and using spoken and
written language that results in
difficulties with one or more academic
skill sets (e.g., reading, writing,
mathematics).
Metacognition —Awareness of the
process of cognition.
Schemas —Fundamental core beliefs or
assumptions that are part of the
perceptual filter people use to view the
world. Cognitive-behavioral therapy
seeks to change maladaptive schemas.
Stanford-Binet intelligence scales —A
device designed to measure
somebody's intelligence, obtained
through a series of aptitude tests
concentrating on different aspects of
intellectual functioning. An IQ score of
100 represents "average" intelligence.
(Table by GGS Information Services.)
Cognitive development
Age Activity
SOURCE : Miller-Keane Encyclopedia and
Dictionary of Medicine, Nursing, and
Allied Health, 5th ed . and Child
Development Institute,
http://www.childdevelopmentinfo.com.
One month Watches person when
spoken to.
Two Smiles at familiar person
months talking. Begins to follow
moving person with eyes.
Four Shows interest in bottle,
months breast, familiar toy, or new
surroundings.
Five Smiles at own image in
months mirror. Looks for fallen
objects.
Six months May stick out tongue in
imitation. Laughs at
peekaboo game. Vocalizes at
mirror image. May act shy
around strangers.
Seven Responds to own name.
months Tries to establish contact
with a person by cough or
other noise.
Eight Reaches for toys out of
months reach. Responds to "no."
Nine Shows likes and dislikes.
months May try to prevent face-
washing or other activity
that is disliked. Shows
excitement and interest in
foods or toys that are well-
liked.
Ten months Starts to understand some
words. Waves bye-bye.
Holds out arm or leg for
dressing.
Eleven Repeats performance that is
months laughed at. Likes repetitive
play. Shows interest in
books.

Cognitive development
Age Activity
Twelve May understand some
months "where is...?" questions.
May kiss on request.
Fifteen Asks for objects by pointing.
months Starting to feed self.
Negativism begins.
Eighteen Points to familiar objects
months when asked "where is...?"
Mimics familiar adult
activities. Know some body
parts. Obeys two or three
simple orders.
Two years Names a few familiar
objects. Draws with crayons.
Obeys found simple orders.
Participates in parallel play.
Two-and-a- Names several common
half years objects. Begins to take
interest in sex organs. Gives
full names. Helps to put
things away. Peak of
negativism.
Three years Constantly asks questions.
May count to 10. Begins to
draw specific objects.
Dresses and undresses doll.
Participates in cooperative
play. Talks about things that
have happened.
Four years May make up silly words
and stories. Beginning to
draw pictures that represent
familiar things. Pretends to
read and write. May
recognize a few common
words, such as own name.
Five years Can recognize and
reproduce many shapes,
letters, and numbers. Tells
long stories. Begins to
understand the difference
between real events and
make-believe ones. Asks
meaning of words.
social situations can have different
interpretations depending on one's point of
view permits the adolescent to have far more
sophisticated and complicated relationships
with other people.
Finally, adolescents are more likely than
children to see things as relative, rather than
absolute. Children tend to see things in
absolute terms—in black and white.
Adolescents, in contrast, tend to see things as
relative. They are more likely to question
others' assertions and less likely to accept facts
as absolute truths. This increase in relativism
can be particularly exasperating to parents,
who may feel that their adolescent children
question everything just for the sake of
argument. Difficulties often arise, for example,
when adolescents begin seeing their parents'
values as excessively relative.
Common problems
Cognitive impairment is the general loss or lack
of development of cognitive abilities,
particularly autism and learning disabilities.
The National Institutes of Mental Health
(NIMH) describes learning disabilities as a
disorder that affects people's ability to either
interpret what they see and hear or to link
information from different parts of the brain.
These limitations can show up in many ways,
such as specific difficulties with spoken and
written language, coordination, self-control, or
attention. Such difficulties extend to
schoolwork and can impede learning to read or
write or to do math. A child who has a learning
disability may have other conditions, such as
hearing problems or serious emotional
disturbance. However, learning disabilities are
not caused by these conditions, nor are they
caused by environmental influences such as
cultural differences or inappropriate
instruction.
Parental concerns
As of 2004 it is widely accepted that a child's
intellectual ability is determined by a
combination of heredity and environment.
Thus, although a child's genetic inheritance is
unchangeable, there are definite ways that
parents can enhance their child's intellectual
development through environmental factors.
They can provide stimulating learning
materials and experiences from an early age,
read to and talk with their children, and help
children explore the world around them. As
children mature, parents can both challenge
and support the child's talents. Although a
supportive environment in early childhood
provides a clear advantage for children, it is
possible to make up for early losses in
cognitive development if a supportive
environment is provided at some later period,
in contrast to early disruptions in physical
development, which are often irreversible.
When to call the doctor
If, by age three, a child has problems
understanding simple directions or is
perplexed when asked to do something simple,
the parents or primary caregiver should
consult a physician or pediatrician. The child
may have a delay in cognitive development.
Parents should also consult a healthcare
professional if, after age three, their child's
cognitive development appears to be
significantly slower than their peers.

KEY TERMS
Autism —A developmental disability that
appears early in life, in which normal brain
development is disrupted and social and
communication skills are retarded, sometimes
severely.

Cognition —The act or process of knowing or

perceiving.

Egocentric —Limited in outlook to things

mainly relating to oneself or confined to one's
own affairs or activities.

Learning disabilities —An impairment of the

cognitive processes of understanding and using
spoken and written language that results in
difficulties with one or more academic skill
sets (e.g., reading, writing, mathematics).

Metacognition —Awareness of the process of

cognition.

Schemas —Fundamental core beliefs or

assumptions that are part of the perceptual
filter people use to view the world. Cognitive-
behavioral therapy seeks to change
maladaptive schemas.

Stanford-Binet intelligence scales —A device

designed to measure somebody's intelligence,
obtained through a series of aptitude tests
concentrating on different aspects of
intellectual functioning. An IQ score of 100
represents "average" intelligence.