AV7212 TECHNICAL SEMINAR AND REPORT

WRITING

RADIOS

A SEMINAR REPORT

Submitted by

KATHAN IRISH R

(Reg.No.2018603017)

in partial fulfillment for the requirements of the degree

of

MASTER OF ENGINEERING IN
AVIONICS

DIVISION OF AVIONICS
DEPARTMENT OF AEROSPACE ENGINEERING
ANNA UNIVERSITY, CHENNAI-600 025

MAY 2019
 ANNA UNIVERSITY
CHENNAI 600 025

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this Technical Seminar Report titled “RADIOS” has been successfully
presented by KATHAN IRISH R (2018603017) for the partial fulfillment for the
requirements of the degree of MASTER OF ENGINEERING IN AVIONICS under
my supervision.

B.ANBARASU
Teaching Fellow
Division of Avionics
Department of Aerospace Engineering
M.I.T. Campus,
Anna University
Chennai - 600 044
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

My sincere thanks to Prof.T.Thyagarajan, Dean, Madras Institute of

Technology, Chrompet, Chennai-44, for providing me the required facilities during the
seminar work.

I wish to express my deepest gratitude to Dr.S.Thanigaiarasu, Professor and

Head, Department of Aerospace Engineering, for his effective leadership,
encouragement and guidance in the seminar.

I am very much thankful to my seminar guide Mr.B.Anbarasu, Teaching

Fellow, Avionics Division, Department of Aerospace Engineering, Anna University,
MIT Campus, for his valuable ideas which made me to finish my seminar in successful
manner.

I wish to extend my sincere thanks to all the teaching and non-teaching staff
members of the Department of Aerospace Engineering for their passionate support, for
helping me to identify my mistakes and for the appreciation they gave me in achieving
goal.

I heartily thank my library staff and management for their extensive support by
providing the information and resources that helped me to complete the seminar
successfully.

Also, I would like to record my deepest gratitude to my family and colleagues

for their kind cooperation and encouragement which helps me in completion of this
seminar.

KATHAN IRISH R
 ABSTRACT

The history invention of radio have to track the discovery of electron. The presence of
charges were predicted in Ancient Greece itself but, the existence of electron is
confirmed after evolution of atomic theories by the scientists Rutherford and Neils
Bohr. After the confirmation existence of electron, researchers believed that the electron
has different kind of properties of energy. When the electron flows, it provides electric
energy and it is found that this electric energy can be converted into various forms of
energies like heat energy, mechanical energy etc., and also produces two kinds of fields
when it flows. One kind of field is electric field and another kind of field is magnetic
field. After the discovery of electron, it is confirmed that the cause of attractive forces
in the permanent magnet is due to the spinning of electron which is termed as magnetic
field. Then electric field is due to the dipole moment of electrons. The presence of
electric field induces magnetic field and vice versa. When these fields are made at right
angle to each other, it gives a birth to a new field called electromagnetic field. This
electromagnetic field often referred as electromagnetic waves which is called radio
waves in the frequency range of 30KHz to 300GHz. This invention of radio waves is
a seed to various wireless applications such as internet, RF remote sensing, RF remote
controlling and cloud computing.

i
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.
ABSTRACT i
LIST OF FIGURES iv
LIST OF TABLES vi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS vii
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 HISTORY BEHIND RADIO INVENTION 1
1.1.1 Discovery of Electron 2
1.1.2 Rutherford's Atom Model 4
1.1.3 Bohr's Atom Model 5
1.1.4 Existence of Electron 7
1.1.5 Theory of Electricity 7
1.1.6 Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle 8
1.1.7 Electric Field And Magnetic Field 8
2 WAVES 10
2.1 NATURE OF WAVES 11
2.1.1 Transverse Waves 11
2.1.2 Longitudinal Waves 11
2.2 EXAMPLES OF TYPES OF WAVES 11
2.2.1 Sound Waves 11
2.2.2 Water Waves 11
2.2.3 Electromagnetic Waves 11

ii
3 HISTORY OF RADIOS 12
3.1 JAMES CLERK MAXWELL (1831-1879) 13
3.2 HEINRICH RUDOLF HERTZ (1857-1894) 13
3.2.1 Hertz's Experiment 14
3.2.2 Hertz's First Radio Transmitter 14
3.2.3 Hertz's Radio Wave Receiver 14
3.3 NATHAN BEVERLY STUBBLEFIELD (1860-1928) 15
3.4 JAGADISH CHANDRA BOSE (1858-1937) 16
3.4.1 JC Bose's Radio Apparatus 16
3.5 NIKOLA TESLA (1856-1943) 17
3.6 FATHER ROBERTO LANDELL DE MOURA (1861-1928) 17
3.7 GUGLIELMO MARCONI (1874-1937) 18
3.8 WORLD FIRST RADIO TRANSMITTER STATION 19
3.9 FIGHT FOR PATENTS 19
4 COMMERCIAL RADIOS 20
4.1 CXA1019S COMMERCIAL RADIO RECEIVER IC 20
4.2 TDA7000 COMMERCIAL RADIO RECEIVER IC 22
4.3 TEA5767 COMMERCIAL FM RECEIVER MODULE 24
5 USE OF RADIOS IN SHIPS AND AVIATION 25
5.1 AIRCRAFT DETECTION BEFORE RADAR (1917-1940) 25
5.2 COMMUNICATION IN SHIPS BEFORE RADAR 27
5.5 MORSE CODE 28
5.3.1 Morse Code in Aviation 30
5.3.2 Morse Code in Ships 32
5.4 MODERN HAM RADIOS 33
5.5 AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL (ATC) 34
5.5.1 MAYDAY 35
CONCLUSION 36
REFRENCES 37

iii
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO. FIGURE NAME PAGE NO.

1.1 George Johnstone Stoney 2
1.2 J.J. Thomson 2
1.3 J.J. Thomson's cathode ray tube 3
1.4 Plum Pudding atom model 4
1.5 Rutherford gold foil experiment 4
1.6 Ernest Rutherford 5
1.7 Rutherford's atom model 5
1.8 Niels Henrik David Bohr 6
1.9 Bohr's atom model 6
1.10 Thales 7
1.11 Flow of electrons (Electricity) 7
1.12 Magnetic field due to electron spinning 9
1.13 Electric field due to presence of point charges 9
2.1 Transverse Waves (or) Longitudinal Waves 10
2.2 Tidal Waves 10
2.3 Electromagnetic Spectrum 11
3.1 James Clerk Maxwell 13
3.2 Heinrich Rudolf Hertz 13
3.3 Hertz's Experiment 14
3.4 Hertz's first Radio Transmitter 14
3.5 Hertz's Radio Wave Receiver 14
3.6 Simplified Circuit Diagram of Hertz's Radio Model 15
3.7 Nathan Beverly Stubblefield 15
3.8 JC Bose 16
3.9 JC Bose's Radio Apparatus 16
3.10 Nikola Tesla 17
3.11 Father Roberto Landell de Moura 17
3.12 Guglielmo Marconi 18

iv
3.13 Marconi with his Radio Transmitter 18
3.14 Dr.Frank Conrad 19
3.15 World First Radio Transmitter Station 19
4.1 Vacuum tube radio 20
4.2 Regency TR-1 transistor radio 20
4.3 FM receiver alone based on CXA1019 IC 21
4.4 TDA7000 FM Receiver 22
4.5 Varicap Diode Symbol 23
4.6 BB105 Varicap Diode 23
4.7 Working of BB105 Varicap Diode 24
4.8 TEA5767 Module 24
5.1 A two-horn system 26
5.2 A Czech locator 26
5.3 Thomas Alva Edison 27
5.4 Ship Communication 28
5.5 Captive Balloons 28
5.6 Samuel Morse and his Original Telegraph Machine 29
5.7 International Morse Codes 30
5.8 Cayo Largo Airport VOR-DME 31
5.9 Telegraph key and sounder 31
5.10 Electronic telegraph key 31
5.11 Morse code receiver, recording on paper tape 31
5.12 Radio receiver used in aviation 32
5.13 RMS Titanic 32
5.14 Aircraft's ham radio using vacuum tubes 33
5.15 Microcontroller type transceiver radio 33
5.16 Transceiver radio installed in Aircraft's cockpit 33

v
 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO. TABLE NAME PAGE NO.

4.1 Pin Configuration of TEA5767 Module 24
5.1 Various frequencies used in ATC 34

vi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS

RF Radio Frequency
Hz Hertz
KHz Kilo Hertz
MHz Mega Hertz
GHz Giga
F Farad
µF Micro Farad
nF Nano Farad
pF Pico Farad
H Henry
nH Nano Henry
Ω Ohm
KΩ Kilo Ohm
m Meter
mm Milli Meter
cm Centi Meter
Km Kilo Meter
ATC Air Traffic Control

vii
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Radio is the technology of signalling or communicating using radio waves. Radio

waves are electromagnetic waves of frequency between 30 Hertz (Hz) and 300 Giga
Hertz (GHz). They are generated by an electronic device called a transmitter connected
to an antenna which radiates the waves, and received by a radio receiver connected to
another antenna. Radio is very widely used in modern technology, in radio
communication, radar, radio navigation, remote control, remote sensing and other
applications. In radio communication, used in radio and television broadcasting, cell
phones, two-way radios, wireless networking and satellite communication among
numerous other uses, radio waves are used to carry information across space from a
transmitter to a receiver, by modulating the radio signal (impressing an information
signal on the radio wave by varying some aspect of the wave) in the transmitter. In
radar, used to locate and track objects like aircraft, ships, spacecraft and missiles, a
beam of radio waves emitted by a radar transmitter reflects off the target object, and the
reflected waves reveal the object's location. In radio navigation systems such as GPS
and VOR, a mobile receiver receives radio signals from navigational radio beacons
whose position is known, and by precisely measuring the arrival time of the radio waves
the receiver can calculate its position on Earth. In wireless remote control devices like
drones, garage door openers, and keyless entry systems, radio signals transmitted from
a controller device control the actions of a remote device.

Applications of radio waves which do not involve transmitting the waves

significant distances, such as RF heating used in industrial processes and Microwave
ovens, and medical uses such as Diathermy and MRI machines. Generally, the noun
radio is also used to mean a broadcast radio receiver.

1.1 HISTORY BEHIND RADIO INVENTION

The discovery of electron gives the peak rise to the development of technology.
Before analysing the wireless medium, one should have knowledge about how the

1
information is transferred in wired medium. Basically, electron is the information
carrier in wired medium and electromagnetic waves is the information carrier in
wireless medium. In radios, initially the information is acquired in the wired medium
and then transferred to the wireless medium in the case of transmitter end. Similarly in
the receiver end, the information in the wireless medium is transferred to the wired
medium.

1.1.1 DISCOVERY OF ELECTRON

Richard Laming (17 August 1799 – 03 May 1879) is the first person to
hypotheses the concept of an indivisible quantity of electric charge to explain the
chemical properties of atoms. The name "Electron" was given by the Irish physicist
George Johnstone Stoney FRS (15 February 1826 – 5 July 1911) in 1891. Sir Joseph
John Thomson (18 December 1856 – 30 August 1940) experimentally identified
electron in 1897. Fig. 1.1 shows the photo of George Johnstone Stoney and Fig. 1.2
shows the photo of J.J. Thomson.

Fig. 1.1: George Johnstone Stoney Fig. 1.2: J.J. Thomson

J.J. Thomson began experimenting with cathode ray tubes (as shown in Fig.
1.3). Cathode ray tubes are sealed glass tubes from which most of the air has been
evacuated. A high voltage is applied across two electrodes at one end of the tube, which
causes a beam of particles to flow from the cathode (the negatively-charged electrode)
to the anode (the positively-charged electrode). The tubes are called cathode ray tubes

2
because the particle beam or "cathode ray" originates at the cathode. The ray can be
detected by painting a material known as phosphors onto the far end of the tube beyond
the anode. The phosphors spark, or emit light, when impacted by the cathode ray.

Fig. 1.3: J.J. Thomson's cathode ray tube

To test the properties of the particles, Thomson placed two oppositely-

charged electric plates around the cathode ray. The cathode ray was deflected away
from the negatively-charged electric plate and towards the positively-charged plate.
This indicated that the cathode ray was composed of negatively-charged particles.
Thomson also placed two magnets on either side of the tube, and observed that this
magnetic field also deflected the cathode ray. The results of these experiments helped
Thomson determine the mass-to-charge ratio of the cathode ray particles, which led to
a fascinating discovery, the mass of each particle was much, much smaller than that of
any known atom. Thomson repeated his experiments using different metals as electrode
materials, and found that the properties of the cathode ray remained constant no matter
what cathode material they originated from. From this evidence, Thomson made the
following conclusions:

 The cathode ray is composed of negatively-charged particles.

 The particles must exist as part of the atom, since the mass of each particle is
1
only ~ the mass of a hydrogen atom.
2000

 These subatomic particles can be found within atoms of all elements.

3
While controversial at first, Thomson's discoveries were gradually accepted by
scientists. Eventually, his cathode ray particles were given a more familiar name:
electrons. The discovery of the electron disproved the part of Dalton's atomic theory
that assumed atoms were indivisible. In order to account for the existence of the
electrons, an entirely new atomic model was needed. J.J. Thomson also proposed a new
theory of atom model called "plum pudding atom model" shown in Fig. 1.4.

Fig. 1.4: Plum Pudding atom model

1.1.2 RUTHERFORD'S ATOM MODEL

The Rutherford model, also known as planetary model is a model which tried
to describe an atom devised by Ernest Rutherford (30 August 1871 – 19 October 1937).
Rutherford directed the famous Geiger–Marsden experiment in 1909 which suggested,
upon Rutherford's 1911 analysis, that J. J. Thomson's plum pudding model of the atom
was incorrect. Rutherford's new model for the atom, based on the experimental results,
contained new features of a relatively high central charge concentrated into a very small
volume in comparison to the rest of the atom and with this central volume also
containing the bulk of the atomic mass of the atom. This region would be known as the
"nucleus" of the atom. Rutherford overturned Thomson's model in 1911 with his well-
known gold foil experiment (shown in Fig. 1.5) in which he demonstrated that the atom
has a tiny and heavy nucleus. Rutherford designed an experiment to use the alpha
particles emitted by a radioactive element as probes to the unseen world of atomic
structure. If Thomson was correct, the beam would go straight through the gold foil.
Most of the beams went through the foil, but a few were deflected.

Fig. 1.5: Rutherford's gold foil experiment

4
 Rutherford is the first person to suggest that the "electron revolve around
the nucleus". The photo of Ernest Rutherford is shown in Fig. 1.6 and Rutherford’s atom
model is shown in Fig. 1.7.

Fig. 1.6: Ernest Rutherford

Fig. 1.7: Rutherford's atom model

1.1.3 BOHR'S ATOM MODEL

Niels Henrik David Bohr (7 October 1885 – 18 November 1962) proposed

the Bohr Model of the Atom in 1915. Because the Bohr Model is a modification of the
earlier Rutherford Model, some people call Bohr's Model the Rutherford-Bohr Model.
The modern model of the atom is based on quantum mechanics. The Bohr Model
5
contains some errors, but it is important because it describes most of the accepted
features of atomic theory without all of the high-level math of the modern version.
Unlike earlier models, the Bohr Model explains the Rydberg formula for the spectral
emission lines of atomic hydrogen. The Bohr Model is a planetary model in which the
negatively-charged electrons orbit a small, positively-charged nucleus similar to the
planets orbiting the Sun (except that the orbits are not planar). The gravitational force
of the solar system is mathematically akin to the Coulomb (electrical) force between
the positively-charged nucleus and the negatively-charged electrons. The Bohr Model
has an atom consisting of a small, positively-charged nucleus orbited by negatively-
charged electrons. Here's a closer look at the Bohr Model, which is sometimes called
the Rutherford-Bohr Model. The photo of Niels Bohr is shown in Fig. 1.8 and Bohr’s
atom model is shown in Fig. 1.9.

Fig. 1.8: Niels Henrik David Bohr

Fig. 1.9: Bohr's atom model

6
1.1.4 EXISTENCE OF ELECTRON

From the above mentioned atom models, we can conclude that the existence
of electron in an atom and is revolving around the nucleus with its own energy. Higher
frequency wavelengths will elevate electrons in the atom to higher energy levels. After
elevation to a higher energy state and circling the atom once, the electron will emit a
photon of lower energy and decay to the ground state.

1.1.5 THEORY OF ELECTRICITY

Long before any knowledge of electricity existed, people were aware of

shocks from electric fish. Ancient Egyptian texts dating from 2750 BCE referred to
these fish as the "Thunderer of the Nile", and described them as the "protectors" of all
other fish. The ancient Greeks noticed that amber attracted small objects when rubbed
with fur. Along with lightning, this phenomenon is one of humanity's earliest recorded
experiences with electricity. In his 1600 treatise De Magnete, the English scientist
William Gilbert coined the New Latin term electrica, to refer to those substances with
property similar to that of amber which attract small objects after being rubbed. Both
electric and electricity are derived from the Latin word electrum (also the root of the
alloy of the same name), which came from the Greek word for amber, (elektron). Thales
of Miletus made a series of observations on static electricity around 600 BCE, from
which he believed that friction rendered amber magnetic, in contrast to minerals such
as magnetite, which needed no rubbing. Thales was incorrect in believing the attraction
was due to a magnetic effect, but later science would prove a link between magnetism
and electricity. Fig. 1.10 shows the photo of Thales. Generally, the flow of electrons is
termed as "electricity" as shown in Fig. 1.11.

Fig. 1.10: Thales Fig. 1.11: Flow of electrons (Electricity)

7
1.1.6 HEISENBERG'S UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE

There may be a question like is electron "is really revolving around the
nucleus (or) moving straight line (or) at rest?" For this, Heisenberg's uncertainty
principle has the answer.

"It is impossible to determine simultaneously with high precision both the

momentum and position of a microscopic particle like electron".

Thus, for wired medium of information transfer, the electron’s position is

not taken into account but its momentum is considered.

1.1.7 ELECTRIC FIELD AND MAGNETIC FIELD

Independent electrons moving in vacuum are termed free electrons. Electrons

in metals also behave as if they were free. In reality the particles that are commonly
termed electrons in metals and other solids are quasi-electrons quasi-particles, which
have the same electrical charge, spin, and magnetic moment as real electrons but might
have a different mass. When free electrons both in vacuum and metals move, they
produce a net flow of charge called an electric current, which generates a magnetic field.
Likewise a current can be created by a changing magnetic field. These interactions are
described mathematically by Maxwell's equations. In a wired medium the movement of
electron in a wire produces electric field and the spinning of electron produces magnetic
field. Thus, the presence of electric field and magnetic field are always coupled. The
Fig. 1.12 shows the magnetic field due the spinning of electron and Fig. 1.13 shows the
electric field due to the presences of point charges.

8
 When an electric fields and magnetic fields are at right angled to each other
it gives rise to a neutral charge less wave called Electromagnetic waves. "In olden day,
the light waves and electromagnetic waves are treated separately, but when the
scientist Maxwell measured the speed of electromagnetic waves as 3×108 m/s which
is same as that of lights speed, then the light itself an electromagnetic wave is
concluded".

Fig. 1.12: Magnetic field due to electron spinning

Fig. 1.13: Electric field due to presence of point charges

9
 CHAPTER 2

WAVES

When a stone is dropped in a pond of water, a combination of transverse

waves and longitudinal waves are produced on the surface of water as shown in Fig.
2.1. When a transverse wave travels horizontally in a medium, the particles (water) of
the medium vibrate up and down in the vertical direction. Waves produced on the
surface of water is neither transverse waves nor longitudinal waves. The wave equation
is shown in the following. Due to the gravity pulling of moon and also due to the
pressure difference of air in ocean, a waves are created which is called Tidal waves is
shown in Fig. 2.2. There is also a gravitational field which is a space-time fabric, the
waves are produced in it due to the massive black holes called gravitational waves.

𝝏𝟐 𝒖 𝟐
𝝏𝟐 𝒖
=𝒄 (Wave Equation)
𝝏𝒕𝟐 𝝏𝒙𝟐

Fig. 2.1: Transverse Waves (or) Longitudinal Waves

Fig. 2.2: Tidal Waves

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2.1 NATURE OF WAVES

2.1.1 TRANSVERSE WAVES

Movement of the particles are parallel to the motion of the energy transfer
(i.e., propagation of wave). Its need medium for its propagation. (Example: Sound
waves).

2.1.2 LONGITUDINAL WAVES

Movement of the particles are at perpendicular to the motion of the energy

transfer. It can travel in vacuum. (Example: Electromagnetic waves).

2.2 EXAMPLES OF TYPES OF WAVES

2.2.1 SOUND WAVES

In sound waves, energy is transferred through vibration of air particles (or)

particles of a solid through which the sound travels.

2.2.2 WATER WAVES

In water waves, energy is transferred through the vibration of the water
particles.

2.2.3 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

In electromagnetic waves, the electric field and magnetic field are
perpendicular to each other. Here, energy is transferred through vibrations of electric
and magnetic fields. Fig. 2.3 shows electromagnetic spectrum.

Fig. 2.3: Electromagnetic Spectrum

11
 CHAPTER 3

HISTORY OF RADIOS

The invention history of the radio is not only interesting but rather long as well.
If we ask who invented the radio, probably we will get the name Marconi. But, was it
really Marconi who invented the radio? There are a lot of knots to be untangled if you
want to arrive at an answer as to who invented the radio. Was the inventor of radio the
person who discovered that electromagnetic waves can be sent through air? Was it the
person who sent signals to the farthest distance? Was it the person who sent the first
signals with voice? Well, the answers are in fact not easy. Wireless itself is relatively a
broad concept. Within the wireless category itself, there are many subcategories of
which radio broadcasting is just one; the others include wireless telegraph, wireless
ship-to-shore communication, and the like. To know the development of wireless, it is
crucial to first track the events that led to the discovery of electricity. Though there is
early documentation, it was in 1600 that electricity as a science had its beginning. It
began when Dr.William Gilbert, Queen Elizabeth's personal physician invented the
electroscope which could detect electromagnetic energy in the human body. Gilbert
coined the word electricity. From there, a lot of researchers and scientists had their hand
in the development of this wonderful field of science. Sir Thomas Browne, Alessandro
Volta, Benjamin Franklin, and Georg Simon Ohm were a few among the many who
made several contributions to the science of electricity. Radio is, in fact, indebted to
other major discoveries for its birth: the telephone and the telegraph. Perhaps, these
three technologies are very closely related. Radio first started as wireless telegraphy.
And, the credit certainly goes to the invention of the radio waves which was found to
be capable of sending out music, speech, picture and various other data through air.
Thus, "the origin of radio invention is the discovery of Electromagnetic waves".

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3.1 JAMES CLERK MAXWELL (1831-1879)

 Birth: 13-05-1831
 Died: 05-11-1879

Maxwell showed that the equations predict the existence of waves of oscillating
electric and magnetic fields that travel through empty space at a speed that could be
predicted from simple electrical experiments. Maxwell obtained a velocity of
310,740,000 metres per second. Maxwell's photo is shown in Fig. 3.1.

Fig. 3.1: James Clerk Maxwell

3.2 HEINRICH RUDOLF HERTZ (1857-1894)

 Birth: 13-05-1831
 Died: 05-11-1879

Hertz proved the existence of the electromagnetic waves experimentally in

1888. The photo of Hertz is shown in Fig. 3.2.

Fig. 3.2: Heinrich Rudolf Hertz

13
3.2.1 HERTZ'S EXPERIMENT

When a transmitter is powered, a spark is produced at the receiver due to

Electromagnetic wave propagation as shown in Fig. 3.3.

Fig. 3.3: Hertz's Experiment

3.2.2 HERTZ'S FIRST RADIO TRANSMITTER

Spark gap is about 7.5mm. A dipole resonator consisting of a pair of one meter
copper wires which has zinc sphere at its end. The diameter of zinc sphere is about 30cm
as shown in Fig. 3.4.

Fig. 3.4: Hertz's first Radio Transmitter

3.2.3 HERTZ'S RADIO WAVE RECEIVER

The spark gap at the bottom of the ring, a loop antenna with an adjustable
micro-meter spark gap as shown in Fig. 3.5.

Fig. 3.5: Hertz's Radio Wave Receiver

14
 Hertz's proof of the existence of airborne electromagnetic waves led to an
explosion of experimentation with this new form of electromagnetic radiation, which
was called "Hertzian waves" until around 1910 when the term "Radio waves" became
current. Fig. 3.6 shows the simplified circuit diagram of Hertz's radio model.

Fig. 3.6: Simplified Circuit Diagram of Hertz's Radio Model

3.3 NATHAN BEVERLY STUBBLEFIELD (1860-1928)

 Birth: 22-11-1860
 Died: 28-03-1928

He demonstrated wireless technology in public in the year 1892. He

switched to using ground currents instead of induction. He was able to broadcast signals
as well as voice and music in 1898, again he demonstrated wireless to a documented
distance of about 535 meters. Later in 1902, he showcased a ship-to-shore broadcast on
the river Potomac in Washington DC; for this, he received a patent for wireless
telephone in 1908. The photo of Nathan Stubblefield is shown in Fig. 3.7.

Fig. 3.7: Nathan Beverly Stubblefield

15
3.4 JAGADISH CHANDRA BOSE (1858-1937)

 Birth: 30-11-1858
 Died: 23-11-1937

In 1896, he demonstrated radio transmission to the British Governor General

at Calcutta in India. The transmission covered a distance of around 3 miles. The
instrument he used, the Mercury Coherer attached to a telephone detector, is still
displayed at the Calcutta University's Science College. Bose had overcome Hertz's
problem of waves not being able to penetrate through mountains, walls or water.
Marconi's Coherer and Bose's Coherer were exactly the same. The photo of JC Bose is
shown in Fig. 3.8.

Fig. 3.8: JC Bose

3.4.1 JC BOSE'S RADIO APPARATUS

Bose's 60 GHz microwave apparatus (as shown in Fig. 3.9) at the Bose
Institute, Kolkata, India. His receiver (left) used a galena crystal detector inside a horn
antenna and galvanometer to detect microwaves. Bose invented the crystal radio
detector, waveguide, horn antenna, and other apparatus used at microwave frequencies.

Fig. 3.9: JC Bose's Radio Apparatus

16
3.5 NIKOLA TESLA (1856-1943)

 Birth: 10-07-1856
 Died: 07-01-1943

Tesla invented the induction coil or the Tesla coil after he came to the US
in the year 1884. A Tesla coil is a device required to send and receive radio waves (it is
said that Marconi relied on this coil for his experiments). In about 1895, unfortunately,
Tesla's laboratory was completely destroyed by fire when he was preparing to send a
radio signal about 50 miles to the West Point, New York. The photo of Nikola Tesla is
shown in Fig. 3.10.

Fig. 3.10: Nikola Tesla

3.6 FATHER ROBERTO LANDELL DE MOURA (1861-1928)

 Birth: 22-01-1861
 Died: 30-06-1928

In June 1899, Father Roberto Landell De Moura had successfully

transmitted audio (i.e., Voice signal) over a distance of 7 kilometres (4.3 miles). He was
the first person to transmit the voice in a Radio Waves. The photo of Robert Landell is
shown in Fig. 3.11.

Fig. 3.11: Father Roberto Landell de Moura

17
3.7 GUGLIELMO MARCONI (1874-1937)

 Birth: 25-04-1874
 Died: 20-07-1937

Twenty years after the telephone was invented, music was set down on
telephone line and Marconi was the one responsible for the radio signals. Hertz's
discovery of the radio waves that he realized it could be employed for receiving and
sending telegraph messages; he referred to it as wireless telegraphs. Marconi's earliest
radio transmissions transmitted coded signals to only a mile far in the year 1896. The
photo of Marconi is shown in Fig. 3.12 and Fig.3.13 shows Marconi with his radio
transmitter.

Fig. 3.12: Guglielmo Marconi

Fig. 3.13: Marconi with his Radio Transmitter

18
3.8 WORLD FIRST RADIO TRANSMITTER STATION

In 1919, Dr.Frank Conrad, Westinghouse engineer and scientist, conducted

experimental ham radio broadcasts on 75 watt 8XK from his garage in Wilkinsburg, PA
(above in 1920) in 1919; November 2, 1920-Station KDKA, Pittsburgh, PA (established
by Conrad at request of Westinghouse), made nation's first commercial broadcast of
election results of Harding-Cox presidential race; first commercially licensed radio
station in United States. The photo of Dr.Frank Conrad is shown in Fig. 3.14 and his
first radio transmitter station was shown in Fig. 3.15.

Fig. 3.14: Dr.Frank Conrad

Fig. 3.15: World First Radio Transmitter Station

3.9 FIGHT FOR PATENTS

After a lot of lawsuits, the US Supreme Court restored Tesla (who had died a few
months earlier) as the inventor of radio.

19
 CHAPTER 4

COMMERCIAL RADIOS

The world first commercial radio was announced in early 1920 which uses
AM Broadcast. After 1960s, FM Broadcast is also made available for local area
broadcasting. On November 2, 1920, station KDKA made the nation's first commercial
broadcast (a term coined by Conrad himself). They chose that date because it was
election-day, and the power of radio was proven when people could hear the results of
the Harding-Cox presidential race before they read about it in the newspaper. The world
first commercial radio using vacuum tubes (during 1920) is shown in Fig. 4.1 and the
world first commercial radio using transistors (during 1954) is shown in Fig. 4.2.

Fig. 4.1: Vacuum tube radio Fig. 4.2: Regency TR-1 transistor radio

For commercial purpose AM Frequency used in the range of 540KHz to

1600KHz and FM Frequency in the Range of 88.1MHz to 108.1MHz.

4.1 CXA1019S COMMERCIAL RADIO RECEIVER IC

CXA1019 is a bipolar silicon monolithic FM/AM radio receiver IC from

Sony. Built in circuitries inside the CXA1019 include RF amplifier, mixer, oscillator,
IF amplifier, quadrature detection circuit, tuning LED driver electronic volume control,
detector etc. FM section of the IC is only utilized in this circuit. The IC can be powered
from anything between 3V to 7V DC and can drive an 8 ohm loudspeaker. Fig. 4.3

20
shows a CXA1019 IC based high quality FM receiver alone. This radio found
application in early 1980s.

Fig. 4.3: FM receiver alone based on CXA1019 IC

CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

Inductors L1, L2 and capacitors C4, C6, C7 forms the tank circuit for the
ICs built in oscillator section. The IF output available at pin 15 is grounded through
resistor R1. C1 is the AC bypass capacitor for R1. Capacitor C16 is meant for ripple
filtering. LED D1 is a tuning indicator. Output of the built-in detector stage (pin24) is
coupled to the input (pin 25) of the built in AF amplifier stage through capacitor C19,
POT R2 and capacitor C18. The POT R2 can be used as a volume control because it
controls the input given to the audio amplifier stage. Capacitor C15 couples the audio
output to the speaker and C14 is a noise bypass capacitor. C5 is just a power supply

21
filter while C20 couples the antenna to the FM RF input (pin13) of the IC. The FM
intermediate frequency output available at pin 15 is filtered using the 10MHz ceramic
filter and applied to the FM intermediate frequency input pin18. Capacitor C2 is used
for bypassing noise from the audio power amplifier section inside the IC. The output of
this power amplifier section is around 500mW. Capacitor C1 and transformer T1 are
related to the FM discriminator circuitry inside the IC. Resistor R3 is the feedback
capacitor for the AGC section. For L1, make 2.75 turns of 22 SWG enamelled copper
wire on a 5mm diameter plastic former. For L2, make 3.75 turns of 22 SWG enamelled
copper wire on a 5mm plastic former. T1 is a FM IF (Intermediate Frequency)
transformer. CF1 is a 10.7MHz FM ceramic filter C4 is a 30pF dual gang FM tuning
capacitor. K1 can be a 3W, 8 ohm loudspeaker. A1 can be a 100cm long whip antenna.

4.2 TDA7000 COMMERCIAL RADIO RECEIVER IC

TDA7000 is a non-programmable single chip FM receiver IC with mono audio

output. Fig. 4.4 show the circuit diagram of TDA7000 FM receiver. This radio found
application in early 1990s.

Fig. 4.4: TDA7000 FM Receiver

22
CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

The TDA7000 is a monolithic integrated circuit for mono FM portable

radios, where a minimum on peripheral components is crucial. The IC TDA 7000 has a
Frequency-Locked-Loop system with an intermediate frequency of 70 kHz. The
intermediate frequency selectivity is achieved by active RC filters. The only function
which needs alignment is the resonant circuit for the oscillator, thus selecting the
reception frequency. Spurious reception is avoided by means of a mute circuit, which
also eliminates too noisy input signals. Special steps are taken to meet the radiation
requirements. For L1 and L2 wind 5 turns of 0.6 mm Enameled Copper wire on a plastic
former with 4 mm diameter. This circuit uses variable capacitor diode (BB105) for
tuning which act as a capacitor when biased. By adjusting the forward voltage of the
varicap diode, the capacitance is tuned for the certain frequency.

BB105 VARICAP DIODE

In electronics, a varicap diode, varactor diode, variable capacitance diode, variable

reactance diode or tuning diode is a type of diode designed to exploit the voltage-
dependent capacitance of a reverse-biased p-n junction. With voltage controlled
oscillator you can precisely control the frequency of the FM oscillator with a
potentiometer instead of using a variable capacitor. If you use VCO, you can also
digitally tune the frequency of the oscillator by using what's called Phase Locked Loop
(PLL) which is a digital circuit that prevents any frequency drifts. The circuit symbol
of varicap diode is shown in Fig. 4.5. The BB105 varicap diode is shown in Fig. 4.6.
By tuning the 100KΩ potentiometer, the voltage bias to the varicap diode is also varied
and then corresponding capacitance is also varied as shown in Fig. 4.7.

Fig. 4.5: Varicap Diode Symbol Fig. 4.6: BB105 Varicap Diode
23
 Fig. 4.7: Working of BB105 Varicap Diode

4.3 TEA5767 COMMERCIAL FM RECEIVER MODULE

TEA5767 is a programmable superheterodyne FM receiver module with

stereo audio output. This module need microprocessor (or) microcontroller to program
it, either by I2C protocol or by 3-wire mode. The TEA5767 module is shown in Fig.
4.8.The pin configuration of TEA5767 module is described in Table 4.1. This kind of
programmable radios used varicap diodes and programmable digital potentiometers for
frequency tuning. This kind of radio circuits are used now a days in all applications such
as commercial radio in mobile phones, ipods etc., ham-radios in aircrafts and ships.

Table 4.1: Pin Configuration of TEA5767 Module

PIN CONFIGURATION
Pin No. Description
1 DATA
2 CLOCK
3 BUSMODE
4 WRITE/READ
5 VCC
6 GND
7 R-OUT
8 L-OUT
9 MPXO
10 ANTENNA
Fig. 4.8: TEA5767 Module

I2C-BUS AND 3-WIRE BUS

The 3-wire bus and the I2C-bus operate with a maximum clock frequency of
400 kHz. Before any READ or WRITE operation the pin BUSENABLE has to be HIGH
for atleast 10 µs. The I2C-bus mode is selected when pin BUSMODE is LOW, when
pin BUSMODE is HIGH the 3-wire bus mode is selected.

24
 CHAPTER 5

USE OF RADIOS IN SHIPS AND AVIATION

One of the first developments in the early 20th century was that aircraft used
commercial AM radio stations for navigation. This continued until the early 1960s when
VOR systems became widespread. In the early 1930s, single sideband and frequency
modulation were invented by amateur radio operators.

5.1 AIRCRAFT DETECTION BEFORE RADAR (1917-1940)

Aircraft engines produced unprecedented sound, so in order to hear them at a distance,

the war efforts developed listening devices. Acoustic location was used from mid of World
War-I to the early years of World War-II for the passive detection of aircraft by picking up the
noise of the engines. Passive acoustic location involves the detection of sound or vibration
created by the object being detected, which is then analysed to determine the location of the
object in question. Horns give both acoustic gain and directionality; the increased inter-horn
spacing compared with human ears increases the observer’s ability to localize the direction of a
sound. Acoustic techniques had the advantage that they could 'see' around corners and over hills,
due to sound refraction. The technology was rendered obsolete before and during World War-
II by the introduction of radar, which was far more effective.

The first use of this type of equipment was claimed by Commander Alfred Rawlinson
of the Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve, who in the autumn of 1916 was commanding a mobile
anti-aircraft battery on the east coast of England. He needed a means of locating Zeppelins
during cloudy conditions and improvised an apparatus from a pair of gramophone horns
mounted on a rotating pole. Several of these equipment were able to give a fairly accurate fix
on the approaching airships, allowing the guns to be directed at them despite being out of sight.
Although no hits were obtained by this method, Rawlinson claimed to have forced a Zeppelin
to jettison its bombs on one occasion. The air-defence instruments usually consisted of large
horns or microphones connected to the operator's ears using tubing, much like a very large
stethoscope.

25
 Most of the work on anti-aircraft sound ranging was done by the British. They
developed an extensive network of sound mirrors that were used from World War I through
World War II. Sound mirrors normally work by using movable microphones to find the angle
that maximizes the amplitude of sound received, which is also the bearing angle to the target.
Two sound mirrors at different positions will generate two different bearings, which allows the
use of triangulation to determine a sound's sources position.

As World War II neared, radar began to become a credible alternative to the sound
location of aircraft. Britain never publicly admitted it was using radar until well into the war,
and instead publicity was given to acoustic location, as in the USA. It has been suggested that
the Germans remained wary of the possibility of acoustic location, and this is why the engines
of their heavy bombers were run unsynchronized, instead of synchronized (as was the usual
practice, to reduce vibration) in the hope that this would make detection more difficult.

For typical aircraft speeds of that time, sound location only gave a few minutes of
warning. The acoustic location stations were left in operation as a backup to radar, as
exemplified during the Battle of Britain. After World War II, sound ranging played no further
role in anti-aircraft operations.

A two-horn system at Bolling Field, USA, near the Army War College at Fort McNair
(in the background), shown in Fig. 5.1. These horn system acts as a pair of enormous amplifiers
that is used by the U.S. Naval Air Service for locating and contacting aeroplanes by day and
night. This photo-shoot was taken in 1921.

A Czech locator, which is used in early 1920s consist of a Scoop-shaped reflectors

direct the sound into large-diameter tubes as shown in Fig. 5.2. This equipment was
manufactured by Goerz. When tested at the Dutch military research station at Waalsdorp it was
found it "contained fundamental deficiencies".

Fig. 5.1: A two-horn system Fig. 5.2: A Czech locator

26
5.2 COMMUNICATION IN SHIPS BEFORE RADAR

Thomas Alva Edison (11 February 1847 – 18 October 1931, his photo is
shown in Fig. 5.3) have discovered that if sufficient elevation be obtained to overcome
the curvature of the Earth's surface and to reduce to the minimum the earths absorption
electric telegraphing (or) signalling between distant points can be carried on by
induction without the use of wires connecting such distant points. This discovery is
especially applicable to telegraphing across bodies of water, thus avoiding the use of
submarine cables, or for communicating between vessels at sea, or between vessels at
sea and points on land; but it is also applicable to electric communication between
distant points on land, it being necessary, however, on land (with the exception of
communication over open prairie) to increase the elevation in order to reduce to the
minimum the induction-absorbing effect of houses, trees, and elevations in the land
itself. At sea from an elevation of one hundred feet we can communicate electrically a
great distance, and since this elevation or one sufficiently high can be had by utilizing
the masts of ships signals can be sent and received between ships separated a
considerable distance, and by repeating the signals from ship to ship communication
can be established between points at any distance apart or across the largest seas and
even oceans as shown in Fig. 5.4. The collision of ships in fogs can be prevented by
.this character of signalling, by the use of which, also, the safety of a, ship in
approaching a dangerous coast in foggy weather can be assured. In communicating
between points on land poles of great height can be used or captive balloons, at these
whether upon the masts of ships, upon poles or balloons as shown in Fig. 5.5,
condensing-surfaces of metal or other conductor of electricity are located. Each
condensing-surface is connected with earth by an electrical conducting-wire. On
elevated points, land this earth connection would be one of usual character in
telegraphy.

Fig. 5.3: Thomas Alva Edison

27
 Fig. 5.4: Ship Communication

Fig. 5.5: Captive Balloons

5.3 MORSE CODE

Morse code is a character encoding scheme used in telecommunication that

encodes text characters as standardized sequences of two different signal durations
called dots and dashes (or) dits and dahs. Morse code is named for Samuel F.B. Morse
(27 April 1791 – 2 April 1872), an inventor of the telegraph. The International Morse
Code encodes the 26 English letters A through Z, some non-English letters, the Arabic
numerals and a small set of punctuation and procedural signals (prosigns). There is no
distinction between upper and lower case letters. Each Morse code symbol is formed
by a sequence of dots and dashes. The dot duration is the basic unit of time measurement
in Morse code transmission. The duration of a dash is three times the duration of a dot.

28
Each dot or dash within a character is followed by period of signal absence, called a
space, equal to the dot duration. The letters of a word are separated by a space of
duration equal to three dots, and the words are separated by a space equal to seven dots.
To increase the efficiency of encoding, Morse code was designed so that the length of
each symbol is approximately inverse to the frequency of occurrence in text of the
English language character that it represents. Thus the most common letter in English,
the letter "E", has the shortest code: a single dot. Because the Morse code elements are
specified by proportion rather than specific time durations, the code is usually
transmitted at the highest rate that the receiver is capable of decoding. The Morse code
transmission rate (speed) is specified in groups per minute, commonly referred to as
words per minute. Morse code is usually transmitted by on-off keying of an information
carrying medium such as electric current, radio waves, visible light or sound waves.
The current or wave is present during time period of the dot or dash and absent during
the time between dots and dashes. Morse code can be memorized, and Morse code
signalling in a form perceptible to the human senses, such as sound waves or visible
light, can be directly interpreted by persons trained in the skill. In an emergency, Morse
code can be generated by improvised methods such as turning a light on and off, tapping
on an object or sounding a horn or whistle, making it one of the simplest and most
versatile methods of telecommunication. The most common distress signal is SOS –
three dots, three dashes, and three dots (… --- …) – internationally recognized by
treaty. The photo of Samuel Morse and his original telegraph machine is shown in Fig.
5.6 and International Morse Codes is shown in Fig. 5.7.

Fig. 5.6: Samuel Morse and his Original Telegraph Machine

29
 Fig. 5.7: International Morse Codes

5.3.1 MORSE CODE IN AVIATION

In aviation, pilots use radio navigation aids. To ensure that the stations the
pilots are using are serviceable, the stations transmit a set of identification letters
(usually a two-to-five-letter version of the station name) in Morse code. Station
identification letters are shown on air navigation charts. For example, the VOR-DME
based at Vilo Acuna Airport in Cayo Largo Airport, Cuba (as shown in Fig. 5.8) is
coded as "UCL", and UCL in Morse code is transmitted on its radio frequency. In some
countries, during periods of maintenance of radio, the facility may radiate a T-E-S-T
code (- . … -) or the code may be removed which tells pilots and navigators that the
station is unreliable. In Canada, the identification is removed entirely to signify the
navigation aid is not to be used. In the aviation service, Morse is typically sent at a very
slow speed of about 5 words per minute. In the U.S., pilots do not actually have to know
Morse to identify the transmitter because the dot/dash sequence is written out next to
the transmitter's symbol on aeronautical charts. Some modern navigation receivers
automatically translate the code into displayed letters. Telegraph key and sounder which
is transmitter and receiver respectively is used to send and receive Morse code
messages. The signal is "on" when the knob is pressed, and "off" when it is released.
Length and timing of the dots and dashes are entirely controlled by the telegraphist.
Electronic telegraph key (shown in Fig.5.10) to generate high-speed Morse code, the

30
timing of which is controlled by the electronic key. Morse code receiver, recording on
paper tape is shown in Fig. 5.11.

Fig. 5.8: Cayo Largo Airport VOR-DME

Fig. 5.9: Telegraph key and sounder Fig. 5.10: Electronic telegraph key

Fig. 5.11: Morse code receiver, recording on paper tape

31
 The olden Morse transmitter and receiver uses a wired medium for transmission
and reception. These system uses ground (Earth's surface) also as conduction medium.
After the invention of electromagnetic waves, these system became completely wireless
system. Fig. 5.12 shows the radio receiver used in aviation

Fig. 5.12: Radio receiver used in aviation

5.3.2 MORSE CODE IN SHIPS

In 1912, the RMS Titanic (shown in Fig. 5.13) sank in the northern Atlantic
Ocean. After this, wireless telegraphy using spark-gap transmitters quickly became
universal on large ships. In 1913, the International Convention for the Safety of Life at
Sea was convened and produced a treaty requiring shipboard radio stations to be
manned 24 hours a day. A typical high-power spark gap was a rotating commutator with
six to twelve contacts per wheel, nine inches (229 mm) to a foot wide, driven by about
2,000 volts DC. As the gaps made and broke contact, the radio wave was audible as a
tone in a magnetic detector at a remote location. The telegraph key often directly made
and broke the 2,000 volt supply. One side of the spark gap was directly connected to
the antenna. Receivers with thermionic valves became commonplace before spark-gap
transmitters were replaced by continuous wave transmitters.

Fig. 5.13: RMS Titanic

32
5.4 MODERN HAM RADIOS

Modern ham radios transmits and receives voices messages. Initially these radios uses
vacuum tubes (as shown in Fig. 5.14) and then these vacuum tubes are replaced by
transistors after the invention of semi-conductors. Now a days, these radios uses single
chip IC's in which most of the components are fabricated and also digitally
programmable transceiver radios (as shown in Fig. 15) is used in the aviation field.
These radios are installed in aircraft's cockpit itself as shown in Fig. 5.16.

Fig. 5.14: Aircraft's ham radio using vacuum tubes

Fig. 5.15: Microcontroller type transceiver radio

Fig. 5.16: Transceiver radio installed in Aircraft's cockpit

33
5.5 AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL (ATC)

Air traffic control (ATC) is a service provided by ground-based air traffic

controllers who direct aircraft on the ground and through controlled airspace via
VHF/UHF radio, and can provide advisory services to aircraft in non-controlled
airspace. The primary purpose of ATC worldwide is to prevent collisions, organize and
expedite the flow of air traffic, and provide information and other support for pilots. In
some countries, ATC plays a security or defensive role, or is operated by the military.
To prevent collisions, ATC enforces traffic separation rules, which ensure each aircraft
maintains a minimum amount of empty space around it at all times. Many aircraft also
have collision avoidance systems, which provide additional safety by warning pilots
when other aircraft get too close. In many countries, ATC provides services to all
private, military, and commercial aircraft operating within its airspace. Depending on
the type of flight and the class of airspace, ATC may issue instructions that pilots are
required to obey, or advisories (known as flight information in some countries) that
pilots may, at their discretion, disregard. The pilot in command is the final authority for
the safe operation of the aircraft and may, in an emergency, deviate from ATC
instructions to the extent required to maintain safe operation of their aircraft. The
various frequencies used in ATC is shown in Table 5.1.

Table 5.1: Various frequencies used in ATC

Band Frequency Wavelength
VLF Very Low Frequency 3KHz - 30KHz 100Km - 10Km
LF Low Frequency 30KHz - 300KHz 10Km - 1Km
MF Medium Frequency 300KHz - 3MHz 1Km - 100m
HF High Frequency 3MHz - 30MHz 100m - 10m
VHF Very High Frequency 30MHz - 300MHz 10m - 1m
UHF Ultra High Frequency 300MHz - 3GHz 1m - 10cm
SHF Super High Frequency 3GHz - 30GHz 10cm - 1cm
EHF Extremely High Frequency 30GHz -300GHz 1cm - 1mm

 Automatic Direction Finding (ADF) uses MF.

 VOR, ILS (Localizer) and Marker Beacons uses VHF.
 Airborne Weather Radar and Low Altitude Radio Altimeter uses SHF.

34
5.5.1 MAYDAY

MAYDAY is an emergency procedure word used internationally as a distress

signal in voice-procedure radio communications. It is used to signal a life-threatening
emergency primarily by aviators and mariners, but in some countries local organizations
such as firefighters, police forces, and transportation organizations also use the term.
The call is always given three times in a row ("MAYDAY MAYDAY MAYDAY") to
prevent its being mistaken for some similar-sounding phrase under noisy conditions,
and to distinguish an actual mayday call from a message about a mayday call. The
"MAYDAY" procedure word was originated in 1923, by a senior radio officer at
Croydon Airport in London. Before the voice call "MAYDAY", SOS was the Morse
code equivalent of the mayday call. In 1927, the International Radio telegraph
Convention of Washington adopted the voice call mayday as the radio telephone
distress call in place of the SOS radio telegraph (Morse code) call.

 SSB(Supressed Side Band) AM signal is used in both the Aircraft's ATC as well
as communication and navigation in Ships.
 For Telephony, the frequency used is 2182KHz. The code for this is MAYDAY
MAYDAY MAYDAY.
 For Telegraphy, the frequency used is 500KHz. In this radio telegraphy, the
Morse code of SOS - (… --- …) is employed which is treated as a "MAYDAY"
equivalent call.

35
 CONCLUSION

Radio has evolved tremendously over the years. Earlier, transmitters were called
spark gap machines. They were mainly established for ship-to-ship and ship-to-shore
communication. Those days, communication was limited to two points and did not
involve public broadcasting as it is today. In case of sea disasters, wireless signals
displayed effective communication for rescue operations. A range of ocean liners
started installing the wireless equipments and in 1899, the US Army set up the wireless
communication. Two years later, the Navy adopted the wireless system; it was a great
relief because until then, Navy was using homing pigeons and visual signaling for
communication. In 1901, radiotelegraph services were established in the Hawaiian
Islands. Marconi station located in the Massachusetts carried greetings between
Theodore Roosevelt and King Edward-VII. In the year 1905, Port Arthur naval battle
was reported of using wireless communication and the US weather department used
radiotelegraphy. Sooner, radio transmitters were improved a lot. Overseas
radiotelegraph services slowly started developing. Lee Deforest, the inventor of space
telegraphy, Audion, and triode amplifier, took care of the developments in many
technical issues. Deforest also discovered the detector. In fact, he was the first person
to use the term "radio". His work resulted in the discovery of AM radio that was capable
of broadcasting several radio stations which the earlier gap transmitters did not
allow.Ever since that time, there has been no looking back. The radio has now become
a popular medium of handy entertainment. With the technological advancements in the
21st century, the Internet radio is also introduced. Satellite radio is another recent
development in the field. Using this, one can listen to several international radio stations
without any issues. In addition to all these latest editions, Ham radio is the next big
thing. No wonder radio lovers have a reason to celebrate as there is perhaps a lot in store
for them.

36
 REFRENCES

[1] https://www.khanacademy.org/science/chemistry/electronic-structure-of-

atoms/history-of-atomic-structure/a/discovery-of-the-electron-and-nucleus

[2] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron

[3] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity

[4] http://www.circuitstoday.com/radio-invention-history

[5] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_radar

[6] https://patents.google.com/patent/US465971 (Thomas Alva Edison's Patent)

[7] http://www.circuitstoday.com/fm-receiver-circuit

[8] http://www.circuitstoday.com/single-chip-fm-radio-circuit

[9] Datasheet of TEA5767

[10] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Morse

[11] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morse_code

[12] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_traffic_control

[13] https://rarehistoricalphotos.com/aircraft-detection-radar-1917-1940/

37