Bulletin of the Marathwada Mathematical Society

Vol. 11, No. 1, June 2010, Pages 25–34.

EULER AND HIS CONTRIBUTIONS

K. RAVI
Department of Mathematics, Sacred Heart College,
Tirupattur - 635 601, TamilNadu, India.
E-mail: shckravi@yahoo.co.in
And
R. KISHORE KUMAR
Department of Computer Science,
Rajalakshmi Engineering College,
Thandalam, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India.
E-mail: rskishorekumar@yahoo.co.in

Abstract

The purpose of this paper is to highlight the work of an extraordinary

mathematician Leonhard Paul Euler and thereby motivate the mathematics
lovers to go through his works.

1 INTRODUCTION

Leonhard Paul Euler was born in Basel, Switzerland. He is one of the great
astounding icons in the history of science. He is the key - figure among the mathe-
maticians in the eighteenth century. He was ranked with Archimedes, Cauchy, Gauss
and Newton. His major mathematical fields were calculus, differential equations, an-
alytic and differential geometry of curves and surfaces, the theory of numbers, series
and calculus of variations. One can find his names in all branches of mathematics:
there are formulas of Euler, polynomials of Euler, Euler constants, Euler integrals,
Euler lines, Euler circles, Euler diagram, Euler force, Euler method, Eulerian Co-
ordinates, Eulerian correlation, Eulerian path, Euler’s expansion, Euler’s theorem
and so on!...Every mathematician today is influenced by the work Euler.It was said
(by Laplace) that all mathematicians were his students,[14]. Euler contributed to
almost all areas of mathematics and did equally important work in both pure and
applied mathematics. One of his most significant contribution was to the devel-
opment of analysis. One of Euler’s most admirable qualities was a willingness to
explain how his discoveries were made.

25
26 K.Ravi and R. Kishore Kumar

1.1 L.P.EULER (15th April 1707 to 18th September 1732)

Euler received his first mathematical instruction at home from his father. He
later moved back to Basel to attend a secondary school, but mathematics was not
taught there. So he took some private lessons from a university student,[1]. At the
age of 13, Euler entered the University of Basel, which had become the mathematical
centre of Europe under John Bernoulli. Euler was a student of John Bernoulli and
published research papers at the age of eighteen.
In 1733, Euler secured an appointment at the St. Petersburg Academy in
Russia. He started as an assistant to Daniel Bernoulli but soon succeeded him as a
professor. In 1735, he lost sight of one eye. In 1741, he went to Berlin, at the call
of Frederick the Great. He published his first lunar-motion theory in 1753 and then
second theory in 1772,[1]. In 1766, he returned from Berlin to St. Petersburg, at
the request of Catherine the Great, where he soon went totally blind.
Euler published original research papers of high quality at the rate of about
eight hundred pages a year. Through these papers, he has won so many prizes and
awards. Some of the books and four hundred of his research papers were written
after he became totally blind.

2 EULER’S DISCOVERIES
He introduced the analytic approach to trigonometry and was responsible for
the modern treatment of the function logx and ex . He created a consistent theory
of logarithms of negative and imaginary numbers. He introduced the symbols
√
e ∼
= 2.7128 · · · , π∼= 3.14159 · · · , i = −1

and linked them in the astonishing relation eπ i = −1.

2.1 EULER’S FORMULA,[13] (eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ)

. Euler was the first and greatest master of infinite series, infinite products and
continued fractions. The infinite product
µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶
x2 x2 x2 x2
sin (πx) = πx 1 − 2 1− 2 1− 2 1 − 2 ······
1 2 3 4

converges for all values of x and it is one of the most beautiful formulas in mathe-
matics. When x = 12 , it yields
³π ´ µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶
π 1 1 1 1
sin = 1− 1− 1− 1− ······ .
2 2 22 · 12 22 · 22 22 · 32 22 · 42

For detail study of Euler and his work on infinite series one can refer to [14].
 Euler and his Contributions 27

James Bernoulli found the sums of several infinite series but he could not find
the sum of reciprocals of the squares like
1 1 1
1+ + + + ······ .
4 9 16
So James Bernoulli wrote ”If some one succeed in finding this sum, I shall be much
obliged to him”. In 1736, Euler (at the age of 29) made the wonderful discovery
that
1 1 1 π2
1+ + + + ······ = .
4 9 16 6
Euler contributed many important ideas to differential equations of second
order linear equations and the method of solution by power series. He gave the first
systematic discussion of the calculus of variations. He introduced the number γ,
known as Euler’s constant
µ ¶
1 1 1
γ = lim 1 + + + · · · · · · + − log n = 0.57721,
n→∞ 2 3 n
which is the most important special positive real number in mathematics after π
and e. He discovered the gamma function
Z ∞
Γ (x) = tx−1 e−t dt.
0

2.2 PARTITION
The theory of partitions was initiated by Euler,[11]. It finds applications in
Statistical mechanics and the Kinetic theory of gases. The number p(n) , is the
number of ways a given positive integer can be expressed as a sum of positive
integers. For example; 4 can be partitioned into
4 = 3 + 1 = 2 + 2 = 2 + 1 + 1 = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1.
So p(4) = 5 and similarity p(5) = 7 and p(6) = 11 . p(n) increases £very rapidly¡ with ¢
n. Euler noticed that p(n) is the coefficient of x when the function (1 − x) 1 − x2
n
¡ ¢ ¤−1
1 − x3 · · · is expanded in a power series 1 + p (1) x + p (2) x2 + p (3) x3 + · · · · · · .
For more information on subject and partition identities realted theorems, one can
refer to [14].

2.3 EULER’S FUNCTION, [14].

The Euler’s function ϕ(n) denotes the number of integers from 1 to n which
are relatively prime to n, [14].
Examples:
ϕ (1) = 1, ϕ (2) = 1, ϕ (3) = 2, ϕ (4) = 2, ϕ (5) = 4,
ϕ (6) = 2, ϕ (7) = 6, ϕ (8) = 4, ϕ (9) = 6, ϕ (10) = 4.
Note that: ϕ (p) = p − 1, if p is prime.
28 K.Ravi and R. Kishore Kumar

2.4 EULER’S NUMBERS,[13].

E1 , E2 , E3 , · · · · · · are known as Euler numbers that can be found in the expan-
sion, [13]
x2 x4 x6 π
sec x = 1 + E1 + E2 + E3 + · · · · · · , x <
2! 4! 6! 2
x2 x4 x6 π
sec hx = 1 − E1 + E2 − E3 + · · · · · · , x <
2! 4! 6! 2
such that E1 = 5, E2 ©= 5, E3 = 61, E4 = 1385, ªE5 = 50, 521, E6 = 2, 702, 765, · · · · · · · · · · · ·
2n+2
and En = π2 2n+1 (2n)! 1 − 32n+1
1 1
+ 52n+1 − ······ .

2.5 EULER’S DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION (or CAUCHY EQUA-

TION)
The differential equation

d2 y dy
x2 2
+ P (x) x + Q (x) y = R (x)
dx dx

is known as Euler’s differential equation,[13].

3 EULER’S CONTRIBUTIONS IN GRAPH THEORY

Graphs and graph theory probably began in the early 18th century when
the Swiss Mathematician, Leonhard Euler, considered the problem of the seven
Königsberg bridges. Euler considered the problem by using the graph where each
edge represents one of the seven bridges. He then showed the impossibility of such
a route by showing that the graph has no Euler trial.

(i) A trial in a graph G is called an Euler trial if it includes every edge of G .

(ii) A tour of G is a closed walk of G which includes every edge of G atleast once.

(iii) An Euler tour of G is a tour which includes each edge of G exactly once.

(iv) A graph G is called Eulerian or Euler if it has an Euler tour.

(v) In 1752, Euler found a simple formula showing the relationship between the
number of vertices, edges and faces in a connected plane graph. It is one of the
best known formulae in mathematics known as Euler’s Formula. Let G be a
connected plane graph and let n, e and f denote the number of vertices, edges
and faces of G , respectively then n − g + f = 1, [9].
 Euler and his Contributions 29

4 EULER’S WORK IN NUMBER THEORY

4.1 PREFECT NUMBER: A prefect number is one that equals the sum of
its divisors. For example: 6 and 28 are prefect numbers (since 6=1+2+3,
28=1+2+4+7+14). Euler proved that every even prefect number is of Euclid’s
form. In view of Euler’s theorem, the existence of even prefect numbers depends
on the existence of primes of the form 2n + 1. These are known as Mersenne
primes,[11].

4.2 In 1749, the first published proof for Fermat’s theorem was given by Euler.
(Fermat’s theorem: An odd prime p is the sum of two squares iff p is of the form
4n + 1).

4.3 The identity that the product of the sum of four squares is a sum of four squares:
¡ 2 ¢¡ ¢
a + b2 + c2 + d2 α2 + β 2 + γ 2 + δ 2 = (aα − bβ − cγ − dδ)2
+ (aβ + bα + cδ − dγ)2 + (aγ − bδ + cα + dβ)2 + (aδ + bγ − cβ + dα)2 ,

was discovered by Euler.

4.4 CONTINUED FRACTIONS, [12]. The Euclidean algorithm for finding the
greatest common divisor of two integers lead to an important method known
as continued fractions. For example; to find g.c.d. of 840 and 611, Euclidean
algorithm yields the series of equations

840 = 1×611 + 229,

611 = 2×229 + 153,
229 = 1×153 + 76,
153 = 2×76 + 1,

which can be written as

840 229 1
=1+ =1+ ,
611 611 ( 611
229 )
611 153 1
=2+ =2+ ,
229 229 ( 229
153 )
229 76 1
=1+ =1+ ,
153 153 ( 153
76 )
153 1
76 =2+ 76 .

Combining these equations; we obtain

840 1
=1+ .
611 2 + 1+ 1 1
1
2+ 76
30 K.Ravi and R. Kishore Kumar

An expression of the form

1
a = a0 + 1
a1 + a2 + 1
a3 + · · ·
..
.
· · · · · · a1n
where ai s are positive integers, is called a continued fraction.

Example: A finite continued fraction is

57 1
=3+ .
17 2 + 1+1 1
5

Every rational number can be written as a continued fraction form by means of the
Euclidean Algorithm. For irrational numbers however the algorithm does not stop
after a finite number of steps. Euler was able to find almost equally simple infinite
continued fractions for e and π .
1
e=2+ 1
1 + 2+ 1
1+ 1
1+ 1
4+ 1
1+ 1
1 + ···
..
.
1
e=2+ 1
1+ 2+ 2
3+ 3
4+ 4
5 + ···
..
.
π 1
= 12
4 1+ 32
2+
2+ 52
2+ 72
2 + ···
..
.
The more general equation
1 1 1 1 1
− + − + ······ = A2
A B C D A+ B2
B−A+
C−B+ C2
D − C + ···
..
.
 Euler and his Contributions 31

was proved by Euler. The following result is the immediate consequence of the above
result:
1 1 1 1
1 − + − + ······ = 12
3 5 7 1+ 32
2+
2+ 52
72
2+ 2+···

5 EULER’S CONTRIBUTION IN MECHANICS AND FLUID

DYNAMICS,

Euler’s contributions in Mechanics and in particular in Fluid Mechanics are

very interesting and extremely important. In fact some of the literatures [1, 3,
4, 5]highlight that Euler put 20 years of his laborious work in developing some of
the theories of fluid mechanics. He treated mechanics analytically and transformed
Newton’s physical concept into mathematical equations. He put his expertise in
Theoretical Hydrodynamics, Theory of Deformable Bodies, Concept of Stress, Kine-
matics, Equations of Motion of Ideal Fluids and Correlated the problem to practical
use.Euler equations of incompressible fluids use and enrich many branches of math-
ematics, from integrable systems to geometric analysis. It is no exaggeration to say
that the Euler equations are the very core of field dynamics. They use and enrich
several branches of mathematics and provide important open problems [3]. An ex-
cellent articles on the Euler equation of compressible fluid flow and incompressible
fluid has appeared in [3, 5].

5.1 EULER’S EQUATIONS IN FLUID MECHANICS

The equation of motion of an inviscid fluid (considered to be ideal)

∂~v 1
+ (~v · ∇)~v = g − ∇p,
∂t ρ
is popularity known as Euler’s equation. This is a first - order nonlinear partial
differential equation and has some rather interesting solutions. In fluid dynamics,
the Eulers equations govern the motion of a compressible, inviscid fluid. They
are useful in the investigation of shock wakes and give useful models especially in
computational fluid dynamics. They are

∂ρ ∂~q 1
+ ∇ · (pu) = 0, and = F − ∇p.
∂t ∂t ρ
The behavior of an ideal compressible gas can be described by the Euler equa-
tion. We also have relativistic Euler’s equations.
A special form of the Euler’s equation derived along a fluid flow stream line is
often called the Bernoulli’s equation. Some of the familier Euler’s equations are
32 K.Ravi and R. Kishore Kumar

∂V ∂V ∂ρ
(5.1.1) ∂t +V ∂s = − ρ1 · ∂s (in intrinsic co − ordinate system)

∂u )
(5.1.2) ∂t + u ∂u ∂u
∂x + v ∂y = − ρ1 · ∂s
∂x
(in rectangular coordinate system.)
∂v ∂v ∂v
(5.1.3) ∂t + u ∂x + v ∂y = − ρ1 · ∂s
∂y

∂vr vθ2 ∂ρ 
(5.1.4) ∂t + vr ∂v
∂r
r
+ r = − ρ1 · ∂r
(in polar coordinate system)
(5.1.5) ∂vθ
+ vr ∂v vr vθ 
∂r + =0
θ
∂t r
Euler - Bernoulli beam theory is a simplification of the linear theory of elasticity
which proves a means of calculating the load - carrying and deflection characteris-
tics of beams. In 19th century, this theory was used to develop the Eiffel Tower.
Additional analysis in this theory has developed plate theory and finite element
analysis.

5.2 EULER’S CONTRIBUTION IN TRIGONOMETRY AND CAL-

CULUS.
Any single - valued functions f (x) defined on the interval [−π, π] may be rep-
resented by the trigonometric series
∞
a0 X
+ [an cosnx + bn sinnx],
2
n=1

where the coefficients an and bn are determined by use of Euler’s formulas

Z Z
1 π 1 π
an = f (x)cos nx dx and bn = f (x)sin nx dx, n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
π −π π −π

It is important to note that Euler with D’Alembert, D. Bernoulli and Lagrange

made fruitful use of the trigonometric series in solving the wave equations for a
vibrating sting. However, the trigonometric series associated with a function f (x)
by means of Euler’s formulas are known as Fourier series.
The method of separation of variables was introduced and developed by Euler
(with D’Alembert, D. Bernoull) in the middle of eighteenth century. It is the oldest
systematic technique (still the most useful) for solving partial differential equations.

6 CONCLUSION
It is impossible to summarize all of Euler’s contributions to mathematics here,
though several of the highlights are presented above. The best summary is available
in Yushkericti’s article on Euler in the Dictionary of Scientific Biography [5].Euler’s
collected works and correspondence are still in the process of being edited and stand
 Euler and his Contributions 33

at over 31,000 pages! A volume of brief summaries of his letters runs to several hun-
dred pages. It is hard to comprehend the prodigious energy and creativity of this
man who fueled such a monumental output. The year 2007 was the 300 th anniver-
sary of Leonhard Euler’s birth. In commemorating Euler’s Tri-centennial Birthday,
several mathematicians from various part of the world revisited him, surveyed his
work, flashed back his remarkable vitality of his themes, illustrated his amazing
creativity and achievements. As a fruit of it , wonderful survey articles, special
volumes of Journals are published, one can refer to a series of articles brought out
in the special issue of Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society, Vol. 44, No.
4, Oct. 2007,([1, 8, 3, 4, 5, 14]) and the references therein.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors are very much thankful and grateful to the referee for making
several useful comments and suggestions and to Dr. S.R. Joshi for the valuable
guidance in bringing out this paper.

References
[1] C.Bardos, E. Titi, Euler equations of incompressible ideal fluids,preprint
2007.

[2] G.R. Cbhatoral and etal, Encyclopaedia of world great scientists series, An-
mol publications pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.

[3] P.Constantin, On the Euler equations of incompressible fluids,Bull. American

Math. Soc.,44,4, (2007), 603–621.

[4] P.Constantin, Euler - equations, Navier - stokes equations and turbulence,

in mathematical foundation of turbulent viscous flows, Lectures given at the
C.I.M.E. Summer School,Martina Franca, Italy, Editors: M. Cannone and
T. Miyakawa, Springer Lecture Notes in Mathematics 1871(2005),1–43, MR
219636, (2007c: 76001).

[5] Demetrios Christodoulou, The Euler equations of compressible fluid flow,

Bull.American Math. Soc., 44, 4,(2007), 581–602.

[6] Euler. L.(1748c), Letter to Goldbach, 4 May 1748, In Fuss (1968), 1, 450-455.

[7] Euler. L.(1748a), Introduction in analysia infinitorurm I volume 8 his op-

eraomnis, series I, English translation, Introduction to the Analysis of the In-
finite, Book I,Springer-Verlag, 1988.

[8] George E. Andrews, Euler’s “D. Partitio Numerorum”, Bull.American

Math.Soc., 44, 4,(2007), 561–573.
34 K.Ravi and R. Kishore Kumar

[9] John Clark, Derek Allan Holton, A first look at graph theory, Allied
Publishers Ltd, 1995.

[10] John Still Well, Mathematics and its History, 2nd Edition,Spinger-Verlag,
2004.

[11] S. B. Malki, Basic Number Theory, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.,2005,
Delhi.

[12] Richard Courant and Herbert Robbins, What is Mathematics,Oxford

University Press, 2008, New Delhi.

[13] J. M. Rassias and M. J. Rassias, Leonard Paul Euler, his life and his work,
FIDA, Eulers 300th Birth Day special volume, International J.Appl. Math.
Stat.,7, (2007), 143–156.

[14] V. S. Varadarajan, Euler and his work on infinite series, Bull.American

Math. Soc., 44, 4, (2007), 515–539.