Beruflich Dokumente
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Foundations
of Education
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Key Concepts
psychology involves not just the learning process of early childhood and adolescence, but
includes the social, emotional and cognitive processes that are involved in learning
throughout the entire lifespan. The field of educational psychology incorporates a number
cognitive psychology.
that take place within formal environments and developing ways of improving those
methods. It covers important topics like learning theories; teaching methods; motivation;
Cognitive Development
cognitive development.
Jean Piaget viewed children as constructivists, meaning they are active seekers
who respond to the environment according to their understanding of its essential features.
He also believed that intelligence was not random but it was a set of organized cognitive
Psychological Foundations of Education by Ferdinand Bulusan, MAEd 3
structures that the child actively constructed, and viewed intelligence as basic life
preoperational, concrete operational and formal operational. He outlined this theory that
responses of the patterns of behavior. He said that all children pass through these stages
in this order and that no child can skip a stage. However, different children may pass
self-unaware, and non-symbolic cognition. There are six divisions of this stage:
more complex behaviors are based. They develop when applied to a wider
variety of stimuli and events e.g. sucking and modify with continuous
experience.
which the child interacts and comes to know his world e.g. sucking and
schemes such as visual and auditory. Moreover, schemes are directed inward
e.g. grasp for the sake of its grasping than on the effect it has on the world.
world. Procedure gets repeated e.g. banging on a pot with a wooden spoon.
some outcome from his behavior and repeats it. Now, the child wants to
error exploration of the world to discover new and different ways of acting on
it. Here the child produces new actions and observes the effects e.g. pulling
occur externally. In this substage, the child begins to think about and acting on
the world internally e.g. naming an object that is not currently present but is
just thought of. Besides, the child witnesses an action but does not reproduce
deferred imitation.
stimuli that are immediately present and they use these symbols to portray the
external world internally e.g. child can talk about the ball and can form a mental
image of it. In stage, children also develop their ability to conserve the qualitative
Children are more logical and able to complete task not able to perform in
preoperational period. Thinking is still with real or concrete objects and actions,
about things that are only possible and not necessarily real or concrete. They also
Lev S. Vygotsky’s theory emphasizes that social interaction plays a vital role in
interaction with people and the tools that the culture provides to help form their own view
2. Instructed Learning- a person remembers the instructions of the teacher and then
He believed that children are born with elementary mental abilities such as
perception, attention and memory. These innate abilities transforms into higher mental
functions as children interact with their culture and society (Meece, 2002).
His theory also states that language plays a vital role in cognitive development.
people.
3. Inner speech- speech used by children to think in their minds about their problem
His Socio-Cultural Theory also refers to the difference between what a learner can
do independently and what can be done with other’s guidance. He called this as Zone of
Proximal Development (ZPD). He assumed that interactions with adults or peers in the
zone of proximal development help children move to higher levels of mental functioning
learning exercises and to engage student in the discovery process with guidance from
where less competent children develop with the aid from more adept peers within the
zone of proximal development. He believed that when a student is at the ZPD for a
particular task, providing the appropriate assistance, will give the student enough of a
task that are initially beyond his capacity and complete only those elements that are
within his range of competence. According to Wood and Middleton, scaffolding becomes
most effective when the assistance is correlated to the needs of the learner (McLeod,
2012).
Psychological Foundations of Education by Ferdinand Bulusan, MAEd 8
Meece has provided some of the major contributions of Vygotsky’s theories to
education. His theory gives insight to role of private speech and peer interactions in
Furthermore, he also emphasized in his theory that three factors that shape
1. Cultural Contexts- He said that one’s culture comprises the environment that
Culture consists of human designs for living, which are embodied in beliefs,
This social interaction helps them to master culture-specific skills and develop
their behaviors that will enable them to successfully adapt to their particular
community.
and his own developmental history in terms of his experiences in that society
are both significant in identifying the ways in which the child will think.
language becomes a crucial cognitive tool for deciding how children learn to
that we are not merely responding to stimuli rather we process the information we
receive. They equate our mind to a computer, which receives information and follows a
2013).
1. Sensory Memory
an energy pattern which is recorded by our senses such light, sound, heat, cold,
etc. Human body has special sensory receptor cells that transduce external
Each sensory system has its own sensory register which receives and
temporary stores all of the stimuli. The sensory register stores sensory information
for a while, then analyzes it to identify whether the sensory input should be
diagram 1)
it is the Central Processing Unit (CPU) or using the concept of Sigmund Freud it
take up to 20 minutes.
that includes awareness of the follow of information into and out of the memory
and visual representation of the possible moves, all stored for a limited amount of
time.
referred to as Miller’s Law however latest study proposes the number may be
more like 5 + 2 for most things we are trying to recall. The number of objects an
average human can hold in working memory, also called memory span, varies in
memory, and it also the method used to get information into long-term memory is
09175714380.
3. Long-Term Memory
and association. However, some studies suggest that it also encodes to some
extend by acoustic. For example, when we are trying to recall a word, we try to
tern memory.
1. Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence
2. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence
3. Spatial-Visual Intelligence
architects
4. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence
It is the ability to control one’s body movements and the ability to handle
5. Musical Intelligence
aesthetic sounding tones and the ability to understand the forms of musical
therapists, salesmen
7. Intrapersonal Intelligence
use these feelings to guide one’s own behavior, and knowledge of one’s own
and involved in the process of changing personal thoughts, beliefs, and behavior
8. Naturalist Intelligence
objects in nature or appreciate the world and nature. Roles: zoologists, botanists
occupation, and business for self-esteem and social approval. A person with high
achievement motivation tends to choose challenging activities (Zulueta & Malaya, 2012).
There is no definite sequence on how a child can acquire language. But since the
birth of child psychology many had developed theories or did researches that led to some
compiled and revised, it eventually formed a framework basis for the study of Language
Development.
also a form of social learning that leads to the development of traditions and ultimately
Noam Chomsky proposed that language is learned based on the Nativist Theory of
Language Acquisition. The Nativist explains that “Children are born with a specific
innate ability to discover for themselves the underlying rules of a language system on the
Modern theorists cling that language is learned through interaction. They say that
children are biologically ready for language but they require extensive experience with
spoken language for ample development. Acquiring language is always an active and
social. They argue that language learning is influenced by the strong desire of children to
Psychological Foundations of Education by Ferdinand Bulusan, MAEd 15
communicate with others. According to this theory, “children are born with a powerful
brain that matures slowly and predisposes them to acquire new understandings that they
One of the modern theorists is Jerome Bruner. He stresses that parents and other
caregivers have critical role in the language acquisition process. He also proposes the use
child’s social support network, which works in conjunction with innate mechanisms to
encourage or suppress language development (by interacting and encouraging the child to
respond).
Theories of Learning
framework to explain in a unified manner the various variables affecting learning. These
are:
1. The S-R Bond Theory- This theory assumes that through conditioning specific
responses can be directly linked with a particular stimulus. These bonds are the
It is inferred that almost all that an individual becomes in relation to this theory is
4. Functionalism- This theory assumes that behavior and mental processes are
adaptive (functional). This state behavior and mental processes enable the
Laws of Learning
action.
1. The Law of Readiness- this law emphasizes the need for adequate motivation and
preparation of the learner by way of setting the proper mind-set and fostering the
level of aspiration.
2. The Law of Exercise- this law adheres to the adage that “practice makes perfect”.
3. The Law of Effect- this law states that if the response is rewarded and the reward
2012)
Social cognitive learning theory which was proposed by Albert Bandura has
become the most influential theory of learning and development. His theory added a
social element, arguing that people can learn new information and behaviors by watching
imitation as a form of learning. Learning according to this theory results from the ability
of the child to select the pattern of behavior to imitate. He also stresses the process of
or by hearing about consequences as a result of other people’s action (Zulueta & Malaya,
2012).
There are three basic models of observational learning: (1) a live model
behavior, and (3) a symbolic model which involves real or fictional characters
him.
3. Motivation- one is likely to initiate those that are rewarding for his behavior
John Broadus Watsons argued that any science of behavior must be based on
observable events, and his approach is known as behaviorism. His work was heavily
influenced by Ivan Pavlov who was first to demonstrate the process of classical
conditioning. It is a type of learning that results from the repeated pairing of stimuli. He
defined classical conditioning as learning that involves the modification of a reflex; the
conditioning stimulus, which is neutral at the start, eventually initiates the same
the concept of learning. Reinforcement is the process by which a stimulus increases the
refers to an unpleasant stimulus whose removal leads to an increase in the probability that
a preceding response will be repeated in the future (Magpantay & Danao, 2014).
behavior. Reward is a form of positive reinforcement that will help to increase the
reinforcement that will help to decrease the probability the unpleasant behavior will not
recur.
Effective Teaching
Effective teachers strive to inspire and engage all their students in learning rather
than simply accepting the some students cannot be engaged and are destined to do poorly.
They believe every student is capable of achieving success at school and they do all they
that best serve the learning needs of their students. They help students learn on
Psychological Foundations of Education by Ferdinand Bulusan, MAEd 20
their own as well as with and from others. They know that students learn best
if they are provided with opportunities to learn not only from the teacher but
also from other students and from sources outside the school that are now
encourages students to take greater responsibility for their own learning and
make sure their students know what the goals of the learning program.
knowledge of their subject content and skills. Through this, they inspire in
their students a love of learning. They also understand how students learn best
potential. They know students learn best if they are in a classroom where they
feel safe and confident to attempt new tasks even if at first they are unsure
monitor each student’s achievements. This enables them to provide every one
of their students with regular feedback on their performance, and gives them
valuable information to assess the impact of their teaching. They are in the
habit of constantly reflecting on how well they are getting through to their
students and searching for better ways of teaching those who are not
relationships with their students – they get to know them and take a particular
interest in their overall development and progress. They treat their students
with respect and expect the same in return. They work collaboratively to
Foundations of Bilingualism
“How does a bilingual child acquire language? And how do learning two
2. Receptive Bilingualism- Speaker can understand both languages but have more
Developing Bilingualism
exposure and social interaction. A bilingual child generally follows one of the two
language acquisition patterns: simultaneous bilingualism, in which the child acquires two
Psychological Foundations of Education by Ferdinand Bulusan, MAEd 22
languages at the same time before the age 3 years, and sequential bilingualism, in which
the child acquires a second language by age 3 having acquired the primary language.
develop a second language. For older children and adult, acquiring a second language is a
For example, Filipinos are not a native speaker of Spanish, and for them to learn
the language, they enroll to one of the language institutions that offers courses for
Stage 2: Child can distinguish the two languages, and can use each
slightly different from a process of developing the first language. The reasons are:
and motivation.
Bialystok, E. & Hakuta, K., 1994. In Other Words: the Science and Psychology of Second
Language Acquisition. New York: Harper Collins.
Magpantay, C. D. & Danao, R. R., 2014. General Psychology. Rizal: Jenher Publishing
House.
Meece, J. L., 2002. Child and Adolescent Development for Educators. 2nd ed. New York
: McGraw-Hill.