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Closure of minor skin wounds with sutures

Author: David M deLemos, MD
Section Editors: Anne M Stack, MD, Allan B Wolfson, MD
Deputy Editor: James F Wiley, II, MD, MPH

All topics are updated as new evidence becomes available and our peer review process is complete.

Literature review current through: Jun 2019. | This topic last updated: Jun 28, 2018.

INTRODUCTION

Laceration repair with sutures will be discussed here. Information concerning wound preparation and
irrigation, topical and infiltrative anesthesia, and tissue adhesive and staples is found separately. (See
"Minor wound preparation and irrigation" and "Clinical use of topical anesthetics in children" and
"Minor wound repair with tissue adhesives (cyanoacrylates)" and "Closure of minor skin wounds with
staples".)

BACKGROUND

The basic principles of laceration repair have not changed significantly in the last century, but the
therapeutic options now available are more innovative and rigorously studied. The development of
topical anesthetics, tissue adhesives, and fast-absorbing sutures has made the management of
lacerations less traumatic for the patient. In addition, the use of procedural sedation for difficult
lacerations or for the extremely anxious child has made the experience more tolerable for the patient,
family, and physician. The goals of wound management are simple: to avoid wound infection, assist
in hemostasis, and to provide an esthetically pleasing scar [1]. The majority of studies now are
focusing on the esthetic nature of wound healing rather than infection rates, because infection rates
remain low, regardless of management.

WOUND PHYSIOLOGY AND HEALING

The epidermis, dermis, subcutaneous layer, and deep fascia are the tissue layers of concern in wound
closure [2]:

● The epidermis and dermis are tightly adhered and clinically indistinguishable, and together
constitute the skin. Dermal approximation provides the strength and alignment of skin closure.

● The subcutaneous layer is mainly comprised of adipose tissue. Nerve fibers, blood vessels, and
hair follicles are located here. Although this layer provides little strength to the repair, sutures
placed in the subcutaneous layer may decrease the tension of the wound and improve the
cosmetic result.

● The deep fascial layer is intermixed with muscle and occasionally requires repair in deep
lacerations.

The healing process of skin occurs in several stages [3]:

● Coagulation begins immediately following the injury. Vasospasm as well as platelet aggregation
and fibrous clot formation occur. During the inflammatory phase, proteolytic enzymes released
by neutrophils and macrophages break down damaged tissue.

● Epithelialization occurs in the epidermis, which is the only layer capable of regeneration.
Complete bridging of the wound occurs within 48 hours after suturing.

● New blood vessel growth peaks four days after the injury.

● Collagen formation is necessary to restore tensile strength to the wound. The process begins
within 48 hours of the injury and peaks in the first week. Collagen production and remodeling
continue for up to 12 months.

● Wound contraction occurs three to four days following the injury, and the process is poorly
understood. The full wound thickness moves toward the center of the wound, which may affect
the final appearance of the wound.

Systemic disturbances can influence wound healing. These host factors include renal insufficiency,
diabetes mellitus, nutritional status, obesity, chemotherapeutic agents, corticosteroids, and
anticoagulant or antiplatelet adhering drugs. Disorders of collagen synthesis, such as Ehlers-Danlos
syndrome and Marfan's syndrome, can also affect wound healing [1]. In addition, patients of African
or Asian ethnicity can be prone to hypertrophic scar formation or keloids. (See "Minor wound
preparation and irrigation", section on 'Risks for poor outcome' and "Keloids and hypertrophic scars",
section on 'Epidemiology'.)
Local disturbances are more common contributors to abnormal wound healing. These factors include
temperature, ischemia, tissue trauma, denervation, and infection:

● Temperature, blood supply, and ischemia are interrelated. The higher the temperature of the
anatomic area, the greater is the blood supply and resultant oxygen delivery. The skin
temperature of the face can be up to 9°F warmer than that of the foot, thus allowing for sutures
to remain for shorter periods of time and also allowing for lower infection rates. Different
suturing techniques can contribute to tissue ischemia, in particular the vertical mattress suture.
Vertical mattress sutures have been shown in animal studies to cause more ischemia than
continuous or simple interrupted sutures [4]. (See 'Vertical mattress' below.)

● Infection can occur in any traumatic wound, and all acute wounds are contaminated to a certain
degree. An infection occurs when there is an imbalance between host resistance (systemic or
local) and bacterial inoculum. The mechanism of injury and the time from injury to potential
repair are important considerations. Crush injuries may cause extensive cellular necrosis and
higher infection rates than shear injuries due to the greater energy distributed over a larger area
[4]. An injury heavily contaminated with dirt, gravel, or other debris also has a higher infection
risk. The length of time between the injury and the evaluation also affects infection risk. (See
"Minor wound preparation and irrigation", section on 'Age of injury'.)

WOUND ASSESSMENT

The management of minor lacerations begins with assessment and preparation of the wound. Wound
assessment includes:

● Determination of the mechanism of the injury

● Age of the injury
● Identification of possible contamination or foreign body
● Assessment of extent of the wound
● Assessment for neurovascular compromise or tendon injury in the surrounding area
● Need for tetanus prophylaxis (table 1)
● Identification of risk factors that might affect healing

These issues are discussed in detail separately. (See "Minor wound preparation and irrigation",
section on 'Assessment' and "Tetanus".)

INDICATIONS
Sutures are appropriate when the depth of the wound will lead to excess scarring if the wound edges
are not properly opposed. Typically this is true whenever the laceration extends through the dermis.
The table describes key aspects of wounds that impact the selection of a wound closure method
(sutures, staples, tissue adhesives, or surgical tape) (table 2). Some wounds amenable to closure
with sutures may be better managed with an alternative technique. For example, staples are
frequently used for scalp wounds and for wounds in noncosmetic regions, especially when linear and
>5 cm because they permit faster closure. Wounds <5 cm that are not under tension may be closed
with tissue adhesives which avoids the pain of suturing.

Clean, uninfected lacerations on any part of the body in healthy patients may be closed primarily for
up to 18 hours following the injury without a significant increase in the risk of wound infection [1].
Facial wounds may be closed primarily up to 24 hours following the injury. In select cases, closure of
facial wounds may occur up to 48 to 72 hours after injury if there are no signs of infection, the patient
has no risk factors for infection, and the wound edges can be approximated easily.

CONTRAINDICATIONS

Concern about wound infection is the main reason not to close a wound primarily [1]. Wounds that
have been grossly contaminated with foreign debris that cannot be completely removed, infected
tissue, or noncosmetic wounds that have come to medical attention late should be allowed to heal by
granulation (secondary intention) after appropriate cleansing. In addition, patients with risk factors
for proper wound healing (eg, immunocompromise, peripheral arterial disease, diabetes mellitus) may
warrant delayed primary closure depending upon the age of the wound (eg, >18 hours old) or wound
site (eg, hands or feet). (See "Basic principles of wound healing".)

Other situations in which closure with sutures may not be appropriate include (see "Minor wound
preparation and irrigation", section on 'Type of closure'):

● Animal bites, especially in noncosmetic areas (eg, hand, foot) (see "Animal bites (dogs, cats, and
other animals): Evaluation and management", section on 'Closure' and "Human bites: Evaluation
and management", section on 'Closure')

● Deep puncture wounds in which effective irrigation cannot occur

● Wounds in which suturing will cause too much tension across the suture line. In this instance,
healing by secondary intention with later scar revision may be a better approach

● Wounds that are actively bleeding, especially if the source is arterial (with the exception of scalp
wounds). The clinician should establish hemostasis so that a subcutaneous hematoma does not
collect and create a potential nidus for infection as well as impede proper healing
 ● Superficial wounds that would be expected to heal without significant scarring, such as
lacerations or abrasions that only involve the epidermis. Suturing in these wounds will potentially
cause increased scar formation and risk for infection

WOUND PREPARATION

Wound irrigation, foreign body removal, and necrotic tissue debridement are the main preventative
measures against tissue infection. (See "Minor wound preparation and irrigation", section on
'Irrigation'.)

Surfactant cleaners, such as the nonionic surfactant poloxamer 188 (ShurClens), are also safe and
useful for wound decontamination. They possess no antibacterial activity, but decrease the
mechanical trauma of scrubbing while reducing bacterial load and incidence of infection. A high-
porosity sponge (Optipore) is typically used in conjunction to limit local trauma [1]. This system is
ideal for scrubbing large surface areas like "road rash" or burns.

Debridement has been considered by many to be equally or more important than irrigation in the
management of the contaminated wound. (See "Minor wound preparation and irrigation", section on
'Debridement'.)

SUTURE MATERIALS

Terminology — A number of terms are used to describe the properties of various types of sutures.

● The physical configuration of a suture describes whether it is monofilamentous (Prolene or

Ethilon) or multifilamentous (silk). Multifilamentous sutures come in braided and twisted types.
Braided types are usually easier to handle and tie, but can harbor bacteria between strands and
cause higher infection rates.

● Tensile strength is defined as the amount of weight required to break a suture divided by its
cross sectional area. The designation for suture strength is the number of zeros. The higher the
number of zeros (1-0 to 10-0), the smaller the size and the lower the strength.

● Knot strength is the measure of the amount of force required to cause a knot to slip and is
directly proportional to the coefficient of friction for a given material.

● Elasticity refers to the suture's intrinsic ability to hold its original form and length after being
stretched. This allows the suture to expand with wound edema or to retract and maintain wound
 edge apposition during wound contraction. Plasticity refers to a material that, when stretched,
does not return to original length.

● Memory is closely related to plasticity and elasticity. It refers to the inherent ability of a material
to return to its former shape after being manipulated, and is often a reflection of its stiffness. A
suture with a high level of memory is stiffer, more difficult to handle, and more susceptible to
becoming untied than a suture with low memory. Polypropylene (Prolene) is a good example of a
suture with a high level of memory [5].

Absorbable sutures — An absorbable suture is generally defined as one that will lose most of its
tensile strength within 60 days after implantation beneath the skin surface [6]. The most commonly
used today are the synthetic sutures (polyglactin 910 [Vicryl], polyglycolic acid [Dexon], polydioxanone
[PDS], and polytrimethylene carbonate [Maxon]) (table 3). Catgut is still used frequently in pediatric
wound closures. Fast Absorbing Gut is ideal for percutaneous facial closures and Vicryl Rapide can
be used for laceration repair under splints or casts.

The ideal absorbable suture has low tissue reactivity, high tensile strength, slow absorption rates, and
reliable knot security. Classically, absorbable sutures were only used for deep sutures. However, many
have advocated the use of absorbable sutures for percutaneous closure of wounds in adults and
children [7-10]:

● Fast-absorbing gut for percutaneous closure of some facial lacerations is reasonable,

particularly if suture removal will be traumatic. Subcutaneous sutures with a synthetic
absorbable suture may improve wound tension and provide support to the healing wound once
the gut has dissolved.

● Vicryl Rapide or Chromic Gut is ideal for percutaneous closure of lacerations underneath casts or
splints, but is limited for facial use due to their longer absorption times.

● Chromic gut or Vicryl works well for single or layered closure of tongue or oral mucosa
lacerations.

● Vicryl or Monocryl is ideal for dermal closure of deep facial lacerations.

● Nail bed closure is best done with chromic gut or Vicryl.

Catgut — Catgut is a natural product derived from sheep or cattle intima. Plain catgut retains
significant tensile strength for only five to seven days. Chromic gut is treated with chromium salts to
resist body enzymes, thus delaying absorption time. Chromic gut retains tensile strength for 10 to 14
days [5].
The main use of chromic gut is to close lacerations in the oral mucosa. Chromic gut is more rapidly
absorbed in the oral cavity than most synthetic sutures, making it ideal for this environment. Chromic
Gut is also used at our institution for skin closure on fingertip lacerations with or without concurrent
nail bed injuries. It is less optimal for use in dermal (subcutaneous) and muscle layer closures
because of increased tissue reactivity [11].

Fast-absorbing gut is a newer material not treated with chromic salts. It is heat-treated to accelerate
tensile strength loss and absorption. It is used primarily for epidermal suturing, where sutures are
only required for five to seven days [12]. The use of this fast-absorbing suture was studied in 654
wounds during plastic surgery procedures. The suture was adequately dissolved in the majority of
cases during follow-up visits at four to six days [8]. Fast-absorbing gut is ideal for suturing facial
lacerations when tissue adhesives cannot be used or suture removal will be difficult. However, care
must be taken to be gentle with tying knots when using the smaller (6-0) fast-absorbing gut, due to its
low tensile strength. It is reasonable to reinforce this suture with skin tapes. The use of 5-0 fast
absorbing gut is reasonable for facial closures due to improved tensile strength.

Polyglactin 910 (Vicryl) — Vicryl is a lubricated, braided synthetic material with excellent handling
and smooth tie-down properties. It retains significant tensile strength for three to four weeks.
Complete absorption occurs in 60 to 90 days. It has decreased tissue reactivity compared with catgut
as well as improved tensile strength and knot strength [5]. Vicryl is an ideal choice for subcutaneous
sutures.

Vicryl Rapide — Vicryl Rapide has properties similar to fast-absorbing gut. It is the fastest
absorbing synthetic suture and is indicated only for use in superficial soft tissue approximation of the
skin and mucosa. All of its tensile strength is lost by 10 to 14 days, and the suture begins to "fall off"
in 7 to 10 days as the wound heals. It is ideal for skin closure in patients in whom suture removal
would be difficult or for closure of lacerations under casts [12]. The longer absorption time may limit
its usefulness in some facial closures.

Vicryl Rapide has been proposed as an alternative to nonabsorbable sutures for certain laceration
sites. As an example, in a small trial that compared Vicryl Rapide with polypropylene sutures in 73
patients with trunk or extremity lacerations, Vicryl Rapide had similar cosmetic outcomes [13].
However, rates of infection and train tracking (scarring perpendicular to the wound edge) were higher
in patients who underwent closure with Vicryl Rapide when compared to nonabsorbable suture
(infection rate 11 versus 3 percent, respectively; rate of train tracking 17 versus 8 percent,
respectively) although the sample size was too small to show statistical significance for these
findings. Thus, Vicryl Rapide may be associated with more complications when used for closure of
trunk or extremity lacerations and further study is needed to determine if it is an appropriate suture
choice for closure of these wounds.
 Poliglecaprone 25 (Monocryl) — Monocryl is a monofilament suture that has superior pliability for
easier handling and tying of knots. Its monofilament quality gives it a theoretical advantage over
braided sutures for contaminated wounds requiring deep sutures. This suture is often used by plastic
surgeons at our institution for facial lacerations closed with subcuticular running sutures. All of its
tensile strength is lost by 21 days postimplantation [12].

Polyglycolic acid (Dexon) — Polyglycolic acid was the first synthetic absorbable suture to become
available. It is a braided polymer, is less reactive than gut sutures, and has excellent knot security. It
maintains at least 50 percent of its tensile strength for 25 days [14]. The main drawback is a high
friction coefficient causing "binding and snagging" when wet. Newer forms of this suture have been
developed, Dexon Plus and Dexon II, which have an added synthetic coating to improve handling
properties while maintaining knot security [5].

Polydioxanone (PDS) — PDS is a synthetic monofilament polymer marketed as having improved

tensile strength compared with Vicryl. It retains the majority of its tensile strength at five to six weeks.
Because it is a monofilament, it has the theoretical advantage of creating a lower potential for
infection. In addition, it appears to have a lower friction coefficient and better knot security than Vicryl
[15]. A disadvantage of using PDS is that it is more difficult to use than the braided synthetics
because of intrinsic stiffness. In addition, it costs about 14 percent more than either Dexon or Vicryl
[5].

Polytrimethylene carbonate (Maxon) — Maxon is a synthetic monofilament. It was developed to

combine the excellent tensile strength of PDS with improved handling properties. The majority of its
tensile strength is present at five to six weeks. It has minimal tissue reactivity, excellent first-throw
holding capacity, and smoother knot tie-down than Vicryl. The only disadvantage is the approximate 7
percent increased cost compared with Vicryl or Dexon [5].

Nonabsorbable sutures — Knot security, tensile strength, tissue reactivity, and workability of the
various nonabsorbable sutures used for skin closure are provided in the table (table 4).

● Silk – Silk is a natural product that is renowned for its ease to handle and tie. It has the lowest
tensile strength of any nonabsorbable suture. It is rarely used for suturing of minor wounds
because stronger synthetic materials are now available. However, it is frequently employed to
secure percutaneous central lines, chest tubes, and other similar cannulas.  

● Nylon (Dermalon, Ethilon) – Nylon was the first synthetic suture introduced; it is popular due to
its high tensile strength, excellent elastic properties, minimal tissue reactivity, and low cost. Its
main disadvantage is prominent memory that requires an increased number of knot throws
(three to four) to hold a suture in place [14].
 ● Polypropylene (Surgilene, Prolene) – Polypropylene is a plastic, synthetic suture that has low
tissue reactivity and high tensile strength similar to nylon. It is slippery and requires extra throws
to secure the knot (four to five). Prolene is especially noted for its plasticity, allowing the suture
to stretch to accommodate wound swelling. When wound swelling recedes, the suture will
remain loose. The cost of Prolene is approximately 13 percent more than nylon [5]. Prolene can
be purchased in a blue color, which can be advantageous in localizing sutures in the scalp and
dark-skinned individuals.

● Polybutester (Novafil) – Polybutester suture is composed of a monofilament synthetic

copolymer with tensile strength and healing properties similar to nylon and polypropylene [16].
Polybutester also handles well but has greater elasticity than either nylon or polypropylene. Its
use may be associated with decreased potential for suture marks because of its ability to expand
if wound edema occurs [17].

SUTURE SELECTION

In a metaanalysis of 19 trials (1748 patients) comparing the efficacy of nonabsorbable sutures with
absorbable sutures for skin closure of surgical and traumatic lacerations, absorbable and
nonabsorbable sutures had equivalent cosmetic outcomes and no significant difference for wound
infection or wound dehiscence although follow-up was insufficient in several studies [18]. Thus, the
type of suture material should be individualized for patients based upon clinician discretion.  

NEEDLES

Choosing the proper needle can be confusing because of varying nomenclature. The two most
prominent manufacturers of suture, Ethicon and Davis and Geck, use different nomenclature for their
needles [5]. The basic anatomy of a needle remains the same, however:

● The eye is the end of the needle attached to the suture. All sutures used for acute wound repair
are swaged (ie, the needle and suture are connected as a continuous unit).

● The body of the needle is the portion that is grasped by the needle holder during the procedure.
The body determines the shape of the needle and is curved for cutaneous suturing. The
curvature may be one-fourth, three-eighths, one-half, or five-eighths circle. The most commonly
used curvature is the three-eighths circle, requiring only minimal pronation of the wrist for large
and superficial wounds. The one-half and five-eighths circles were devised for suturing in
confined spaces, such as the oral cavity.
 ● The point of the needle extends from the extreme tip to the maximum cross section of body. For
soft tissue and fascia, the taper needle, round in cross section, is ideal.

Needle points are also available in cutting, conventional cutting, or reverse cutting form:

● Cutting – Cutting needles have at least two opposing cutting edges. Cutting needles are ideal for
skin sutures that must pass through dense, irregular, and relatively thick dermal connective
tissue.

● Conventional cutting – Conventional cutting needles have a third cutting edge on the inside
concave curvature of the needle. This needle type may be prone to cutout of tissue because the
inside cutting edge cuts toward the edges of the incision or wound.

● Reverse cutting – Reverse cutting needles have a third cutting edge located on the outer convex
curvature of the needle, which theoretically reduces the danger of tissue cutout [12]. Reverse
cutting needles should be used for thick skin like the palm and soles.

Standard skin needles (FS series, CE series) are suitable for the scalp, trunk, and extremities. Finer
sutures on the face require a smaller and more sharply honed needle (P, PS, PC, and PRE series) [2].

SUTURING TECHNIQUES

Percutaneous skin closure — The simple interrupted suture is used to close most uncomplicated
wounds. For proper healing, the edges of the wound must be everted. This is best accomplished
using the following technique (figure 1 and figure 2):

● The needle should penetrate the skin surface at a 90 degree angle.

● The suture loop should be at least as wide at the base as it is at the skin surface.

● The width and depth of the suture loop should be the same on both sides of the wound.

● The width and depth of the suture loop should be similar to the thickness of the dermis and will
therefore differ from wound to wound, according to the anatomic location.

The number of sutures needed to close a wound varies depending upon the length, shape, and
location of the laceration. In general, sutures are placed just far enough from each other so that no
gap appears in the wound edges. A useful guideline is that the distance between sutures is equal to
the bite distance from the wound edge [14].

Dermal closure — Dermal closure is typically used when wounds are deep such that closing the
cutaneous layer will leave significant dead space with the potential for hematoma or abscess
formation or when the wound is gaping and approximation of the dermis permits less tension at the
skin level. The dermal or buried suture approximates the dermis just below the dermal-epidermal
junction, thereby improving the cosmetic result in both situations.

Absorbable suture material must be used for dermal or buried sutures. The knot should be buried
away from the skin surface of the wound so that it will not interfere with epidermal healing. This can
be accomplished by inverting the suture loop using the following technique (figure 3):

● The needle should be inserted in the dermis and directed toward the skin surface, exiting near
the dermal-epidermal junction on the same side.

● The needle should then be inserted on the opposite side of the wound near the dermal-epidermal
junction, directly across from the point of exit.

● The suture loop should be completed in the dermis, directly opposite the origin of the loop, and
the knot tied.

Dermal sutures do not increase the risk of infection in clean, uncontaminated lacerations [19].
However, animal studies suggest that deep sutures should be avoided in highly contaminated wounds
[20]. There should be no more than three knots per suture and the fewest number of sutures possible
should be placed.

Alternative suture techniques

Running suture — A running suture is used for rapid percutaneous closure of longer wounds. It
provides even distribution of tension along the length of the wound, preventing excess tightness in
any one area. This technique is best reserved for wounds at low risk of infection with edges that align
easily.

The closure is started with the standard technique of a percutaneous simple interrupted suture, but
the suture is not cut after the initial knot is tied. The needle is then used to make repeated bites,
starting at the original knot by making each new bite through the skin at an angle of 45 degrees to the
wound direction. The cross stays on the surface of the skin will be at an angle of 90 degrees to the
wound direction. The final bite is made at an angle of 90 degrees to the wound direction to bring the
suture out next to the previous bite. The final bite is left in a loose loop, which acts as a free end for
tying the knot. A disadvantage to this suture is if the stitch breaks or if the physician wants to remove
only a few sutures at a time [14].

Subcuticular running suture — The subcuticular running suture is often used by plastic surgeons
to close straight lacerations on the face. An absorbable suture, such as Monocryl or Vicryl, is used.
The suture is anchored at one end of the laceration and then a plane is chosen in the dermis or just
deep to the dermis in the superficial subcutaneous fascia (figure 4). Mirror image bites are taken
horizontally in this plane for the full length of the laceration. The final bite leaves a trailing loop of
suture so a final knot can be tied. The wound is then reinforced with adhesive tape [14].

Vertical mattress — The vertical mattress suture is recommended for wounds under tension and
for those with edges that tend to invert (fall or fold into the wound) [21,22]. It acts as a deep and
superficial closure all in one suture. The first portion of the suture loop (far-far) approximates the
dermal structures. The second portion (near-near) closes the wound and everts the edges.

A vertical mattress suture is traditionally placed using the following technique (figure 5) [14]:

● The needle is initially inserted at a distance from the wound edge, crossing through the dermal
tissue and exiting through the skin on the opposite side at an equal distance from the wound
edge. This is the far-far portion.

● The needle is then rotated 180 degrees in the needle holder and the direction of the suture loop is
reversed (backhanded).

● On the return, small bites are taken at the epidermal/dermal edges, which become approximated
when the knot is tied. This near-near portion of the suture loop closes and everts the edges of
the wound.

Alternatively, in the shorthand vertical mattress technique, the small backhand bites at the wound
edges are completed first, followed by the deeper, wider forehand bites. In one trial that compared
repair time and wound healing for patients randomized to receive either the traditional or the
shorthand technique, wounds were repaired in one-half the time using the shorthand technique [23].
There was no difference between the two groups with respect to wound healing.

Horizontal mattress — A horizontal mattress suture can also be used to achieve wound eversion in
areas of high skin tension [21,22]. The needle is introduced into the skin in the usual manner and
brought out on the opposite side of the wound (figure 6). A second bite is taken along the opposite
side, approximately 0.5 cm from the first exit site, and is brought back to the original starting side,
also 0.5 cm from the initial entry point.

The half-buried horizontal mattress suture combines elements of the horizontal mattress suture with
a dermal closure. It can be used to approximate the corner of a flap (figure 7) [14]. The needle is
introduced through the skin in the portion of the wound that does not include the flap. In the dermal
(or buried) portion of the suture, the corner of the flap is picked up horizontally through the dermis.
The suture loop is completed by bringing the needle out through the skin on the opposite side of the
nonflap portion. The knot is tied on the nonflap portion of the wound.
SPECIFIC WOUND SITES

● Lip – It is especially critical that lip lacerations are repaired correctly to preserve the cosmetic
appearance and functionality of the lip. The assessment and management of lip lacerations is
covered in greater detail separately. (See "Assessment and management of lip lacerations".)

● Tongue and intraoral – The decision whether or not to repair a tongue or intraoral laceration
depends upon the extent of the laceration and the risk of compromised function after healing,
but evidence suggests that outcomes for most of these lacerations are not improved by suturing.
A more in-depth discussion of the indications and technique for repair of tongue and intraoral
lacerations is found separately. (See "Evaluation and repair of tongue lacerations" and
"Assessment and management of intra-oral lacerations".)

● Scalp – The assessment and management of scalp wounds are discussed in detail separately.
(See "Assessment and management of scalp lacerations".)

● Eyebrow – The eyebrow should never be shaved, because regrowth of the hair is unpredictable.
Debridement and excision of the wound should be conservative and parallel to the direction of
hair follicle growth. The eyebrow is of major cosmetic significance and the wound edges should
be carefully approximated. Closure of eyebrow lacerations is described in more detail separately.
(See "Assessment and management of facial lacerations", section on 'Eyebrow'.)

● Eyelids – Assessment and management of eyelid lacerations are discussed in detail separately.
(See "Eyelid lacerations".)

● Cheek (zygoma) – Deep lacerations to the cheek, just anterior to the ear, have the potential to
injure the parotid gland or the facial nerve (figure 8). If the parotid gland is injured, bloody fluid
can be seen leaking from the parotid duct via the buccal mucosa at the level of the maxillary
second molar.

Closure of cheek lacerations is discussed in more detail separately. (See "Assessment and
management of facial lacerations", section on 'Cheek'.)

● Ear – Wound closure on the ear can proceed in standard fashion when the cartilage is not
involved. The cartilage should not be sutured if at all possible because of the risk of infection. If
suturing is necessary, the perichondrium must be included in the stitch in order for it to hold. The
goal in repairing a wound with exposed cartilage is to cover it with skin as completely as
possible. The closure of lacerations of the auricle (ear) is covered in greater detail separately.
(See "Assessment and management of auricle (ear) lacerations".)
GUIDELINES FOR SURGICAL CONSULTATION

Consultation with a plastic surgeon or other surgical specialist may be required in some
circumstances:

● Closure of large defects that might be more practical to close in the operating room or that might
require grafting

● Severely contaminated wounds requiring drainage

● Tendon, nerve or vessel damage that requires repair

● Open fractures, amputations, and joint penetrations

● Laceration over the site of a fracture (even if contamination of the fracture site seems unlikely,
this is still technically considered an open fracture)

● Compression between two rollers (eg, washing machine, industrial), which can cause delayed,
extensive soft tissue and muscle damage [14]

● Paint and grease gun injuries, which can initially appear as benign puncture wounds but later
develop widespread tissue injury due to high-pressure injection [14]

● Strong concern about cosmetic outcome by either the patient or family

Lacerations in some areas of the face may also require surgical consultation. (See "Assessment and
management of facial lacerations", section on 'Indications for subspecialty consultation or referral'.)

AFTERCARE

Dressing and bathing — Most wounds should be covered with an antibiotic ointment and a
nonadhesive dressing immediately after laceration repair. Limited evidence from one trial suggests
that antibiotic ointments such as topical bacitracin zinc or combination ointment containing
neomycin sulfate, bacitracin zinc, and polymyxin B sulfate significantly reduce the rates of wound
infection when compared to a petroleum ointment control (5 to 6 percent versus 18 percent,
respectively) [24]. Small crossover trials indicate that occlusion of the wound increases the speed of
reepithelialization although complete healing appears to occur at about the same time when
compared to uncovered wounds [25,26].

A nonadherent sterile gauze (eg, Xeroform) from which most of the grease is wrung, followed by cloth
gauze, is ideal [27]. A simple Band-Aid will suffice for many small lacerations. Scalp wounds can be
left open if small, but large head wounds can be wrapped circumferentially with Kerlix.

The dressing should be left in place for 24 hours, after which time most wounds can be opened to air.
Wounds closed with nonabsorbable (eg, nylon, polypropylene) suture may be gently cleaned with mild
soap and water or half-strength peroxide after 24 hours to prevent crusting over the suture knots. An
antibiotic ointment can be applied to the wound as well, with instructions to apply the ointment two
times per day at home until suture removal. In contrast, absorbable sutures rapidly break down when
exposed to water and should be kept dry.

Patients with nonabsorbable sutures (eg, nylon, polypropylene sutures) may be allowed to shower or
wash the wound with soap and water without risking increased rates of infection or disruption of the
wound based upon the following studies:

● A trial of 857 patients who underwent minor skin excisions found that allowing bathing more
than 12 hours after suture placement without antiseptic or dressing use was not inferior to
keeping the wound dry and covered (infection rate 8.4 versus 8.9 percent, respectively) [28].

● An observational study of 100 patients who underwent primary excision of a skin or soft-tissue
lesion or local flap closure and began washing their wounds twice daily within 24 hours of
surgery found no wounds developed infection or dehiscence [29].

Although not well studied, prolonged soaking of nonabsorbable stitches including swimming in
chlorinated water should be avoided because of the theoretical risk of premature loss of suture
tensile strength with wound dehiscence. Patients with sutures should also not swim in natural bodies
of water because of a potential increased risk of infection.

Tetanus prophylaxis — Tetanus prophylaxis should be provided for all wounds as indicated (table 1).
Tetanus prophylaxis for pregnant women depends upon their immunization history and is discussed
in detail separately. (See "Immunizations during pregnancy", section on 'Tetanus, diphtheria, and
pertussis vaccination'.)

Prophylactic antibiotics — Proper wound preparation is the essential measure for preventing wound
infection after suturing simple lacerations. (See "Minor wound preparation and irrigation".)

We recommend that healthy patients with minor wounds, other than bite wounds, who undergo
laceration repair with sutures not be prescribed prophylactic antibiotics. A meta-analysis of seven
trials (1701 total patients with a total of 110 wound infections) found that prophylactic antibiotics in
healthy patients with wounds, other than bite wounds, were not associated with a significantly lower
chance of wound infection (summary odds ratio for the risk of infection in patients receiving
antibiotics: 1.2, 95% CI: 0.8-1.7) [30].
Prophylactic antibiotics may decrease the risk of infection in some animal and human bites, intraoral
lacerations, open fractures, and wounds that extend into cartilage, joints or tendons [31]. In addition,
some experts advocate prophylactic antibiotics in patients with excessive wound contamination (eg,
soil or water contamination), vascular insufficiency (eg, devascularized wound, peripheral artery
disease), or immunocompromise [31]. (See "Soft tissue infections following water exposure", section
on 'Empiric therapy' and "Animal bites (dogs, cats, and other animals): Evaluation and management",
section on 'Antibiotic prophylaxis' and "Human bites: Evaluation and management", section on
'Antibiotic prophylaxis'.)

Suture removal — The timing of suture removal varies with the anatomic site [32]:

● Eyelids – Three days

● Neck – Three to four days
● Face – Five days
● Scalp – 7 to 14 days
● Trunk and upper extremities – Seven days
● Lower extremities – 8 to 10 days

Follow-up visits — Most clean wounds do not need to be seen by a physician until suture removal,
unless signs of infection develop. Highly contaminated wounds should be seen for follow-up in 48 to
72 hours. It is imperative that clear discharge instructions are given to every patient regarding signs
of wound infection.

UNIQUE PEDIATRIC CONSIDERATIONS

Anxious parent — A parent is an important advocate for his or her child, and his or her concerns need
to be addressed with patience and understanding. It is inevitable that the clinician will encounter
some parents who demand a plastic surgeon for simple laceration repairs or sedation for a laceration
that easily could be managed with patient distraction and topical and/or injectable anesthetics. The
best approach is to listen first and to suggest reasonable alternatives later. In some instances, there
is no choice but to call a plastic surgeon. At other times, parents will listen to the explanation that the
cosmetic outcome will be no different if repaired by a surgeon in the case of a simple, clean
laceration. At times, it is also an issue of plastic surgeon availability. Often their viewpoint changes
when the parents are truthfully told that it will be two to three hours before a surgeon can see their
child.

In cases where a parent demands sedation for a simple laceration, he or she must understand that
sedation has risks that are unnecessary if a reasonable and safe alternative exists. The use of
distraction methods and the use of topical anesthetics should also be explained to the parent. Child
life specialists, if available, can provide invaluable assistance in this scenario. The child life specialist
can adequately distract many patients by reading books with the patient, playing a video, or providing
visual imagery.

Anxious and uncooperative patient — The anxious and uncooperative patient is a challenge that at
times can be managed with similar methods of distraction and imagery, but at other times leaves no
choice but to sedate the patient to repair the laceration. Sedation choices vary depending upon age,
mechanism of injury, and time required for repair and are discussed in detail separately. (See
"Procedural sedation in children outside of the operating room" and "Selection of medications for
pediatric procedural sedation outside of the operating room", section on 'Minimally painful
procedures'.)

SOCIETY GUIDELINE LINKS

Links to society and government-sponsored guidelines from selected countries and regions around
the world are provided separately. (See "Society guideline links: Minor wound management".)

INFORMATION FOR PATIENTS

UpToDate offers two types of patient education materials, “The Basics” and “Beyond the Basics.” The
Basics patient education pieces are written in plain language, at the 5th to 6th grade reading level, and
they answer the four or five key questions a patient might have about a given condition. These
articles are best for patients who want a general overview and who prefer short, easy-to-read
materials. Beyond the Basics patient education pieces are longer, more sophisticated, and more
detailed. These articles are written at the 10th to 12th grade reading level and are best for patients
who want in-depth information and are comfortable with some medical jargon.

Here are the patient education articles that are relevant to this topic. We encourage you to print or e-
mail these topics to your patients. (You can also locate patient education articles on a variety of
subjects by searching on “patient info” and the keyword(s) of interest.)

● Basics topic (see "Patient education: Stitches and staples (The Basics)").

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

● The management of minor lacerations begins with assessment and preparation of the wound,
including the need for tetanus prophylaxis (table 1). (See 'Indications' above.)
● Sutures are appropriate when the depth of the wound will lead to excessive scarring if the wound
edges are not properly apposed. Concern about wound infection is the main reason not to close
a wound primarily. (See 'Indications' above and 'Contraindications' above.)

● The use of tissue adhesives and staples for closure of minor wounds, including indications and
contraindications, is discussed separately. (See "Minor wound repair with tissue adhesives
(cyanoacrylates)" and "Closure of minor skin wounds with staples".)

● Wound irrigation, foreign body removal, and necrotic tissue debridement are the main
preventative measures against tissue infection. (See 'Wound preparation' above.)

● Previously, absorbable sutures (table 3) were used only for deep sutures. However, absorbable
sutures are now advocated in some adult and pediatric patients for percutaneous closure of
wounds as an alternative to nonabsorbable sutures (table 4). In particular, fast-absorbing gut is
ideal for skin closure of facial lacerations in patients in whom suture removal would be difficult
or tissue adhesives are not an option. Chromic gut or Vicryl are recommended to close
lacerations in the oral mucosa, and Vicryl Rapide or Chromic Gut is ideal for closure of
lacerations under casts or splints. (See 'Suture materials' above.)

● Cutting needles are ideal for skin sutures that must pass through dense, irregular, and relatively
thick dermal connective tissue. Standard skin needles (FS series, CE series) are suitable for the
scalp, trunk, and extremities. Finer sutures on the face require a smaller and more sharply honed
needle (P, PS, PC, and PRE series). (See 'Needles' above.)

● The simple interrupted suture is the standard technique used for the closure of most
uncomplicated wounds (figure 1 and figure 2). A running suture is used for rapid percutaneous
closure of longer wounds. It is best reserved for wounds at low risk of infection with edges that
align easily. The vertical mattress suture is appropriate for wounds under tension and for wounds
with edges that tend to fall or fold into the wound (figure 5). A horizontal mattress suture can
also be used to achieve wound eversion in areas of high skin tension (figure 6). (See 'Suturing
techniques' above.)

● Most wounds should be covered with an antibiotic ointment and a nonadhesive dressing
immediately after laceration repair. The dressing should be left in place for 24 hours, after which
time most wounds can be left open to the air. (See 'Dressing and bathing' above.)

● Tetanus prophylaxis should be provided for all wounds as indicated (table 1). (See 'Tetanus
prophylaxis' above.)

● We recommend that healthy patients with minor wounds, other than bite wounds, who undergo
laceration repair with sutures not be prescribed prophylactic antibiotics (Grade 1A). (See
 'Prophylactic antibiotics' above.)

● The timing of suture removal varies with the anatomic site. (See 'Suture removal' above.)

● Separate topics discuss the assessment and management of minor wound closure of the scalp,
face, and mouth in greater detail. (See "Assessment and management of scalp lacerations" and
"Assessment and management of facial lacerations" and "Assessment and management of intra-
oral lacerations" and "Assessment and management of lip lacerations" and "Assessment and
management of auricle (ear) lacerations" and "Eyelid lacerations" and "Evaluation and repair of
tongue lacerations".)

Use of UpToDate is subject to the Subscription and License Agreement.

Topic 6319 Version 25.0

GRAPHICS

Wound management and tetanus prophylaxis

Clean and minor wound All other wounds ¶

Previous doses of
tetanus toxoid* Tetanus toxoid- Human tetanus immune Tetanus toxoid- Human tetanus immune
containing vaccine Δ globulin containing vaccine Δ globulin ◊

<3 doses or unknown Yes § No Yes § Yes

≥3 doses Only if last dose given No Only if last dose given ≥5 No

≥10 years ago years ago ¥

Appropriate tetanus prophylaxis should be administered as soon as possible following a wound but should be given even to patients
who present late for medical attention. This is because the incubation period is quite variable; most cases occur within 8 days, but the
incubation period can be as short as 3 days or as long as 21 days. For patients who have been vaccinated against tetanus previously
but who are not up to date, there is likely to be little benefit in administering human tetanus immune globulin more than 1 week or so
after the injury. However, for patients thought to be completely unvaccinated, human tetanus immune globulin should be given up to 21
days following the injury; Td or Tdap should be given concurrently to such patients.

DT: diphtheria-tetanus toxoids adsorbed; DTP/DTwP: diphtheria-tetanus whole-cell pertussis; DTaP: diphtheria-tetanus-acellular pertussis; Td:
tetanus-diphtheria toxoids adsorbed; Tdap: booster tetanus toxoid-reduced diphtheria toxoid-acellular pertussis; TT: tetanus toxoid.
* Tetanus toxoid may have been administered as DT, DTP/DTwP (no longer available in the United States), DTaP, Td, Tdap, or TT (no longer
available in the United States).
¶ Such as, but not limited to, wounds contaminated with dirt, feces, soil, or saliva; puncture wounds; avulsions; or wounds resulting from missiles,
crushing, burns, or frostbite.
Δ The preferred vaccine preparation depends upon the age and vaccination history of the patient:
<7 years: DTaP.
Underimmunized children ≥7 and <11 years who have not received Tdap previously: Tdap. Children who receive Tdap between age 7 and
11 years should receive another dose of Tdap at age 11 through 12 years.
≥11 years: A single dose of Tdap is preferred to Td for all individuals in this age group who have not previously received Tdap. Pregnant
women should receive Tdap during each pregnancy.
◊ 250 units intramuscularly at a different site than tetanus toxoid; intravenous immune globulin should be administered if human tetanus
immune globulin is not available. Persons with HIV infection or severe immunodeficiency who have contaminated wounds should also receive
human tetanus immune globulin, regardless of their history of tetanus immunization.
§ The vaccine series should be continued through completion as necessary.
¥ Booster doses given more frequently than every 5 years are not needed and can increase adverse effects.

Adapted from: Liang JL, Tiwari T, Moro P, et al. Prevention of Pertussis, Tetanus, and Diphtheria with Vaccines in the United States:
Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Recomm Rep 2018; 67:1.

Graphic 61087 Version 31.0

Choice of closure method for minor wounds

Use for Use if

wounds in wound Use in
Wound hair or under patients
with near tension with Difficulty
Wound Pain of Speed of
Method actively moist (eg, conditions of
selection* repair closure
oozing regions of hands, associated technique
blood the body feet, or with poor
(eg, axilla, over healing ¶
perineum) joints)

Sutures Any laceration Yes Yes Yes Yes +++ Slower +++
through the
dermis,
especially
wounds that
require careful
wound
approximation
(eg, vermillion
border)

Staples Scalp Yes Yes Yes Yes +++ Fast ++

wounds,
wounds in
noncosmetic
areas,
especially
long, linear
wounds

Tissue Linear No No Δ No ◊ Yes None/+ Fast +

adhesives wounds under
low tension,
skin tears and
flaps in
patients with
fragile skin
(eg, older
adults)

Wound- Linear, low- No No No Yes None/+ Fast +

closure tension
tapes lacerations,
skin tears and
flaps in
patients with
fragile skin
(eg, older
adults)

* Wounds eligible for closure must be appropriately irrigated, debrided of all devitalized tissue and foreign bodies, and have no signs of infection.
Refer to UpToDate topics on minor wound preparation.
¶ For example, diabetes mellitus, peripheral vascular disease, chronic steroid use, or history of keloids. The clinician should use judgment
regarding whether wound closure is preferred to healing by secondary intention in such patients. Factors to take into account include the size of
the wound, age of the wound, degree of wound contamination, and the severity of the underlying disorder.
Δ Tissue adhesives may be used on hairy areas such as the scalp, if the hair is first trimmed.
◊ Tissue adhesives can be used on hands, feet, or over joints, if the involved area is immobilized with a splint or cast.
Graphic 90472 Version 7.0
Absorbable sutures

Knot Wound tensile Security Tissue

Suture material Anatomic site
security strength (days)* reactivity

Fast-absorbing gut Poor Least 4 to 6 Most Face

Vicryl Rapide Good Fair 5 to 7 Minimal Face, scalp, under cast/splint

Surgical gut Poor Fair 5 to 7 Most Face (rarely used)

Poliglecaprone 25 Good Fair 7 to 10 Minimal Face, consider in contaminated wounds

(Monocryl) needing deep closure

Chromic gut Fair Fair 10 to 14 Most Mouth, tongue, nailbed

Polyglactin (Vicryl) Good Good 30 Minimal Deep closure, nailbed, mouth

Polyglycolic acid Best Good 30 Minimal Deep closure

(Dexon)

Polydioxanone Fair Best 45 to 60 Least Deep closure

(PDS)

Polyglyconate Fair Best 45 to 60 Least Deep closure

(Maxon)

* Retention of 50 percent of tensile strength.

Adapted with permission from: Hollander, JE, Singer, AJ. Laceration management. Ann Emerg Med 1999; 34:356. Copyright © 1999 The American
College of Emergency Physicians.

Graphic 51741 Version 2.0

Nonabsorbable sutures

Wound tensile Tissue

Suture material Knot security Workability Anatomic site
strength reactivity

Nylon (Ethilon) Good Good Minimal Good Skin closure

anywhere

Polybutester Good Good Minimal Good Skin closure

(Novafil) anywhere

Polypropylene Least Best Least Fair Skin closure

(Prolene) anywhere. Blue dyed
suture useful in
dark-skinned
individuals.

Silk Best Least Most Best Rarely used

Adapted with permission from: Hollander JE, Singer AJ. Laceration management. Ann Emerg Med 1999; 34:356. Copyright © 1999 The American
College of Emergency Physicians.

Graphic 63622 Version 4.0

Needle insertion for eversion technique

For proper healing, the edges of the wound must be everted. To accomplish this, the needle
should penetrate the skin at a 90 degree angle to its surface.

Graphic 60681 Version 4.0

Proper technique for wound edge eversion

The proper technique for everting the edges of a wound is illustrated in the panels on the left.
(A) The needle has been inserted at a 90 degree angle.
(B) The suture loop is as wide at the base as it is at the skin surface. The width and depth of the
suture loop are the same on both sides of the wound. In the panels on the right, improper technique
has resulted in inversion of the wound edges, which will interfere with wound healing.
(C) The needle has entered the skin at an angle.
(D) The base of the wound is narrower than the skin surface.

Graphic 74454 Version 5.0

Technique for placing a dermal suture

Absorbable suture material should be used for dermal sutures. The knot is buried by placing the suture using
an inverted technique in which the suture loop begins in the dermis. The needle is directed toward the skin
surface, exiting near the dermal-epidermal junction. It is then inserted into the opposite side of the wound
directly across from the point of exit. The loop is completed in the dermis at the level where the needle was
initially placed.

Graphic 75042 Version 3.0

Subcuticular suture

The suture is anchored at one end of the laceration (A). The plane chosen is either the dermis or just
deep to the dermis in the superficial subcutaneous fascia. While maintaining this plane, "mirror
image" bites are taken horizontally the full length of the wound (B). The final bite leaves a trailing
loop of suture, as shown, so that the knot can be fashioned for final closure (C). This technique is
commonly supplemented with wound tapes, particularly if there remains some degree of gapping of
the edges.

Reproduced with permission from: Trott, AT. Wounds and lacerations: emergency care and closure, 2nd ed,
Mosby Year Book, St. Louis 1997. p.160. Copyright ©1997 Elsevier.

Graphic 71747 Version 1.0

Technique for placing a vertical mattress suture

To place a vertical mattress suture, the needle is initially inserted at a distance from the wound edge,
exiting through the skin on the opposite side, at an equal distance from the wound edge (far-far). The
needle is then rotated 180 degrees in the needle holder and the direction of the suture loop is reversed.
On the return, small bites are taken at the epidermal/dermal edges (near-near).

Modified from: McNamara R, DeAngelis M. Laceration repair with sutures, staples, and wound closure tapes. In:
Textbook of Pediatric Emergency Procedures, 2nd ed, King C, Henretig FM (Eds), Lippincott Williams & Wilkins,
Philadelphia 2008.

Graphic 69848 Version 3.0

Technique for placing a horizontal mattress stitch

A horizontal mattress suture can be used to achieve wound eversion in areas of high skin tension. The
needle is introduced into the skin in the usual manner and brought out on the opposite side of the
wound. A second bite is taken along the opposite side, approximately 0.5 cm from the first exit site, and
is brought back to the original starting side, also 0.5 cm from the initial entry point.

Modified from: McNamara R, DeAngelis M. Laceration repair with sutures, staples, and wound closure tapes. In:
Textbook of Pediatric Emergency Procedures, 2nd ed, King C, Henretig FM (Eds), Lippincott Williams & Wilkins,
Philadelphia 2008.

Graphic 116784 Version 1.0

Technique for closing the corner of a flap: half-buried horizontal mattress

The half-buried horizontal mattress suture combines elements of the horizontal mattress suture with a dermal skin
closure and can be used to approximate the corner of a flap. The needle is introduced through the skin in the non-flap
portion of the wound. In the dermal (or buried) portion of the suture, the corner of the flap is picked up horizontally
through the dermis. The suture loop is completed by bringing the needle out through the skin on the opposite side of
the non-flap portion.

Graphic 51901 Version 2.0

The parotid gland and facial nerve underlie the zygomatic and cheek areas

The parotid gland and facial nerve branches are superficial to the masseter muscle and can be
damaged in lacerations to the cheek and zygoma that are anterior to the ear.

Graphic 77364 Version 2.0