ExtendedEssayNoutvanZon PDF

HOW CAN AERODYNAMICAL IMPROVEMENTS, SUCH AS ALTERING
ANGLE OF ATTACK OR USING WING SWEEP, DECREASE AIRCRAFT

GREENHOUSE EMISSIONS?
NOUT VAN ZON
Words: 3986
N o u t v a n Z o n! Physics Extended Essay
M u n i c h I n t e r n a t i o n a l S c h o o l! A e r o d y n a m i c s : A n g l e o f A t t a c k a n d Wi n g S w e e p
Abstract
Personally I share a very strong passion for aviation, and alerted by the current environmental situation, I wanted to
focus my extended essay in that area focussing on decreasing aircraft greenhouse emissions. My research question is
the following:
How can aerodynamical improvements, such as altering angle of attack or using wing sweep, decrease aircraft
greenhouse emissions?
The scope of the essay therefore involves both theoretical research and experimental investigation. The primary con-
cept is thus that with a increase in the net lift force, a decrease in drag or a combination of the both it will allow for a
decrease in the thrust required and thus the engine’s emissions. I initiated my investigation looking into changing
angle of attack and its effect however found that I needed to expand my investigation and thus I changed my focus
towards the usage of wing sweep with the goal to decrease aircraft greenhouse emissions. The experiment took place
at school using the equipment provided, supplemented by a purchased remote control aircraft. During the experi-
ment air was blown of the wing of the remote control aircraft. Four force sensors, accompanied by software, regis-
tered 10 readings per second from which the net lift force was calculated. Out of the experiment I was able to con-
clude that wing sweep will only have a positive impact when flying at high sub-sonic or supersonic airspeeds. In
further investigation I found that at these high airspeeds wing sweep is very effective in reducing drag and thus
emissions. Although there is a vast amount of possible methods in reducing aircraft greenhouse emissions, my ex-
periment highlights the method of using wing sweep and it possibility to play a crucial role in decreasing global
greenhouse emissions to improve the environment in which we live.
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Acknowledgments
There are many people I wish to thank in assisting me in my investigation surrounding this extended essay. First off, I
want to thank both of my parents and brothers in motivational aspects, general ideas and other supportive com-
ments. Secondly I want to thank Pieter Voeten, a former Airbus and Dash 8 pilot, with whom I share my aviation
passion. He was the person that explained to be for the first time the lift equation and its implications on flight. I can-
not see how aerospace improvement, or any project, can not be completed without having a passion and motivation
for the issue at hand. This brings me to the following people with whom, over the last year, I have enjoyed sharing
my aviation passion with and thereby kept it alive. Although the list is extensive the main people have been (in no
particular order) Nick Maui, Oliver Corizzi, Vishal Kumaaresan, and Robert Pladet. Furthermore I would like the
thank the numerous airline pilots that have let me see the flight deck after landing and have explained many ideas
and theories. Needless to say my extended essay supervisor Helen McDonald and the MIS Physics Department have
also provided crucial assistance for which I wish to thank them.
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Table of Contents
Abstract i
Acknowledgments ii
Introduction! 2
Principles of Flight! 4
1.1.1 - Bernoulli's Principle! 4
1.1.3 - The Lift Equation! 5
1.1.4 - Importance of Angle of Attack! 7
1.1.5 - Connection between Angle of Attack and Trailing-edge flaps.! 7
Experimental Investigation! 8
2.1 - Introduction to my Experimental Investigation! 8
2.2 - The Experiment: Investigating Wing Sweep! 9
Current Aerodynamic Efficiency Improvements! 14
3.1 - Investigation of Simple Sweep Theory! 14
3.2 - Boeing’s usage of Wing Sweep! 16
Conclusion! 17
References! 18
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Introduction
We took to the skies in 19031 and since then aircraft manufacturers has placed their main focus on safety and innova-
tion. Current areas of innovation are aerodynamic improvements with the goal to reduce global greenhouse emis-
sions. An aerodynamic improvement of the wing can be increasing its net lift force. The airplane will therefore require
less engine power (thus less emissions) to remain flying level. Currently global greenhouse emissions are estimated at
a level of 3% originating from aircraft engine emissions2 . Although this may seem insignificant, aircraft emissions
differ from other emission sources by the fact that they are released at altitude and create condensation trails, con-
tributing to climate change. This extended essay will focus on reducing these emissions through the following re-
search question:
Figure A (above)- Side View of a Wing3 | Figure B (below) - Terms Defined
Term (from Figure A) Definition
Trailing Edge The rear edge of a wing is referred to as the trailing edge.
Leading Edge The front edge of a wing is referred to as the leading edge.
Flap A surface that enlarges the wing surface area and increases its angle of attack
resulting in a net increase in the lift force created by the wing.
Angle of Attack The angle of attack is the angle between the chord line and the relative wind.
Chord Line The chord line is a straight line drawn between the leading and training edge.
Relative Air Flow / Relative Direction that the air flow or wind is moving when flowing over the wing’s sur-
Wind face. This is always horizontal for simplicity.
1 "The Wright Brothers - First Flight, 1903." EyeWitness to History - history through the eyes of those who lived it.
N.p., n.d. Web. 4 Nov. 2010. <http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/wright.htm>.
2 "ATB| ATB Sections." ICAO | International Civil Aviation Organization. N.p., n.d. Web. 4 Nov. 2010.
<http://www.icao.int/icao/en/env/aee.htm>.
3 "The 4 forces of flight Â« ." Free Educational Resources for Pilots. N.p., n.d. Web. 4 Nov. 2010.
<http://vfrontop.com/wph/?cat=3>.
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On Figure C the red and blue lines show the chord lines, when the flap is retracted (red) and extended (blue). The
relative air flow is shown by the green line. As one can see the angle between the green and blue line (angle of attack)
is a lot larger as that in the case of a retracted flap. A trailing edge flap therefore has the purpose of increasing the
angle of attack which increases the net lift force (see section 1.1.5).
Figure C - Trailing Edge Flap 4
My initial investigation looked into how aircraft could manipulate their trailing edge flaps during flight in order to
improve aerodynamics. Through investigation and experimentation I found that angle of attack is indeed propor-
tional to the lift force until a specific angle where the lift force reaches a maximum and begins to decrease. I had dis-
covered a simple concept and wanted to continue my investigation into wing sweep. The primary focus of this ex-
tended essay is therefore the usage of wing sweep in achieving aerodynamical improvements.
Term (from Figure E) Definition
Wing Sweep / Sweep Angle Wing sweep is the angle between the lateral axis of the wing and the leading
edge of the wing, shown on Figure E in red. Forward swept wings are uncom-
mon, mainly found on experimental aircraft from organizations such as NASA.
Figure D - Terms Defined
Figure E - Wing Sweep Angle5
4 "Plain Flap Diagram." Wikimedia Commons. N.p., 23 Mar. 2007. Web. 19 Oct. 2010.
<http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Plain_flap_diagram.svg>.
5 Principles of Flight (JA310108) (JAA ATPL Library, 8). 2nd ed. Englewood: Jeppesen, 2007. Print.
- 3 -
Principles of Flight
1.1.1 - Bernoulli's Principle
Bernoulli first found that velocity was indirectly proportional to air pressure. Thus with increase in velocity, pressure
would decrease.
Figure 1.1.1.2 6
Bernoulli further found that for any body moving through air both static and dynamic pressure are present and the
addition of the two results in a constant. Static pressure is the pressure resulting from an imaginary column of air
above a respective altitude. Dynamic pressure will primarily change depending on the speed of the body moving
through air. Dynamic pressure is thus a pressure due to motion. Bernoulli was able to derive the following formula:
1 2
P+ ρV = static pressure + dynamic pressure = constant (pressure in Nm -2 )
2
Figure 1.1.1.18
Streamline air is defined as air that follows the contour of a body, such as a wing. Due to the shape of the wing where
the length of the upper surface is longer than that of the lower surface the streamline air over the upper surface will
move faster than that following the lower surface. According to Bernoulli’s Principle a pressure differential is thus
created, where the pressure is higher below the wing producing a net force pushing the wing up.7
Figure 1.1.1.3 8
6 "Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge Chapter 2 - American Flyers." Flight Training - American Flyers. N.p.,
n.d. Web. 4 Nov. 2010. <http://www.americanflyers.net/aviationlibrary/pilots_handbook/chapter_2.htm>.
8 "Bernoulli." Yes Mag. N.p., n.d. Web. 12 July 2010. <www.yesmag.ca/focus/flight/bernoulli.gif>.
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1.1.3 - The Lift Equation
There are many factors that affect the magnitude of lift created by a wing, the majority are displayed below:
Main Factors Affecting Lift
Static & Dynamic Pressure Wing Surface Area (S)
Figure 1.1.3.1
Further Smaller Factors Affecting Lift
Wing Planform and Airfoil Section Definition: shape and contour of the wing. This can be
manipulated during the design phase of the wing.
Surface Condition (rough or smooth) Definition: one cause a rough surface can be wing ic-
ing. This will therefore largely effect lift.
Air Viscosity (µ ) Definition: this is the internal friction of the air, thus
the “fluidness” and smoothness of flow.
Compressibility of the Air Definition: as an aircraft reaches supersonic airspeeds,

drag is increased (explained further in section 3.1).
Figure 1.1.3.2
Air pressure thus plays an important role in the creation of lift where dynamic pressure plays the larger role. Since
energy due to motion is kinetic energy one can derive dynamic pressure as follows:
1 2
KE = mv m = mass (kg) v = velocity of air flowing over the wing (ms-1 )
2
1 2
q= ρv ρ = air density (kgm -3 ) KE = kinetic energy (J) q = dynamic pressure (Nm -2 )
2
Figure 1.1.3.3
Lift is mainly affected by the dynamic pressure of the air and the surface area of the wing. Therefore, the dynamic
pressure must be multiplied by the surface area of the wing to equate the lift force.
1 2
L∝ ρv S S = surface area of the wing (m 2 )
2
Figure 1.1.3.4
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For simplicity all small factors affecting lift (see figure 1.1.3.2) are represented by a Lift Coefficient ( C L ), thus:
Final Lift Equation:

1
L = ρv2SCL
2
L = net lift force (N) v = air velocity (ms-2 )
ρ = air density (kgm -3 ) S = wing surface area (m 2 )
Figure 1.1.3.5 9
-1.0 to 2.0 is the approximate range of the Lift Coefficient 10 and varies as the angle of attack of the aircraft changes.
The Lift Coefficient is therefore a value that changes during flight and can effect the lift by making it negative, zero or
positive11 (see Figure 1.1.3.6). The Lift Coefficient is calculated by plotting the Angle of Attack vs. the Lift Coefficient
and then reading the value of the graph for the corresponding Angle of Attack. The smaller factors effecting lift
(shown in figure 1.1.3.2) effect the shape of the Angle of Attack vs. the Lift Coefficient graph (see section 1.1.4).
Examples of how Lift Coefficient affects the Net Lift Force
LIFT COEFFICIENT E Q U AT I O N R E S U LT I N G N E T L I F T F O R C E
Negative (aircraft sinks as negative lift force in addition

1 2
-0.5 L= ρv S(−0.5) to the gravitational pull force creates a large net force
2 downwards).
1 2 Zero (aircraft sinks because gravitational pull force cre-

0.0 L= ρv S(0)
2 ates a net force downwards).
Positive (aircraft remains level if lift force is equal and

1 opposite to the gravitational pull force on the aircraft. It
1.5 L = ρv2S(1.5)
2 will climb if the lift force is larger than the gravitational
pull force).
Figure 1.1.3.6
10 Cashman, John E., Brian D. Kelly, and Brian N. Nield. "Understanding Angle of Attack." Aero Magazine Winter
2000: 7. AERO Magazine. Web. 8 Feb. 2010.
11 Note: For example with a Lift Coefficient of 0, the lift would be zero because the entire formula is multiplied by 0.
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1.1.4 - Importance of Angle of Attack
Angle of attack is key to aerodynamic performance as it is an indication of the lift coefficient. A stall occurs when air
flowing over a wing stops following the wings streamline and thus not creating lift. This will occur when the angle of
attack is at a specific angle (an example stall angle is shown on Figure 1.1.4.1). Angle of Attack must be known to cal-
culate Lift Coefficient and has the symbol α .
Figure 1.1.4.1 12
1.1.5 - Connection between Angle of Attack and Trailing-edge flaps.
The principles of Angle of Attack are key in the usage of trailing-edge flaps on aircraft wings. To recall, trailing-edge
flaps are slid out of the wing and are tilted downwards. As the flap slides out of the wing the surface increases, in-
creasing the lift created by the wing. This allows the aircraft to slow down to land safely whilst maintaining enough
lift to remain aloft. As the flap tilts downwards the angle of attack is increased (see figure 1.1.4.2). This will increase
the lift coefficient (until it reaches the stall angle) and thus increase the lift force that the wing produces.
Figure 1.1.4.2 13
12 "Coefficient of lift." TeachersParadise.com | Teacher Supplies | Printables | School Supplies. N.p., n.d. Web. 4 Nov.
2010. <http://www.teachersparadise.com/ency/en/wikipedia/c/co/coefficient_of_lift.html>.
13 "Plain Flap Diagram." Wikimedia Commons. N.p., 23 Mar. 2007. Web. 19 Oct. 2010.
<http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Plain_flap_diagram.svg>.
- 7 -
Experimental Investigation
2.1 - Introduction to my Experimental Investigation
As explained in the introduction, I had initiated by investigation by looking into angle of attack then changing to
wing sweep. I could not write about the angle of attack experiment due to word limit. For both experiments I was
able to use the same set-up. In my set-up I use a remote control airplane model of the Cessna 182 14. To use the aircraft
most effectively, the wing was dismounted and used for testing purposes, whereas the fuselage with the propellor-
driven engine on it was used as a wind source. The set-up can be seen on the picture below:
Power pack used to supply the

propellor (wind source) with a
significantly more constant
power level than a battery.
Aircraft Wing
Wind Source
Auxiliary Force Sensors (used for

support of the wing structure)
Force Sensor A
Force Sensor B
DataStudio software taking in measurements
Figure 2.1.1 - Experimental Set-Up
14 Note: The real Cessna 182 is a general aviation aircraft, built for hobby pilots with a capacity of four passengers -
Source: "Skylane." Cessna Aircraft Company. N.p., n.d. Web. 4 Nov. 2010.
<http://www.cessna.com/single-engine/skylane.html>.
- 8 -
2.2 - The Experiment: Investigating Wing Sweep
The wing is balanced on four force sensors, of which two are connected to the computer via a Pasco interface15. Out of
the two connected, one is on the left of the wing, the other one on the right. The aircraft engine is connected directly
to the power supply, without passing through the remote control and battery system. This is done to obtain a signifi-
cantly more constant power supply, instead of a slowly decreasing power supply as the battery depletes in capacity.
There is thus an uncertainty involved however one that is much lower than what you would have using the battery.
The propellor direction is reversed so that the wind is propelled forward towards the wing. The software application
DataStudio16 takes 10 recordings from either force sensors for 30 seconds. This gives me 300 readings from each force
sensor per setting of the wing sweep (independent variable), decreasing the random error of the force sensors. The lift
force is calculated, using my knowledge of torques, with an equation which is then entered into Numbers (Apple’s
spreadsheet software) which calculates the force for each of the 300 readings. My aim is to investigate the effect of
changing wing sweep on the net lift force. I expect that an increase in wing sweep will increase the net lift force.
A protractor was placed under the wing supporting structure. The

edge of the supporting structure was then aligned with the desired
angle. Because the wing’s leading edge was placed parallel to the
supporting structure’s edge the protractor reflected its wing sweep.
Figure 2.2.0 - Diagram showing how I set the Wing Sweep (independent variable).
15 Only two force sensors were connected, because the interface did not support more than three sensors.
16 "PASCO : DataStudio." PASCO : Home. N.p., n.d. Web. 4 Nov. 2010. <http://www.pasco.com/datastudio/>.
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Constant Definition
Weight A The weight the Force Sensor A when no wind is flowing over the wing. This
was calculated during my control experiment by taking 300 readings of the
weight on this force sensor and then averaging the result.
Weight B The weight on Force Sensor B when no wind is flowing over the wing. Cal-
culated in the same way as above.
Distance X The distance between the center point of the wing and the point on the wing
where the wind flows over.
Distance XA The distance between the center point of the wing and the position of Force
Sensor A.
Distance XB The distance between the center point of the wing and the position of Force
Sensor B.
TOP (see the table headings) This length is shown in centimeters and depicts the length of the upper sur-
face of the wing from the leading to the trailing edge.
BOTTOM (see the table headings) This length is shown in centimeters and depicts the length of the lower sur-
face of the wing from the leading to the trailing edge.
Figure 2.2.1 - Definitions of the constants used in the table below
= Wing Center Line
Dist
ance
XB Dis
Dist tance X ow
ance
XA Air Fl
Force
Sensor B
Force Sensor A
Figure 2.2.2 - Depiction of distances and weights used in calculations
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Figure 2.2.3 - Small portion of the results table. Shows the first 2 seconds for wing sweep angles of -20 to -05° for Force Sensor B
Figure 2.2.4 - Small portion of the results table. Shows the first 2 seconds for wing sweep angles of -20 to -05° for Force Sensor A
Figure 2.2.3 and 2.2.4 both depict a small portion of the results table for their respective force sensors17. Figure 2.2.1
explains all constants stated in these tables. Subsequent columns (labelled Lift Force) are found in Figure 2.2.3 that
shows the calculated lift force of the wing at the specified time, using the equation on the following page.
17 Note: Full table of results is found in the appendix
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2 (WEIGHT (A) − FORCE(A)) ( X A ) + 2 ( FORCE(B) − WEIGHT (B)) ( X B )

F=
X
During the experiment the wing pivoted about its center point, thus torques were involved. Force Sensor A was on
the side where the wing banked up and thus subtracting the force reading from the weight (from control experiment)
will give a negative value as the force reading was higher than the weight. Differently on the other side of the wing,
which moved down, I subtracted the weight from the force reading (at force sensor B). This will result in a positive
value. By first multiplying by two (because there were two sensors on each side), adding the two calculated values
and finally dividing by length X18 one gets the resulting net lift force. Summarizing my calculated data from the table:
SWEEP ANGLE (°) UNCERTAINTY in SWEEP AVERAGE LIFT FORCE (N) UNCERTAINTY IN AVER-
ANGLE (°) AGE LIFT FORCE (N)
-20 ±2 1.0 ± 0.1
-15 ±2 1.0 ± 0.1
-10 ±2 1.1 ± 0.1
-5 ±2 1.0 ± 0.1
0 ±2 1.2 ± 0.1
5 ±2 1.1 ± 0.1
10 ±2 1.1 ± 0.1
15 ±2 1.1 ± 0.1
20 ±2 1.1 ± 0.1
25 ±2 1.1 ± 0.1
30 ±2 1.1 ± 0.1
Explanation of Uncertainty Calculations
Wing Sweep: this uncertainty was calculated by myself during evaluation of the design. Factors such as parallax
and the scale of the protractor were taken into account.
Average Lift Force: this uncertainty was calculated by calculating the individual percentage uncertainties of all
values used in the equation stated above. These individual percentage uncertainties were summed up and the
resulting percentage was applied to the average lift force value, to one significant figure.
18 Note: Length X is defined in Figure 2.2.1 as Distance X
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Plotting a graph I get the following:
Figure 2.2.2 - Graph representing the relationship between Wing Sweep and Lift Force 19
The initial observation that I made is that at wing sweep angles lower that 0° the resultant lift force is significantly
lower than that of positive angles. Disregarding the lift force at a wing sweep of 5°, there is a visible trend that as the
wing sweep nears 0° from -20° the aerodynamic performance improves. The maximum lift force was created when
the wing sweep was at 0° in my experiment. At positive wing sweep angles there does not seem to be a strong corre-
lation.
The largest uncertainty was the calculation of the angle. This was done with a protractor that was taped to the table
and then the wing was angled manually using the protractor as a guide. The uncertainty I give it is ± 2.0° . The
uncertainties for the wind speed and the calculation of force using the force sensors are very small due to the multi-
tude of readings taken, reducing random error.
In evaluation of my experiment, my first experiment 20 was able to reflect real world data thus supporting the accu-
racy of the set-up. There were however many variables that were not controlled 100% affecting the precision of the
results. These variables can be controlled much better with the use of a full scale wind tunnel, which I did not have
access to.
Hence I can make the following conclusions:
• Negative wing sweep is not beneficial for aerodynamic performance improvements based on my experiment.
• Above 0° of wing sweep, only a very slight decrease in lift is observed.
As a result I extended my research to investigate real world observations and research and compare that to my re-
sults.
19 Note: graph was created using the Logger Pro software
20 Note: this experiment was not written about due to the word limit
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Current Aerodynamic Efficiency Improvements

3.1 - Investigation of Simple Sweep Theory
Research coming out of my experiment has led me to investigate how major air-framers such as Boeing use wing
sweep in their designs for large commercial aircraft. It seems that wing sweep only starts having an effect when
reaching super-sonic speeds. Boeing uses wing sweep primarily to reduce drag in high sub-sonic flight.21
To fully understand the effects of wing sweep on an aircraft’s aerodynamic performance one must first understand
the theory of compressibility. The “theory of compressibility” is a set of side effects arising as a result of the changes
in airflow from an incompressible a compressible fluid as supersonic speeds are approached. There are two major
effects of compressibility, listed below.
1. Wave Drag
A sudden rise in drag caused by air building up in front of the aircraft. At slow speeds the air has enough time to get
around the aircraft in a streamline manner, however at transonic and supersonic speeds this can no longer occur. In
effect the air now directly hits the aircraft causing extreme amounts of drag. During World War Two, pilots reported a
loss of control and stability and the inability to fly any faster due to the immense amounts of drag resulting from
compressibility.22
2. Critical Mach
The critical mach is the mach speed23 at which some of the air passing over the wing becomes supersonic, and thus
the effects of compressibility start to be experienced.
The principle idea of wing sweep is thus to delay the time until which the effects of compressibility are experienced
allowing the aircraft to fly at faster speeds and without wave drag thus improving aerodynamic performance and
decreasing greenhouse emissions.
21 “The Effect of High Altitude and Center of Gravity on The Handling Characteristics of Swept-wing Commercial
Airplanes” © 1998 The Boeing Company. All rights reserved.
22 "VisWiki - Sweep Theory." Welcome to VisWiki!. N.p., n.d. Web. 1 Sept. 2010.
<http://www.viswiki.com/en/sweep_theory>.
23 Definition: Mach is a unit of airspeed. Mach 1 reflects flying at 100% of the speed of sound. Mach 2 therefore re-
flects an airspeed of 200% of the speed of sound.
- 14 -
Imagine a straight wing of infinite length, shown below:
AIRFLOW
Figure 3.3.1 - Straight wing of infinite length
The airflow passes the wing at right angles to the leading edge of the wing and thus the air pressure distribution can
be labelled as d.
α
AIRFLOW
α
ds
N
Figure 3.3.2 - Swept wing of infinite length
In a swept wing the airflow does not pass the wing at a right angle to the leading edge but instead at an angle, thus
the pressure distribution is increased to ds.
dS > d
As a result the air pressure is distributed over a larger area. One can break the airflow component into two compo-
nents: perpendicular (green) and parallel (orange) to the wing. The parallel component (orange), also called the
spanwise flow has no effect on the pressure distribution and lift creation. The perpendicular component is responsi-
ble for creating lift. As the sweep angle increases (α) the perpendicular component shortens. As a result the wing ex-
periences an airflow at lower speeds and pressures lower than what the actual aircraft experiences. This allows the
aircraft to fly at higher speeds before the wing experiences airflow at the critical mach. Therefore wing sweep delays
the effects of compressibility, as the airflow reaches the critical mach after the aircraft does at a higher airspeed than
without wing sweep.
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However, due to the shortening of the perpendicular component which creates the lift force, the aircraft will produce
less lift at lower speeds and thus takeoff and landing procedures must be flown with an increased angle of attack to
regain the loss in lift due to the wing sweep.
Figure 3.3.3 - Effect of Sweep Angle on drag at high super-sonic speeds.24
The above graph clearly shows the effect of wing sweep on the drag created by the wing. Quickly noticeable is that
between Mach 1 and Mach 2 (100% and 200% of the speed of sound), higher wing sweep angles produce less drag.
The large spike is noticeably highest with a sweep angle of 0° and depicts the wave drag due to compressibility. Drag
is directly proportional to aircraft emissions, and thus a decrease the drag leads directly to a decrease in emissions as
less thrust is needed to oppose the drag. What is very interesting however is that below approximately Mach 0.8,
different wing sweep angles have no effect on the drag. The drag remains constant until speeds accelerate to high
sub-sonic airspeeds. The wind source in my experiment was not at high sub-sonic speeds, therefore my experiment
did indeed reflect reality regarding slow aircraft. The wind speed was definitely within the low range of Mach speed,
and hence the relatively constant lift force observed is confirmed by the graph above and the research I have done.
Hence, wing sweep has no positive effect on aircraft not flying at high sub-sonic or supersonic airspeeds.
3.2 - Boeing’s usage of Wing Sweep
“All Boeing transport models use wing sweep to minimize high-speed cruise drag. This allows airplanes to cruise at
higher Mach numbers before reaching the critical Mach number at which shock waves begin to form on the wing and
[wave] drag rises significantly.”25 In conclusion Boeing uses wing sweep, very effectively to make their aircraft aero-
dynamically efficient.
24 “High-Speed Flight” T-45 Aerodynamics Student Workbook. 8th ed. United States Navy, 2009. Print.
25 “The Effect of High Altitude and Center of Gravity on The Handling Characteristics of Swept-wing Commercial
Airplanes” © 1998 The Boeing Company. All rights reserved.
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Conclusion
In my conclusion I would like start with referring back to the research question regarding this extended essay:
The demand to decrease global greenhouse emissions is rapidly increasing as we enter the second decennia of the
millennium. The current state of the environment is in high demand of improvement. My experimental and theoreti-
cal research has looked into realistic methods of achieving this goal, including the usage of trailing edge flaps and
wing sweep. The general concept remains that an increase in net lift force allows for a decrease in engine thrust and
thus emissions.
Trailing edge flaps can be used, during cruise flight, to increase the lift force created by an aircraft’s wing improving
aerodynamical efficiency and thereby reducing aircraft emissions.
Although wing sweep is only effective at high sub-sonic and supersonic speeds, it can decrease drag, improving
aerodynamics. My experimental investigation has shown that the usage of wing sweep has no significant effect at
low speeds, as that of small general aviation aircraft. With large jet aircraft as the Boeing 777 however it can be very
effective in reducing greenhouse emissions.
Aerodynamical improvements in order to decrease global greenhouse emissions is therefore to an extent achievable
with the usage of trailing edge flaps in small general aviation aircraft and the subsequent usage of wing sweep in
large sub-sonic passenger aircraft. There are of course many other methods of further achieving improving aerody-
namics that go beyond the scope of this extended essay.
- 17 -
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HOW CAN AERODYNAMICAL IMPROVEMENTS, SUCH AS ALTERING

ANGLE OF ATTACK OR USING WING SWEEP, DECREASE AIRCRAFT

NOUT VAN ZON

1.1.1 - Bernoulli's Principle! 4

1.1.3 - The Lift Equation! 5

1.1.4 - Importance of Angle of Attack! 7

1.1.5 - Connection between Angle of Attack and Trailing-edge flaps.! 7

2.1 - Introduction to my Experimental Investigation! 8

2.2 - The Experiment: Investigating Wing Sweep! 9

Current Aerodynamic Efficiency Improvements! 14

3.1 - Investigation of Simple Sweep Theory! 14

3.2 - Boeing’s usage of Wing Sweep! 16

Figure A (above)- Side View of a Wing3 | Figure B (below) - Terms Defined

Term (from Figure A) Definition

Figure C - Trailing Edge Flap 4

Term (from Figure E) Definition

Figure D - Terms Defined

Figure E - Wing Sweep Angle5

8 "Bernoulli." Yes Mag. N.p., n.d. Web. 12 July 2010. <www.yesmag.ca/focus/flight/bernoulli.gif>.

1.1.3 - The Lift Equation

Main Factors Affecting Lift

Static & Dynamic Pressure Wing Surface Area (S)

Further Smaller Factors Affecting Lift

Compressibility of the Air Definition: as an aircraft reaches supersonic airspeeds,

Final Lift Equation:

Examples of how Lift Coefficient affects the Net Lift Force

Negative (aircraft sinks as negative lift force in addition

1 2 Zero (aircraft sinks because gravitational pull force cre-

Positive (aircraft remains level if lift force is equal and

1.1.4 - Importance of Angle of Attack

1.1.5 - Connection between Angle of Attack and Trailing-edge flaps.

Power pack used to supply the

Auxiliary Force Sensors (used for

DataStudio software taking in measurements

Figure 2.1.1 - Experimental Set-Up

2.2 - The Experiment: Investigating Wing Sweep

A protractor was placed under the wing supporting structure. The

Figure 2.2.1 - Definitions of the constants used in the table below

= Wing Center Line

Figure 2.2.2 - Depiction of distances and weights used in calculations

17 Note: Full table of results is found in the appendix

2 (WEIGHT (A) − FORCE(A)) ( X A ) + 2 ( FORCE(B) − WEIGHT (B)) ( X B )

-20 ±2 1.0 ± 0.1

-15 ±2 1.0 ± 0.1

-10 ±2 1.1 ± 0.1

Explanation of Uncertainty Calculations

18 Note: Length X is defined in Figure 2.2.1 as Distance X

Plotting a graph I get the following:

Hence I can make the following conclusions:

• Above 0° of wing sweep, only a very slight decrease in lift is observed.

19 Note: graph was created using the Logger Pro software

Current Aerodynamic Efficiency Improvements

Imagine a straight wing of infinite length, shown below:

Figure 3.3.1 - Straight wing of infinite length

Figure 3.3.2 - Swept wing of infinite length

Figure 3.3.3 - Effect of Sweep Angle on drag at high super-sonic speeds.24

3.2 - Boeing’s usage of Wing Sweep

"Bernoulli." Yes Mag. N.p., n.d. Web. 12 July 2010. <www.yesmag.ca/focus/flight/bernoulli.gif>.

"Skylane." Cessna Aircraft Company. N.p., n.d. Web. 4 Nov. 2010.

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