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Cell Theory

Spontaneous Generation
- the belief that living things can come from non-living things.
- Was once thought to be true, but is now known to be false!
How was it disproved?
Francesco Redi (1668)
- scientist whose experiments proved maggots did not come from rotting meat.
Robert Hooke (1665)
• First person to see the cells.
• He looked at cork plant samples through an early compound microscope
• The empty cork chambers he called cells.
• Also made great discoveries in physics, chemistry, astronomy and architecture
Antoine Van Leeuwenhoek mid 1600’s
• used a simple microscope to look at pond water.
• was the first to observe microorganisms in pond water.
Matthias Schleiden 1830
• studied numerous plant parts under the microscope and declared “ALL PLANTS ARE MADE
OF CELLS!”
Theodore Scwhann 1830
• Used a microscope to observe numerous animal tissues and declared “ALL ANIMALS ARE
MADE OF CELLS!”
Rudolf Virchow 1830
• Observed living cells dividing and declared “ALL CELLS COME FROM OTHER LIVING
CELLS!”
What is Cell Theory?
Theory states that…
• All organisms are made of one or more cells.
• The cell is the basic unit of life which can perform life processes.
• All cells come from other living cells.
CELL
 Cells are the basic unit of life. In the modern world, they are the smallest known world that
performs all of life’s functions.
 All living organisms are either single cells, or are multicellular organisms composed of many
cells working together.
CELL TYPES
Two major types of cells:
1. Prokaryotes
2. Eukaryotes
PROKARYOTES
• Simple cells
• Bacteria
• These cells do NOT have a nucleus, their DNA is circular and floats in the cytoplasm
• Prokaryotes have no membrane bound organelles.
Example – bacteria cell
EUKARYOTES
• Contain membrane bound organelles.
• Cells found in plants, animals, protists, and fungi.
CELL PARTS AND FUNCTIONS
Cell Wall
• Outermost layer, non-living, rigid
• Found in bacterial cells, fungal cells and plant cells.
• Permeable
• Made up of cellulose (in bacteria-peptidoglycans, in Fungus-Chitin)
FUNCTIONS: Rigidity, mechanical support and protection
Cell Membrane (Plasma Membrane)
• Present in all cells, just below the cell wall in plant cells, outermost membrane in animal cells
• Semi-permeable
• Made up of phospholipids, proteins, carbohydrates and Cholesterol
FUNCTION: It allows outward and inward movement of molecules across it like diffusion, osmosis,
active transport, phagocytosis and pinocytosis.
Cytoplasm
• Semi fluid matrix present between cell membrane and nuclear membrane
• It has various living cell inclusions called cell organelles and non-living substances called
Ergastic substances
Nucleus
• Largest cell organelle present in eukaryotic cells
• It is usually spherical
• It has double layer nuclear membrane with nuclear pores
• It has transparent granular matrix called nucleoplasm, chromatin network composed of DNA and
histone proteins
• It also has a spherical body called Nucleolus
FUNCTION: It is the control center of the cell. It contains genetic material DNA which regulates all
metabolic activities of the body
Membrane Bound Organelles:
Endoplasmic Reticulum
• ER is a network of membrane bound tubular structures in cytoplasm
• It extends from cell membrane to nuclear membrane
• it exists as flattened sacks called Cisternae, unbranched tubules and oval vesicles
• There are two types of ER, ROUGH ER and SMOOTH ER.
FUNCTIONS:
• Helps in intracellular transportation
• It provides mechanical support to cytoplasmic matrix
• It helps in the formation of micro bodies, nuclear membrane and golgi complex.
• It helps in detoxification of metabolic wastes
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
• the synthesis of lipids, steroid hormones, the detoxification of harmful metabolic by products and
the storage and metabolism of calcium ions within the cell.
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
• The site of protein synthesis. The rough appearance is due to presence of ribosomes. Actually
ribosomes help the process of protein synthesis.
• The protein assembly line of the cell
Golgi Bodies
• It has a group of curved, flattened plate like compartments like Cisternae.
• The cisternae produce a network of tubules from the periphery
• These tubules end in spherical enzyme filled vesicles.
• Commonly called packaging centers of the cell
FUNCTIONS:
• They store the product of ER
• They produce Lysosomes
• They secrete various Enzymes, hormones and cell wall material
Mitochondria
• Powerhouse of the cell
• Spherical or rod shaped
• It has two membranes, outer membrane is smooth, inner membrane produces finger like
infoldings called Cristae
FUNCTIONS:
• Synthesizes and stores energy rich molecules ATP (Adenosine Tri phosphate) during aerobic
respiration
Chloroplast
• Kitchen of the cell
• Contains green color pigment called chlorophylls
• Chloroplast has double membrane
• Matrix is called Stroma
• Stroma has membranous sacks called Thylakoids
• Thylakoids are arranged one above the other to form granum
FUNCTIONS: Helps in photosynthesis
Vacuoles
• Single membrane bound sack like vesicles
• Absent in animal cells
• Plant cells have large vacuoles-distinct character
• Also present in lower organisms
• The membrane of vacuole is called tonoplast
• Vacuole is filled with watery fluid called cell sap which has dissolved salts, sugars, enzymes etc.
Lysosomes
• Suicidal bags of the cell
• Single membrane bound vesicles filled with hydrolytic enzymes found only in animal cells.
• Produced from Golgi complex
• 4 Types-Primary, secondary, residual & auto lysosomes
FUNCTIONS:
• Intracellular digestion
• Destroy old and non-functional cells
• Recycles worn out cells
Ribosomes
• Protein factories of the cell
• Present in cytoplasm, mitochondria, chloroplast & also found attached to rough ER & nuclear
membrane
• They are made up of r RNA and proteins
• Prokaryotes have 70s ribosomes, Eukaryotes have 80s ribosomes
FUNCTIONS:
• These are sites of protein synthesis
Centrosomes
• Found in animal cells & in motile algae.
• It has two cylindrical structures called centrioles surrounded by centrosphere.
• Centrioles are arranged at right angles
• They are made up of micro tubules
FUNCTIONS:
• Helps in cell division

Plasmid
• They are the extra chromosomal structures in the cells of bacteria which have the ability to self-
replicate.
• They do not combine with the genetic material of the host cell but stay independently.
• They genetically modified and are used in the recombinant DNA technology.
• They are able of carrying 20 genes at a time.
Function: To carry the antibiotic resistant genes and spread them in the whole human or animal body. In
this way, many diseases of humans and animals can be treated.
CELL MODIFICATIONS
Kinds of Cell Modifications
1. Apical Modifications (Top)
2. Basal Modifications (Bottom)
3. Lateral Modifications (Sides)
APICAL MODIFICATIONS:
Microvilli
 Aka brush/ striated border
 Finger-like cytoplasmic extensions of the apical surface which increase area for
absorption
 Numerous, often regularly arranged, and found in absorptive epithelia
Cilia
 Motile, function in the movement
 Beats in a coordinated rhythmical wave-like manner, promoting movement of materials
over the surface
 Appear as short hair-like structures or projections
 Each cilium is connected to a basal body and extends from the free surface
 Core is composed of microtubules arranged in a specific manner
 Can be found in the lining of the trachea (windpipe) or in the Fallopian tube
Flagella
 Are also concerned with movement
 Same axial structure with cilia but much longer
 Present in the tail of the spermatozoa

BASAL MODIFICATIONS:
Basal Infoldings
 Often found in epithelium that are known to transport fluid (kidney)
 Will often see mitochondria in the basal infolding; suggests that active transport is
occurs.
 Very important in epithelial polarization and stability
 Support the epithelium and also functions as a passive molecular sieve or ultra filter
 If basal lamina is destroyed (trauma, infections, burns), the epithelium will not be
repaired but substituted with a scar (connective tissue)
3 Types of Cell Connection:
 Desmosomes (Spot desmosomes, Belt desmosomes, Hemidesmosomes)
 Tight Junctions
 Gap Junctions
Hemidesmosome
 Protein filaments interlock with filaments of the adjacent cell which forms a dense
intermediate line between the cells
 Found between the zonula adherens
 Cytoplasmic face is connected to microfilaments extending into the cytoplasm

LATERAL MODIFICATIONS:
Tight Junctions (Zonula Occludens)
 A band near the apical surface forms a seal, appearing to be fused
 There is 15-20 nm space between epithelium cells
 Tight junction occludes/ separates the compartments

SPECIALIZED MODIFICATIONS:
Nerve Cells
 Nerve cells or neurons are very specialized cells of the nervous system.
 Dendrites: receives an electrical signal from another neutron and axons which transmit an
electrical signal to another neuron.
 Axon: carries electrical signals to other cells
 Synaptic terminals: transmit the signal to other cells

Muscle Cells
 Muscle cells are made up primarily of a pair of special proteins called actin and myosin
which allows the muscle to contract.

Red Blood Cells


 Red blood cells are anucleate, and thus produced from bone marrow, but contain large
amounts of hemoglobin to transport oxygen throughout the body.

Sperm Cells
 Sperm cells are haploid and contain a flagellum in order to swim through the vagina.

Chromosomes & Cell Division


DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
- is a long, thin molecule that contains the information needed to direct a cell’s activities and to
determine a cell’s characteristics.
Genes
– is a segment of DNA that transmits information from parent to offspring.
• When genes are being used, the strand of DNA is extended enabling other molecules to
retrieve its information. When a cell prepares to divide, the DNA molecules coils and twists
into a dense structure called Chromosome.
Chromosome
- is a rod-shaped structure that forms when a single DNA molecule and its associated proteins coil
tightly before the cell division.
Chromatids
-one of a pair of strands of DNA that make up a chromosome during meiosis and mitosis
Centromere
-it is the protein disk on which the two chromatids attached together.
Karyotyping
-the process of reading, pairing and ordering all the chromosomes of an organism, thus providing
a genome-wide snapshot of an individual's chromosomes.
Cell Division
 The process by which a parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells.
 For unicellular organisms, cell division is equivalent to reproduction and is called BINARY
FISSION.
 For multicellular organisms, cell division is part of the growth of the organisms and involve in the
renewal and repair of the worn out cells.

The Cell Cycle


Two phases:
• Interphase
• Mitotic phase

Interphase, we have 3 phases: G1 phase, S phase and the G2 phase


• In the G1 phase, aka Primary Growth phase, the cell begins to grow, the organelles are formed
and the proteins are being produced.
• In the S phase, aka Synthesis phase, in here the replication of DNA happens, also the centrosome
duplicates. Centrosome helps in the separation of DNA in the M phase.
• Lastly the G2 phase, aka Secondary growth phase, in here the cell grows more, so do the proteins
and organelles. It now begins to recognize its content in preparation for mitosis.

M phase or Mitotic phase.


• In here there two stages, the Mitosis and the cytokinesis.
• In Mitosis, we have 4 stages namely: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase and Telophase or
simply the PMAT
Mitosis
 Mitosis produces two identical daughter
cells.
 It makes body cells
 It is responsible for growth and repair.
 Not all the time cells divided
 It has four stages: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase and Telophase
 the Prophase, “pro” means “before”. In here, the
chromatids are pairing up to form chromosome, the
nucleus is still there and the chromosome is visible
and condensing which means the chromosomes are
thickening and visible.
 In the Metaphase, always remember that “M”
stands for middle because in this stage of Mitosis,
the chromosomes are line up in the middle of the
cell. And the nucleus is now disassembled or no
longer there. The spindle fiber are attached to the
centromere.
 In the Anaphase, always remember that “A”
stands for “away” because the chromosomes are
move away, with the help of spindle fiber the
chromosomes move to the opposite side of the cell
moving towards the poles of the cell and the sister
chromatids are now separated.
 And the last stage is the Telophase, in telophase
the chromosomes are actually at the complete
opposite ends, and new nuclei are forming on each
side to make this two new cells. Remember in that
“T” stands for two because at the end of this stage,
the main goal is to have two new cells.

Cytokinesis
• the cytoplasm is split into two, making two new cells.

Meiosis
 It is a process where a single cell divides twice to produce four cells containing half the original
amount of genetic information.
 It is a reduction division involving one diploid parent cell dividing to produce four haploid
daughter cells
 It involves the random assortment of chromosomes into their homologous pairs.
 It produces the gametes/ sex cells or the sperm and the egg
 Human is a diploid organism (2n), meaning you contain two sets of chromosomes coming from
your father and your mother
 Diploid – cell containing two complete set of chromosomes.
 Haploid – have the half number of chromosomes
 Homologous – these are the chromosomes that are similar in shape, size, and the genes they
carry.
 Crossing over – is an interchange or reciprocal exchange of segment between chromatids of a
homologous pair of chromosomes resulting in a recombination of gene
 Synapsis – is the pairing of two homologous chromosomes that occur during meiosis. It takes
place during prophase 1 of meiosis.
 Locus – specific location of gene in a chromosome.
Meiosis I: Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I and Telophase I
 Prophase I has 5 substages: the
leptonema, zygonema, pachynema,
diplonema, and diakinesis.
o Leptonema – the replicated
chromosomes have coiled and
are already visible.
o Zygonema – homologue
chromosomes begin to pair and
twist around each other.
o Pachynema – the chromosomes
become much stronger and
thicker.
o Diplonema – the two pairs of
sister chromatids begin to
separate from each other.
o Diakinesis – the four chromatids
of each tetrad are even more
condensed and the chiasma
often terminalize or move down
the chromatids to the ends.
 Metaphase I - the pair of homologous
chromosomes are lining up in the middle
of the cell with the help of the spindle
fiber.
 Anaphase I - the pair of homologous
chromosomes are lining up in the middle
of the cell with the help of the spindle
fiber.
 Telophase I - the dyads complete their
migration to the poles. New nuclear
membranes were form.
 Cytokinesis follows, producing two new
cells. Each cell contains one set of
chromosomes (haploid level) in a
replicated form.
Meiosis II: Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II and Telophase II
-in meiosis II, the process is quite similar to the process
of mitosis. The difference is that the number of chromosomes in
mitosis is maintain while in the meiosis II is reduced to half.
 Prophase II - the chromosomes
(dyads) are contracting and condensing
 Metaphase II - the chromosomes are
lining up in the center of the cell.
 Anaphase II - the chromatids are
pulled away towards the poles of the
cell.
 Telophase II - the chromatids are
already at the poles of the cell and two
new nuclei starts to form.
 Cytokinesis, produces four new
granddaughter cells. It contains
different genes due to the crossing over
that leads to variety, a reason two
siblings with the same parents can look
different from each other.
 There are some cases on which the
chromosomes do not separate from one
another, it is called nondisjunction. It
leads to some genetic disorders or
abnormality.

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