11th Standard EM Notes PDF

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Notes of XI Bifocal (Vocational) Electrical Maintenance
New
Syllabus
Electrical Maintenance
11th Electrical Maintenance
D. S. Vidyasagar
(Teaching Vocational Electronics in RLT Science College, Akola since last 23 years)
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Applied Electrical Maintenance
Notes of XI Bifocal (Vocational) Electrical Maintenance (F.Y.J.C.)
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Mrs. C.D. Vidyasagar
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Acknowledgements:
This book is designed keeping the view in mind as to cover the important concepts of XI Std. Electrical Maintenance
syllabus only. It will provide a good enough preparation for deeper study of XII Std. syllabus of the same subject. The
author extends his thanks and profound appreciation for all those who helped him directly or indirectly in bringing this
book in present stature.
The author welcomes any suggestions, both from the teachers and the students for further improvement of this book, at
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Contents
1 Electric Circuits ........................................................................................................................... 5

1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 6
1.2 concept of potential difference ............................................................................................. 6
1.2.1 Analogy of potential difference ...................................................................................... 6
1.2.2 Basics of electricity .......................................................................................................... 6
1.2.3 Units and their conversions ............................................................................................ 8
1.2.4 Ohm’s Law ....................................................................................................................... 8
1.2.5 Law of resistances ........................................................................................................... 9
1.2.6 Concept of potential divider ........................................................................................... 9
1.2.7 Kirchoff’s laws ............................................................................................................... 10
1.2.8 Law of electromagnetism .............................................................................................. 11
1.3 Concept of AC voltage ......................................................................................................... 12
1.3.1 R.M.S. value of AC voltage ............................................................................................ 13
1.3.2 Fundamentals of Transformer ...................................................................................... 13
1.3.3 Center tapped transformer ........................................................................................... 14
1.3.4 Internal impedance of a source .................................................................................... 14
1.3.5 Self and mutual inductance .......................................................................................... 16
1.4 Skin effect ............................................................................................................................ 16
2 Work, Power & Energy ............................................................................................................. 21
2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 22
2.2 Basics of electricity .............................................................................................................. 22
2.2.1 Electric charges ............................................................................................................. 22
2.2.2 Electric current .............................................................................................................. 22
2.2.3 Electric power ............................................................................................................... 23
2.2.4 Work and power ........................................................................................................... 23

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2.2.5 Electric energy ............................................................................................................... 23
2.2.6 Concept of kilo-watt-hour (KWH) & Board-of-trade (BOT)........................................... 24
2.3 Mechanical Power ............................................................................................................... 24
2.3.1 Concept of Horse Power (HP) ....................................................................................... 25
2.3.2 Types of horse power .................................................................................................... 25
2.3.3 Concept of Horsepower-hour ....................................................................................... 25
2.4 Heating effects of electric current ....................................................................................... 26
2.4.1 Relation between heat, mass & specific heat ............................................................... 27
2.4.2 Concept of thermal efficiency ....................................................................................... 27
3 Effects of ................................................................................................................................... 32
Electric Current .............................................................................................................................. 32
3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 33
3.2 Heating effect of electric current ........................................................................................ 33
3.2.1 Applications of Joule’s law ............................................................................................ 33
3.2.2 Specific applications ...................................................................................................... 33
3.3 Chemical effect of electric current ...................................................................................... 34
3.3.1 Electroplating process ................................................................................................... 34
3.3.2 Specific applications ...................................................................................................... 34
3.4 X-ray effects of electric current ........................................................................................... 35
3.4.1 How x-rays are produced? ............................................................................................ 35
3.4.2 Applications of x-rays .................................................................................................... 35
3.5 Magnetic effect of electric current ...................................................................................... 36
3.5.1 Applications ................................................................................................................... 36
3.6 Physical effect of electric current ........................................................................................ 36
3.6.1 Effects on nervous system ............................................................................................ 36
3.6.2 Electrical standards ....................................................................................................... 36

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1 Electric Circuits
Quick view…
Topics covered
Concept of e.m.f., potential difference, Ohm’s law, resistance,
resistances in series and in parallel, capacitors in series and in
parallel, concept of electric power, concept of AC circuits, concept of
generators.
Scope & Limitations

Electric Circuits: the basic concept of electric circuit, its elements
with brief idea, Concept of potential difference: analogy of water
with basic units and their derived conversions, etc.
Ohm’s Law: concept of the law with simple idea
Law of resistances: the basic concept of series and parallel
combination of resistors.
Concept of potential divider: how to divide the given potential into
number of voltage drops, circuit using simple resistors
Kirchoff’s laws: the basic idea of current law and voltage law using
simple circuits
Law of electromagnetism: effect of electric current to produce
magnetic field and the effect of magnetic field to produce reverse
effect.
Concept of AC voltage: how AC voltage is generated, basic idea with
simple explanation related to law of electromagnetic induction
R.M.S. value of AC voltage: how r.m.s. value of AC voltage is
calculated, simple mathematical analysis.
Fundamentals of Transformer: the three basic types of
transformers, step down, step up and the isolation transformer
Center tapped transformer: the basic idea of producing center tap
in the secondary winding of a transformer
Internal impedance of a source: basic idea of source internal
resistance or impedance, simple mathematical treatment expected.
Self and mutual inductance: the basic idea of self and mutual
inductance effect on a conductor related to the law of
electromagnetism.

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1.1 INTRODUCTION
Electrical engineering is a field of engineering that deals with the study and application of
electricity, electronics, electromagnetism, heating and magnetic effects of electric current.
Electrical engineering includes electronic engineering also.
It is a major study in the fields of power generation like in generators, sources of energy, etc. In
this chapter, we shall study the basic concepts related to electrical circuits with their related topics
like concept of e.m.f., potential difference, Ohm’s law, resistance, resistances in series and in
parallel, capacitors in series and in parallel, concept of electric power, concept of AC and DC, AC
and DC circuits, concept of generators, etc.
1.2 CONCEPT OF POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
1.2.1 Analogy of potential difference
In 10th standard, we have studied the concept of voltage, current and resistance. Here we shall
briefly revise concepts of voltage and current in terms of water analogy. In below given figure,
tank ‘A’ a placed at some height from ground level and tank–‘B’ is at ground level. Consider the
following diagram.
Fig: 1-1 An analogy of potential difference with flow of water

Due to unequal heights of tanks, there is a difference of potential energy. So the flow of water
(i.e. water current) takes place from tank A to tank B. When tank A will be empty, the water
current will stop. In the same way, the electric current flows through the circuit. This current is in
the form of free electrons inside a conductor like copper wire. Thus, we can say that water flow is
similar to electric current (I), the difference of height between the tanks is similar to potential
difference (V) (i.e. voltage) and the zigzag path (i.e. folded tube) is similar to resistance (R).
Since direction of water current is from tank A to tank B we can say that tank–A is at higher
potential i.e. at +ve potential and tank–B is at lower potential i.e. at –ve potential.
1.2.2 Basics of electricity
Frictional electricity: The property due to which rubbed substances attract light objects is called
electricity. The electricity developed by rubbing or friction is called frictional electricity.
Positive and negative charges: The charge acquired by a glass rod when rubbed with silk is
called as positive charge. And the charge acquired by an ebonite rod when rubbed with wool is
called as negative charge.

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Coulomb’s law: The force of attraction or repulsion between two point charges is (i) directly
proportional to the product . of the two charges and (ii) inversely proportional to the square
of the distance between them. Mathematically –
.
= .
The value of depends on the nature of the medium between the two charges and the system of
units chosen. For charges in vacuum, = × 9 /
Coulomb: It is the SI unit of charge. One coulomb is defined as that amount of charge which
repels an equal and similar charge with a force of × 9 when placed in vacuum at a distance
of from it.
Static and current electricity: Static electricity deals with the electric charges AT REST and the
current electricity deals with the electric charges IN MOTION.
Conductor: A substance which allows passage of electric charges through it easily is called as
conductor. A conductor offers VERY LOW RESISTANCE to the flow of current.
Insulator: A substance that has INFINITELY HIGH RESISTANCE and it DOES NOT allow
flow of electric current through it.
Electric current: Rate of flow of electric charges is called electric current. It is a SCALAR
QUANTITY.
ℎ
𝑖 = =
𝑇𝑖
Ampere: It is the SI unit of electric current. If one coulomb of charge flows through any section
of a conductor in one second, the current through the conductor is said to be one ampere.
Electric circuit: The closed path along which an electric current flows is called as electric circuit.
Conventional current: Conventionally, the direction of conventional current is OPPOSITE to the
direction of electron current through the conductor. Thus electron current flows through the
conductor from negative to positive of the battery. But the conventional current flows from
positive to negative of the battery.
Potential difference: It is the work done per unit charge in moving a charge from one
point to another point. Its unit is Volt and denoted by . Mathematically –
=
Thus, = /
Resistance: It is the property of a conductor by which it opposes to the flow of electric current
through it. Mathematically –
=
Thus higher is the resistance lower is the current. Good conductors have low resistance. Unit of
resistance is Ohm (). So Ω = / i.e. if a potential difference of is applied
across a conductor and if a current of passes through it, then the resistance of the conductor in
the circuit is Ω.

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1.2.3 Units and their conversions
Fig: 1-2 conversion scale for basic and derived units

For example:
Suppose a current of 10mA (pronounced as milli amperes) is flowing through a wire. Then in calculations it
is converted as:
10mA  103 A
Suppose a voltage source has a voltage of 1.5kV (pronounced as kilo-volts). Then in calculations it is
converted as:
1.5kV  1.5 103V

Suppose a wave has a frequency of 100 kHz (pronounced as kilohertz). Then in calculations it is converted
as:
100kHz  100103 Hz
Suppose two capacitors in a circuit have the capacity of 200F and 235nF, then in calculations it is
converted as:
200F  200 10 6 F
235nF  235 10 6 F
Problems for practice
Convert 1.2 k into equivalent ohms Convert 33 kHz into equivalent Hz
Convert 745 mH into equivalent Henry Convert 1.23 kW into equivalent Watts
Convert 100 pF into equivalent Farad Convert 12000 Hz into equivalent kHz
Convert 280 mV into equivalent Volts Convert 590 A into equivalent Amperes
Convert 0.13 mA into equivalent Amperes Convert 0.055 mV into equivalent Volts
1.2.4 Ohm’s Law

The Ohm’s law states that the current (I) flowing through a circuit is directly proportional to the
applied voltage (V) provided that the resistance (R) in the circuit is constant. Mathematically it is
given as -
V
I V or V  I  constant(R)
............
I
With this relation we can obtain following three equations –

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voltage V
resistance  i.e. R 
current I
voltage V
current  i.e. I 
resistance R
voltage current  resistance i.e. V  IR
This law is the most important tool in solving different problems in electricity.
1.2.5 Law of resistances
The resistors are connected in a circuit either in parallel or in series or in both types of conditions.
Basically there are two possible conditions for the same as given below.
Resistors in parallel: as you have studied in 10th, when a number of resistors are in parallel as
shown in the following figure, then the total resistance of the circuit is given as:
1 1 1 1 1 1
    
R R1 R2 R3 R4 Rn
Fig: 1-3 Resistors in parallel
Resistors in series: when a number of resistors are in series as shown in the following figure, then
the total resistance of the circuit is given as:
R  R1  R2  R3  R4    Rn
Fig: 1-4 Resistors in series
1.2.6 Concept of potential divider
it is a very important but simple circuit required for 12th standard syllabus. It consists of two or
more resistors in series, with a battery as shown below.
Fig: 1-5 Basic circuit of potential divider using two resistors

As the name suggests, this circuit is mainly used to divide the battery voltage in required values.
We shall mathematically check it as follows –

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Here (V) is the voltage of the battery, and are the two resistors used in the circuit. now
suppose we have to calculate voltage across as shown above. Then using the formula the
voltage is given by –
 R2 
VR2     V
 R1  R2 
Similarly, if we want to calculate voltage across R1, then it is given by –
 R1 
VR1     V
 R1  R2 
Here note that, the addition of the voltage drops produced across these two resistors is ALWAYS
equal to the battery voltage, that is –
 R1    R2    R1 R2 
  V     V      V  V
 R1  R2    R1  R2    R1  R2 R1  R2 
1.2.7 Kirchoff’s laws
Kirchoff’s current law: this law states that in a circuit having node, the addition of currents
coming towards the node, is equal to the addition of the current leaving the node. Mathematically
it can be expressed as follows. If I1, I2, I3 are the three currents coming towards the node and I4
& I6 are the currents going away from the node, then we can write I1 + I2 +I3 = I4 + I5. This
I2 I3 mathematical expression can be explained with the help of the
diagram.
Now from this we conclude that the sum of the entering currents is
I1 equal to the sum of leaving currents, as shown in the adjacent figure.
This method is applicable to any number of currents entering or
node I4 leaving the node. If there are number of nodes in the circuit, we can
apply the same rule.
I5
Kirchoff’s voltage law: this law states that when a number of batteries or power supply are
connected in series as shown in the following figure, then the total or resultant voltage is the sum
of all the voltages that are connected in the circuit (following the polarities of the power supply
connected). Thus mathematically it can be expressed as follows.
V  V1  V2  V3  . . . . . . . . .  Vn
Where,
V = total voltage
V1 = voltage of first battery
V2 = voltage of second battery
V3 = voltage of third battery
th
Vn = voltage of n battery

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1.2.8 Law of electromagnetism
We have studied Oersted experiment in 10th standard. This experiment gives us the idea of
electromagnetic induction. It tells us that electricity and magnetic field are INTERDEPENDENT.
When one exists, the other is always there.
Now there are two important laws of electromagnetism they are: Faraday’s law and Lenz’s law.
These laws are the extension of Oersted’s idea of electric current and magnetic field. We shall
briefly discuss these two laws with the help of following points.
When electric current is passed through a conductor, magnetic field is produced around the
conductor, as per the right hand rule, as shown below.
Fig: 1-6 Experimental setup showing the idea of Faraday’s first law
The strength of magnetic field produced around the conductor is directly proportional to amount of current
flowing through the conductor.
The strength of magnetic field is more NEAR the conductor and it decreases when we go AWAY from the
conductor.
The magnetic field around the conductor is in the form of magnetic lines of force called as magnetic flux ().
Thus, we can say that when electrons are in motion, they are responsible to produce proportional magnetic
field.
Now the reverse is also possible. When a conductor is placed in CHANGING magnetic field,
electric current is produced in the conductor, as shown below.
Fig: 1-7 Experimental setup showing the idea of Faraday’s first law
The two ends of conductor are connected to a micro ammeter. When the magnet is moved up and
down NEAR THE CONDUCTOR, its magnetic flux forces the free electrons in conductor to
move from one point to another inside the conductor.
Due to such motion of electrons, electric current is produced. It is found that when magnet moves
upward the free electrons (inside the conductor) move from B to A and when it moves downward,
they move from A to B. If we move conductor only and fix up the magnet, we get the same result.
When both are in motion, we still get the same result.

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If we connect a voltmeter across points AB of the conductor, it deflects and shows that an e.m.f.
is produced across the two ends of conductor.
In this way, Faraday’s law states that when electric current flows through a conductor,
proportional magnetic field is produced around the conductor. Similarly, when a conductor cuts
the CHANGING magnetic field, a proportional e.m.f. (voltage) is generated in the conductor.
And the Lenz’s law states that the direction of induced voltage in the conductor is in the direction,
which OPPOSES the change of flux.
Thus, the process of producing current due to change in magnetic field is called INDUCTION.
The induction depends on following main factors –
Amount of flux (): if the strength of magnetic field is large near a conductor, then the amount of
induced voltage in the conductor is also large.
Number of turns (N): if a coil is placed in a changing magnetic field then the amount of induced
voltage in the coil depends on the number of turns of the coil i.e. greater is the number of turns,
higher is the voltage.
Rate of change of flux d/dt: if the rate of change of magnetic flux is faster, then the amount of
induced voltage is larger.
1.3 CONCEPT OF AC VOLTAGE
AC voltage is generated on the principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. Consider
a simple model of generator as shown in Fig: 2.1. Suppose a rectangular coil is rotating, in
anticlockwise direction, on a fixed axis within the strong magnetic field of two permanent
magnets (left figure). Then AC voltage is produced across its two end points A-B. The voltage
thus, produced at each position is given in the graph (right figure).
Fig: 1-8 Basic concept of generation of AC voltage using electromagnetic induction

Suppose the rotation of the coil starts from point ‘a’. At point ‘a’ the coil and the magnetic field
are parallel to each other. So voltage produced in the coil is zeroi. When coil rotates through an
angle of 45, at point ‘b’ the coil and the magnetic field are becoming perpendicular to each
other. So the voltage in coil increases and attains the voltage known as r.m.s. voltage. When it
comes to point ‘c’ by sweeping an angle of 90, then it is exactly perpendicular to magnetic field.
Hence, maximum positive voltage is produced across it. In the same way, at ‘d’ the voltage is
again r.m.s. voltage and at point ‘e’, its half rotation is complete and it is now parallel with the
magnetic field. So again its voltage is zero. This completes positive half cycle of the AC voltage.

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During next half rotation same process takes place, only negative half cycle of AC voltage is
obtained. Because direction of induced e.m.f. in the coil is opposite to the previous direction.
Hence, we get half cycle in IV quadrant. And lastly when the coil completes one rotation, it
comes at point ‘a’ and the voltage induced in it will be zero, again.
In each case, the value of voltage generated depends on the number of turns of the coil, the
strength of magnetic field and the speed at which the coil is rotating within the magnetic field.
It we rotate the magnetic field by rotating magnets, keeping the coil steady, even though same
effect is observed. It means that relative motion between magnetic field and coil is necessary.
1.3.1 R.M.S. value of AC voltage
Suppose an AC voltage has peak voltage (Vp) of 10V. Then its peak-to-peak voltage (Vpp) will
be 20V. But due to changing nature of AC voltage, what is its effective value? Remember that
AC voltage is always measured in effective value, which is called ROOT MEAN SQUARE or
r.m.s. value. This value is given as follows. Here note that r.m.s. voltage of sine wave is
calculated at 45 which is 70.7% of its peak voltage.
Vp
for voltage Vrms  V p  0.707 
2
Ip
for current I rms  I p  0.707 
2
Problems for practice:
Calculate peak and peak–to–peak voltage of domestic M.S.E.B. supply voltage of 220V AC.
If peak–to–peak voltage of an industrial AC supply is 1244.68V, then calculate its r.m.s. voltage.
1.3.2 Fundamentals of Transformer

A transformer is an electrical device, which can increase or decrease the amount of AC voltage
connected to it. It consists of two insulated coils placed near each other or wound on each other.
The coil, which is supplied with AC voltage, is called primary coil and the coil from which AC
voltage is taken out, is called secondary coil. Basically, there are three types of transformers: step
down transformer, step up transformer and isolation transformer. Their symbols are as follows:
Fig: 1-9 Symbols of step down and step up transformer

Step down transformer: when number of turns of primary is GREATER than number of turns of
secondary coil, it is called step down transformer. Its output voltage is LESS than input voltage. It
is used in low voltage applications like radio, hobby electronic circuits, tape recorder, CD player,
battery charger etc.
Step up transformer: when number of turns of primary is LESS than number of turns of
secondary coil, it is called step down transformer. Its output voltage is GREATER than input
voltage. It is used in high voltage applications like TV, CRO, voltage stabilizer etc. and in
industrial applications.
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Isolation transformer: when number of turns of primary and secondary coils is EQUAL, it is
called isolation transformer. Its input and output voltage are always EQUAL. It is used to avoid
electric shock. It isolates the NEUTRAL terminal of AC supply from EARTHING point and thus,
avoids electric shock.
IMPORTANT POINTS
It transforms AC voltage into AC voltage. IT NEVER CONVERTS AC INTO DC.
It works on Faraday’s both laws of electromagnetic induction.
All types of transformers provide isolation between input and output of electric supply.
Even though step up transformer increases AC voltage, it has certain limitations.
1.3.3 Center tapped transformer

Transformer is an electrical device that works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. It
consists of two coils: primary coil and secondary coil. When AC voltage is connected across
primary, bidirectional current flows through it and alternating magnetic field is setup around it.
Since the secondary coil is placed within the magnetic field of primary coil, proportional e.m.f. is
induced in secondary coil and thus, we get AC voltage across it.
The e.m.f. induced in secondary is directly proportional to its number of turns. The number of
turns of primary and secondary and their e.m.f. are related with an equation, as follows:
Now if we keep two identical secondary coils (sec-1 & sec-2) in alternating magnetic field of
primary, then same AC voltage is produced in both the secondaries, as shown in the following
Fig: 1.10(a). Note the polarity of AC voltages produced across each secondary. During positive
half cycle of AC voltage, upper point of each secondary is positive and lower is negative. It
means that the polarity of the two adjacent points of two secondaries is always opposite with
respect to each other. Now if we join the adjacent terminals of two secondaries together, as shown
in Fig: 1.10(b), the center-tap transformer is formed. When the two points are joined together, the
opposite polarities cancel out each other and hence, the potential at the center-tap is always zero.
Fig: 1-10 Concept of center tapping the secondary of a transformer

1.3.4 Internal impedance of a source
In 10th standard, you have studied the concept of e.m.f. Now we know that the potential
difference and e.m.f. of a cell are different. The potential difference of a cell is ALWAYS LESS

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than its e.m.f. This happens because internal resistance (r) of the cell is GREATER than zero.
This resistance is invisible, but it is present inside the cell due to following reasons:
It is due to the resistance of electrolyte material used in battery or single cell.
It is due to the resistance of copper wires used in armature of generator or rotor.
It is due to some critical resistance of electronic devices like rectifier diodes.
We shall study about this using a simple circuit. Consider following figure. In left figure, a
battery is shown with its internal resistance (r) and in right figure; a load resistor is connected.
Fig: 1-11 Concept of internal impedance (resistance)

In left figure, the PD of the battery is 12V. This is because the voltage drop across internal
resistance (r) is zero. Now we connect a load resistor of 10 across the output terminals as shown
in right figure. Due to this, current will flow in the circuit. Now we shall mathematically analyze
the circuit as follows. These calculations show that the P.D. across load resistor is 8V. This
voltage is less than e.m.f. of the battery, because some voltage is dropped across internal
resistance (r). Hence, we can draw following conclusions.
Without load, the potential difference and e.m.f. of cell is EQUAL.
However, when load is connected across the battery, its potential difference is ALWAYS less than its e.m.f.
This happens because some voltage is LOST within the internal resistance of the battery.
As the current through the load resistor increases, its potential difference decreases.
E  VR  Vr  according to KVL
E  VR  I  r   (1)
i.e. VR  E  I  r   (2)
To find out current (I) we have 
12V 12V
I   0.8 A
total resistance of the circuit 15
now putting the values in the above equation (2), we get 
VR  12V  0.8 A  5   8V
Problems for practice
Cal ulate output oltage of a ir uit, i hi h a load resistor of Ω is o e ted, ith E = Va d
internal resista e = Ω. Cal ulate urre t i the ir uit also.
I a ir uit, if r = . Ω a d I = . A ith PD = V, al ulate the e. .f. of the attery a d alue of load
connected in the circuit.
Calculate output voltage of a circuit, having load resistor of 99 Ω, ith e. .f. = V a d i ter al resista e =
Ω. Cal ulate urre t i the ir uit also.
If PD of a ir uit is V, i hi h a load resistor of Ω is o e ted, ith E = V the al ulate i ter al
resistance and current of battery.

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1.3.5 Self and mutual inductance
Inductance: it is defined as the ability of conductor to produce induced voltage in itself. It is
denoted by (L) and measured in Henry (H). The induced voltage has the tendency to oppose
change in current. There are two types of inductances: self-inductance and the mutual inductance.
Self-inductance: it is defined as the ability of a conductor or coil to induce voltage in itself, when
current changes through it. The induced voltage is ALWAYS OPPOSITE IN POLARITIES TO
THE ORIGINAL VOLTAGE. Hence, it is called counter e.m.f. or back e.m.f. (the back e.m.f.
explains, why the starting & running currents in an electric motor are different).
Mutual inductance: if two coils are placed near each other and AC current is passed through one
coil, then voltage is induced in other coil. Thus, the ability of conductor to produce induced
voltage in ANOTHER CONDUCTOR is called mutual inductance.
1.4 SKIN EFFECT
Consider the following figures. Here a thick piece of conductor is shown. It has very large
number of free electrons. When electric current flows through it, these electrons behave in two
different ways, i.e. they respond to AC and DC current differently. When DC current flows, the
axial electrons take part in conduction of this current, while other electrons remain almost at rest.
Fig: 1-12 Conduction of DC current in a conductor

However, when AC current flows through the same conductor, the axial electrons remain almost
at rest and all the outer electrons (i.e. other than the axial electrons) take part in conduction of the
current. A helical path of the electrons during conduction of AC current is observed. The
diameter of this helical path depends on the frequency of AC current. The greater is the frequency
greater is the diameter of this path. When the frequency is extremely high, the electrons near the
skin of the conductor take part in this conduction, hence, it is called the skin effect.
Fig: 1-13 Conduction of DC current in a conductor

This effect explains why the AC and DC resistance of a conductor are different. We know that
when DC current flows in a conductor, the conductor offers some resistance to it. This resistance
is directly proportional to length and inversely proportional to cross sectional area of conductor.
But if AC current is passed through same conductor, then it flows as shown in above figure. So it
has to cover longer path and hence, it experiences more resistance. It also experiences resistance
due to self-induction.

P a g e | 17
Summery
1. Water flow is similar to electric current (I), the difference of height between the tanks is
similar to potential difference (V) (i.e. voltage) and the zigzag path (i.e. folded tube) is similar
to resistance (R).
2. The property due to which rubbed substances attract light objects is called electricity. The
electricity developed by rubbing or friction is called frictional electricity.
3. The charge acquired by a glass rod when rubbed with silk is called as positive charge. And the
charge acquired by an ebonite rod when rubbed with wool is called as negative charge.
4. The force of attraction or repulsion between two point charges is (i) directly proportional to
the product ( .
) of the two charges and (ii) inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them.
5. A substance which allows passage of electric charges through it easily is called as conductor.
A conductor offers VERY LOW RESISTANCE to the flow of current.
6. Rate of flow of electric charges is called electric current. It is a SCALAR QUANTITY.
7. Potential difference is the work done per unit charge in moving a charge from one
point to another point. Its unit is Volt and denoted by .
8. Resistance is the property of a conductor by which it opposes to the flow of electric current
through it.
9. The Ohm’s law states that the current (I) flowing through a circuit is directly proportional to
the applied voltage (V) provided that the resistance (R) in the circuit is constant.
10. Kirchoff’s current law states that in a circuit having node, the addition of currents coming
towards the node, is equal to the addition of the current leaving the node.
11. Kirchoff’s voltage law states that when a number of batteries or power supply are connected
in series.
12. When electric current is passed through a conductor, magnetic field is produced around the
conductor, as per the right hand rule.
13. When number of turns of primary is GREATER than number of turns of secondary coil, it is
called step down transformer.
14. When number of turns of primary is LESS than number of turns of secondary coil, it is called
step down transformer.
15. Inductance is defined as the ability of conductor to produce induced voltage in itself. It is
denoted by (L) and measured in Henry (H).
16. Self-inductance is defined as the ability of a conductor or coil to induce voltage in itself, when
current changes through it.
17. The ability of conductor to produce induced voltage in ANOTHER CONDUCTOR is called
mutual inductance.

P a g e | 18
Problems
1. What would be the resistance of a conductor if the current flowing through it is 0.35A when
the potential difference across it is 1.4V?
2. If t o resistors of Ω each are connected in series across a battery of 25V. Calculate the
current flowing through the resistors and also find the electrical power consumption of the
resistors.
3. I a ir uit three resistors of kΩ ea h are o e ted i series. They are supplied ith a
potential difference of 12V. Then calculate the voltage drop across each resistor.
4. An electric press is connected across a power supply of 100V AC. If the current flowing
through the circuit is 2.5A, calculate the electric consumption of the electric press and its
heating element resistance.
5. The wattage of a motor bike headlight is 40W. A newly charged battery of the bike passes a
current of 2A through the headlight for full glow. Then calculate the filament resistance of
the headlight. After some months, if the battery discharges to 15V, how much current will
the headlight draw?
6. A ele tri heater orks o V AC supply, hi h has oil resista e of Ω. Cal ulate the
amount of electric power it will consume when it is switched on.
7. A car horn draws a current of 2A when it sounds up at 12V DC supply. Calculate the power
consumption of the car horn.
8. Calculate the resistance of heating coil of a soldering iron if it is operating on 230V AC and
consumes electrical power of 30W.
9. Determine the operating voltage of a hair dryer which consumes electrical power of 25W and
it has i ter al resista e of Ω.
10. Two incandescent bulbs of 100W and 150W are connected in series to a power supply of
200V AC. Then which bulb will glow brightly and which bulb will glow dimly? Why?
11. Three resistors of equal value are connected in parallel with each other and also connected
across a power supply of 20V. If total current of 1A is passing through the power supply how
much current will flow through any one resistor?
12. What is the effective work done in a circuit, if a charge of 3C is passing through it in 30sec.
with a power supply of 30V?
13. How much charge will flow if a current of 10A is flowing through a circuit in 5sec?
14. If a resistor of kΩ is o e ted i parallel ith a po er supply source of 250V AC, then
calculate the current flowing through the circuit. What power the resistor will require to
withstand this current?
15. Calculate the power of a generator supplying 200V with a maximum current of 2A.
16. Calculate potential differen e of a po er supply if its resista e is Ω ith the po er
consumption of 10W.
17. Calculate the charge flowing through a circuit with power of 100W and PD of 20V.

P a g e | 19
Self Examination
Objective type questions
1. The unit of potential difference is ________.
2. When number of resistors is connected in series the total resistance is equal to the
_______ of all resistances.
3. When resistors are connected in parallel, the total resistance is always ______ than the
value of individual resistance.
4. When 1 C of charge passes through a conductor, a current of _______ is produced.
5. Work done is the product of ________ and charge.
6. According to Faraday’s law, when current flows through a conductor, proportional
_________ field is produced around the conductor.
7. According to Ohm’s law, current and voltage are always __________ to each other.
8. According to KCL, the algebraic sum of the currents flowing in a circuit is always equal to
_______.
9. ______ is defined as the ability of the conductor to produce voltage in itself.
10. The ability of the conductor to produce voltage in another conductor is called as ______
inductance.
11. The rate of flow of electric charge through a conductor is called as _______.
12. The property of a conductor to oppose to the flow of electric current through it is called
as _______.
13. When 1A current flows through a conductor at 1V potential difference, then the
resistance of the conductor will be ________.
Short answer questions

1. What is potential difference?
2. Give the definition of electric current.
3. What is electric work done? Define it.
4. What is Coulomb’s law? Given its definition.
5. What is resistance? Explain in brief.
6. What is KCL and KVL? Give their definitions.
7. Define Faraday’s both laws of electromagnetic induction.
8. What do you mean by self induction?
9. Define mutual induction. Explain it on the basis of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction.
10. What are the factors that make a transformer as step up or step down transformer?
Explain in brief.
11. Distinguish between conductor and insulator.

P a g e | 20
Long answer questions
1. Explain the process of generation of AC voltage using the setup of generator.
2. Explain the internal resistance of a source with neat circuit diagram and mathematical
analysis.
3. What are the three types of transformers? Explain with their neat symbols and write the
explanation according to Faraday’s laws.
4. Explain the r.m.s. value of AC voltage. How r.m.s. value of AC voltage is calculated?
Explain with details.
5. Explain Faraday’s both law of electromagnetic induction with neat diagrams and proper
definitions.
6. Define and explain Kirchhoff’s current law and Kirchhoff’s voltage law with neat circuit
diagrams.
7. Define and explain Ohm's law and give its any one example. Give its different equations
with respect to resistance, current and voltage.
8. What is the analogy of water with respect to potential difference? Explain with neat
diagram.
9. Draw the conversion scale of units and the derived units and explain its use in the
conversion. Give at least 4 different types of examples of conversion.
10. Explain the law of resistance? What happens when number of resistors is connected in
series? What is the effective resistance when number of resistors is connected in
parallel?
11. What is potential divider? Explain its use with any one application and neat circuit
diagram.
12. Define the terms: Coulomb, static and current electricity, conductor, insulator, electric
current, Ampere, electric circuit, conventional current, potential difference and
resistance.
13. Explain how a center tapped transformer is produced? Draw its neat circuit diagram and
explain the process.
14. What is inductance? What are the factors that are responsible for self and mutual
induction? Explain with diagrams.
Conceptual study questions Study beyond syllabus…!

1. How electricity is produced in vehicles? What is a dynamo? What are the factors that
are responsible to produce more amount of voltage and current in the dynamo?
2. Do high voltage lines passing through the open fields outside a city produce the
phenomenon of mutual induction? How?
3. What will happen if two AC generators are connected in series? Explain.
4. Does the law of conservation of energy hold for the Kirchoff's current law in an electrical
circuit? Explain.
5. What is skin effect? Does this phenomenon is applicable for the risk of electric shock
near a high voltage source?

P a g e | 21
2 Work, Power & Energy

Quick view…
Topics covered
Concept of electricity, electric charge, work done, etc.
Mechanical energy: relation of HP and watts, etc.
Brief idea of heat energy: generation of heat due to electricity,
thermal efficiency, etc. only brief description, simple mathematical
analysis expected.
Scope & Limitations

Basics of electricity: concept of electric charge, electrical power and
electric current, their basic mathematical approach, simple
mathematical treatment expected; work and power, concept of
electric energy and kilo-watt-hour (KWH) & Board-of-trade (BOT).
Mechanical Power: simple concept of Horse Power (HP), different

types of horse power (basic idea only), concept of Horsepower-hour
(introduction only)
Heating effects of electric current: simple relationship between

heat, mass & specific heat, elementary mathematical treatment
expected.
Concept of thermal efficiency: brief idea about the relationship

between mass, specific heat and temperature rise, simple problems
on the same expected.
Summary of the chapter: important points for the quick preparation

of the chapter.
Problems on the chapter: board examination based problems on

different topics.
Self examination: objective type questions, short answer questions,

long answer questions, conceptual study questions.

P a g e | 22
2.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, we have to study the fundamental concepts regarding the relation between
electrical energy and mechanical energy. We know that, when a bulk of electric charge flows
through a conductor, proportional current is produced in the conductor. To pass this current some
electric work is done against the internal resistance of the conductor. Also the rate of doing
electric work is called as electrical power and the capacity of doing electric work is known as the
electric energy of that source.
By and large, the terms, work done and the electric energy, are almost same. But on discussion
basis, there is a very thin difference between them. The former indicates the ability of doing
electric work against the resistance at a stroke and the later indicates the capacity of the electric
source itself to do the electric work related with time. Hence, the later is also expressed in terms
of kilo-watt-hour (KWH). We shall also study the fundamental ideas about mechanical energy
and the heat energy in this chapter.
2.2 BASICS OF ELECTRICITY
2.2.1 Electric charges
There are two types of electric charges in nature: the positive charge and the negative charge. As
we know, the Coulomb’s law states that, the force of attraction or repulsion between two point
charges is (i) directly proportional to the product . of the two charges and (ii) inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them. The value of depends on the
nature of the medium between the two charges and the system of units chosen. For charges in
vacuum, = × 9 / –
.
= .
2.2.2 Electric current
The electric current is defined as the rate of flow of electric charges. Always remember that the
current is a SCALAR QUANTITY.
ℎ
𝑖 , = =
𝑇𝑖
The SI unit of electric current is Ampere (A). If one coulomb of charge flows through any section
of a conductor in one second, the current through the conductor is said to be one ampere.
Consider the following circuit. Here, the potential difference is V and resistance in the circuit is
R. The current I in the circuit is the rate of flow of charge Q. So value of current will be = / .
So we can say that 1Ampere.second = 1Coulomb. According to Ohm's law, the current through a
circuit is also calculated as = / .
Fig: 2-1 Flow of electric current through a circuit containing a resistor

P a g e | 23
2.2.3 Electric power
The unit of electric power is Watt (W), named after the famous scientist James Watt (1736-1819).
1 Watt of electric power is equal to the work done in 1 second, by 1 volt of potential difference in
moving a charge of 1 Coulomb.
Remember that 1C per second is equal to 1A. So the electric power is equal to the product of
current and voltage in a circuit, which is given as –
= ×
Example: When a 6V battery produces a current of 2A in a circuit, then the battery is generating
12W of electric power. The formula of electric power is used in three ways –
= × , = , =
2.2.4 Work and power
The electric work is defined as the amount of work done in moving a charge Q in a circuit against
a potential difference of V. This can be understood with the help of following example.
Suppose a circuit contains a resistance R, and it is connected to a potential difference of V. Then
the charge Q will flow through the circuit against the resistance R with the help of potential
difference V. So electric work will be done, which is given by –
= × = × ×
Similarly, the electric power is defined as rate of doing electric work. Mathematically it is given
by –
×
= = = ×
The formula can also be used in following ways –
= × = / , = × × =
The unit of electric work done is Joules and the unit of electric power is Watt. Thus, it is clear
that –
/ = = .
2.2.5 Electric energy
Electric energy is defined as the capacity of an electric source to do electric work. It is indicated
by E and mathematically it is given as –
= × = . ×
The unit of electric energy is Joule or Watt.sec. By knowing the electric energy of an electric
source, we get the idea of its capacity of delivering the power within a required span of time. This
factor must be considered while selecting a generator or any power supply source for a particular
requirement.
Every generator has its own electric energy or capacity. If the generator is loaded with heavy load
its efficiency drops and it may produce large amount of heat and eventually burn out.

P a g e | 24
2.2.6 Concept of kilo-watt-hour (KWH) & Board-of-trade (BOT)
Now we know that the mathematical expression for work done and electric energy is one and the
same thing. But the basic unit of electric energy is watt.sec. It is a very small unit to express the
capacity of the source. Hence, larger unit like Board-of-trade (BOT) or Kilo-watt-hour (KWH) is
used. It is given as follows –
= × × = 𝑤 . = .
= . .
Definition of K.W.H.: When of electrical energy is consumed by a load in ℎ , there is
an electrical energy consumption of .
Definition of B.O.T.: This unit is the same as KWH. Thus, = 𝑇. Board-of-trade is
commercially known “unit” only.
The billing of electrical consumption on commercial level is done simply by the “unit”. Thus, if
our domestic electric meter indicates 𝑖 it means that our electrical consumption is
𝑖 and the electric bill will be charged as per the rate of this unit.
Example: If the charge of 𝑖 = . /− and the monthly electrical consumption is 𝑖
then the electric bill charge will be –
𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 = × = . /−
2.3 MECHANICAL POWER
Work and energy are actually the same with identical units. However, power is different, because
it is the time rate of doing work. For example, if a force of is required to move an object at
a distance of , then the work done will be –
× = =
Note that in this calculation the rate at which the work is being done is not considered. It means
that it is regardless of how fast or slowly the work is done. Thus, the unit of work done is and
it is without the reference of time.
However, the power is equal to the work done divided by the time it takes to do the work. If work
is done in , then the above given example will be / . And if it takes to complete
the work, then power will be / .
Thus, electrical power is the time rate at which the charge is moved by the applied potential
difference. Hence, the power is the product of voltage and current. The voltage is the amount of
work per unit charge and the current gives us the value of time rate at which the charge is moved.
Definition of mechanical work: When a force acts on a body and the body moves a distance ,
then the work is done on the body. Thus, we say that –
𝑤 = × 𝑖 = × …
But as per above discussion, we also get –
=

P a g e | 25
2.3.1 Concept of Horse Power (HP)
The unit of metric Horse Power was started in Germany in the 19th century and later it became
popular in Europe and Asia. In different countries this unit is used with different alphabets like
PS, CV, pk, ch, etc. all these have the meaning as HP in English.
Definition: Metric Horse Power (HP) is defined as 0.73549875kW, or roughly 98.6% of
mechanical horsepower. It is a special unit used for a standard amount of mechanical work done.
Thus, both HP and kW are the units of power.
= × .
= × .
= . 𝑖
= 𝐵 𝑖 𝑖 ℎ
Roughly it is defined as the 75 meter kilogram of work done per second, that is –
= /
In simple way, we say that is equal to 735.5W. This can be calculated as follows –
= /
= × . / = .
= . / =
= . / =
= .
2.3.2 Types of horse power
Nominal horsepower (nhp): It is an early 19th-century used to estimate the power of steam
engines. It was mainly used in naval measurements particularly for small ship engines, steamers,
boats, etc.
Indicated horsepower (ihp): It is the theoretical power of an engine if it is completely frictionless
while converting the gas energy in the engine cylinders.
Brake horsepower (bhp): It is the measure of an engine's horsepower before the loss in power
caused by the break or gearbox assembly.
Shaft horsepower (shp): It is the power delivered to the propeller shafts of a diesel engine or
an aircraft piston engine.
2.3.3 Concept of Horsepower-hour
Horsepower-hour (hph) was used in the old types of measurement systems. It is now outdated
unit of energy. It is not used in the SI system of units. It represents an amount of work a horse is
supposed capable of delivering during an hour.

P a g e | 26
2.4 HEATING EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
According to Joule’s law, when current flows through an electric circuit it overcomes the internal
resistance of the circuit. So some electric work is done. This work done is converted into the form
of heat energy. Hence, the electric current always produces heat whenever it flows through a
circuit.
Consider the following diagram. Here a heating element having resistance is kept immersed in
water. It is connected to a constant DC potential difference of . Then current will flow through
the heating element and the temperature of the heating element will start rising.
P.D.
current
(I) beaker
water
heating
element
Fig: 2-2 An experiment on heating effect of electric current

In this experiment, following conclusions are drawn –
When current flows through the heating element its temperature starts increasing.
When the current flowing through the heating element is , the heat increases FOUR TIMES.
When the current flowing through the heating element is , the heat increases NINE TIMES.
When the current flowing through the heating element is , the heat increases SIXTEEN TIMES.
It means that the heat produced in the heating element is proportional to the SQUARE of the current
flowing through it.
Since the resistance of the heating element is with a potential difference , according to Ohm's
𝑉
law, the current will be = 𝑅.
Now if the current is kept constant and the resistance of the heating element is changed, then
following conclusions are obtained –
When resistance is increased, the temperature also increases.
When resistance of the heating element is , the heat produced is also .
When resistance of the heating element is , the heat produced is also , and so on.
It means that the heat produced in the heating element is directly proportional to the resistance .
Finally, we conclude this behavior using the equation of Joule’s law, as follows –
∝
Now keeping current and resistance constant, the heat produced in the heating element still
increases as time passes. Hence, finally we conclude that –
When current and the resistance in the circuit are constant, but time increases, then the heat
increases proportionally.
It means that the heat is also directly proportional to time .
= . …

P a g e | 27
2.4.1 Relation between heat, mass & specific heat
According to the equation of Joule’s law, the heat is calculated in the unit Joules. But in general
practice, heat is measured in calories.
As a general rule, when a work of 4.2 Joules is done, it is converted into the heat of 1 calorie.
Thus, different relations are given below –
. = 𝑖
𝑖 = .
= .
=
In electrical work done, the equation is given as follows –
.
𝑖 ℎ = = . × . … 𝑖
.
In practical experiments, when heat is produced electrically in water, it is not completely
absorbed by the water. But some of the heat is lost in the surrounding. So there is a mathematical
relationship to calculate the amount of heat absorbed by the water, as follows –
= × 𝑖 𝑖 ℎ × 𝑖 𝑖
Remember –
Mass is in grams; specific heat is a number, for water it is equal to 1; rise in temperature in C; and the unit
of heat produced is Calories.
2.4.2 Concept of thermal efficiency

We know that the efficiency of a system is the ratio of output to input. Thus, the thermal
efficiency is defined as the ratio of heat actually absorbed by a liquid (e.g. water) to the heat
produced electrically. The thermal efficiency is always expressed in percentage (%).
Mathematically it is given as –
ℎ = × %
Remember, that the thermal efficiency of any system is always less than unity.

P a g e | 28
Summery
1. There are two types of electric charges in nature: the positive charge and the negative
charge.
2. The electric current is defined as the rate of flow of electric charges. Always remember that
the current is a SCALAR QUANTITY.
3. The unit of electric power is Watt (W), named after the famous scientist James Watt (1736-
1819). 1 Watt of electric power is equal to the work done in 1 second, by 1 volt of potential
difference in moving a charge of 1 Coulomb.
4. The electric work is defined as the amount of work done in moving a charge Q in a circuit
against a potential difference of V.
5. Electric energy is defined as the capacity of an electric source to do electric work.
6. The basic unit of electric energy is watt.sec. It is a very small unit to express the capacity of
the source. Hence, larger unit like Board-of-trade (BOT) or Kilo-watt-hour (KWH) is used.
7. Definition of K.W.H.: When of electrical energy is consumed by a load in ℎ , there is
an electrical energy consumption of .
8. Definition of B.O.T.: This unit is the same as KWH. Thus, = 𝑇. Board-of-trade is
commercially known unit only.
9. Definition of mechanical work: When a force acts on a body and the body moves a distance
, then the work is done on the body.
10. Definition: Metric Horse Power (HP) is defined as 0.73549875kW, or roughly 98.6% of
mechanical horsepower.
11. Horsepower-hour (hph) was used in the old types of measurement systems. It is now
outdated unit of energy.
12. According to Joule’s law, when current flows through an electric circuit it overcomes the
internal resistance of the circuit.
13. When the current flowing through the heating element is , the heat increases FOUR TIMES.
14. When the current flowing through the heating element is , the heat increases NINE TIMES.
15. When resistance of the heating element is , the heat produced is also .
16. When resistance of the heating element is , the heat produced is also , and so on.

P a g e | 29
Problems
1. An electric water pump runs on 230V AC mains voltage. It consumes an electrical power of
1.45kW. If it runs for 3 hours, calculate the energy consumption of the water pump. Also
calculate the current flowing through it.
2. In a house, two tube lights of 50W each are used for 5 hours, 5 ceiling fans of 80W each are
used for 6 hours, one fridge of 1.4kW used for 15 hours and a TV of 120W used for 4 hours
daily. If the cost of each electrical unit is Rs. 4/–, then calculate the total electrical
consumption and electric bill for the month of February.
3. Calculate the horse power value in metrics if an industrial motor consumes an electric power
of 2690W.
4. A small workshop has daily consumption of: two drilling machines of 2kW each run for 5
hours, one mercury lamp of 500W for 10 hours, vacuum cleaner of 1200W for 1 hour and
three welding machines of 4000W each for 4 hours. Then calculate the total electrical
consumption and electric bill for the month of September, if cost of commercial electric unit
is Rs. 5/-.
5. In a cotton industry, two motors of 12HP and 15HP are used in two different machines. They
are working on an AC supply of 440V. The first motor runs for a time period of 15 hours and
the second works for a period of 12 hours. Then calculate the total electrical power
consumption of industry in KWH. If the commercial electric unit is of Rs. 7/-, then calculate
the electric bill of the industry for the month of October.
6. Calculate the percentage efficiency of an electric hair dryer motor, if its output power is
0.22HP and its input power is 0.35HP. Also determine the amount of current flowing through
each of the motors, if their operating voltage is 230V AC.
7. A washing machine motor has an output of 2.5HP. Its operating voltage is 250V AC. If the
efficiency of the motor is 85%, calculate the total amount of current flowing through it.
8. How much heat in calories, will be generated in an electric heater, if its operating voltage is
440V AC with coil resistance of 100. The heater operates for 30 minutes.
9. A DC motor has an output of 5HP (metric). If it works on 250V DC supply and runs with an
efficiency of 60%.
10. In an industry, one electric motor drives a liquid pump. The liquid pump raises liquid quantity
of 20kg per second up to an height of 10m. Calculate the amount of current consumed by the
electric motor, if its operating voltage is 440V. Consider efficiency of motor & pump of 85%.
11. A container contains 10 liters of water with initial temperature of 35C. It is required to heat
up the water using an electric heater up to a temperature of 80C. If the power consumption
of heater coil is 1.2kW with heat efficiency of 90%, calculate the time required to increase
the required temperature.
12. An electric water boiler has an internal heater coil resistance of 100. Its operating voltage is
250V AC with a thermal efficiency of 0.9. Then calculate the time required to increase the
temperature of 100 liters of water quantity from its original temperature of 30C to a
maximum temperature of 100C.

P a g e | 30
Self Examination
1. The unit of heat is ________.
2. The efficiency of a system is the ratio of ______ to _______.
3. If an electric motor consumes power of 2000W, then its metric horse power will be
_______.
4. A charge of 1.2C is passing through a conductor, when a potential difference of 12V is
applied across it, then the amount of work done will be ________ Watts.
5. 3.2KWH is equivalent to ________ Watt.sec.
6. When an electric bulb is switched on it consumes current of 12A at 250V. If its electric
power is 2kW, then its energy consumption will be ________KWH.
7. The heat absorbed by the water is the _______ of mass, specific heat and temperature.
8. The thermal efficiency of a system is the ratio of _________ to ________.
9. The thermal efficiency is always calculated in ________.
10. 5.6 Joules are equivalent to _______ calories.
11. 2.3kW of electric power consumption is equal to ________ KWH.
12. If the consumption of 25KWH takes place in a house, per month, per unit of Rs.3/- then
the electric bill for the month of January will be ________.
Short answer questions

1. Explain the relation between charge and current.
2. What is concept of electric work done?
3. What is BOT? Explain in brief.
4. Define electric energy and KWH.
5. Define BOT and mechanical work.
6. What is the basic concept of heating effect of electric current?
7. State the types of horse power.
8. What is the relation between work and power?
9. Give the equation of thermal efficiency of a system.
10. Define Joule’s law and explain in brief with a numerical example.
11. Explain in brief the process of heat absorbed and released out by water during its
heating.
12. Give the relation between heat, mass and specific heat.
13. What are the different types of indication used for the electric unit of horse power for
an electric system?

P a g e | 31
1. Explain the relation between current and resistance in the process of water heating.
Thus explain the effect on water temperature if both of them are changed
independently.
2. What is electrical energy? Explain it in details.
3. Explain the r.m.s. value of AC voltage. How r.m.s. value of AC voltage is calculated?
Explain with details.
4. Give different relationship between voltage, current and resistance in terms of electric
power. State their equations.
5. Derive the relation between Horse Power (HP-metric) and electric power consumption
of a system.
6. Derive the equation for electric heat.
7. Explain the concept of mechanical energy, by starting with the concept of work and
electric power.
8. Write a note on Horse Power.
9. Write a note on KWH and BOT and explain their relationship.
10. Define and explain electric power.
Conceptual study questions Study beyond syllabus…!

1. If we take a copper wire of 1m length and an area of cross section of 0.01m2, then
assume that its resistance is 1.2. Now if the wire is stretched through a length of 2m,
then will the resistance of the wire be the same? Explain your answer with proper
reasoning.
2. What is the fundamental idea that electric current produces heat in a conductor, when
current flows through it? Explain.
3. Why the unit of BOT is used in commercial calculations? Explain.
4. What will happen if two electric motors are connected in parallel? What about the total
current flowing through them? Will it increase or decrease or will it be independent of
parallel connections?
5. What is the basic difference between an electric motor and electric heater in terms of
their internal resistance?

P a g e | 32
3 Effects of
Electric Current
Quick view…
Topics covered
Details of heating effects of electric current, its applications,
proportionality relationship between the two quantities.
Chemical effects of electric current, applications, etc.
X-ray effects of electric current and its applications.
Magnetic effects of electric current and its applications.
Physical effects of electric current, simple details are expected.
Scope & Limitations

Heating Effects of Electric Current: Introduction to different types
electric effects, applications of Joule’s law, specific applications.
Chemical effect of electric current: Electroplating process, specific

applications.
X-ray effects of electric current: How x-rays are produced?

applications of x-rays.
Magnetic effect of electric current: Important applications.
Physical effect of electric current: Effects on nervous system,

electrical standards.
Summary of the chapter: important points for the quick preparation

of the chapter.
Problems on the chapter: board examination based problems on

different topics.
Self examination: objective type questions, short answer questions,

long answer questions, conceptual study questions.

P a g e | 33
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, we have to study four basic effects due to electric current. They are heating effect,
chemical effect, x-ray effect, magnetic effect and physical effect.
Electric current is has thus versatility as far as its applications are concerned. We can use all these
applications in different types of domestic, industrial and scientific works to carry out
innumerable tasks.
3.2 HEATING EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
Heating effect of electric current is one of the widely used effects in the world. When electric
current is passed through a conductor, it generates heat due to the resistance offered to the current
flow. The work done in overcoming the resistance is generated as heat. Work done can be
calculated as –
= × = × ×
The heating effect due to electric current was primarily observed by James Prescott Joule and he
expressed various factors that affect the heat generated. The heat produced by a heating element
is directly proportional to the square of the electric current passing through the conductor,
directly proportional to the resistance of the conductor and time for which current passes
through the conductor. It is given by the expression and it is then known as Joule’s Law –
= .
3.2.1 Applications of Joule’s law
There are innumerable applications of heating effects of electric current. Some of them are given
below –
Applications of the heating effect of electric current include appliances like electric immersion water heater,
electric iron box, etc.
All of these have a heating element in it. Heating elements are generally made of specific alloys
like Nichrome, Manganin and Constantan etc.
A good heating element has high resistivity and high melting point.
An electric fuse is an example for the application of heating effect of electric current. For example, the
rating of 4A of an electric fuse implies the maximum current it can sustain is four ampere.
3.2.2 Specific applications

Electric heaters: These are classified under all types of heaters used in domestic and industrial applications.
They are water heater or geyser, electric iron, soldering iron, electric stove (shegdi), electric kettle, electric
oven or toaster, room heater, industrial furnaces, etc. All these applications use the heating effect of
electric current to produce heat only rather than light also.
Light bulbs: These are classified under all types of applications which include the heating effects of electric
current that produce light. They are incandescent bulb, torch light, electric arc used in cinema projector,
halogen lamps, mercury lamps, etc.
All these applications use the basic idea by creating strong resistance to current to produce heat
directly or to produce light from red hot, yellow hot or white hot materials.

P a g e | 34
3.3 CHEMICAL EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
The most common application of the chemical effect of electric current is electroplating. In this
process, a liquid known as electrolyte, through which current passes. There are two electrodes
immersed in the liquid. The electrodes are connected across a DC power supply with a switch in
series. The electrode that is connected to the positive terminal of the battery is called the “anode”
and the other connected to the negative terminal is called the “cathode”.
Electroplating is done in industries to obtain anti-reactive coating on different parts of machines
so that they do not react with the raw material or they do not get corroded. It is also used in
industrial applications like in heat resistive coating for different parts of large liquid boilers to
resist the heat produced by the machinery.
3.3.1 Electroplating process
Gold plating is one of the most common applications of electroplating in ornament making. In
electroplating, the solution (electrolyte) gets dissociated into its respective ions. The positive ions
are called cations and the negative ions are called anions.
The current in the electrolyte is due to the flow of these ions. The anions move towards the anode
and the cations move towards the cathode. The cations are converted into atoms at the cathode
and form a layer on it, which we call electroplating.
To compensate for the loss of ions in the solution, the atoms of the anode dissociate into the
solution, forming the ions. The process of electroplating is used for plating parts of vehicles with
nickel and chromium, which protects them from corrosion.
3.3.2 Specific applications
Chromium has a shiny appearance and it does not corrode and it can resist scratches. But
chromium is expensive and it may not be economical to make the whole object using chromium.
So some objects are made from cheaper metal and only a coating of chromium is deposited.
Jewellery makers generally use electroplating of silver and gold on less expensive metals.
Tin cans used for storing food are made by electroplating tin on iron, since Tin is less reactive
than iron. Thus, food does not come into contact with iron and is protected from being spoiled.
Iron is used in bridges and automobiles to provide strength. However, iron tends to corrode and
rust. So a coating of zinc is deposited on iron to protect it from corrosion and formation of rust.
Chromium plating is done on many objects like car, kitchen gas burner, bicycle handle bars,
wheels rims and many others.
In general, there are four main applications of chemical effects of electric current, they are –
Electrolysis: The chemical decomposition produced by passing an electric current through a liquid or
solution containing ions.
Electro plating: The coating on a metal body by the process of electrolytic deposition with chromium, silver,
or another metal.
Electro refining of metals: It is also known as electro winning or electroextraction process. It is the process
of electrodeposition of metals using a solution, commonly referred to as leaching. Electro refining uses a
similar process to remove impurities from a metal.
Battery charging: Using certain reversible chemical reaction with the help of electric current.

P a g e | 35
3.4 X-RAY EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
The x-ray is also known as x-radiation, which is composed of x-rays. It is a form of
electromagnetic radiation. The x-rays have an extremely small wavelength* within the range of
. × −9 to × −9 . Thus, their frequencies lie in the range of × 6
𝑧 to
−9
× 𝑧†. They have the energy in a range of 100eV to 100keV.
The x-rays were originally invented by Wilhelm Röntgen, who named it as x-radiation to imply it
as an unknown type of radiation.
3.4.1 How x-rays are produced?
Basically the apparatus that produces x-rays consists of Crooke’s glass tube, with high vacuum. It
has a wire element at one end which is cathode and a heavy copper target at the other end forming
the anode. When a high voltage is applied to the electrodes, electrons emitted at the cathode are
attracted towards the anode and strike the copper with extremely high energy. Roentgen
discovered these radiations to be extremely penetrating radiations. He named these radiations,
produced at anode as x-rays.
When electrons hit the anode, some of the electrons approach the nucleus of the metal atoms
where they are deflected because of their opposite charges‡. This deflection causes the energy of
the electron to decrease. The decrease in energy is responsible to produce x-rays.
3.4.2 Applications of x-rays
A large number of applications of x-rays are based on their ability to pass through matter. This
ability changes with different substances. For example, x-rays can easily penetrate through wood
and flesh, but cannot through denser substances like lead and bone. So these substances are
opaque to x-rays. The penetrating power of x-rays also depends on their energy. The high energy
x-rays have more penetrating x-rays, known as hard x-rays. The small energy x-rays are called as
soft x-rays.
The x-rays when pass through a body provide a visual image of its interior structure when they
strike a photographic plate or a fluorescent screen. The darkness of the shadows produced on the
plate or screen depends on the relative opacity of different parts of the body.
Photographs obtained with the help of x-rays are known as radiographs. The radiography has
applications in both medicine and industry.
Radiography is also used in the examination and analysis of old paintings, to study the internal
structure of the painting.
The x-rays are also used in the applications of microscopy or micro-radiography.
However, there is one danger while using x-rays. They can destroy living tissue and can cause
severe skin burns on human flesh if it is exposed for a long a time. But this destructive power is
also used in some applications of medical science as therapy to destroy diseased cells in human
body.
* The wavelength of x-ray is shorter than the UV rays but longer than Gamma rays.
† Remember that the frequencies up to 6 𝑧 are termed as Petahertz and the frequencies up to 9 𝑧 are termed as
Exahertz.
‡ Electrons are negative and the nucleus is positive, so the electrons are attracted towards the nucleus.

P a g e | 36
3.5 MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
Electric current can also produce magnetic effect. This was originally invented by Michael
Faraday. He found that when a magnetic compass is brought near a current carrying conductor the
needle of compass gets deflected because of flow of electric current. This shows that electric
current produces a magnetic effect. This phenomenon is the law of electromagnetic induction.
Refer the topics of 1.2.8 on page-15 to 1.3.3 on page-18, for more details on electromagnetic induction.
3.5.1 Applications
The magnetic effect of electric current is widely used in generators, transformer, different induction
processes in industries, fans, etc.
It also finds applications in prime movers like electric motors and magneto, etc.
3.6 PHYSICAL EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

You may be familiar with the experience of electric shock. It causes our body the experience of
pain. We know that electric current is conducted through a material, any opposition to the flow of
electrons (resistance) results in a dissipation of energy, usually in the form of heat. This is the
most basic and easy to understand effect of electricity on living tissue: current makes it heat up. If
the amount of heat generated is sufficiently large then the body tissue may burn out. The effect of
electrical current is called as physical effect or physiological effect.
3.6.1 Effects on nervous system
Another effect of electric current on the human body is directly on the nervous system. The
nervous system means the network of special cells in the body called nerve cells or neurons. They
are responsible for different critical human body functions. The brain, spinal cord, and
sensory/motor organs in the body allow it to sense, move, respond, think, and remember.
Nerve cells communicate to each other by acting as transducers*. They create electrical signals
(very small voltages and currents) in response to the input of some chemical compounds in our
body called as neurotransmitters. These neurotransmitters are released when they are stimulated
by electrical signals.
If electric current of sufficient magnitude is conducted through a human body, it overrides the
tiny electrical impulses, generated by neurons. Due to this the nervous system is overloaded and
prevents the reflex actions in human body. The muscular system is also jammed or contracted and
the human being cannot articulate† properly. According to medical science, this condition of
involuntary muscle contraction is called tetanus. However, we can interrupt the shock induced
tetanus when electric current is stopped through the body.
3.6.2 Electrical standards
Experimentally it is found that our body can bear a maximum electric current of about 15mA.
However, this value is typical value. Some persons have sweaty skin and some have dry skin. So
depending on the actual physical conditions the amount of current may change through the human
body. The typical electrical resistance of human body is of the order of 40k to 60k depending
on skin conditions. If the person is sweaty, then his body resistance may drop to a small value of
* When one of energy is converted into another form, it is known as transducer.

† Articulate means to move about in definite direction.

P a g e | 37
about 1k to even 100. So such person will definitely feel more electric shock, since large
amount of current will flow.
Here it is interesting to note that the electric shock of AC voltage is rather less dangerous than the
electric shock of DC voltage. This is because in AC, the voltage of the source drops to zero,
almost 50/60 times in one second. However, in DC, this is not possible since the direction of its
polarities always remains fixed and such voltage is always constant.
But AC source has a greater tendency to throw the neurons into a condition known as fibrillation.
On the other hand, the DC tends to just make the heart stand still. Now if the shock current is
stopped, the frozen heart has a better chance to start up again than the fibrillating heart. So in
medical science, the de-fibrillating unit is used with DC source.

P a g e | 38
Summery
1. When electric current is passed through a conductor, it generates heat due to the resistance
offered to the current flow. The work done in overcoming this resistance is generated as
heat.
2. The heat produced by a heating element is directly proportional to the square of the electric
current passing through the conductor, directly proportional to the resistance of the
conductor and time for which current passes through the conductor.
3. Applications of the heating effect of electric current include appliances like electric
immersion water heater, electric iron box, etc. All of these have a heating element in it.
Heating elements are generally made of specific alloys like Nichrome, Manganin and
Constantan etc.
4. In electroplating, a liquid known as electrolyte is used, through which current passes. There
are two electrodes immersed in the liquid. The electrodes are connected across a DC power
supply with a switch in series. The electrode that is connected to the positive terminal of the
battery is called the anode and the other connected to the negative terminal is called the
cathode .
5. Gold plating is one of the most common applications of electroplating in ornament making.
In electroplating, the solution (electrolyte) gets dissociated into its respective ions. The
positive ions are called cations and the negative ions are called anions.
6. The current in the electrolyte is due to the flow of these ions. The anions move towards the
anode and the cations move towards the cathode. The cations are converted into atoms at
the cathode and form a layer on it, which we call electroplating.
7. Chromium plating is done on many objects like car, kitchen gas burner, bicycle handle bars,
wheels rims and many others.
8. Electrolysis: The chemical decomposition produced by passing an electric current through a
liquid or solution containing ions. Electro plating: The coating on a metal body by the process
of electrolytic deposition with chromium, silver, or another metal. Electro refining of metals:
It is also known as electro-winning or electroextraction process. It is the process of
electrodeposition of metals using a solution, commonly referred to as leaching. Electro
refining uses a similar process to remove impurities from a metal. Battery charging: Using
certain reversible chemical reaction with the help of electric current.
9. The x-ray is also known as x-radiation, which is composed of x-rays. It is a form of
electromagnetic radiation. The x-rays have an extremely small wavelength within the range
of . × −9 to × −9 .
10. The typical electrical resistance of human body is of the order of 40k to 60k depending on
skin conditions.
11. AC voltage is rather less dangerous than the electric shock of DC voltage. This is because in
AC, the voltage of the source drops to zero, almost 50/60 times in one second. However, in
DC, this is not possible since the direction of its polarities always remains fixed and such
voltage is always constant.

P a g e | 39
Self Examination
1. When electric current overcomes the resistance of a conductor, ________ is produced

in it.
2. ________ or ________ is used as heating element in different devices like soldering
iron, water heater, etc.
3. The amount of heat produced in a conductor due to electric current is ________
proportional to the square of _________.
4. In _________ process, a liquid known as electrolyte is used, through which current
passes.
5. ________ plating is one of the most common applications of electroplating in ornament
making.
6. There are two types of ions produced in the process of electrolysis. They are ______ and
________.
7. The current in the electrolyte is due to the flow of these ________.
8. The x-rays have an extremely small wavelength within the range of _________.
9. The typical electrical resistance of human body is of the order of _______ k depending
on skin conditions.
10. AC voltage is rather _________ dangerous than the electric shock of DC voltage

1. Explain the heating effect of electric current any two examples.
2. Define Joule’s law and explain it with an example.
3. Given any four applications of heating effect of electric current.
4. Explain the chemical effect of electric current with any two examples.
5. What is electroplating? Explain with proper examples.
6. Explain any two applications of electroplating with details.
7. What are x-rays? Write a note on it.
8. How x-rays are produced? Explain in brief.
9. Give any two applications of x-rays.
10. Explain the magnetic effects of electric current.
11. What is Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction? Explain with details.
12. Give at least two properties of each of the laws of electromagnetic induction.

P a g e | 40

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Notes of XI Bifocal (Vocational) Electrical Maintenance

11th Electrical Maintenance

Chairman of Board of Studies

Member of Board of Studies

Visit our website for more Visiting Guest Faculty

Contributor to International Magazines

Vidyasagar Academy, Akola

Vidyasagar Sir’s Notes on Applied Electrical Maintenance XI Std.; www.vsagar.org

Designed & Edited by:

Price: Rs.500.00, ($11.5 or £25.7, € 173.6, for overseas orders)

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1 Electric Circuits ........................................................................................................................... 5

Vidyasagar Sir’s Notes on Applied Electrical Maintenance XI Std.; www.vsagar.org

Vidyasagar Sir’s Notes on Applied Electrical Maintenance XI Std.; www.vsagar.org

Scope & Limitations

Vidyasagar Sir’s Notes on Applied Electrical Maintenance XI Std.; www.vsagar.org

Fig: 1-1 An analogy of potential difference with flow of water

Vidyasagar Sir’s Notes on Applied Electrical Maintenance XI Std.; www.vsagar.org

Vidyasagar Sir’s Notes on Applied Electrical Maintenance XI Std.; www.vsagar.org

Fig: 1-2 conversion scale for basic and derived units

1.5kV  1.5 103V

1.2.4 Ohm’s Law

Vidyasagar Sir’s Notes on Applied Electrical Maintenance XI Std.; www.vsagar.org

Fig: 1-5 Basic circuit of potential divider using two resistors

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Vidyasagar Sir’s Notes on Applied Electrical Maintenance XI Std.; www.vsagar.org

Vidyasagar Sir’s Notes on Applied Electrical Maintenance XI Std.; www.vsagar.org

Fig: 1-8 Basic concept of generation of AC voltage using electromagnetic induction

Vidyasagar Sir’s Notes on Applied Electrical Maintenance XI Std.; www.vsagar.org

1.3.2 Fundamentals of Transformer

Fig: 1-9 Symbols of step down and step up transformer

1.3.3 Center tapped transformer

Fig: 1-10 Concept of center tapping the secondary of a transformer

Vidyasagar Sir’s Notes on Applied Electrical Maintenance XI Std.; www.vsagar.org

Fig: 1-11 Concept of internal impedance (resistance)

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Fig: 1-12 Conduction of DC current in a conductor

Fig: 1-13 Conduction of DC current in a conductor

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Vidyasagar Sir’s Notes on Applied Electrical Maintenance XI Std.; www.vsagar.org

Vidyasagar Sir’s Notes on Applied Electrical Maintenance XI Std.; www.vsagar.org

Short answer questions

Vidyasagar Sir’s Notes on Applied Electrical Maintenance XI Std.; www.vsagar.org

Conceptual study questions Study beyond syllabus…!

Vidyasagar Sir’s Notes on Applied Electrical Maintenance XI Std.; www.vsagar.org

2 Work, Power & Energy

Scope & Limitations

Mechanical Power: simple concept of Horse Power (HP), different

Heating effects of electric current: simple relationship between

Concept of thermal efficiency: brief idea about the relationship

Summary of the chapter: important points for the quick preparation

Problems on the chapter: board examination based problems on

Self examination: objective type questions, short answer questions,

Vidyasagar Sir’s Notes on Applied Electrical Maintenance XI Std.; www.vsagar.org

Fig: 2-1 Flow of electric current through a circuit containing a resistor

Vidyasagar Sir’s Notes on Applied Electrical Maintenance XI Std.; www.vsagar.org

Vidyasagar Sir’s Notes on Applied Electrical Maintenance XI Std.; www.vsagar.org

Vidyasagar Sir’s Notes on Applied Electrical Maintenance XI Std.; www.vsagar.org

Vidyasagar Sir’s Notes on Applied Electrical Maintenance XI Std.; www.vsagar.org

Fig: 2-2 An experiment on heating effect of electric current

Vidyasagar Sir’s Notes on Applied Electrical Maintenance XI Std.; www.vsagar.org

2.4.2 Concept of thermal efficiency