Modern

Control
Engineering
D. Roy Choudhury
MODERN CONTROL
ENGINEERING

D. ROY CHOUDHURY
Professor and Head
Computer Engineering Department
Delhi College of Engineering
Delhi

New Delhi - 110 092

2015
MODERN CONTROL ENGINEERING
D. Roy Choudhury

© 2005 by PHI Learning Private Limited, Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be
reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from
the publisher.

ISBN-978-81-203-2196-0

The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher.

Ninth Printing L L January, 2015

Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, Rimjhim House, 111, Patparganj
Industrial Estate, Delhi-110092 and Printed by Mohan Makhijani at Rekha Printers Private Limited,
New Delhi-110020.

 To
The Memory of My Beloved Teacher
Professor Arun Kumar Choudhury
(formerly from Institute of Radio Physics and
Electronics, Kolkata)
Contents

Preface xiii

1. INTRODUCTION TO CONTROL SYSTEMS 1–46

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Definitions 2
1.3 History of Development of Feedback Control Systems 4
1.3.1 Automatic control 4
1.3.2 The birth of mathematical control theory 5
1.3.3 The space/computer age and modern control 7
1.4 Open-Loop Control Systems 9
1.5 Closed-Loop (Feedback) Control Systems 10
1.6 The Laplace Transform 14
1.6.1 Transfer function concept 19
1.6.2 Partial fraction expansion and MATLAB 21
1.7 State Variable Formulation 26
1.8 Properties of Transfer Function 32
1.9 Linear Approximation of Physical Systems 34
1.10 Case Study 37
1.11 Unity-Feedback System 40
1.12 Steady-State Frequency Response 42
Summary 45
Problems 45

2. MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF SYSTEMS 47–124

2.1 Introduction 47
2.2 Translational Systems 47
2.3 Rotational Systems 48
2.4 Electrical Analog of Mechanical Systems 49
2.5 Mechanical Couplings 54
2.6 Liquid-Level Systems 64
2.7 Servomotors 66
2.7.1 Two-phase servomotors 67
2.7.2 DC motors 69
2.8 Sensors 76
2.8.1 Potentiometers 76
2.8.2 Synchros 80
v
 vi Contents

2.8.3 Tachometers 84
2.8.4 Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) 86
2.8.5 Accelerometers 88
2.9 Magnetic Amplifier 90
2.9.1 Saturable core reactor 90
2.10 Stepper Motor 94
2.11 Block Diagram Reduction 96
2.11.1 Procedure for drawing the block diagram 96
2.11.2 Block diagram reduction techniques 97
2.12 Signal Flow Graph 108
2.13 Introduction to Gain Formula 109
2.14 Mason’s Gain Formula 111
2.15 Transfer Matrix of Multivariable Systems 117
Summary 119
Problems 119

3. CHARACTERISTICS OF FEEDBACK CONTROL SYSTEMS 125–143

3.1 Introduction 125
3.2 Derivation of Sensitivity 126
3.3 Sensitivity of control systems to parameter variations 127
3.4 Effect of Disturbance Signals 137
3.5 Alternative Design through Sensitivity Analysis 139
Summary 141
Problems 141

4. TRANSIENT RESPONSE ANALYSIS 144–220

4.1 Introduction 144
4.2 Typical Test Input Signals 145
4.3 First-Order Systems 146
4.3.1 Unit-step response of first-order systems 146
4.3.2 Unit-ramp response of first-order systems 152
4.3.3 Unit-impulse response of first-order systems 152
4.4 Analysis of Transient Performance from Root Pattern 153
4.5 Second-Order Position Control System 155
4.6 Unit-Step Response of Second-Order Systems 157
4.7 Parameter Variation for Second-Order System 171
4.8 Impulse Response of Second-Order System 178
4.9 Ramp Response of Second-Order System 180
4.10 Graphical Interpretation of Heaviside’s Expansion 181
4.11 Time-Domain Behaviour from Pole-Zero Plot 182
4.12 Steady-State Error 188
4.12.1 Unit-step input 189
 Contents vii

4.12.2 Unit-ramp input 189

4.12.3 Unit-parabolic (acceleration) input 190
4.13 Steady-State Error in Terms of Closed-Loop Transfer Function 191
4.14 Integral Performance Criterion 195
4.15 Derivative Control 196
4.15.1 Interpretation of derivative control from root locus point of view 199
4.16 Rate Feedback (Tachometer Feedback) Control 200
4.17 Comparison between Derivative and Rate Feedback Control 202
4.18 Analog computation 210
Summary 215
Problems 215

5. ROUTH STABILITY AND ROBUST CONTROL 221–250

5.1 Introduction 221
5.2 Stability 222
5.3 Some Results from the Theory of Equations 223
5.4 Necessary Condition for Stability 224
5.5 Routh Array 225
5.6 Special Cases 227
5.7 Application of Routh–Hurwitz Stability Criterion 232
5.8 Stability from State-Space Representation 232
5.9 Relative Stability 234
5.10 Relative Stability with Minimum Damping Ratio 237
5.11 Stability under Parameter Uncertainty: Robust Control 240
Summary 247
Problems 247

6. ROOT-LOCUS TECHNIQUE 251–322

6.1 Introduction 251
6.2 Root-Loci for Second-Order System 251
6.3 Basic Conditions for Root Loci 254
6.4 Rules for the Construction of Root Loci (0 £ K £ ¥) 257
6.5 Rules for the Construction of Inverse Root Loci 298
6.6 Effect of Adding Poles and Zeros 301
6.6.1 Addition of poles 301
6.6.2 Addition of zeros 303
6.6.3 Effect of varying the pole position 304
6.6.4 Cancellation of poles and zeros 305
6.7 Root Contour 306
6.7.1 Multiple-loop system 313
6.8 Root-locus for System with Transportation Lag 314
6.9 Design on Root Locus 315
Summary 318
Problems 319
 viii Contents

7. PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEM 323–352

7.1 Introduction 323
7.2 Proportional Control Action 324
7.2.1 Difficulty with proportional control 328
7.3 Integral Action or Reset 328
7.4 Differential Action: Derivative or Rate Control 330
7.5 PID Control 331
7.5.1 Tuning rules for PID controllers 334
7.6 PID Controller Design 338
7.7 Ziegler–Nichols Rules for Controller Tuning 338
7.7.1 First approach 338
7.7.2 Second approach 341
7.8 Adjustment According to Process Characteristics in Ziegler–Nichols Method 343
7.9 Purpose of Ziegler–Nichols Tuning Method 346
7.10 Designing Controller Using Root Loci 346
Summary 350
Problems 350

8. FREQUENCY RESPONSE ANALYSIS 353–423

8.1 Introduction 353
8.2 Bode Plot 355
8.2.1 Basic philosophy 355
8.3 Response of Linear Systems 356
8.4 Frequency Domain Analysis 358
8.5 Construction of Bode Plot 359
8.6 Log-magnitude-Versus-Phase Plot 376
8.7 Application of the Frequency Response Plot 378
8.7.1 Static position error coefficient 378
8.7.2 Static velocity error coefficient 380
8.7.3 Estimation of transfer function from Bode plot 382
8.8 Minimum and Non-Minimum Phase Transfer Functions 384
8.9 Stability of Control system with Time Delay 387
8.10 Simulation of Time Delay 389
8.11 Introduction to Polar Plot 393
8.12 Construction of Polar Plot 394
8.13 Relative stability 408
8.14 Phase Margin 410
8.15 Gain Margin 411
8.16 Conditionally Stable System 417
Summary 420
Problems 421
 Contents ix

9. NYQUIST STABILITY 424–484

9.1 Introduction 424
9.2 Basic Philosophy of Stability Criterion 424
9.3 Encircled versus Enclosed 426
9.4 Conformal Mapping 427
9.5 Cauchy’s Theorem 430
9.6 Relationship between GH-plane and F(s)-plane 433
9.7 Nyquist Stability Criterion 433
9.8 Conditionally Stable System 461
9.9 Nyquist Path for Open-Loop Poles on jw-axis 466
9.10 Closed-Loop Frequency Respone 467
9.10.1 M-circles: constant magnitude loci 468
9.10.2 N-circles: constant phase-angle loci 472
9.10.3 Nichols chart 475
9.10.4 Non-unity feedback system 481
9.10.5 Frequency domain specifications for design 482
Summary 483
Problems 484

10. COMPENSATION TECHNIQUES 485–521

10.1 Introduction 485
10.2 Cascade Compensation Networks 487
10.3 Lead Compensating Networks 488
10.4 Characteristics of Lead Networks 490
10.5 Lag Compensation 498
10.5.1 Characteristics of lag networks 499
10.5.2 Lag compensation techniques based on the root-locus approach 500
10.6 Lag–lead Compensation 506
10.6.1 Lag–lead networks 506
10.6.2 Characteristics of lag–lead networks 508
10.7 Compensation of Operational Amplifier 510
10.7.1 Transfer function of a practical op-amp 512
10.7.2 Frequency compensation 518
Summary 521
Problems 521

11. STATE-VARIABLE FORMULATION 522–618

11.1 Introduction 522
11.2 Concept of State 523
11.3 Transfer Function 531
11.3.1 Computation of transfer function using Leverrier’s algorithm 533
11.4 State Space Representation of Multivariable Systems 543
 Modern Control Engineering

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Author : CHOUDHURY, D.
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