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F

F: Farad, the SI unit of capacitance. The capacitance false crossover: A reverse crossover, often the result of
where one volt of potential causes the storage of one seeing the bottom of a body.
coulomb. 共See farad兲. false easting, false northing: See easting, northing.
fabric: The spatial configuration of features 共trends兲 char- faltung: Folding, convolution 共q.v.兲. Faltung is German
acterizing a region. Also called grain and signature. for ‘‘folding.’’
facies: 共fā’ shēz兲 1. The characteristics that distinguish a Famous: French-American mid-ocean undersea survey, a
rock from adjacent rocks, such as lithology 共lithofa- 1974 investigation of the mid-Atlantic ridge using sub-
cies兲, fossil content 共biofacies兲, color, sedimentary mersibles.
structures, grain-size distribution, etc. 2. Reflection pat- fan-filter: Velocity filter 共q.v.兲.
terns that are characteristic of depositional environ- fan shooting: Refraction technique to search for local
ments; see seismic facies. high-velocity bodies. See Figure F-1.
facies analysis: See seismic facies analysis. fantom: Phantom 共q.v.兲.
factor analysis: A method of finding a mathematical rela- farad „F…: 共fair’ ad兲 The SI unit of capacitance; where one
tionship among values. Assume that a set of observa- volt of potential causes the storage of one coulomb.
tions [x 1 ,x 2 ,...,x k ] can be accounted for by a set of Named for Michael Faraday 共1791–1867兲, English
linear relationships involving the factors physicist.
faradaic: 共far, ⳵ dā’ ik兲 Pertaining to an electrochemical
electron-transfer reaction at an electrode by the conver-
关 z 1 ,z 2 ,...,z p 兴 , sion of atom to ion or vice-versa; i.e., as the result of an
electrochemical reaction. See Warburg impedance. A
where p⬍k: x i ⫽a i1 z 1 ⫹a i2 z 2 ⫹...⫹a ip z p ⫹E i , nonfaradaic path involves the ionic layers that are adja-
cent to the electrode acting as a condenser.
where E i is an error term 共also called the specific
faraday: 共far’ ⳵ dā兲 The electric charge required to liberate
factor兲. Factor analysis 共also called multivariant
one gram-equivalent of a substance by electrolysis: 96
analysis兲 is a method of finding the parameters a i j .
487 coulombs.
Application usually begins with a learning set, a data
Faraday’s law of induction: The voltage E 共in volts兲
subset used to establish correlations between observa-
induced in a wire of length l 共in meters兲 cutting a
tions and the factors being determined, and then pro-
magnetic field of strength B 共in gauss兲 at the velocity v
ceeds to a predicting set, where the relations are used
共in m/s兲 is:
for predicting the factors associated with additional
observations.
E⫽B v l⫽⫺d␾ / dt,
fade: Mute.
failed arm: That arm of a triple junction 共q.v.兲 which where d␾ /dt⫽rate of cutting of lines of magnetic flux
ceased to be a spreading center after the other two arms in maxwell per second and the minus is inserted
formed an ocean basin; aulacogen. because of Lenz’s law 共q.v.兲. In vector notation,
fairing: Irregularities that induce turbulent flow. Drag on a
cable pulled transversely through the water is less for
turbulent than for nonturbulent flow. Irregularities 共such
as short strings fastened to the cable兲 create small

E⫽ 共 v ⫻ B兲 •dl.

vortices that reduce fluid friction. A pulled cable with- far-angle stack: A combination of only the seismic traces
out fairing alternately tends to shed large vortices for which the angles of incidence are large 共often
accompanied by spurts of motion, causing vibration and 30– 45°兲. Used in studies of the variation of amplitude
inducing noise. with offset 共AVO兲 to compare with a stack of small
fairway: 1. The region within which effort is to be con- angle-of-incidence traces.
centrated, such as 共in velocity analysis兲 a band of far-field: Field remote from the source. Spherical waves
possible velocities within which one searches for veloc- involve terms that decrease as both 1/r and 1/r 2 ,
ity picks from normal-moveout measurements. 2. A where r is distance from the source 共see Sheriff and
trend of hydrocarbon accumulations. 3. The region Geldart, 1995, 48兲; far-field implies that the terms that
within which data values must lie to be considered depend on 1/r 2 are unimportant. The far-field repre-
valid. sents radiated energy and implies that rⰇ␭, where ␭
FAL: Formation-Analysis Log 共q.v.兲. ⫽wavelength. Compare near-field.
false color: 1. Color arbitrarily assigned to values; farm-out, farm-in: A sublease granting the farm-in com-
pseudocolor. 2. Specifically, the use of colors to rep- pany the lease rights held by the farm-out company.
resent different frequency bands 共or other measurable The sublease often includes an override granting cer-
characteristics兲 where the colors are not those naturally tain royalties to the farm-out company.
characteristic. For example, infrared differences dis- far-offset stack: A stack of only traces with large offset,
played as parts of the visible spectrum on satellite often the farthest third of the traces; a far-range stack.
imagery. See also far-angle stack.

129
far-zone sounding 130 fault

far-zone sounding: An electromagnetic sounding 共q.v.兲 in hade; other terms related to faulting are defined in
which the source-receiver spacing is much greater than Figures F-2, F-3, and F-4. The trace of a fault is the
the depth of investigation 共q.v.兲. Compare near-zone line that the fault plane makes with a surface 共often the
sounding. Also known as long-offset sounding. surface of the ground, sometimes a bedding surface兲.
Fast Fourier transform „FFT…: An algorithm 共such as Faults are classified as normal, reverse, or strike-slip,
the Cooley-Tukey method兲 that accomplishes the dis- depending on the relative motion along the fault plane;
crete Fourier transform more rapidly than direct evalu- see Figure F-3. A fourth type of fault, associated with
ation. Most FFTs involve iterative methods and take plate movement, is a transform fault 共q.v.兲. A hinge or
advantage of mathematical symmetry and redundancy. scissors fault is produced by rotation of the blocks
See Sheriff and Geldart 共1995, 549–550兲. across the fault about an axis perpendicular to the fault
fast in, slow out „FISO…: A sample/hold circuit 共q.v.兲. plane so that throw varies along the fault trace. Primary
fathom: 6 ft or 1.8288 m. faults may produce secondary stresses that produce
fathometer: A device for measuring water depth by tim- secondary faults 共which may be of different type兲. Thus
ing sonic reflections from the water bottom; an echo thrusting may produce tensions that cause secondary
sounder. normal faults. Faulting and folding are common
fatigue: 共fe’ tēg兲 See hole fatigue. responses to the same stresses; see Figure F-17. Fault-
fault: 1. A displacement of rocks along a shear surface; ing during sediment deposition 共growth faulting兲 often
see Figures F-2, F-3, and F-4. The surface along which affects the stratigraphy such that beds may abruptly
displacement occurs is called the fault plane 共often a thicken and become more sandy downthrown at a nor-
curved surface and not ‘‘plane’’ in the geometric sense兲. mal growth fault. Evidences of faults in seismic data
The dip of the fault plane is the angle that it makes with 共see Sheriff and Geldart, 1995, 376, 461兲 are principally
the horizontal; the angle with the vertical is called the by: 共a兲 abrupt termination of events, 共b兲 diffractions, 共c兲

FIG. F-1. Fan shooting. Detectors are located roughly on the arc of a circle centered at the source point in different
directions. Expected arrival times are determined from a normal traveltime curve (versus distance) where no local
high-velocity body is present. An early arrival (lead) with respect to the normal indicates that part of the travelpath is at
an abnormally high velocity, signifying the presence of a local high-velocity body such as a salt dome. This method was
used in early seismic exploration to locate salt domes within the thick low-velocity Gulf Coast sediments. (From
Nettleton, 1940.)
fault cut 131 feather pattern

changes in dip, either flattening or steepening, 共d兲 dis- lap 共double-valued兲 surfaces.
tortions of dips seen through the fault, a consequence of fault seal analysis: Efforts to predict whether a fault rep-
raypath bending because of velocity changes across a resents a barrier to the flow of formation fluids because
fault, 共e兲 deterioration of data beneath the fault produc- it juxtaposes impermeable rocks against permeable
ing a ‘‘shadow-zone,’’ 共f兲 changes in the pattern of ones. Generally footwall and hanging-wall fault slices
events across the fault, and 共g兲 occasionally a reflection 共q.v.兲 are interpreted as to probable permeability and
from the fault plane. Faults 共especially small ones兲 are then they are superimposed. Fault seal analysis may
often en echelon or braided rather than parallel and also involve predicting a probability that clay will be
continuous. 2. In gravity or magnetic data, the edge of smeared out sufficiently along a fault surface to prevent
a thin, roughly horizontal slab with density or suscep- the flow of fluids across the fault 共clay-smear poten-
tibility different from that of horizontally adjacent tial兲.
material. fault shadow: Distorted or relatively dead reflections in
fault cut: Fault trace 共q.v.兲. the footwall zone of a fault, the result of reflection
faulted slab: A semi-infinite slab 共plate兲 of uniform thick- raypaths bending differently as they traverse a fault at
ness, commonly used in potential-field modeling. locations where the velocity contrast differs 共e.g., for
fault-plane solutions: Resolution of the direction of ini- the traces that make up a CMP gather兲.
tial slippage along an earthquake fault determined from fault slice: Slicing through a 3D data volume along a
variations in the direction of first motion at stations in curved surface parallel to a fault plane. Because data
different directions from the epicenter. See Fowler are usually distorted when very near a fault, fault slices
共1990, 99–101兲. are made a short distance 共perhaps 50–100 m兲 on either
fault polygons: Normal faults create a gap in a mapped side of the fault, resulting in footwall and hanging-
surface, which are represented by planar polygons at wall slices. These are then projected into vertical sec-
interpretation workstations. Reverse faults create over- tions to indicate splinter faulting or closure against the
fault. Footwall and hanging-wall slices are often super-
imposed to indicate sealing against the fault; see fault
seal analysis. See Brown 共1999, 20–22, 225–232兲 and
Figures F-5 and T-5.
fault trace: Intersection of a fault with a line or surface
such as a horizon, time, or depth slice.
Faust’s equations: Empirical relationships between seis-
mic velocity V in ft/s, geologic age T, true formation
resistivity ␳ in ohm feet, and depth of burial z in feet:
V⫽K 共 zT 兲 1/6 ,
V⫽2000 共 ␳ z 兲 1/6 .
z is sometimes taken to be the maximum depth to which
the formation has ever been buried, not necessarily its
present depth. See Faust 共1951, 1953兲. The reciprocal
of the second equation above is sometimes written with
three constants 共k,a,b兲 to be evaluated empirically from
sonic-log transit time (⌬t) data:
1/V⫽⌬t⫽k ␳ ⫺a z ⫺b .
Named for Lawrence Y. Faust, American geophysicist.
FD: Frequency Domain. See frequency-domain method.
FDC: Compensated Formation-Density log; see density
log. Schlumberger tradename.
FDEM, FEM: Frequency-Domain ElectroMagnetics; see
electromagnetic sounding.
FDL: Formation-Density Log; see density log.
feathering: En-echelon arrangement of successive
spreads, as produced in marine shooting when a cross-
current causes the cable to drift at an angle to the
seismic line. See Figures F-6 and T-4.
feather edge: 共of pinchout兲: The line of disappearance of
a wedge of material. Evidence of the wedge’s presence
in seismic data disappears when the wedge gets too thin
to be detected but before the wedge itself disappears.
See Figures T-17.
feather pattern: A weighted or tapered pattern of geo-
phones within a group 共or of shotholes, weight-drop
points, etc.兲 such that the contributions of the elements
FIG. F-2. Fault nomenclature. of the pattern decrease with distance from its center.
feedback 132 fence effect

feedback: The use of part of the output of a system as a felsic: 共fel’ sik兲 Applied to an igneous rock having abun-
partial input. Negative feedback, where part of the dant light-colored minerals. A mnemonic for feldspar
output is fed out-of-phase into the input, attenuates ⫹lenad (feldspathoids)⫹silica. The complement of
variations for self-correcting or control purposes. Used mafic.
in AGC systems. Positive feedback, where a portion of FEM⫽FDEM: Frequency-Domain ElectroMagnetics;
the output is fed in-phase into the input, is used to see electromagnetic sounding.
produce oscillation. fence diagram: Network of cross sections, usually sim-
feedback filter: Recursive filter 共q.v.兲. plified and often displayed in vertical isometric projec-
Fejer kernel window: 共fā’ j⳵r兲 A window shaped accord- tion, to illustrate variations in the third dimension.
ing to Commonly used to show the relationships among a
number of wells. A fence-diagram is shown in Figures
sinc2 共 ␲ t/T 兲 ⫽ 共 T/ ␲ t 兲 2 sin2 共 ␲ t/T 兲 .
F-7 and T-6.
Named for Lipot Fejer 共1880–1959兲, Hungarian math- fence effect: An IP, resistivity, or electromagnetic
ematician. anomaly produced by the presence of a nearby

FIG. F-3. Fault types.


fence effect 133 fence effect

FIG. F-4. Fault types. (a) A secondary antithetic fault, has throw in the direction opposite to that of the primary fault
P and secondary synthetic fault S. (b) Faulting involving rotation that increases the throw of the fault. (c) Growth fault
curved (listric) in both plan and cross-section. Fault movement contemporaneous with deposition produces thickening
into the fault and a rollover anticline. (d) Development of a duplex structure by thrust faulting (overthrusting or
underthrusting). (From Boyer and Elliott, 1982.)
fence effect 134 fence effect

FIG. F-4. Fault types. (Continued). (e) Wrench (strike-slip) faulting. A wrench fault often has associated secondary
wrench, normal, and thrust faults and folding at roughly 30° to the wrench fault. Wrench fault traces are often en echelon
rather than continuous. (f) Right-lateral wrench fault. Components of convergence or divergence may produce flower
structures (see Figure F-12). (From Sheriff and Geldart, 1995, 369–370.) (g) Transitions from fault to fault may be
accompanied by tear faults, folds, or in other ways. (h) Faulting associated with subduction zone. The accretionary
wedge is generally built by underthrusting. (From Lowell, 1985.) (i) Transform fault offsetting spreading center. Rift
faulting associated with extension is usually asymmetric. (From Bally and Snelson, 1980.)
fence effect 135 fence effect

FIG. F-5. A fault slice is made by slicing a 3D volume parallel to a picked fault; data from downthrown and upthrown
slices are often color coded and superimposed to aid in seeing connectivity across faults, secondary faults, or changes
that may indicate an accumulation against the fault. See also Figure T-5. (From Brown, 1986, 186.)
Fermat path 136 field timing

grounded conductor, such as a metal fence. The nature at the same time. 3. Time marks on a seismic record.
of a fence is usually indicated on IP maps, for example, fiducial time: 共fi doo’ sh⳵l兲 1. Arrival time on a seismic
‘‘wooden post fence,’’ ‘‘steel post fence,’’ etc. record with respect to a datum. 2. The absolute chro-
Fermat path: A curve that satisfies Fermat’s principle and nological time of magnetic or other geophysical mea-
Snell’s Law; a raypath 共q.v.兲. surements.
Fermat’s principle: 共fer maz’兲 The seismic raypath field: 1. That space in which an effect, e.g., gravity, elec-
between two points is that for which the first-order tric, or magnetic, is measurable. Fields are character-
variation of traveltime with respect to neighboring ized by continuity and have one and only one value
paths is zero. It is sometimes phrased as that path for associated with every location within the space. 2. The
which the traveltime is a minimum 共or, in certain cases, outdoors, where geophysical surveys are made. 3. A
a maximum or a stationary value兲 compared with large tract or area containing valuable minerals, such as
neighboring paths. If the intervening media have differ- a coal field or an oil field; see resource. 4. Space on a
ent speeds, the path will not be straight, but will be such storage or display device where related arrangements of
that the over-all traveltime is minimized 共usually兲. The characters or digits represent a quantity, amount, name,
resulting raypath is called the least-time path or bra- identity, etc. 5. Domain 共q.v.兲.
chistochrone. Snell’s law follows from Fermat’s prin- field balance: See Schmidt field balance.
ciple. Named for Pierre Fermat 共1601–1665兲, French field continuation: See continuation.
mathematician. field-effect transistor „FET…: A transistor whose integral
ferrimagnetism: 共fe rı̄’mag n⳵, tiz ⳵m兲 Property of some operation is unipolar in nature; used in integrated cir-
spinel-structured ferrites that show both ferromagnetic cuits because of its small size, low-power dissipation,
and antiferromagnetic properties because ionic interac- and low cost. A semiconducting device that uses a
tions favor both parallel and antiparallel alignments of transverse electric field as input to vary its conductance
group 共domain兲 magnetic moments. Ferrimagnetic sub- and thus control its output current. Ideally it is a
stances include distinct ferromagnetic sublattices that voltage-controlled current source.
couple antiferromagnetically so that the observed mag- field file: A common-source gather that has not undergone
netism is the difference. very much processing; often multiplexed.
ferromagnetic: 共fe rō’mag n⳵, tik兲 Having positive and field filter: A band-pass filter used in recording seismic or
relatively large susceptibility and generally large hys- other data.
teresis and remanence. In ferromagnetic materials the field impedance: See impedance.
atoms interact and atomic magnetic moments couple so field intensity: Force per unit. For a magnetic field, force
that groups of atoms 共domains兲 behave collectively and per unit magnetic pole 共or current per unit length兲; for a
orient in a parallel configuration. As the temperature of gravitational field, force per unit mass 共or acceleration兲;
such materials rises to the Curie point, the thermal for an electric field, force per unit charge 共or voltage
energy of the atoms becomes sufficient to overcome the gradient兲. Also called field strength. Sometimes
coupling energy and the material behaves paramagneti- expressed as flux density, lines of force per unit area.
cally. See also diamagnetic and paramagnetic. field of view: The solid angle through which an instru-
FET: Field-Effect Transistor 共q.v.兲. ment is sensitive to radiation.
fetch: The action of obtaining an instruction from a stored field processing: 1. Processing performed at the time of
program and decoding the instruction. Also refers to data acquisition or at the acquisition site. 2. Separation
that portion of a computer’s instruction cycle where this of the formation fluids 共natural gas, crude oil, water,
action is performed. and sediments兲 after being brought to the surface.
FFI: Free Fluid Index 共q.v.兲. See also nuclear-magnetism Involves gravity settling, filtering, and breakdown of
log. emulsions 共suspensions of one fluid in another fluid兲 by
FFT: Fast Fourier Transform 共q.v.兲. chemicals or heating.
Fick’s law: The diffusion-rate law of electrochemistry: field tape: A magnetic tape containing geophysical data
the time rate of diffusion is proportional to the negative recorded in the field, as opposed to a processed tape on
of the rate of change of the concentration of the diffus- which the data have been modified by computer pro-
ing substance. cessing.
fiducials: 1. Points accepted as fixed bases of reference. 2. field timing: The timing signals recorded in the field
Marks that indicate points of simultaneity; e.g., a mark 共usually displayed on a field monitor record as timing
on a magnetic-intensity record showing which point lines兲, on an analog field tape as a 100-Hz timing
corresponds to a point on an altimeter record and to a signal, and on digital tape as timing words or words
point on the map or navigation records that were made counted from the time break. Commonly originates

FIG. F-6. Feathering of a marine streamer. See also Figure T-4.


figure of merit 137 file protect

from a crystal-controlled oscillator or from a tuning over a period of 4 –5 seconds. See Canada Geol. Survey
fork. See Figure R-6. 共1991兲.
figure of merit: A measure of the effectiveness of aero- figure of the Earth: Geoid 共q.v.兲.
magnetic survey aircraft compensation for maneuver file: 1. A collection of related records or program instruc-
effects. The sum, without regard to sign, of the ampli- tions treated as a unit. 2. A set of records on a recording
tudes in nT of the 12 magnetic signatures recorded medium 共such as magnetic tape兲 that are delimited by
when the aircraft carries out 10 rolls, 5 pitches, 5 yaws end-of-file marks.
peak-to-peak on north, east, south, and west headings file protect: An interlock that prevents writing new infor-

FIG. F-7. (a) Fence diagram composited from a grid of seismic record sections. (Courtesy Chevron Oil Co.) (b)
Computer-drawn isometric fence diagram of six seismic lines. (Courtesy Grant-Norpac.) (c) Same as (b) except with
data above some picked horizon removed. (d) Fence diagram to show spatial relationship of data from a series of eight
wells. (From Brown and Fisher, 1977, 222.)
file transfer protocol „FTP… 138 filtration rate

mation on top of information already stored, and thus to achieve with physical circuit components. Filtering
inadvertently destroying it. can be accomplished by optical methods as well as by
file transfer protocol „FTP…: An internet protocol that electrical and digital methods. 7. Specific types of fil-
facilitates transferring files between computers. ters used commonly include the Butterworth filter
filter: 1. A part of a system that discriminates against 共q.v.兲, a band-pass filter design with flat response, and
some of the information entering it. The discrimination the Chebychev filter „Tchebyscheff filter…, a band-
is usually on the basis of frequency, although other pass filter with a steep rolloff, characterized by a uni-
bases such as wavelength, moveout, coherence, or form ripple in the pass band. 8. See also inverse filter
amplitude may be used. See Figure F-8. 2. Linear 共Sheriff and Geldart, 1995, 284, 292, 550兲. Stacking is
filtering is called convolution 共q.v.兲. A linear filter may a filtering process. 9. To remove solids from a suspen-
be characterized by its impulse response or by its sion by passage through a sieve.
frequency-domain transfer characteristics 共amplitude filter analysis: Determining the filter band pass to use.
and phase response as a function of frequency兲. 3. Alias filter cake: Mud cake 共q.v.兲.
filters 共q.v.兲 are very sharp high-cut filters designed to filter correction: Correction of record times to compen-
prevent aliasing. 4. Band-pass filters are often speci- sate for time delays associated with filters.
fied by listing their low-cut and high-cut component filtering: The attenuation of components of a signal based
filters. Filter characteristics are often specified by the on some measurable property. Usually implies that the
frequencies at which the amplitude is down by 3 dB measurable property is frequency. May be done by
共70% or half power兲 and by the slope of the cutoff. analog methods 共often electrically兲 or numerically. See
Thus ‘‘14/18 –56/36’’ specifies a band-pass filter with a filter and Figure F-8.
low-cut down 3 dB at 14 Hz with an 18 dB/octave slope filter panel: A display showing data filtered by a sequence
and a high-cut down 3 dB at 56 Hz with a 36 dB/octave of narrow band-pass filters to see the effects of different
slope. Typical seismic filter curves are shown in Figure passbands. Also called frequency slices.
F-9. See also high-cut filter 共⫽low-pass filter兲 and filter scan: Filter panel 共q.v.兲.
low-cut filter 共⫽high-pass filter兲. The order of the speci- filtrate: Fluid that has passed through a filter. Specifically,
fication is sometimes reversed. 5. Notch filters sharply the drilling fluid that has passed through the mud cake
reject a very narrow band of frequencies. 6. Digital 共q.v.兲.
filters permit filtering in accord with arbitrarily chosen filtration rate: The velocity V of fluid movement, equal to
characteristics that might prove difficult or impossible the volume of fluid moved through a cross-section of

FIG. F-8. Filtering types.


fines 139 fission track dating

area A per unit of time, given by firmware: A computer program that is implemented in
hardware, such as read-only memory.
V⫽qÕA⫽⫺ 共 k/ ␮ 兲 ⵜ P, first arrival: First break 共q.v.兲.
where ⵜ P is the pressure gradient, k the permeability, first break: The first recorded signal attributable to
and ␮ the viscosity. The apparent filtration rate in a seismic-wave travel from a known source. First breaks
porous medium is V⫽q/ ␾ A, where ␾ is the porosity. on reflection records are used for information about the
fines: Particles smaller than 1 mm across. weathering. An initial compression usually shows as a
fingering: Fluid flow along higher permeability channels downkick 共SEG polarity standard兲. First-break times
in a reservoir where the permeability is inhomoge- are used in static corrections and in headwave interpre-
neous. tation.
fingerprinting oil: Determining distinguishing character- first-break intercept-time method: A method of making
istics by gas chromatography, carbon isotopes, biomar- static corrections based on first breaks; refraction stat-
kers, and other properties. ics. See Figure S-22.
fingers: Probes on the sonde of a caliper log 共q.v.兲 or first motion: The direction of the first motion at a given
dipmeter log 共q.v.兲 that feel where the borehole wall is. location because of a P-wave from an earthquake. See
fining upward: Clastic sediments that are becoming finer Figure F-10.
upward; see Figure C-6. first-order triangulation: See triangulation.
finite-difference method: 1. A scheme to solve differen- first point of Aries: See Aries.
tial equations by substituting difference quotients for fish: 1. A sensor that is towed in the water, such as
derivatives. 2. Method of approximating a derivative by side-scan sonar. A magnetometer fish is typically towed
taking the difference of the function at two discrete 200–300 m behind a vessel at a depth of 3–5 m. 2. An
points. object unintentionally left in the borehole during drill-
finite-element method: A numerical scheme for approxi- ing or workover operations that must be recovered
mating a solution to differential equations by represent- before work can proceed.
ing curved lines as sequences of small straight-line fishnet plot: An isometric plot such as drawn by a com-
elements. puter, where the three-dimensional aspect is illustrated
fire-flood: See in-situ combustion. by displacement of the grid lines.
firewall: A security system that prevents unauthorized fishtail bit: A drilling bit with cutting edges of hard
access. alloys; also called a drag bit. Used to drill soft forma-
FIR filter: A filter with Finite-duration Impulse tions. See Figure D-26a.
Response. fish trap: Government conservation agent attached to a
firing: Generating a seismic wave. Originally meant, deto- seismic marsh or water crew.
nating an explosion, but now includes any means. fission track dating: 共fish’ ⳵n trak兲 A method of calculat-
firing rate: The rate at which a transducer, sparker, or ing age by measuring the track density left by sponta-
other energy source is discharged. neous splitting of 238U. Tracks show the physical dam-

FIG. F-9. Filter curves for typical seismic amplifier.


five spot pattern 140 fixed-source method

age to mineral grains produced by spontaneous fission fixed data: Parameters and other data that are constant for
of 238U. The number of tracks is proportional to the a collection of data and thus need to be input to a
isotope’s concentration and the age. The tracks are computer only once.
made visible under electron microscope by etching a fixed field: A preassigned memory location.
thin sample with acid. The 238U count is obtained by the fixed layer: A compact layer of ions and molecules held in
238
U/ 235 U ratio and neutron irradiation that causes 235U place on an electrode or solid by chemical or electro-
to fission. static adsorption forces. Also called the bound layer or
five spot pattern: A pattern of four injection wells sur- inner Helmholz double-layer.
rounding a producing well. Used in secondary and fixed-layer capacitance: Capacitance resulting from the
enhanced oil production techniques. presence of fixed-layer ions.
fix: A determination of location, as by the intersection of fixed point: 1. A method of data representation in which
two lines-of-position 共q.v.兲 See Figure L-6. A fix is the radix point 共decimal point兲 is fixed. Compare float-
made without reference to a former position. Fixes are ing point. 2. Sometimes implies integer operation.
determined by terrestrial, electronic, or astronomic fixed-source method: A profiling method in which the
means. source of energy is stationary and the receiver is moved

FIG. F-10. First motion (focal mechanism) in an earthquake. ‘‘Beach balls’’ (Sykes diagrams) are map views showing
where the first motion is compressional (black) and dilatational (white); the epicenter being at the center of each
diagram. (a) Map view of a strike-slip fault and its beach ball; (b) vertical section of a reverse fault and its beach-ball
map; (c) vertical section of a normal fault and its beach-ball map; (d) Map of earthquakes in the Mediterranean region.
(After McKenzie, 1972).
fizz water 141 F-layer

about to explore the area. Electromagnetic sounding value to the chosen value; clipping. May be caused by
techniques are often fixed-source methods. Compare loss of sensitivity because of the saturation of some part
moving-source method. of the measuring system. Compare digital clipping and
fizz water: Formation water that contains a small non- see Figure C-5.
commercial amount of free, nonsolution gas. It may F-layer: 1. One of the layers of ionized air in the iono-
give a false hydrocarbon indicator 共q.v.兲 evidence. sphere; it reflects radio waves up to about 50 MHz. In
f-k analysis: See f-k domain. the daytime the F-layer subdivides into two layers, the
f-k domain: The frequency-wavenumber domain in lower of which (F 1 ) is usually 175 to 250 km high and
which the independent variables are frequency 共f兲 and
wavenumber 共k,兲 the result of a 2D Fourier transform of
a seismic record or seismic section; f-k space. Seismic
data analysis sometimes involves f-k plots 共see Figure
F-11兲 in which energy density within a given time
interval is contoured on a frequency-versus-
wavenumber basis. Used to examine the direction and
apparent velocity of seismic waves and in velocity-filter
design.
f-k filtering: Removing energy from seismic data by
applying frequency, wavenumber, or velocity filters
共q.v.兲 in the frequency-wavenumber domain. See Figure
F-11.
f-k migration: Migration 共q.v.兲 in the frequency-
wavenumber domain; Stolt migration. See Sheriff and
Geldart 共1995, 329–330兲.
f-k plot: See f-k domain.
flag, flagging: 1. A piece of cloth, rope, or nylon used to
mark a position on a wireline. 2. Strips of plastic, cloth,
or paper used to mark instrument or source locations or
to indicate access points in the field. 3. A bit attached to
a computer word to indicate the boundary of a field. 4.
An indicator to tell a later part of a computer program
about a condition that occurred earlier in the program.
Used to synchronize within a program or to lock out
data. Also called semaphore.
Flair: A marine seismic method employing a streamer
dipping at a small angle 共about 1°兲, often from about 10
to 50 m. Since ghosting depends on receiver depth, the
notch frequencies associated with receiver ghosting
共and the ghosts兲 are effectively eliminated after CMP
stacking. Also known as the slant cable method.
Tradename of Deatex Services.
flash memory: A persistent computer memory used to
store data or programs instead of on a disk or tape.
flat address space: Logical organization of memory stor-
age into a sequence of consecutive locations.
flat spot: A horizontal seismic reflection attributed to an
interface between two fluids such as gas and water or
gas and oil. See hydrocarbon indicator.
flattened sectionÕsurface: A datumed section/surface. 1.
A seismic record section 共or volume兲 in which a par-
ticular event has been made flat 共or sometimes merely
smooth兲 by introducing arbitrary time shifts. If the
event represents a bed that was deposited horizontally,
the flattened section resembles a paleosection showing
the attitude of deeper events at the time of deposition of
the flattened bed; see Figure F-12. Useful in studies of
FIG. F-11. f,k plot. (a) The region passed by array,
variations in the time interval between events and frequency, and velocity filters is cross-hatched. Radial
sometimes used for static corrections. 2. A paleosection lines through the origin represent constant apparent
共q.v.兲. velocity V a (V a ⫽f/k⫽ ␻ / ␬ ). (b) Data beyond the Nyquist
flattening: 1. The difference between the major and minor wavenumber f N (determined by discrete spatial sampling)
axes of an ellipse divided by the major axis; see Figure wraps around (aliases) and may get mixed up with the
E-12. The flattening of the Earth is about 1/295.25. signal. In wraparound, data to the right of ⫹k N continues
2. See flattened section/surfaces. rightward from ⫺k N, where K N is the Nyguist wave-
flat-topping: Reducing values that exceed some chosen number.
fled 142 flow chart

is found only during daylight. The higher F 2 layer at face of the plate. 2. Guided wave in a borehole.
250 to 400 km is present both night and day and is the flight line: A line on a map or chart to represent the track
principal reflector of HF radio waves at night. See over which an aircraft or satellite has flown or is to fly.
Figure A-22. 2. A transition layer between the Earth’s flight-path recovery: Process 共especially in older aero-
outer and inner cores; see Figure E-1. magnetic surveys兲 where the location of the aircraft is
fled: Flood 共q.v.兲. tied to known ground points. Usually done with photo-
flex binning: Locally increasing bin size to maintain con- graphs or videotape.
stant multiplicity, designed to compensate for acquisi- flip: To switch back and forth between screen displays.
tion irregularities. Bin-flexing schemes usually use flip polarity: The polarity of an in-line SV-section inverts
some uniqueness criteria involving trace selection so at zero offset.
that only one trace in each offset range is retained. See flip-flop: 1. Use of two sources fired alternately, or of two
fold. boats that fire their sources alternately. Either or both
flexing: See flex binning. boats may tow streamers. Used in marine 3D acquisi-
flexural rigidity of the Earth’s crust: See radius of tion to record more than one line on a single traverse. 2.
regionality. A bistable oscillator; a device with exactly two stable
flexural ice wave: A source-generated horizontally propa- states. Used to store one bit of information.
gating noise wave that typically occurs in Arctic floating: Not electrically connected to ground or to the
regions when surface seismic reflection data are system reference voltage.
recorded on a floating sheet of ice. The noise train is floating charge: A seismic charge that is not as deep as
much higher amplitude and usually has a wider band- intended. Characterized by early uphole time and
width than does the ground roll that occurs on dryland. delayed reflection times.
flexural wave: 共flek’ sh⳵r ⳵l兲 1. A normal mode in a thin floating datum: A variable reference used in areas of
plate with motion antisymmetric about the median sur- appreciable topography. The elevation of the datum is
varied to lessen the sensitivity to the approximations in
static corrections if a constant-elevation datum were
used and to compensate for velocity variations because
of the increased loading of the topography. The relief
on a one-third floating datum is one-third of the
surface elevation above a flat plane. Tilted plane
datums are also used sometimes.
floating point: A number expressed by the significant
figures times a base raised to a power. Thus 139 000
might be written as 1.390⫻10 5 to indicate four signifi-
cant figures. Writing numbers in floating-point format
prevents the loss of significant figures in case the num-
ber becomes too small or too large for a fixed register.
Computers usually use bases that are a power of 2
rather than the base 10.
flood: 1. To drive oil through a reservoir by injecting
water or another fluid under pressure into the reservoir
formation. 2. To drown out a well with water. 3. To
make the velocity the same everywhere below some
given surface as a step in depth-migrating data; see
depth-migration. For example, in migrating subsalt
data, one often assumes that the sediment velocity
function applies everywhere 共sediment velocity flood兲
while migrating the top of the salt, then assumes salt
velocity everywhere below the top salt 共salt flood兲 to
migrate the base of the salt, and finally one assumes a
sediment velocity function below the base salt. Hope-
fully produces a clear sharp image of subsalt reflec-
tions.
flood the topography: Use of an elevated datum in grav-
ity data reduction.
flooding surface: A depositional surface that marks an
abrupt increase in water depth 共Van Wagoner, 1995兲.
flood-plain deposits: Sediments deposited outside of a
river channel by flooding; overbank deposits.
flops: Floating-point operations per second.
FIG. F-12. Flattening can be done by tracking horizons floppy disk: A portable disk storage; a diskette.
(picking) and then time-shifting. Flattening on one horizon flow chart: A diagram showing the operations involved in
illustrates structure at the time of deposition of that a process. Often used to show the steps of a computer
horizon, assuming it was deposited horizontally. (Courtesy program or steps in processing. See Figures F-14 and
C.G.G.) P-14.
flower structure 143 flyer

flower structure: A geologic structure that results from pore fluids from brine to oil or gas with specific fluid
strike-slip movement associated with convergence 共pro- properties. The calculations are used to predict how to
ducing a positive flower structure兲 or divergence 共a interpret time-lapse measurements.
negative flower structure兲. Generally shows as an fluid-travel log: A recording of the flow of fluid past a
upward-widening cone containing a number of faults. logging tool. A radioactive slug is injected into the fluid
See Figure F-15. stream through ports in the logging tool and the radio-
flowing pressure: Fluid pressure measured at the well active counting rate is measured as a function of time at
head. two detector positions. Used to locate leaks.
flowmeter: A device that measures the flow of fluid. In fluorimetry: 共flu rim’ ⳵ t ry兲 Estimate of the intensity of
borehole studies the flowmeter may be lowered through fluorescence of a solution or solid excited by ultraviolet
the flow stream or set in one spot with a packer. See light.
spinner survey. flushed zone: See invaded zone and Figure I-6.
flow test: A measure of the pressure drop associated with flutter: Noise caused by variations in speed of magnetic
a fluid-flow rate. tape in analog recording.
fluid factor: A measure that indicates that the pore fluid is flux: A representation of magnetic, electrical, and other
gas rather than liquid. On a crossplot of S-wave veloc- lines of force. The flux density is proportional to field
ity (V S ) versus P-wave velocity (V P ), the mudrock intensity.
line for water-filled sandstones has water velocity as its flux density: See field intensity.
intercept with the V P -axis but gas-filled sandstones fluxgate magnetometer: 共fl⳵ks’ gāt mag n⳵ tam’ ⳵t ⳵r兲 An
have a different slope and the intercept zero. The fluid instrument capable of detecting changes in the mag-
factor ⌬F⫽R P ⫺1.16(V S /V P )R S , where R P and R S netic field of the order of 0.2 nanotesla. See Figure
are, repectively, the normal reflection coefficients for P- F-16. The magnetometer measures the magnetic field
and S-waves; component along the axis of its core and must be
⌬F⫽R P ⫺1.16 共 V S /V P 兲 R S , oriented with the field if the total intensity is to be
measured. This is usually accomplished by using three
See Castagna and Backus 共1993, 20-21兲. mutually perpendicular fluxgate instruments and servo-
fluid incompressibility: The Lamé parameter ␭. mechanisms that vary the orientation to minimize the
fluid pressure: Interstitial pressure 共q.v.兲 or pore pressure. magnetic field in two of these, thus maximizing the
fluid replacement: A calculation that predicts changes if field for the third. Compare proton magnetometer, opti-
the nature of the fluid is changed. cally pumped magnetometer, and Squid cryogenic mag-
fluid sampler: See formation tester. netometer.
fluid substitution: Calculation, usually using the flyer: A number of geophones permanently connected at
Gassmann-Biot-Geertsma equations, of the changes in intervals along a short cable, used for one geophone
physical properties that should result from changing the group. A typical flyer might contain, for example, 6

FIG. F-13. (a) Flexichoc. (1) Two plates are separated by compressed air until they lock into position; (2) the air
between them is pumped out; (3) on signal the plates are unlocked and water pressure forces them together; the inrush
of water into the consequent empty space creates a shock wave in the water. (b) Flexotir; small charges (about 2
ounces) are propelled through a rubber hose by water under pressure into a steel cage, where they are detonated; holes
in the cage allow water repelled by the explosion to flow out and in, dissipating the energy. (Courtesy C.G.G.)
FM 144 foreshock

geophones connected in series at 6 m intervals, with focused log: A laterolog or guard log. Sometimes refers to
clips at the end for connecting it to the main cable that FoRxo, microlaterolog, or proximity log. See Figure
carries the signal to the recording equipment. Synonym: L-3.
geophone string. fold: 1. The multiplicity of common-midpoint data or the
FM: Frequency Modulation 共q.v.兲. number of midpoints per bin. Where the midpoint is the
FMI: Formation Micro Imager 共q.v.兲. same for 12 offset distances, e.g., the stack is referred to
FMS: Formation Micro Scanner 共q.v.兲. as ‘‘12-fold.’’ 2. See also folding.
focal length: The distance along the optical axis from the foldback: 1. A cable that is doubled back on itself such
optical center of a lens to the point where the image of that two or more geophone stations are located at the
a very distant object focuses. same position on the ground. Used for making compari-
focus: 1. The location of the first rupture in an earthquake; sons 共for example, of different types of geophone
the hypocenter. 2. The point where the rays from a arrays兲. 2. Frequencies greater than the Nyquist fre-
point source reunite and cross after passing through a quency are folded back, causing data to alias 共q.v.兲. See
lens or after reflecting from a mirror. 3. See buried- also wrap around. 3. If too many cables are connected
focus effect. together and too many geophone groups are connected,
focusing analysis: Varying a parameter 共usually velocity, groups at different locations may feed the same chan-
in a migration operation兲 to select the parameter that nel, producing confusing results.
achieves the clearest, most coherent, and most sensible folding: 1. Frequency folding such as results from inad-
display. equate sampling, producing alias 共q.v.兲 problems. 2.
Convolution 共q.v.兲. 3. Bending of geological strata.
Primary folding is a response to deep-seated forces
with a strong horizontal component. Gravitational
folding results from downward sliding and flow, which
are secondary results of uplift and tilting. Local folding
can be caused by compaction or by the upwelling of salt
or igneous rocks. The upraised part of a fold forms an
anticline, the downwarped portion a syncline. Folding
terminology is shown in Figure F-17. Materials respond
differently to the same stresses 共and stress durations兲
and cleavage, flow, and faulting are usually associated
with folding; see Figure F-17. Competent beds tend to
retain their thickness in folding; they govern the folding
wavelength, which is of the order of 25 times the
thickness of the most competent member. Incompetent
beds flow in response to folding stresses, but the dis-
tinction with competent beds is gradational. Two fold-
ing styles are illustrated in Figure F-17d, e. Folding is
disharmonic where the folding of one bed is not geo-
metrically related to the folding of nearby beds, incom-
petent beds intervening between them.
folding frequency: The Nyquist frequency; see alias.
fold test: Variation in the direction of remanent magne-
tism in a rock that has been folded; it can indicate
whether or not the magnetization predated the folding.
footprint: A pattern in data caused by acquisition or pro-
cessing methodology or irregularities, rather than hav-
ing geologic significance.
footwall: The side of a fault that lies below a dipping fault
plane; the upthrown side of a normal fault. A footwall
slice is a seismic section showing reflections along a
curved surface parallel to and displaced 50–100 m
away from the fault plane 共to get away from distorted
data along the fault itself兲. See Brown 共1999, 20–21,
225–232兲 and Figures F-3 and T-5e.
forced regression: Seaward movement of the shoreline
during a lowstand; usually without progradation.
force majeure: A legal clause that provides for the
responsibilities of contracting parties because of events
beyond the reasonable control of the contracting par-
ties.
FIG. F-14. Flow chart for the convolution of g(t) with fore-reef: The region in front of a reef, facing the deep-
f(t). Input: G⫽(G 0 ,G 1 ,G 2 ,...,G L ); filter F⫽(F 0 ,F 1 , water basin.
F 2 ,...,F M ); output: Z⫽(Z 0 ,Z 1 ,Z 2 ,...,Z L⫹M ), where Z i foreshock: An earthquake that precedes a larger earth-
⫽⌺G k F i⫺k . quake.
foreign 145 formation evaluation

format: The arrangement of data 共as on a magnetic tape兲.


Digital seismic formats are specified by SEG 共1980兲,
positional data standards by SEG 共1983兲, MT/EMAP
data interchange standards by SEG 共1988兲. Involves the
placement of bits of different significance, number of
bits per byte and bytes per word, parity, multiplexing
arrangement, timing and gain information, record iden-
tification, other auxiliary data, gaps, start-stop codes,
etc. Specific computer systems may use their own for-
mat so that the first step with new data may be to
reformat it.
formation: A body of rock that is distinguishable from
other rock bodies by significant differences in lithology
共and therefore is mappable兲. Its boundaries may be
either sharp or arbitrarily specified in a gradational
sequence. Formations are subdivided into members,
which in turn are subdivided into beds. Members and
beds have lithological characteristics that distinguish
them from other members and beds, but which are
insufficient to classify them as separate formations or
members. Several adjacent formations may form a
group, whose boundaries are marked by major changes
FIG. F-15. A flower structure results when there is a in lithology and/or depositional environments, or by a
component of convergence on a strike-slip fault, some- major break in sedimentation. The divisions are some-
times called an upthrust structure. Flower structures what arbitrary but are usually specified by Stratigraphic
usually involve asymmetry. A component of divergence Commissions; see Hedberg 共1976兲 and Salvador
produces a negative flower structure (not shown) with the 共1994兲. Nonsedimentary rock units that do not conform
center dropped down to accommodate the extra space. to the law of superposition are called lithodemes 共Greek
Bends in a strike-slip fault may produce positive and nega-
for stone bodies兲. See stratigraphic classification.
tive flowers at different places (see Figure F-4f). (From
Lowell, 1985, 63.) formation-analysis log „FAL…: A computed log of appar-
ent fluid resistivity and apparent porosity based on
induction log and either sonic- or density-log data. Also
called Rwa-analysis log.
foreign: 1. Not part of a system. 2. Not part of one’s own formation damage: Reduction of permeability because of
company. the invasion of drilling fluid.
foresight: A surveying measurement with the objective of formation-density log „FDL…: See density log.
determining the position and elevation of the stadia rod formation evaluation: The analysis and interpretation of
with respect to the survey instrument. well-log data, drill-stem tests, cores, drill cuttings, etc.,

FIG. F-16. Fluxgate magnetometer. Two permalloy cores approach saturation in the weak magnetic field of the Earth.
A 1000 Hz cyclic field superimposed by a coil around the core completes saturation. The place in the energizing cycle
at which saturation is reached is a measure of the strength of the Earth’s field. A secondary coil detects the changes in
flux. Two parallel cores are used with windings in opposite directions and the difference is measured. A current through
an additional winding nullifies most of the background magnetic field so that the magnetometer is sensitive to small
changes in the Earth’s field. The current through the nulling coil is a measure of the magnetic field strength.
formation evaluation 146 formation evaluation

FIG. F-17. Folding. (a) The plunge of an anticline is the angle that the axial line makes with the surface. The b-axis
is the direction of the axial line, the a-axis is the plane containing the axial line and the axis of the fold, and the c-axis
is perpendicular to this plane. (b) Folding, cleavage, or flow may result from stresses. The stress duration often is
involved as well as the stress magnitude. (From deSitter, 1956.) (c) Faulting is often combined with folding. (After Hobbs
et al., 1976.) (d) In concentric or flexural-slip folding, competent beds tend to slip along the bedding planes and retain
constant thickness perpendicular to the bedding, whereas incompetent beds fold and fault and separate the fold from
deeper structure. (e) In similar folding, beds tend to retain their vertical thickness t, thinning on the sides of the fold.
formation factor 147 Fourier transform

in terms of the nature of the formations and their fluid foundation coefficient: A coefficient expressing how
content. The objectives of formation evaluation are to many times stronger the effect of an earthquake is in a
ascertain if commercially productive hydrocarbons are given rock than it would have been for undisturbed
present and, if so, the best means for their recovery. crystalline rock.
Other objectives are to derive lithology and other infor- fourble: 共for’ bl⳵兲 Four joints of drill pipe screwed
mation on formation characteristics for use in further together.
exploration. See Figure W-9. Compare formation test. four-component recording „4-C…: Recording marine data
with an ocean-bottom seismometer 共OBS兲 on the sea-
formation factor: The ratio of the resistivity of a forma-
floor where the OBS consists of three orthogonal geo-
tion to the resistivity of the water with which it is phones and a hydrophone. Ocean-bottom cables 共OBC兲
saturated. See Archie’s formula. contain a number of OBS. See Tatham and McCormack
formation fluid pressure: The pressure of fluid in the 共1991兲.
pore spaces „pore pressure…. Also called interstitial four-dimensional data „4D…: Data that represent a 3D
pressure. volume plus an additional dimension. The additional
formation microimager „FMI…: An electric imager dimension is usually the time at which the data were
resistivity tool with four arms that unfold from the tool recorded, yielding time-lapse 共q.v.兲 data. Sometimes the
body, each with two pads containing multiple electrode 4th dimension is offset. See Brown 共1999兲 and Weimer
buttons. Yields high-resolution resistivity logs from the and Davis 共1996兲.
high-density of pads; these are displayed as an image of Fourier analysis: 共foor’ ē ā,兲 The analytical representation
80–90% of the borehole wall surface. Used to detect of a waveform as a weighted sum of sinusoidal func-
fractures and stratigraphic features. Schlumberger tions. Determining the amplitude and phase of cosine
共or sine兲 waves of different frequencies into which a
tradename. See Figure I-1.
waveform can be decomposed. Fourier analysis can be
formation microscanner „FMS…: An early analog ver-
thought of as a subset of the Fourier transform 共q.v.兲.
sion of the formation microimager 共q.v.兲. Schlumberger See Figure F-18. Opposite of Fourier synthesis. Named
tradename. for Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier 共1768 –1830兲, French
formation test: Gathering data on a formation to deter- mathematician.
mine its potential productivity, usually before installing Fourier integral: See Fourier transform.
casing in a well. See drill-stem test and compare for- Fourier pairs: Operations and functions that Fourier-
mation evaluation. transform into each other. See Figures F-19, F-20, and
form factor: 1. Geometric factor, the geometric multiply- F-22. Fourier pairs can be generalized into more dimen-
ing factor that depends on the type of electrode array sions, such as illustrated in Figure F-21 共where the
and interval being used. 2. The type curve for a profile domains might be offset-time versus frequency-
across an idealized body, e.g., across a sphere. wavenumber ( f -k space兲.
Fortran: 共for’ tran兲 FORmula TRANslation; a high-level Fourier plane: Frequency domain 共q.v.兲.
language designed to simplify programming for digital Fourier series: Representation of a periodic function by
the sum of sinusoidal components whose frequencies
computers. Designed for solving algebraic problems
are integral multiples of a fundamental frequency. See
and for scientific procedural programming. Fortran has
Fourier transform.
developed by a series of improvements since the base Fourier synthesis: Superimposing cosine and/or sine
language 共Fortran 66兲 was introduced. Fortran 77 added waves with appropriate amplitude and phase to con-
string capabilities and Fortran 90 and 95 added array struct a waveform 共or time-domain representation兲. See
processing and free-form syntax. Fortran HPF 共High- Figure F-18. Fourier synthesis can be thought of as a
Performance Fortran兲 is designed for parallel process- subset of the Fourier-transform 共q.v.兲.
ing. Fourier transform: Formulas that convert a time function
Fortsch discontinuity: 共fortsch兲 An irregular seismic dis- g(t) 共waveform, seismic record trace, etc.兲 into its
continuity sometimes seen at 8 –11 km in continental frequency-domain representation G( f ) and vice versa.
crust, usually attributed to a change from granitic to G( f ) and g(t) constitute a Fourier-transform pair;
dioritic composition. see Figure F-19. An example is

冕 冕
forward bias: See bias. ⬁ ⬁
forward modeling, forward process, forward solution: g 共 t 兲 ↔G 共 f 兲 ⫽ g 共 t 兲 e ⫺ j2 ␲ f t dt⫽ g 共 t 兲 cos共 2 ␲ f t 兲 dt
Determining the expected effects from a model 共see ⫺⬁ ⫺⬁


Figure M-14兲, solving a direct problem 共q.v.兲, such as ⬁
predicting the electric potential for a given distribution ⫺j g 共 t 兲 sin共 2 ␲ f t 兲 dt.
of resistivity current sources. The input is a subsurface ⫺⬁
picture, the output is the expected observations.
forward shot: Activation of a seismic source into a spread The inverse transform is


in the same direction in which the line is moving. ⬁
FoRxo: See microlaterolog. Welex tradename. g共 t 兲⫽ G 共 f 兲 e j2 ␲ f t d f
fossil remanence: See remanent magnetism. ⫺⬁

冕 冕
Foucault current: 共foo kō’兲 See induction log. Named for ⬁ ⬁
Jean Bernard Leon Foucault 共1819–1868兲, French ⫽ G 共 f 兲 cos共 2 ␲ f t 兲 dt⫹ j G 共 f 兲 sin共 2 ␲ f 兲 dt .
physicist. ⫺⬁ ⫺⬁
Fourier transform 148 Fourier transform

Finding G( f ) from g(t) is called Fourier analysis and


finding g(t) from G( f ) is called Fourier synthesis.
G( f ) is the complex spectrum, the real part being the
cosine transform and the imaginary part the sine
transform whenever g(t) is real. Another expression
for G( f ) is
G 共 f 兲 ⫽ 兩 A 共 f 兲兩 e i␥共 f 兲,
where the functions A( f ) and ␥ ( f ) are real. They are,
respectively, the amplitude spectrum and the phase
spectrum of g(t):

A 共 f 兲 ⫽ 兵 关 real part of G 共 f 兲兴 2
⫹ 关 imaginary part of G 共 f 兲兴 2 其 1/2 ;

␥ 共 f 兲 ⫽tan⫺1 关 imaginary part/real part兴 ;


␥ ( f ) is in the first or second quadrant if the imaginary
part is positive, in the first or fourth quadrant if the real
part is positive. A record trace h(t) that extends only
from 0 to T may be assumed to be repeated indefinitely
and so expanded in a Fourier series of period T:

冉 冊 冉 冊
⬁ ⬁
t t
h共 t 兲⫽ 兺
n⫽0
a n cos 2 ␲ n
T

n⫽1

b n sin 2 ␲ n ,
T
where

a n⫽
2
T 冕 T

0

h 共 t 兲 cos 2 ␲ n
t
T冊dt,

FIG. F-18. (a) Fourier analysis involves finding the


b n⫽
2
T 冕 0
T

h 共 t 兲 sin 2 ␲ n
t
T冊dt,
amplitude of frequency components for a waveform. The
frequency-domain representation or spectrum G(f) of a and
discrete time function g t (waveform, seismic record trace,
etc.) can be decomposed into a series of sinusoids by any h 共 t 兲 ↔H n ⫽ 兩 A n 兩 e i ␥ n ,
of the following equivalent equations:
A n ⫽ 共 a n 2 ⫹b n 2 兲 1/2 ; ␥ n ⫽tan⫺1 共 b n /a n 兲 .
gt⫽a0/2⫹ 兺 关a cos共2␲f t兲⫹b cos共2␲ft兲兴
n n n The same rules for quadrants apply to ␥ n as expressed
for ␥ ( f ); a 0 is the zero-frequency component 共or dc
⫽co/2⫹ 兺 c cos共2␲f t⫺␥ 兲⫽兺 ␣ exp关j 2␲f t兴,
n n n n n
shift兲. The frequency spectrum is discrete if the func-
tion is periodic. If h t is a sampled time series sampled
at intervals of time t 2 , then we can stop summing when
where a n ⫽ (2/T) 兺 g i cos(2␲ f it), bn ⫽ (2/T)兺 gi sin(2␲ f it), n⬎2T/t 2 共see sampling theorem兲. In this case a n and
c n ⫽(2/T) 兺 g i cos(2␲ f it⫺␥i), ␥ n ⫽ 0, ␥ n ⫽ tan⫺1(bn/an), b n can be expressed as sums:

冉 冊
n⬎0, ␣ n ⫽ (2/T) 兺 g i exp[j2␲ f it]. 2T/t 2
2 t
If g(t) is a continuous waveform, the sum signs become a n⫽
T 兺
n⫽0
h t cos 2 ␲ n
T
integrals. 共b兲 Fourier synthesis involves superimposing
the components to reconstitute the waveform. For an anti- and
symmetric sawtooth waveform, the first four components

冉 冊
2T/t 2
2 t

are:
b n⫽ h t sin 2 ␲ n .
sin x; ⫺ 共 1/2 兲 sin 2x; 共 1/3 兲 sin 3x; ⫺ 共 1/4 兲 sin 4x. T n⫽1 T

For a Fourier transform the limits are 0 and ⫾⬁, and G(f) Also see phase response and fast Fourier transform.
and g(t) constitute a Fourier-transform pair; see Figure Operations in one domain have equivalent operations in
F-19. the transform domain 共see Figure F-20兲. Computations
can sometimes be carried out more economically in one
domain than the other and Fourier transforms provide a
means of accomplishing this. The Fourier-transform
relations can be generalized for more than one dimen-
sion 共see Figure F-21兲. For example,
four-shot method 149 fractals

G共 ␬,␻ 兲⫽ 冕 冕 ⬁

⫺⬁

⫺⬁
g 共 x,t 兲 e ⫺ j 共 ␬ x⫹ ␻ t 兲 dxdt
spread 共short shots兲 are supplemented by additional
inline offset shots 共long shots兲.
fourth-order sequence: A sequence resulting from a
and cycle of about 100 to 150 ka duration 共Van Wagoner,

g 共 x,t 兲 ⫽
1
4␲ 冕 冕

⫺⬁

⫺⬁
G 共 ␬ , ␻ 兲 e j 共 ␬ x⫹ ␻ t 兲 dxdt.
1995兲.
four-way dip: Dip calculated from a cross-spread 共espe-
cially where both inline and cross-spreads are splits兲.
关The 1/4␲ factor is sometimes distributed between the See Figure C-19.
two integrals; where calculations involve an arbitrary FPSO: Floating Production Storage and Offloading sys-
scaling factor, the 1/4␲ factor may be dropped entirely.兴 tem.
Fourier transforms are discussed in Sheriff and Geldart fractals: Geometrical models that exhibit similar patterns
共1995, 277, 532–533兲. Theorems relating to Fourier when viewed at different scales, i.e., with different
transforms are shown in Figure F-22. resolutions. If a measurement M is proportional to some
four-shot method: A reversed-refraction method used in scale S raised to a power D, D is the fractal dimen-
engineering studies. Sources at each end of a geophone

FIG. F-19. Fourier transform pairs. The time functions on the left are Fourier transforms of the frequency functions on
the right and vice-versa. Many more transform pairs could be shown. The above are all even functions and hence have
zero phase. Transforms for real odd functions are imaginary, i.e., they have a phase shift of ⫹␲/2. Transforms of
functions that are neither odd nor even involve variations of phase with frequency. Note f⫽1/t.
fractional halftime 150 free-air correction

sion; the fractal dimension is generally not integral. See Detecting fractures is an objective of S-wave birefrin-
Mandelbrot 共1982兲. gence studies and of imaging of the borehole wall 共see
fractional halftime: The time to reach half energy. Figure I-1兲. The storage capacity in fractures 共fracture
fracturing: Breaking the rock of a producing formation porosity兲, a type of secondary porosity, is usually very
by subjecting it to very high fluid pressure, a method of small. Fractures can be induced by hydraulic fracturing
stimulating production. Proppants 共q.v.兲 may be 共hydrofracing; q.v.兲 to improve fluid flow into a well-
injected into the fractures to keep them open when the bore. See Aguilera 共1998兲.
fluid pressure is released. Called hydraulic fracturing. fracture pressure: The pressure that will cause forma-
Explosives were used for fracturing until the 1930s. tions to fracture 共break兲.
fracture log: A well log of the amplitude of sonic log to Fraunhofer diffraction: 共froun’ hō f⳵r兲. The special case
show fracture zones, which generally attenuate acoustic of Fresnel diffraction 共q.v.兲 at a distance approaching
energy. Analysis of amplitude loss associated with infinity 共or by using a lens to make rays parallel兲.
Stoneley wave modes is related to simple models to Named for Joseph von Fraunhofer 共1787–1826兲, Ger-
compute an equivalent aperture for a fracture. man physicist.
fracture permeabilityÕporosity: Natural fractures are pla- free-air anomaly: Gravity data that have been corrected
nar discontinuities that may contribute significantly to a for latitude and elevation 共free-air correction, q.v.兲 but
formation’s permeability in either a positive 共if they are not for the density of the rock between the datum and
open兲 or negative way 共if they are cemented兲. Fractures the measurement elevation 共Bouguer correction兲. Mea-
may result from structural deformation associated with sures the attraction because of the mass of the subad-
folding or faulting, from shrinkage because of dewater- jacent earth. Also called free-air gravity.
ing, dessication, or cooling, pore-fluid pressure that free-air correction: 1. A correction for the elevation of
exceeds rock strength, and other causes. They often a gravity measurement required because the measure-
have the same orientation and hence may result in ment was made at a different distance from the center
strong anisotropy of permeability and other properties. of the Earth than the datum. The correction

FIG. F-20. Equivalence of Fourier transform operations. Doing the time operation is equivalent to doing the frequency
operation on the transform of the data. Note: g(t)↔G(f) and h(t)↔H(f).
free-air gravity 151 frequency

is 0.308 768⫺0.000 440 sin2 ␭⫺0.000 000 1442 free nutation of the Earth: See Chandler wobble.
h mGal/m, where ␭ is the latitude and h is elevation free oscillation of the Earth: A simple change-of-shape
above the ellipsoid. Usually only the first term is used, oscillation of the whole Earth induced by very large
0.3086 mGal/m or 0.09406 mGal/ft. See Figure G-7. earthquakes. The period is 53 minutes in the lowest
2. In Turam, normalizing a ratio of successive measure- mode. See Figure F-23 and Fowler 共1990, 85兲.
ments by dividing by the calculated free-space vertical free-space field: The field about an antenna in the absence
magnetic field. Compare normal correction. of nearby conductors. See primary field.
free-air gravity: See free-air anomaly. freeware: Software for which there is no cost, including
free energy: See thermodynamic functions. its source code.
free-fall gravimetry: Measuring the absolute gravity by freezing point: See solidus, liquidus.
timing the free fall of a weight in a vacuum. French model: A particular physical model 共Figure F-24兲
free field: Not relating to a preassigned or fixed field. used extensively for demonstrating 3D aspects of seis-
free-fluid index „FFI…: The percent of the bulk volume mic data and for testing migration algorithms. See
occupied by fluids that are free to flow, often measured French 共1974兲.
by the nuclear-magnetism log 共q.v.兲. Gas gives a low frequency: 1. Symbol, f. The repetition rate of a periodic
FFI. waveform, measured in ‘‘per second’’ or Hertz. The
free format: Not relating to a preassigned or fixed format. reciprocal of period. Compare spatial frequency. 2.

FIG. F-21. Two-dimensional Fourier transform pairs. (From Lindseth, 1970.)


frequency domain „FD… 152 frequency standard

Angular frequency ␻, measured in radians per second, which is the sought-for solution. See Sheriff and Gel-
is to frequency f as 2␲: dart 共1995, 334兲.
frequency-domain sounding: See frequency-domain
␻ ⫽2 ␲ f . method.
frequency effect „FE…: The difference between apparent
3. The dominant frequency of wavelets refers to an resistivity measurements 共␳ a1 and ␳ a2 兲 made at two
approximate repetition 共the reciprocal of the peak-to- frequencies f 1 and f 2 , divided by the apparent resistiv-
peak time interval兲 even though the entire wavelet does ity at one of the frequencies:
not repeat. See Figure W-2. 4. The frequency content
of a waveform refers to the amplitudes of the sinusoidal FE⫽ 共 ␳ a2 ⫺ ␳ a1 兲 / ␳ a1 .
components into which the waveform can be decom-
posed by Fourier analysis, even where there is nothing Percent frequency effect „PFE… is often used. Fre-
repetitive about the waveform itself; frequency spec- quency effect can also be related to chargeability M by
trum. For mathematical symmetry, the Fourier integral M ⫽FE/ 共 1⫹FE兲 .
is usually written for frequencies from ⫺⬁ to ⫹⬁.
Negative frequencies can be thought of as the repetition frequency filtering: Filtering 共q.v.兲.
rate where one counts backward in time. frequency modulation „FM…: Modulation in which the
frequency domain „FD…: A representation in which fre- instantaneous frequency of the modulated wave differs
quency is the independent variable; the Fourier trans- from the carrier frequency by an amount proportional to
form variable when transforming from time. the instantaneous value of the modulating wave. The
frequency-domain method: A method of potential-field amplitude of the modulated wave is usually constant.
analysis in which parameters of interest are estimated See Figure M-16.
from characteristics of amplitude and phase spectra. In frequency panel: A display of a set of sections filtered
induced-polarization measurements, frequency-domain with adjacent narrow bandpass filters.
parameters include relative phase shift and percent fre- frequency response: The characteristics of a system as a
quency effect 共PFE兲. Involves the variation of apparent function of frequency. See Fourier transform.
resistivity with frequency. frequency slices: A frequency panel 共q.v.兲 or filter panel.
frequency-domain migration: Migration 共q.v.兲 in which frequency sounding: See electromagnetic sounding.
the wave equation ␾ (x,o,t) is transformed into the frequency spectrum: The characteristics of a waveform
frequency-wavenumber domain. described as a function of frequency. See Fourier trans-
form.
␾ 共 x,o,t 兲 →⌽ 共 ␬ x , ␬ z , ␻ 兲 , frequency standard: A hydrogen maser, based on its
1.420 405 757 68 GHz resonance frequency of a hyper-
various operations are performed, and then it is trans- fine transition of atomic hydrogen, is the most stable of
formed back, atomic clocks. A cesium beam based on 9.192 631 770
GHz hyperfine transition of 133Cs atoms provides the SI
⌽ 共 ␬ x , ␬ z , ␻ 兲 → ␾ 共 x,z,0 兲 , standard. A rubidium vapor cell based on 6.834 682 605

FIG. F-22. Fourier transform theorems.


fresh 153 Fresnel zone

FIG. F-23. Free oscillations of the Earth. The simplest modes are (a) radial, breathing, or balloon; (b) spherical or
football; and (c) toroidal or twisting.

GHz transition of 87RB atoms is the least expensive of tion. Named for Augustin Jean Fresnel 共1788 –1827兲,
atomic clocks. Vibrating quartz crystals provide the French physicist.
most common inexpensive standards. Fresnel lens: See Fresnel zone.
fresh: Very low in dissolved salts. Sometimes used com- Fresnel zone: 1. The portion of a reflector from which
paratively with respect to normal sea water 共which is 35 reflected energy can reach a detector within one-half
000 parts of dissolved salts per million兲, sometimes wavelength of the first reflected energy. The central
used comparing formation water with mud filtrate. first Fresnel zone is elliptical 共circular for zero offset
Fresh water has less than 2000 ppm dissolved salts. data兲 for a horizontal reflector; successive Fresnel
Fresnel diffraction: 共fre nel’兲 Diffraction observed close zones are annular rings of successively larger radii; see
to the diffracting object. Compare Fraunhofer diffrac- Figure F-25. Most of the energy reflected from the first

FIG. F-24. (a) French 3D model. (b) Seismic line 7: raw (unmigrated) data, 2D migrated, and 3D migrated. From
French (1974).
Fresnel zone 154 Fresnel zone

FIG. F-25. Fresnel zones. (a) For coincident source and receiver at S, the first Fresnel zone radius is R 1 (perpendicular
to h). The second Fresnel zone is the annular ring. Higher-order zones (not shown) are also annular rings. The dominant
wavelength is ␭. Another way of thinking of this is that a reflecting point in the subsurface influences a similar Fresnel-
zone region on the surface. (b) The build-up of energy integrating outward from the reflecting point. (c) Migration
collapses the Fresnel zone to a much smaller area, but 2-D migration collapses it in only one direction.

FIG. F-26. Fresnel-zone nomogram. A straight line connecting two-way traveltime and the frequency intersects the
central line at the same point as a straight line connecting the velocity and the radius of the zone. For example, a 20 Hz
reflection at 2.0 s and a velocity of 3.0 km/s has a Fresnel zone radius of 470 m.
fringe 155 fuzzy logic

Fresnel zone interferes constructively but the outer por- front-to-back ratio: See peak-to-bubble ratio.
tion does not contribute much, and the effective size of frost breaks: The effect of repetitive shots at random
the Fresnel zone is smaller by about a factor of 冑2. times following a shot, produced by ice fracturing when
Because the size of the Fresnel zone is frequency- shooting in permafrost. Also called ice noise. See Sher-
dependent, the dominant frequency is often used where iff and Geldart 共1995, 126兲.
a spectrum of frequencies is involved. 2. The first frown: Overmigrated so that data become concave-
Fresnel zone only, the portion of a plane reflector upward. Compare smile.
mainly effective in generating a reflection since, for a FTP: File Transfer Protocol 共q.v.兲.
harmonic wave, the effects of successive zones gener- Fuller filter: A moving-average space-domain convolu-
ally cancel each other. A nomogram for determining the tion. See Fraser et al., 1966.
radius of the first Fresnel zone is shown in Figure F-26. function: A rule that assigns to each element in set A one
See Sheriff and Geldart 共1995, 152兲. 3. A Fresnel lens
and only one element in set B.
has alternate zones blacked out so that only construc-
functionality: The ability to satisfy a stated purpose.
tive zones pass light.
function key: A key or combination of keys on a com-
fringe: 1. The extra area around the area to be surveyed
that must be covered because of the inward movement puter console that causes the computer to perform some
of dipping reflections and focusing of seismic ampli- function other than simply entering data.
tude dispersed over Fresnel zones during 3-D migra- fundamental: The lowest frequency of a periodic func-
tion. Often referred to as a migration fringe or migra- tion. Also called the first harmonic.
tion halo. 2. The portion of imaged area where fundamental strengh: The stress a material is able to
coverage is not uniform because of differences in mul- withstand over a long time under a given set of condi-
tiplicity, offset or azimuth mixes, or other factors that tions 共temperature, pressure, solution, etc.兲 without
lessen confidence in data comparisons. deforming continuously.
front end: The portion of a seismic line ahead of the funnel shaped: Coarsening-upward; see coarsening and
source point 共in the direction of travel along the line兲. Figure C-6.
frontier area: A relatively unexplored area 共at least by the fuzzy logic: Reasoning involving fuzzy sets, that is,
organization classifying it as frontier兲. where elements do not fit within compact boundaries.
front-loaded: Minimum-phase 共q.v.兲. Involves probability concepts.

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