CHAPTER 1   4.

Organ level
Organization of the Human Body  - Organs​, recognizable shapes,
composed of two or more different
Anatomy and Physiology​ - foundation for types of tissues. (stomach, heart, liver,
understanding the structures and functions of lungs, and brain)
the human body. - Serous membrane​, a layer around the
outside of the stomach that protects it
Anatomy​ - science of structure and the and reduces friction when the stomach
relationships among structures. moves and rubs against other organs.
● Smooth muscle tissue ​layers,
Physiology​ - science of body functions, how contract to churn and mix food
the body parts work. and push it on the next
digestive organ, small
LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION AND BODY  intestine.
SYSTEMS   ● Epithelial tissue layer​,
  innermost lining of the
1. Chemical level stomach, contributes fluid and
- Atoms​, smallest units of matter that chemical that aid digestion.
participate in chemical reactions.
- Molecules​, two or more atoms joined 5. System level
together. - System​, consist of related organs that
- DNA​ (deoxyribonucleic acid), genetic have a common function.
material passed on from one - Digestive system,​ breaks down and
generation to another. absorbs molecules in food.
- Hemoglobin​, carries oxygen in the
blood. 6. Organism level
- Glucose​, blood sugar - Largest level of organization
- Vitamins​, needed for a variety of - Systems of body combine to make up
chemical processes. an organism

2. Cellular level COMPONENTS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE 

- Cells​, basic structurural and functional ELEVEN PRINCIPAL SYSTEMS OF THE HUMAN 
units of an organism - smallest living BODY 
units in the body.
● Muscle cells 1. Integumentary system
● Nerve cells - Skin and structures associated with =
● Blood cells hair, nails, and sweat and oil glands,
- Organelles​, cells contain specialized and subcutaneous layer.
structures such as nucleus, - Functions:
mitochondria, and lysosomes > helps regulate body temperature
> protects body
3. Tissue level > eliminates wastes
- Tissues​, groups of cells and the > helps make vitamin D
materials surrounding them that work > detects sensations (touch, pressure,
together to perform a particular pain, warmth, and cold)
function. > stores fat and provides insulation
● Epithelial tissue
● Connective tissue 2. Skeletal system
● Muscular tissue - Bones and joints and their associated
● Nervous tissue cartilages.
(​chapter 4​) - Functions:
 > supports and protects the body
> provides area for muscle attachment
> assists with body movements
> stores cells that produce blood cells
> stores minerals and lipids (fats)
3. Muscular system
- Refers to the muscle tissue/ muscles
attached to bones (​smooth and
cardiac)​
cardiac muscle​: involuntary (heart)

skeletal muscle​: voluntary (tendons to bones)

used to effect skeletal movement such as
locomotion. - Functions:
smooth muscle​: Involuntary (intestines, > regulates body activities
throat, uterus, and blood vessel walls) through hormones transported
by the blood to various target
- Functions:
organs.
> participates in bringing about body
movements (walking)
6. Cardiovascular system
> maintains posture
- Blood, heart, and blood vessels
> produces heat
- Functions:
4. Nervous system
> heart = pumps blood through blood
- Brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sense
vessels
organs (eyes & ears)
> blood = carries oxygen and nutrients
- Functions:
to cells and carbon dioxide and wastes
> regulates body activities through
away from cells
nerve impulses by detecting changes
> helps regulate acidity, temperature,
in the environment
and water content of body fluids
> interpreting the changes
> blood components help defend
> responding to the changes by
against disease and mend damaged
bringing about muscular contractions
blood vessels
(​glandular secretions​ =​any chemical
produced by a gland)
7. Lymphatic system and Immunity
5. Endocrine system
- Lymphatic fluid (​lymph)​ and vessels
- Hormones, Glands and
(​spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, and
tissues that produce chemical
tonsils​)
regulators of the body.
- (​hypothalamus, pineal gland,
Pituitary gland, thyroid gland,
parathyroid glands, adrenal
gland , pancreas, testis.
ovary)
 - Cells that carry out immune responses > produces, stores, and eliminates
(​B cells, T cells​) urine
- T cells​ (thymus ​cells​) and B ​ cells > eliminates wastes and regulates
(bone marrow c ​ ells​) volume and chemical composition of
- T cells​ are involved in c​ ell-​ mediated blood.
immunity, whereas ​B cells​ are > regulates acid-base balance of body
primarily responsible for humoral fluids
immunity (relating to antibodies). > maintains body’s mineral balance
- Functions: > helps regulate red blood cell
> returns proteins and fluid to blood production
> carries lipids from ​gastrointestinal
tract​ to blood 11. Reproductive systems
> contains sites of ​maturation and - Gonads ​(testes in males and
proliferation of B cells and T cells ​that ovaries in females), ​uterine
protect against disease-causing (fallopian) tubes​, ​uterus,
microbes vagina, epididymis,​ d ​ uctus
(vas) deferens​, penis, &
8. Respiratory system mammary glands​ (females)
- Lungs and air passageways = - Functions:
pharynx (throat), larynx (voice > gonads produce gametes
box), trachea (windpipe), & (sperm or oocytes) that unite
bronchial tubes. to form a new organism and
- Functions: release hormones that
> transfers oxygen from regulate reproduction and
inhaled air to blood and other body processes
carbon dioxide, > organs transport and store
(blood to exhaled air) gametes, mammary glands
> helps regulate acidity of (milk)
body fluids
> air flowing out of lungs
through vocal cords produces
sounds
9. Digestive system
- Organs of gastrointestinal tract
(mouth, pharynx, esophagus,
stomach, small and large intestines,
rectum, & anus.)
- Includes accessory digestive organs
that assist in digestive processes
(salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and
pancreas)
- Functions:
> physical and chemical breakdown of
food
> absorbs nutrients
> eliminates solid wastes

10. Urinary system

- Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and
urethra
- Functions:
Life processes of humans  The Nervous System
1. Metabolism
- Sum of all the chemical
processes that occur in the
body
- Breakdown of and building up
of large, complex molecules
into smaller, simpler ones
2.​ Responsiveness
- Body’s ability to detect and respond to
changes in its environment
- Nerve cells responds to changes in
the environment by generating
electrical signals (Nerve Impulses)
- Muscle cells respond to nerve
impulses by contracting
3. ​Movement
- Motion of the whole body, individual
organs, single cells, and even the tiny
organelles inside a cell.
4​. Growth
- Increase in body size
- May be increase in (1) size of existing
cells (2) number of cells (3) amount of
material surrounding cells
5. ​Differentiation
- Unspecialized cells become
specialized cells.
- Specialized cells differ in structure and
function from the unspecialized cells
6.​ Reproduction
- The formation of new cells for growth,
repair, or replacement
- The production of a new individual
Homeostasis <<<<<<3   and generates ​output (information)
- Maintenance of relatively stable
conditions
- Ensures that the body’s internal
environment remains constant despite
changes inside and outside the body.
- Is dynamic, it can change over a
narrow range that is compatible with
maintaining cellular life processes.
Interstitial fluid
- Large part of the internal environment
consists of the fluid surrounding body
ceellsssss.
- Detects changes from the balanced
state and sends messages in the form
of ​nerve impulses​ to organs that can
counteract the change.
- Typically rapid corrections
The endocrine system
- Corrects changes by secreting
molecules = hormones
> Hormones
- Affect specific body cells, to cause
responses that restore homeostasis
- Work more slowly
Feedback System/ loop
- Cycle of events in which a condition in
the body is continually monitored,
evaluated, changed, remonitored,
reevaluated, chuchcuhcu etc.
Controlled condition
- Monitored conditions such as body
temperature, blood pressure,
glucose…
Stimulus
- Disruption that causes a change in a
controlled condition
> External environment = heat/ lack of oxygen
> Internal environment = blood glucose level
> COMPONENTS (Feedback System) 
1. Receptor​ - monitors change in a
controlled condition and sends
information = ​Input (nerve impulses)
2. Control center​ - the brain, evaluates
the input it receives from receptors,
commands when they are needed.
3. Effector ​- body structure that receives
output from the control center and
produces ​a response that changes the
controlled condition.
Negative Feedback system
- Reverses a change in a controlled
condition.
> ​blood pressure (BP)​, force exerted
by blood as it presses against the
walls of ​blood vessels (BV)
- Baroreceptors,​ pressure-sensitive
nerve cells located in the walls of
BVss
 > send nerve impulses to the brain,
which interprets and responds by
sending nerve impulses to heart.
Positive Feedback Systems
- Strengthen or reinforce a change in
the body’s controlled condition.
- The effector produces a physiological
response in the controlled condition.
Homeostasis and Disease
Disorder
- Abnormality of structure and/or
function
Disease
- Term for an illness characterized by a
recognizable set of symptoms & signs.
Symptoms
- Subjective changes in body that are
not apparent to the observer.
- Ex. headache, or nausea
Signs
- Objective changes
- Ex. bleeding, vomiting, fever, rash
Aging and Homeostasis  through body parts (planes)
- normal process characterized by a
progressive decline in the body’s ability to
restore homeostasis.
- ex. Wrinkled skin, white hair
Anatomical Terms  - Divides midline; unequal sides
- Specific vocabulary
Anatomical position
- Description of any human body part in
a specific stance (Body is upright)
Prone position
- Body is lying face down
Supine position
- Body is lying face up
 
Body Regions  between transverse and sagittal/
Head​ - skull and face
> skull, protects the brain
> face, front portion (eyes, nose, mouth, ...)
Neck​ - supports head and attached to trunk
> trunk, (chest, abdomen, and pelvis)
Upper limb
- Attached to the trunk (shoulder,
armpit, arm, forearm, wrist and hand)
Lower limb
- Attached to the trunk (buttock, thigh,
leg, ankle, and foot)
Groin​ - front surface, crease each side (thigh)
Directional Terms
- Words that describe the position of
one body part relative to another.
> ​Anterior​, front
> ​Posterior​, back
> ​superior​, upper part of the body
> ​inferior​, lower part of the body
> ​Medial​, midline/ imaginary vertical line
> ​Lateral​, farther from midline
> ​Intermediate,​ between two structures
> ​Ipsilateral​, same side as another structure
> ​Contralateral​, opposite side from “ “ “ “
> ​Proximal​, nearer to a limb/ origin/ beginning
> ​Distal,​ farther to a limb/ origin/ beginning
>​Superficial,​ toward/on the surface of the
body
> ​Deep,​ away from the surface of the body
PLANES AND SECTIONS 
- Imaginary flat surfaces that pass
Sagittal plane
- Vertical plane; right angle
> Midsagittal plane
- Midline of the body; equal sides
> Parasagittal plane
Frontal plane (Coronal plane)
- Divides into anterior and posterior
- Right angle
Transverse plane (cross-sectional/
horizontal)
- Divides superior and inferior
- Right angle
Oblique plane
- Passes through, with an ​angle
transverse and frontal
Section ​- cut of the body/organ along one
plane
BODY CAVITIES 
- Spaces within the body that contain, protect,
separate, and support internal organs.
 > ​Cranial cavity​ - formed by cranial (skull)
bones and contains brain
> ​Vertebral (spinal) canal​ - formed by
vertebral column and contains spinal cord

> ​Thoracic cavity (TC)​ - chest cavity

- Pericardial cavity​, surrounds heart
- Pleural cavity,​ each surrounds a lung
- Mediastinum​, central portion of TC
> ​Abdominopelvic cavity ​- ​diagram to groin
- Abdominal cavity​, (stomach, spleen,
liver, gallbladder, small intestine, and
most of the large intestine);​ t​ he serous
membrane = peritoneum
- Pelvic cavity​, (urinary bladder,
portions of the large intestine, and
internal organs of reproduction)

ABDOMINAL REGIONS AND QUADRANTS  

Diaphragm ​- dome-shaped muscle

Viscera​ - organs inside thoracic & abdominal
Membrane​ - thin, pliable tissue that covers,
lines, partitions, or connects structures Umbilicus​ - belly button divide the abdominal
>​ Serous membrane cavity into ​quadrants.
- slippery double-layered; parts;
- Parietal layer​, which lines the walls of
the cavities
- Visceral layer​, covers and adheres to
the viscera within the cavities
- Serous fluid, ​lubricating fluid between
two layers & allows viscera to slide
- Pleura, ​the serous membrane of the
pleural cavities
- Pericardium,​ the serous membrane of
the abdominal cavity