Received: 8 July 2018 Revised: 6 September 2018 Accepted: 16 September 2018

DOI: 10.1002/oa.2718

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Ferns as healing plants in medieval Mallorca, Spain? Evidence

from human dental calculus
Elena Fiorin1,2 | Llorenç Sáez3 | Assumpció Malgosa1

1
Unitat d'Antropologia Biològica,
Departament de Biologia Animal, Biologia
Vegetal i Ecologia, Universitat Autònoma de
Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
2
Department of Archaeology, University of
York, York, UK
3
Sistemàtica i Evolució de plantes vasculars.
Unitat associada al CSIC. Àrea de Botànica,
Departament de Biologia Animal, Biologia
Vegetal i Ecologia, Universitat Autònoma de
Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
Correspondence
Elena Fiorin, Unitat d'Antropologia Biològica,
Departament de Biologia Animal, Biologia
Vegetal i Ecologia, Universitat Autònoma de
Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain.
Email: elenafiorin84@gmail.com
Abstract
Dental calculus, or calcified plaque, is a potential source of archaeological information
relating to the lives of past societies. The recovery and identification of organic
microremains entrapped within dental calculus provide new data regarding diet, health,
and lifestyle. This paper presents, for the first time, microscopic evidence of the sporan-
gium annulus of a fern within the dental calculus of an adult male from the medieval
necropolis of Can Reiners (Balearic Islands, Spain). The sporangium evidence was com-
pared with modern sporangia collected in northern Mallorca and the Iberian Peninsula.
The results revealed that the features of the Can Reiners sporangium sample were com-
patible with the species Asplenium trichomanes. Through a historical and modern botan-
ical literature review, it is known that this species has been widely regarded as a cure
for kidney stones and alopecia. Moreover, this species was used as an expectorant,
diuretic, and emmenagogue (herb that provokes menstruation or abortion). Considering
that sporangia are attached to leaves and when they are mature only spores are
released in the air, the presence of the annulus within dental calculus provides direct
evidence of the consumption of ferns by the population living in the Balearic Islands
during the Middle Ages. Although the use of these plants as constituents of diet is
not attested, we may suggest that they could be employed as medicinal plants.

KEY W ORDS

Asplenium trichomanes, Balearic Islands, human dental calculus, Middle Ages, optical microscopy,
phytotherapy

1 | I N T RO D U CT I O N et al., 2018; Hardy et al., 2016). The development of calculus,

Dental calculus forms as a result of the mineralisation of dental plaque.
The driving force for plaque mineralisation is the supersaturation of
saliva, particularly plaque fluid, with respect to calcium phosphates
(Jepsen, Deschner, Braun, Schwarz, & Eberhard, 2011). Dental calculus
comprises organic and inorganic components. The inorganic part
consists primarily of calcium phosphate salts organised in crystal
structures. The organic matrix is composed of lipids, carbohydrates,
proteins, and bacteria (Jin & Yip, 2002). In addition, trace amounts of
food and environmental microdebris such as starch grains, phytoliths,
pollen, and spores, as well as plant fibres and animal microremains,
may also be incorporated (Afonso‐Vargas, La Serna‐Ramos, &
Arnay‐De‐La‐Rosa, 2015; Blondiaux & Charlier, 2008; Cristiani
its composition and quantity, varies among people and is influenced
by diverse factors such as oral hygiene, diet, age, biological
sex, genetics, and bacterial composition (Jepsen et al., 2011;
Lieverse, 1999).
Calculus is often preserved on the teeth of human remains from
archaeological sites (Dobney & Brothwell, 1987). Due to its often
extraordinary preservation, including microfossils embedded in situ
within the oral cavity, its recovery and identification can shed new light
on the diet, health, lifestyle, and environment of past human populations.
Although bioarchaeologists have recorded and interpreted the presence
of calculus on the teeth of skeletons for a long time (e.g., see Brothwell,
1981; Dobney & Brothwell, 1987), in the last decade, many studies have
been carried out in order to increase knowledge of this “material” (for

82 © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/oa Int J Osteoarchaeol. 2019;29:82–90.
FIORIN ET AL.
instance; Adler et al., 2013; Cristiani, Radini, Edinborough, & Borić, 2016;
Lazzati et al., 2016; Mackie et al., 2017; Weyrich et al., 2017).
Therefore, depending on the chosen method, dental calculus
research holds the potential to make a significant contribution to
archaeological and anthropological debates. For instance, analysis of
starch grains and phytoliths, identified through optical and scanning
electron microscopy, provide dietary and culinary information (Buck-
ley, Usai, Jakob, Radini, & Hardy, 2014; Power, Salazar‐García,
Wittig, & Henry, 2014), and data on craft specialisation can be
revealed through the identification of plant fibres (Blatt, Cassman,
& Sciulli, 2011; Radini et al., 2016). The analysis of these microfossils
also allows the identification of plant species that may be directly
linked to medicinal uses rather than food consumption (Hardy
et al., 2012). Biomolecular investigation also demonstrates that
bacterial and human mitochondrial DNA can be well preserved within
the calculus (Huynh, Verneau, Levasseur, Drancourt, & Aboudharam,
2016; Weyrich, Dobney, & Cooper, 2015). These studies provide a
powerful tool to investigate, in detail, the ancient oral microbiome in
order to evaluate its impact on human health, diet, and environment.
The aim of this paper is to discuss the result of dental calculus
analysis of the individual 160.1 buried in the Can Reiners necropolis
in Mallorca, Balearic Islands, Spain.
FIGURE 1 Map of Can Reiners necropolis and the localisation of grave 160.1 (Arribas & Tarradell, 1987, p. 134, modified) [Colour figure can be
viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
83
2 | MATERIAL AND METHODS
2.1 | Materials
The focus of this pilot study was on 12 adult individuals from a total of
216 excavated from the medieval necropolis of Can Reiners (Figure 1;
Fiorin, 2015). The cemeterial area of Can Reiners was located above
the ancient forum of the Roman city of Pollentia on the outskirts of
modern Alcúdia (on the north coast of Mallorca, Spain). The graves were
located in the southern and eastern area of the Capitolium and several
bases of honorary monuments were widely damaged or reused by the
graves. Generally, the individuals were orientated west–east and they
were laid down in a supine position with the inferior limbs extended
and the upper crossed above the abdominal region. Probably, individ-
uals were laid directly in the ground with a shroud. There were four
typologies of graves (simple pit, pit covered by stone slabs, cist, and
mound tomb) and no graves goods were found in the burials (Arribas
& Tarradell, 1987). The necropolis was used for a prolonged period, pos-
sibly from the seventh century AD. Recent radiocarbon dates showed
that the chronology of the burials located close to the sector presented
here is ca. ninth to 10th century AD (Cau Ontiveros et al., 2016). The
bioanthropological analysis conducted by Fiorin et al., (2017) revealed
84
that the population was composed by 64% of adults and 36% of
subadults. The demographic data (high mortality and low life
expectancy) associated with the low frequencies of age‐related
pathologies, suggests that the majority of the individuals did not reach
the senile age range as a consequence of hard life conditions.
The analysis of dental calculus targeted a restricted number pilot
samples composed by 10 males and two females, and the age at death
ranged from 25 to 59 years old. The location of the supragingival
calculus was generally in the lower incisor and in the lower dental arch
and tiny amount of tartar were observed. The dental calculus analysis
led to the identification of starch grains (tribe Triticeae), fragments of
vegetal fibers and tissues, pollen grains (Pinaceae), and a couple of
fungal spores. Here, we discuss the results from an individual in which
a unique finding was observed.
2.2 | Methods
2.2.1 | Sex and age determination
Classical parameters described in Ferembach et al. (1977–79) and
Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994) for the diagnosis of sex were used. Only
adult individuals were employed in this study. In order to estimate the
age, methods based on changes in pubic symphysis surface (Brooks
& Suchey, 1990), auricular surface of the ilium (Lovejoy, Meindl,
Pryzbeck, & Mensforth, 1985) and sternal ends of ribs (Iscan, Loth, &
Wright, 1984; Iscan, Loth, & Wright, 1985) were considered. Second-
arily, the gradual attrition of the occlusal surfaces of the teeth
(Brothwell, 1981; Lovejoy, 1985) were also taken into account.
2.2.2 | Sampling and processing the calculus samples
Dental calculus was sampled from the lower right second premolar of
the skeleton 160.1 (Figure 2).
The extraction of microdebris in the calculus was conducted
according to the standard protocols described in the bioarchaeological
literature (e.g., Hardy et al., 2012; Mickleburgh & Pagán‐Jiménez,
2012). To avoid contamination, a variety of precautions were taken
(Wesoloswki et al, 2010; Crowther et al., 2014). The tooth was gently
washed with distilled water and a sterilised dental brush in order to
remove grave soil present on the surface. Calculus was removed from
the tooth with a dental pick and transferred to a microcentrifuge tube
(0.5 ml). Hydrochloric acid (0.5 M) was added to the tube until the cal-
culus was completely dissolved (approximately 22 hr). The tube was
then centrifuged at room temperature for 3 min at 10,000 RPM in a
Heraus Biofuge Fresco centrifuge and the solution was removed using
a pipette. Subsequently, the tube was filled with distilled water and
FIGURE 2 Position (arrow) of dental calculus sampled from the
individual (CR 160.1) [Colour figure can be viewed at
wileyonlinelibrary.com]
FIORIN ET AL.
centrifuged under the same conditions described above. The superna-
tant was removed and the tube was refilled with distilled water. The
rinsing process was repeated three times. Finally, the samples were
mounted on different microscope slides, adding half a drop of glycerol
to each, and examined with an Olympus CH2 light microscope.
2.2.3 | Comparative samples and statistical analysis
In order to identify the sporangium observed in the dental calculus of
individual CR 160.1, our sampling strategy targeted various habitat
types in the Alcúdia area and its surroundings (northern Mallorca),
such as limestone rocks and human constructed walls, where the
occurrence of common ferns was expected. These samples were col-
lected between June and August 2017. Additionally, samples of the
same species of ferns from the Iberian Peninsula were included in
order to study their variability. We used 30 plants for the micromor-
phological study: Asplenium trichomanes L. (10 plants); Asplenium
ceterach L. (10 plants); Adiantum capillus‐veneris L. (5 plants) and
Polypodium cambricum L. (5 plants). Sporangia of fertile plants were
mounted on a slide in distilled water and studied using an OLYMPUS
CH2 light microscope. Thirty measurements of width annulus cells
at a magnification of 400x were made for each sample (one per
sporangium). Herbarium vouchers are kept in the private herbarium
of LS. The plant species nomenclature is that described by Alomar
(2003). Statistical analysis were performed with SPSS 15.0 for
Windows (SPSS Inc., 2006). To compare the means of pairs of
groups, unpaired t tests were used (Student's Test). Differences
between two groups showing P < 0.05 are considered statistically
significant.
3 | RESULTS
The individual buried in the simple pit 160.1 was a young male aged
between 21 and 30 years. He did not present any evidence of disease
or anomalous characteristics that point to the presence of malocclu-
sion in the bones or dentition of the jaws.
With regard to dental calculus, a range of inclusions were
observed, with starch grains being the most common. The morphology
of the grains is similar to that observed in the starch belonging to
cereal seeds used in the medieval period in the Mediterranean basin
(Fiorin, 2015). Based on their principal morphological features, starch
granules are consistent with the cereal tribes Triticeae (farro, wheat,
spelt, and rye) and Aveneae (oat). Some starch appeared to have been
exposed to high temperatures, with fissures on the border and the
absence of distinctive features such as the extinction cross. Some veg-
etal fibres and fragments of spiral tracheids (elongated cells in the
xylem of the vascular plants) were also observed. A fragment of a
conidium from a fungal spore of the Pleosporaceae family was also
found (Ellis, 1971). This could belong to the genera Alternaria,
Cladosporium, or Drechslera.
However, the most remarkable finding was a fragment of a
sporangium belonging to a fern (Figure 3b). In ferns, a sporangium is
a multicellular enclosure within which spores are formed. A cluster
of sporangia is known as a sorus, which is usually located on the
underside of a fern frond (leaf). In most ferns, the annulus is a row
FIORIN ET AL.
FIGURE 3 Fern annuli: (a) open annulus of Asplenium trichomanes from Barcelona, Gualba de Dalt (50 μm); (b) Can Reiners sample CR 160.1
(25 μm); (c) Asplenium trichomanes from Barcelona, Gualba de Dalt (25 μm); (d) Asplenium ceterach from Pic del Martell (25 μm); (e) Adiantum
capillus‐veneris from Barcelona, Gualba de Dalt (25 μm); (f) Polypodium cambricum from Barcelona, La Morella (25 μm) [Colour figure can be viewed
at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
of several cells that forms a crest to one side of the spherical capsule
enclosing the spores. Once the sporangium is mature, the annulus
expels the spores by means of a dispersal mechanism similar to a cat-
apult (Noblin et al., 2012, Figure 3a).
The sporangium found in the dental calculus was compared with a
reference collection composed of sporangia collected from modern
fern plants coming from the Mediterranean and in particular from
the Balearic Islands. The flora of the Balearic Islands (Western Medi-
terranean region) have attracted the attention of botanists for more
than four centuries. However, in recent decades, there has been a
notable advance in scientific knowledge of the archipelago's flora
(Sáez, Fraga, & López‐Alvarado, 2013).
In the last comprehensive revision of the Pteridophyte flora of the
Balearic Islands, Alomar (2003) listed 31 native species (hybrids
excluded) from Mallorca. Almost a third of the native species of pteri-
dophytes correspond to the genus Asplenium, which is the richest in
species not only in the Balearic archipelago, but also across Europe
(Derrick, Jermy, & Paul, 1987; Viane, Jermy, & Lovis, 1993) and the
Mediterranean region (Greuter, Burdet, & Long, 1984). The modern
plants employed for comparing the measurements of width annulus
cells are: Asplenium trichomanes, Asplenium ceterach, Adiantum
capillus‐veneris, and Polypodium cambricum.
The mean cell width of the Can Reiners annulus measures
39.2 μm, thus falling within the range of the studied A. trichomanes
plants (Tables 1 and 2, Figure 3c). The difference between these
two groups was not statistically significant, t(302) = 0.57, p ˃ 0.05,
but there were statistically significant differences between the Can
Reiners sample and the annulus width of the other species, A. ceterach:
t(302) = 5.61, p ˂ 0.05, Figure 3d; A. capillus‐veneris: t(152) = 27.70,
p ˂ 0.05, Figure 3e; P. cambricum: t(152) = 15.86, p ˂ 0.05, Figure 3f)
(Table 2).
85
4 | DISCUSSION
A. trichomanes, also known as the maidenhair spleenwort, is a very dis-
tinctive and recognisable species. It is a small evergreen fern that
grows in rocky habitats (cliffs, screes, and walls; Figure 4). The reason
behind why the sporangium of this fern was present in the calculus of
this man is now explored.
This species is very common in temperate regions, and the medi-
cal properties of the Aspleniaceae family have been known since
ancient times. The word Asplenium has a Greek etymology, which
means “a remedy for the spleen.” Indeed, ferns of the genus Asplenium
were used in ancient Greece and in the Roman period as a cure for dis-
eases of the spleen. Pliny the Elder, in his Naturalis Historia (first cen-
tury AD), wrote about the medical properties of ferns and, in
particular, of the Aspleniaceae family (Bostock & Riley, 1855). Accord-
ing to Pliny, the leaves of these plants were used to prepare a decoc-
tion for healing the spleen and expelling bladder and kidney stones,
which also held diuretic and anticatarrhal properties. Pliny advised to
avoid giving this infusion to women to prevent causing sterility.
Dioscorides, a contemporary of Pliny and author of De Materia Medica,
added other medicinal uses of these plants. In addition to promoting
menstruation, he recommended them as remedies for alopecia (hair
loss), dandruff, jaundice, discharges of the intestine, tumours, and bites
of venomous creatures (Osbaldeston, 2000). Marcellus Empiricus, a
late‐antique medical writer from Gaul (fifth to sixth century AD),
asserted that A. trichomanes was reputed to prevent hair loss (alope-
cia; Helmreich, 1889). All three authors recommended using the aerial
part of the plant to prepare a decoction using olive oil, vinegar, or
wine. The ambiguity in the use of different names to define the spe-
cies of the Aspleniaceae family in the past causes some confusion
when attempting to correlate ancient with modern names (e.g., A.
86 FIORIN ET AL.

TABLE 1 Measurements of annulus width (μm) of the Can Reiners sample and the ferns collected in Spain (X ± SD = mean length ± standard
deviation)

Site Asplenium trichomanes Asplenium ceterach Adiantum capillus‐veneris Polypodium cambricum

Mallorca
Can Reiners 39.2 ± 1.9
Puig Gros Ternelles 39.1 ± 1.5 — — —
Puig de Ternelles — 49.5 ± 3.3 64.8 ± 1.6 83.6 ± 5.7
Vall de Ternelles 38.6 ± 1.7 47.2 ± 2.4 63.5 ± 2.1 —
Serra de la Font 38.5 ± 1.5 48.5 ± 3.5 — —
Puig de Sant Martí 38.8 ± 1.8 49.0 ± 3.1 — 82.8 ± 5.1
Talaia d'Alcúdia 38.2 ± 1.5 48.8 ± 3.4 — —
Puig des Ca 38.3 ± 2.1 — — —
Puig Tomir 39.7 ± 2.0 — — 81.7 ± 5.5
Península de cap Pinar — 47.1 ± 3.6 — —
Puig de Maria — — 64.1 ± 1.5 83.7 ± 5.5
Mortitx — — 63.7 ± 1.4 —
Barcelona
Morella, Garraf 37.9 ± 1.7 46.9 ± 2.7 — 80.5 ± 5.0
Pic del Martell, Garraf — 47.9 ± 2.3 — —
Gualba 38.5 ± 1.9 — — —
Collserola — 48.8 ± 3.5 — —
Gualba de Dalt — — 64.2 ± 1.9 —
Girona
Cap Norfeu 39.1 ± 1.4 47.6 ± 2.2 — —

TABLE 2 Descriptive statistics of annulus width (μm) of the species

of ferns collected in Spain compared with the Can Reiners sample
Species N Mean Min‐Max SD

Can Reiners 4 39.21 38.2–40.8 1.9

Asplenium trichomanes 300 38.69 35.7–43.4 1.8
Asplenium ceterach 300 48.06* 40.8–54.8 3.14
Adiantum capillus‐veneris 150 64.09* 58.7–67.6 1.77
Polypodium cambricum 150 82.47* 74–91.8 5.43

Note. N: number of annuli; SD: standard deviation. In Can Reiners, N repre-

sents the width of the four cells present in the annulus.
*Statistically significant differences with Can Reiners (Student's test:
p ˂ 0.05).

trichomanes, A. ceterach [also known as Ceterach officinarum] and A.

capillus‐veneris) as they were frequently confused with each other.
For instance, among the many names used in the Roman period (such
as adianton, callitrichon, polytrichon, filicula, capillis veneris, argion,
ebenotrichum, and cincinnalis), it is difficult to discern which species
were used to heal specific diseases.
Interpreting the names given to medicinal herbs in the Middle
Ages is also a difficult task. This is due to the ambiguity of the Latin
names and because the same plant was referred to by different
names in different languages. The translations of the source texts
are usually a topic of discussion. Depending on the translator, the FIGURE 4 The fern Asplenium trichomanes [Colour figure can be
proper names or an entire sentence could be confused and the viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
FIORIN ET AL. 87

TABLE 3 Medical uses of the Asplenium trichomanes in the past using the aerial part of the plant
Bibliography Geographical area Chronology Other/local names Medicinal uses Method of preparation
a
Pliny the Elder Roman Empire First c. AD Aspleniacee family, filicula, To heal the spleen, to expel Decoction (with vinegar),
bladder and kidney stones, tea
diuretic, abortion, Anti‐
catarrhal
Dioscoridesb Roman Empire First c. AD Adianton, Adiantus capillis To cure: alopecia, dandruff Decoction, drink with wine
veneris, polytrichon, (wit lye), jaundice, painful
callitrichon, ebenotrichum, urination and urinary
argion, epiert (Egypcians), stones, discharges of the
cincinnalis (Roman), intestine, tumours, bite of
phithophtethela (Dacians) venomous creatures, to
promote menstruation
Marcellusc Roman Empire Fourth to Adianton, callitrichon Alopecia Decoction (with olive oil)
fifth c.
AD
Van Arsdall, 2002 England Medieval Politricus, maidenhair To cure abdominal pain, to Fronds were pounded
promote hair growth together with peppers
and coriander. To drink
with good wine just
before taking a bath
Mattioli Europe/Italy Sixteenth c. Adiantus capillis veneris, Alopecia, expectorant, Decoction
AD polytrichum, filicula diuretic, to crush urinary
calculi, to promote
menstruation, to cure
scrofula
Schwenckfeld, Europe/Silesia Sixteenth c. Polytrichon To crush urinary calculi, to Internal and external use
Caspard AD cure jaundice and diseases
of the lien, to dissolve
goitre, to ease the labour
process, anti‐
inflammatory, antipyretic,
diuretic, laxative. With lye
it gives a golden hue to
the hair.
Moore, 1881 England Nineteenth Maidenhair Expectorant, emetic Syrup, infusion
c. AD
Rigat et al., 2013 Catalan Pyrenees FM Auradelleta, costelles Antitussive, to cure Tisane
(Spain) de paret respiratory diseases
Neves et al., 2009 Northern Portugal FM Avenca Anti‐catarrhal, Alopecia, Decoction, gargle
throat problems
Carvalho & Northeastern FM — Antipyretic for children Decoction
Morales, 2010 Portugal
Abbet et al., 2014 Lower and central FM — — Tea, syrup
Valais (Switzerland)
Idolo et al., 2010 Apennines (Italy) FM — Abortion —
Guarrera, Lucchese, Apennines (Italy) FM — Demulcent, expectorant, —
& Medori, 2008 laxative, to promote
menstruation
Corsi et al., 1980 Tuscany (Italy) FM Felcinetto, felcini, Abortion, laxative, Decoction
minestrina antihaemorrhoidal, to
cure jaundice Fronds were fried with olive
To treat burns oil (external use)
Fronds were pulped and
To cure osteoarthritis pain mixed with Polypodium
cambricum ones
Pieroni et al., 2002 Albanians FM Kapilvijnt (Arbërsh Diuretic, to enhance uterine Decoction
communities name, Adiantus contractions during
(Basilicata, Italy) capillis veneris) delivery (same as capillis
veneris)
De Natale & Campania (Italy) FM Erba ruggine Dandruff Infusion (external use)
Pollio, 2007

Note. AD: Anno Domini; C: century; FK: folk medicine.

a
See Bostock & Riley (1855).
b
See Osbaldeston (2000).
c
See Helmreich (1889).
d
See Drobnik & Stebel (2015).
88
translated version may not have the same meaning of the original
one (Mitchell, 2011). For example, in medieval England, A. trichomanes
(called politricus or common maidenhair) was believed to cure
abdominal pain and to promote hair growth (Van Arsdall, 2002).
The English 14th century surgeon John of Arderne in his Liber
Medicinalium described the maidenhair fern (using the Latin name
capillis veneris) as a “noble” medicine because the four temperaments
(sanguine, choleric, melancholic, and phlegmatic) were perfectly
balanced (Murray, 2008).
In 16th century Europe, A. trichomanes was frequently known as
Polytrichum. This herb was used to treat urinary calculi, to cure
diseases of the spleen, to “dissolve” goitre, to help those who suffered
from jaundice (morbus regius or “royal disease”), and to ease the labour
process (Drobnik & Stebel, 2015). Dodoens (1553), in his Trium
Priorum de Stirpium Historia Commentariorum Imagines ad Vivum
expressae, mentioned names such as officinis polytrichŏ and filicula
capillaris to define A. trichomanes. Mattioli (1565), a doctor and
herbalist from Siena, attempted to identify the plants originally
described by Dioscorides, Pliny, and other authors, and established
that adiantum was capillis veneris, whereas trichomanes (or filicula)
was polytrichum. Nevertheless, the medical properties of these plants
were similar. According to other contemporary authors such as
Camerarius and Fuchs, polytrichum was trichomanes whereas for
others, such as Lonicer, polytrichum could be A. trichomanes or
A. capillus‐veneris (Cristofolini & Mossetti, 1998). In the 18th century,
Linnaeus, in his Species Plantarum (1753), named A. trichomanes L. with
his modern system of nomenclature. In his description of the
plant, Linnaeus used the term trichomanes as well as Polytrichum
officinarum.
In recent decades, several studies have been devoted to the col-
lection of ethnobotanical information regarding the popular uses of
medicinal plants (for instance, Neves, Matos, Moutinho, Queiroz, &
Rebelo, 2009; Idolo, Motti, & Mazzoleni, 2010; Rigat, Valles, Iglésias,
& Garnatje, 2013; Abbet et al., 2014; Table 3). In Europe, popular
knowledge of A. trichomanes has been passed on from generation to
generation and is still preserved today by so‐called “healers.” In almost
every region, the popular medicinal uses of A. trichomanes are similar
to those described in ancient times, although in a few cases, it was
used for other purposes. Until recent times in Portugal, A. trichomanes
was also employed as an antipyretic (Carvalho & Morales, 2010). In
Tuscany, it was employed to treat burns and to cure osteoarthrititic
pain (Corsi, Gaspari, & Pagni, 1980). We observed that only in one
case study was A. trichomanes used in veterinary medicine. Corsi et al.
(1980) mentioned that in Italy the fronds of this plant were given to
sheep to cure gastrointestinal complains.
The most common form of administration of A. trichomanes is
internally. However, in Italy, external uses are also described (Table 3).
Finally, it is interesting to note the case with the Albanian communities
living in isolation in Basilicata, Italy (Pieroni, Quave, Nebel, & Heinrich,
2002). The language of these groups is Arbërsh, and they use the name
Kapilvijnt (A. capillus‐veneris) to define both A. trichomanes and
A. capillus‐veneris. The medicinal uses are the same for both species.
Dall'acqua et al. (2009) have investigated the phytoestrogen
compounds of A. trichomanes, and the results explain, in part, its use
as an emmenagogue (a herb that provokes menstruation or abortion).
FIORIN ET AL.
We observed that despite the uncertainty of the distinction between
the A. capillus‐veneris and A. trichomanes, these ferns have been used by
herbalists, surgeons, doctors, and other “healers” for centuries. These
species share several medicinal uses and were employed in different cul-
tures across Europe. This remedy was administered internally (as a
decoction, infusion, or syrup) or externally (as a paste or poultice). An
infusion was made by pouring boiling water onto fresh or dried leaves
whereas a decoction was prepared by boiling the leaves in water for
15–20 minutes (Jones, 1987). Sometimes the internally administered
remedy was flavoured with orange flowers or sweetened with sugar or
honey (Corsi et al., 1980; Moore, 1881). In all known medical and herbal
texts, and in the case studies described above, these plants were exclu-
sively used as cures for particular diseases. No known evidence in the
discussed literature attests to the use of these plants as constituents of
the diet. There were also no pathological lesions observable on the skel-
eton to enable any specific association with diseases treated with
A. trichomanes. As the individual is an adult male, however, we can rule
out the use of this fern as an emmenagogue. Generally, there are few dis-
eases that affect the skeleton and if a person died before bone change
occurred, such as cases of acute stages, the skeleton will not show any
sign of bony lesions (Wood et al., 1992). In our case, even if a soft tissue
disease was present, we would not see any signs either. For instance, this
plant was employed to cure temporary disorders such as dandruff or to
clean the mucus from the airways. Thus, the identification of a disease
to match with the remedy is very challenging indeed.
5 | CO NC LUSIO N
The aim of this paper was to show the remarkable results that can be
achieved through dental calculus analysis that, in this case, may demon-
strate the use of ferns as healing plants in the Mediterranean during
the Middle Ages. Even if it is difficult to definitively identify some micro-
fossils, other microremains may reveal novel and significant findings. The
recovery of this evidence, if supported by the historical literature and
botanical data, holds the potential to reveal new information about the
use of medicinal herbs in the past, as described here. These ferns were
employed, and are still used in Europe today to cure a variety of diseases.
We observed that from antiquity until the modern day, A. trichomanes,
frequently confused with A. capillus‐veneris, was regarded as an effective
expectorant and emmenagogue, and as a cure for urinary calculi and alo-
pecia. Considering that sporangia are attached to the underside of fern
leaves and these leaves were used in the preparation of decoctions and
infusions, we suggest that this individual probably drank one of these
medicinal solutions, perhaps as a remedy for one of the diseases men-
tioned by the authors cited above.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors thank Dr. Pere Ibañez for the statistics and Dr. Tina Jakob,
Prof. Charlotte Roberts, and Peter Brown for their helpful comments
and correcting the English of the draft of this paper. The authors would
like to thank the reviewers for their constructive comments and sugges-
tions which contributed to improve the final version of this paper. This
research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the
public, commercial, or not‐for‐profit sectors.
FIORIN ET AL.
CONF LICT OF INT E RE ST
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
ORCID
Elena Fiorin http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4295-1026
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How to cite this article: Fiorin E, Sáez L, Malgosa A. Ferns as
healing plants in medieval Mallorca, Spain? Evidence from
human dental calculus. Int J Osteoarchaeol. 2019;29:82–90.
https://doi.org/10.1002/oa.2718