SECTION ONE: REVIEW OF GSV 211 (CONTROL SURVEYS) AND GSV

214(TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYING)

SECTION TWO: ENGINEERING SURVEY (CROSS AND LONGITUDINAL

SECTIONING, PROFILE AND MASS DIAGRAMS

SECTION THREE: SETTING OR STAKING OUT

SECTION 4: AREA AND VOLUME CALCULATION

SECTION 5: CURVES

SECTION SIX: ERROR ANALYSIS AND ACHIEVABLE ACCURACIES

SECTION SEVEN: DIGITAL APPROACHES

SECTION ONE: REVIEW OF GSV 211 AND GSV 214

Short note on survey methods:

(i) Traversing (v) Resection

(ii) Triangulation (vi) Photogrammetric method
(iii) Trilateration (vii) Global positioning
(iv) Intersection

TRAVERSING

1
 A traverse survey involves a connected sequence of lines whose lengths and directions
are measured. A traverse consists of lines called courses, running between a series of points on
the ground called traverse stations.

A traverse survey is performed to measure both the distances between the stations and the
angles between the courses.

Traverses have generally been used for local horizontal control over relatively small areas
or over areas where many obstacles interfere with sight lines. They may be used for precise
control over relatively large areas due to the advantage of EDM.

Traverses are classified as being either open or closed. An OPEN traverse does not form
a closed geometric figure nor does it end at a point of known position. There are two types of
closed traverses which are Loop traverses and CONNECTING traverses. A loop traverse starts
and ends at the same point forming a closed geometric figure called polygon.

A connecting traverse looks like an open traverse except that it begins and ends at points
or lines of known position and direction at each end of the traverse.

2
Advantages of Traversing

1. Suitable for establishing controls in small areas.

2. It has an advantage of intervisibility.

Disadvantages of Traversing

1. It cannot be used in places without clear views.

2. It lacks automatic checks inherent in triangulation hence care must be taken in the
observation of angles and measurement of distances.

TRIANGULATION

Triangulation involves a system of joined or overlapping triangles in which the lengths of

two sides called baselines are measured; the other sides are then computed from the angles
measured at the triangle vertices. Triangulation is based primarily on the accurate measurement
of angles rather than distances.

In a triangulation network, a minimum of two sides of the system is measured, one to

serve as a base and the other to serve as a check base for closure. All angles are measured at each
station. Station adjustments are made by closing the horizon and the resulting angles are again
adjusted so that the sum of the angles in each triangle equals 1800. The lengths of the sides are
computed using the law of sine beginning with the measured length of the base.

3
Advantages of Triangulation

1. Prior to the emergence of electronic distance-measuring instrument, triangulation was the

easier way of establishing horizontal controls because it was easier to measure angles that
distance then.
2. It has a high standard of accuracy because of its large numbers of checks and closure
conditions, which help detect blunders and errors in field data.
3. Suitable if extensive areas were to be covered.

Disadvantages of Triangulation

1. Very expensive in recent times

2. It has a weakness of accumulation of scale errors.
3. With the introduction of EDM instruments, it is time consuming.

TRILATERATION

Trilateration involves a system of triangles but only the lengths are measured. A
trilateration network consists of a system of joined or overlapping triangles in which all lengths
are measured and only one angle or direction is observed to establish azimuth.

To obtain first or second accuracy, temperature, humidity and barometric pressures must
be measured along the routes. This is sometimes done by flying the lines and it is also possible to
use some types of LASER Electronic Distance measurement Instruments to determine refraction
corrections to obtain suitable accuracy with trilateration, it I necessary to follow certain guide
lines, such as using configurations.

Advantages of Trilateration

4
 1. Much faster than others since the introduction of electronic distance measurement.
2. It is suitable for large area surveys (geodetic)
3. It reduces the accumulation of errors due to the presence of checks available.

Disadvantage of Trilateration

1. Accumulation of azimuth error.

INTERSECTION

The co-ordinates of a new station or point can be determined by a combination of

measurements from two other points of fixed or known position. In effect, the position of the
new point is established at the intersection of two lines of sight taken from the known points
toward the new station.

The various types of intersection are;

 Bearing-bearing intersection.
 Bearing-distance intersection and
 Distance-distance intersection.
Similarly, if the co-ordinates are given for the two ends of a line and directions
are observed from each end of this line to a third point not on the line, and then co-
ordinate of that third point can be calculated.

A and B are points of known co-ordinates from which angles α and β have been observed so as
to locate point F by intersection.

The azimuth of lines AF and BF can be calculated and the co-ordinates for F may be
computed by using geometry.

RESECTION

5
When angles between lines to three points of known position are observed from a point of
unknown position, the co-ordinates of the unknown point can be calculated. This procedure is
called location by resection.

The method of resection is a convenient way of determining the position of an unknown

point by occupying the point and measuring the horizontal angles between at least three and
preferably more control points.

A, B, C are points whose positions or co-ordinates are known and are visible from the unknown
station P. If station P is occupied and the angles P” and P’ are measured then these angles and the
co-ordinates of the control points are sufficient to determine the position of P.

LEVELLING

This is the art of determining the relative height of different points above or below the
surface of the earth.

N.B; Learn all the various definitions from the text p.136

Leveling staff is a graduated wooden rod used for measuring the vertical distances
between the points on the ground and the line of collimation. There are two types:

(i) Target staff and

(ii) Self reading staff

6
Types of level

(i) Dumpy Level: of rigid telescope

(ii) Tilting Level: Telescope can be tilted a little with the help of tilting screw.
(iii) Automatic level: of self aligning level with the help of the tilt Compensator

HEIGHT OF INSTRUMENT METHOD OF RECORDING LEVEL DATA

H.I = Bs + BM (height)

Leveling operation:

 Simple leveling: Difference between two points is relatively gotten by placing the
instrument at a place midway between t5he two points.
 Differential leveling: Employed when the points are of reasonable distance from each
other. It is also called compound leveling and here, intermediate sites are observed with
different positions of the leveling instrument.

Suitable when:

(i) Points are the great distance

(ii) Difference between the elevation is large
(iii) Obstacles between the points.
 Longitudinal or profile leveling; Here, the levels are taken along the centre line of any
alignment (roads, railway etc)at regular intervals. The back sight, foresight and
intermediate sights are taken at regular intervals, at every set up of the instrument. The
chainages of the points are noted in the level book. The basic reason for this is to
determine the undulations of the ground surface along the profile line.
 Cross-sectional leveling: This operation involves taking levels transverse to the direction
of the longitudinal leveling. The cross-sections are taken at regular intervals such as 20m,
40m etc along the alignment, cross-sectional leveling is done in order to know the nature
of the ground across the centre line of any alignment.

CORRECTIONS

7
1. Curvature error: The difference between the line of sight and the level line at a
particular place. The line of sight is horizontal whereas the level line is parallel to the
spheroidal surface of the earth, hence a little bit curved. Due to curvature, objects appear
lower-than they really are.

D = horizontal distance in km

1000
𝐺 = 𝐷2 𝑥 = 0.0785𝐷2𝑚 (𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦)
12,742

The staff reading = observed staff reading – curvature error

2. Retraction correction: correction applied due to the fact that rays of light are refracted
to the earth when passing through the air of varying density. It is refracted to the surface
in a curved path.

1 𝐷2 1
(𝑟 = 𝑥 = 𝑥 0.078𝐷2 = 0.0112𝐷2𝑚
7 2𝑅 7

𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑂𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑓𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 + 𝐶𝑟

COMPARISON OF THE TWO SYSTEMS

H I. R & FS

 It is rapid as it involves few  It is laborious, involving

calculations. several calculations
 There is no check on the R2 of  There is a check on the RL
intermediate points. of intermediate points.
 Errors in intermediate RLs cannot be  Can be detected.

8
 detected.
 Suitable for longitudinal leveling where  This system is suitable fly
there are a number of intermediate leveling where there are no
sights. I.S.

SECTION TWO: ENGINEERING SURVEY

INTRODUCTION:

This is the survey carried out to provide accurate information for construction of projects.
This includes large scale surveys showing details for particular engineering schemes.
Engineering survey involves survey in reverse i.e. setting out which entails measurements being
transferred from plains to the ground, OR, on the other hand engineering survey is the accurate
measurement of small areas for the purposes of constructing buildings, roads railways, bridges,
and other engineering structures.

Purpose of Engineering Survey

9
 1. It provides large-scale topographical surveys and other measurement upon which projects
are designed. Since this data formed the basis for an entire project, the reliability of the
design depends to a great extent on the precision and thoroughness with which the
original survey site survey is carried out.
2. It provides precise control from which it is possible to position the works and most
importantly, to ensure that engineering projects are built in their correct positions (known
as setting out).
3. At the post construction stage, it is essential to monitor structural movement on major
retaining structures such as dams, roads etc.

TACHEOMETRIC SURVEY

Any theodolite filled with stadia hairs which are two short horizontal lines equidistant above
and below the main crosshairs can be used for tacheometric measurement of distance and spot
height. The principle is illustrated in the scheme below.

A theodolite is set up at point A to read a staff at point B. The difference between the upper
and lower stadia reading is ‘S’ and ‘Z’ which is the distance between stadia hairs. Now, from
similar triangles the following relationship holds

𝑓 𝑃
=
𝑖 𝑆

𝑓
ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐹 = ( ) 𝑆
𝑖

10
1.

the distance to be measured ‘D’ is the distance between the staff and the vertical axis of the
theodolite and is given by.

𝐷 =𝐹+𝐾

𝐹
ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐷 = ( ) 𝑆 + 𝐾
𝑖

The term 𝐹/𝑖 is a constant for a particular instrument.

𝐷 = 𝐶𝑆 + 𝐾

The theodolite is usually designed so that the instrument or multiplying constant ‘C’ is equal
to 100. In addition, many tacheometrics are fitted with anallatic lens which eliminates the
other instrument or additive constant ‘K’ so that the distance ‘D’ is simply given by

𝐷 = 100(𝑢 − 𝐿)

Where, 𝑢 is the upper stadia reading

𝐿 is the lower stadia reading

If the staff were inclined towards the theodolite at an angle ‘’ the horizontal and vertical
distances ‘H’ and ‘V’ would be given by:

𝐻 = 100(𝑢 − 𝐿)𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 

𝑉 = 100(𝑢 − 𝐿)𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑠

11
For projection above the required level, the staff is held against the peg until the calculated
reading is obtained and a line defining the level is drawn across one side of the peg for clarity
this line is usually arrowed and its level chalked on the peg.

2.0 SECTIONING

Sectioning is the determination of height variation of the ground along a line of

construction. Such measurements are represented to scale on a drawing. There are two major
types of section. These include LONGITUDINAL AND CROSS SECTIONS.

LONGITUDINAL SECTIONS: These are sections that follow particular line defining a part of
a new construction and are usually run along the centre lines of the proposed work such as new
roads, pipe-lines, tunnels etc

CROSS-SECTIONS: The need to provide ground details on either side of longitudinal section
call for cross-sections. Such details include slope of the ground at right angles to their centre
lines. This cross-section is very necessary because any variation in ground slope could have
adverse effect on any proposed construction work.

The cross-sections are usually short section carried out at right angles to the main profile
line (longitudinal profile). During the field survey of the cross-section it is carried out so that
they extend beyond the limits of the proposed area of construction work. This will assist in
determining the full character of the whole area of land to be worked.

ADVANTAGES OF SECTIONS

a) The advantages of longitudinal section are as follow:

- They help to decide the most suitable and economic levels and gradients to which the
ground should be worked in its longitudinal section.

12
 - They supply details at any point along the section of the amount of CUT, i.e. depth of
excavation, or the amount of FILL, i.e. height to which the ………………..
- Recording the places where neither cut nor fill occurs. These are the points at which the
formation level intersects the existing ground level.
b) Cross-section provide the following advantages
- Deciding the most suitable and economic levels to which the ground is to be worked in
the transverse direction i.e. at right angle to its length.
- Supplying details for calculating the position, height and slope of any necessary
embarkments.
- Calculating earthwork quantities for costing purposes and the suitable provision of earth
moving plant.

GENERAL PROCEDURE FOR CARRYING OUT LONGITUDINAL SECTION

Consider the line of levels down the centre line of the road a shown in the scheme above. The
objective of such a line of levels is the production of longitudinal section. The level transit is set
up at a convenient position “P” such that a bench mark (BM) may be observed. (Bench marks are
points of known elevation above ordinance datum which has been established by geodetic
surveying).

This first reading, made with the staff on a point of known reduced level is known as the
BACK SIGHT (BS) the staff is now held at points A, B, and C in turn, and reading, which are
known as INTERMEDIATE SIGHT (I.S) are taken. It is found that no reading after the station
mask “D” are possible due either to change in level of the ground surface or some obstruction to
the line of sight and it is therefore required to change the position D. A reading known as
FORESIGHT (F.S) to point D and it is the final reading taken before moving the instrument.
The point or station ‘D’ is known as a treasure point or change point, because it is the staff
position during which the position of the level transit is being changed.

13
 The instrument is moved to Q set up, leveled and the reading, a back sight, taken on the
staff at change point ‘D’, followed by intermediate sights with the staff on points at which levels
are required until a further change becomes necessary resulting in a foresight on point ‘G’. This
procedure is repeated until all the required levels have been attained.

Booking:

a) Rise and fall method: The readings are looked in level book which is specially printed for
the purpose, as shown below. The booking of the readings taken and the already
mentioned scheme above is shown in table 1.
Table 1: Rise and Fall method
Backsigh Intermediat Foresight Rise Fall Reduced Distance Remarks
t (B.S) e sight (I.S) (F.S) level (R.L) (m)
0.663 98.760 B.M 98.76 O.D
1.946 1.283 97.477 0 Staff on sta. A
1.008 0.938 98.415 20 Staff on sta. B
1.153 0.145 98.270 40 Staff on sta. C
2.787 1.585 0.432 97.838 60 Staff on sta.D (T.P)
2.270 0.517 98.355 80 Staff on sta. E
1.218 1.052 99.407 100 Staff on sta. F
0.646 0.572 99.979 120 Staff on sta. G
xxxxxxx xxxxxxx xxxxxxx xxxxx xxxxx xxxxxxx
3.450 2.231 3.079 1.860 99.979
-2.231 -1.860 -98.760
1.219 1.219 1.219

These checks concern ONLY the accuracy of the reductions, and have no effect on the accuracy
of the reading themselves.

b) Height of collimation method: The booking can be done with height of collimation
method. The height of collimation is obtained by adding the staff reading which MUST
be a back sight to the known reduced level (R.L) of the point on which the staffs stands.

14
 All other readings are deduced from the height of collimation, until the instrument setting
is changed, where upon the new height of collimation is determined by adding the back
sight to the reduced level (R.L) at the change point. Table 2 show the booking with height
of collimation method.

Table 2

Back sight Intermediate Foresight Height of Reduced Distance Remarks

(B.S) sight (I.S) (F.S) collimation level (R.L) (m)
0.663 99.423 98.760 B.M 98.76 O.D
1.946 97.477 0 Staff on sta. A
1.008 98.415 20 Staff on sta.B
1.153 98.270 40 Staff on sta.C
2.787 1.585 100.625 97.838 60 Staff on sta.D (T.P)
2.270 98.355 80 Staff on sta.E
1.218 99.407 100 Staff on sta.F
0.646 99.979 120 Staff on sta.G

The arithmetical checks to be applied to this system of booking is as follows

(B.S) - (F.S) = Last R.L – First R.L

PLOTTING CROSS SECTION

Each cross-section (CS) is drawn and the area between the existing and proposed level is
calculated.

The level book form with three distance column to denote cross-sectorial distances to the
right and left of the LONGITUDINAL section line is shown in the table 3.

Table 3: Plotting Cross Section

(B.S) (I.S) (F.S) H.I R.L Distance Chainage Distance Remarks

left right

15
 1.51 112.04 110.53 90.0 Peg
0.95 111.09 13.2 90.0
0.23 111.81 25.0 90.0 To
2.33 109.71 90.0 10.5
3.16 108.88 90.0 25.0 Peg
1.12 110.92 60.0

The scheme above is a cross-section layout on longitudinal section.

N/B: The area of a cross-section drawn on a plan can be calculated by means of mechanical or
Digital Planimeter.

PLOTTING THE PROFILE

Once the field observations have been taken and checked and the field look reduced the profile
drawing can be prepared. This is illustrated in the scheme below

a) Draw a DATUM LINE chosen to plot above 5cm below the lowest reduced level in the
profile and being a multiple of 5cm above datum. The line must be clearly marked, eg
Datum line 35m A.O.D.
b) Scale off the chainages (Distance apart) of the points at which the levels were observed
along the datum line to a suitable scale and tabulate them as shown in the scheme below.
This horizontal scale must also be noted on the drawing and in presentation work usually
includes a scale bar.

16
 c) Erect ordinates (perpendiculars) at these points and scale off the reduced levels of each
and tabulated them as in the scheme.
d) Join each point of reduced level plotted with continuous line. The line must not be a
curve like a graph because levels are taken at points of change of slope, so the slope
should be even between these points. The points are therefore joined with a series of
straight lines.
e) Represent on the profile the features which intersected the line on the ground. Include
descriptive notes, e.g. sheet names, property designations etc.

Note: The colour convention of the profile diagram is as follow:

i. Ordinates: THIN BLUE LINE

ii. Ground and Datum lines: BLACK
iii. Tabulated chainages and Reduced levels: BLACK
iv. Formation level line and Gradients: RED
v. Finished level line: BLUE
vi. Tabulated formation levels and depths of cut: RED
vii. Height of fill: BLUE
viii. Horizontal and vertical seals, scale bars, notes and titles: BLACK

17
INTERSECTION OF GRADIENTS

The points at which the formation level intersects the existing ground level may be
required. In such cases their chainage along the section line and their level will have to be
calculated.

18
 The diagram above illustrates the intersection point which occurs between chainage 90.0
and 108.4m. The intersection distance as required above is x. This can be calculated from the
similar triangles formed in the following way:

𝑥 18.4 − 𝑥
=
1.37 1.31

 𝑥 = 9.41

This shows that the total relative displacement between the gradients in moving along, from
chainage 90.0 to 108.4 is 1.37 + 1.31 = 2.68.

Therefore, it is appropriate to say, if the relative displacement of 2.68 occurs in 18.4m, then the
displacement of 1.37 occurs in
18.4 𝑥 1.37
𝑚 = 9.41
2.68

Hence the chainage of the intersection point is 90.0 + 9.41 = 99.4m

SECTION THREE: SETTING OUT

Definition: Setting out is the reverse process where the position and levels of new works already
recorded on a working plan are transferred to the ground.

Control: The process of setting out covers three aspects of positioning new works. These include
the followings:

(a) Horizontal control – in which the true relative positions of points are fixed on the
horizontal plane and marked by pegs on the ground.
(b) Vertical control: in which pegs defining different levels of construction are suitably
placed.

19
 (c) Works control: in which the construction processes are controlled, e.g. The vertical
alignment of buildings during construction and the control of embankment slopes and
excavations.

Method of setting out: The fundamental stages of setting out include the following:

(a) Baseline: A base line is first set out from which subsidiary pegs are placed to define the
new construction. The baseline is later indicated on the working drawing and may be one
of the following:
- The centre line of a new road, railway, pipeline, sewer, etc.
- The building line for domestic and smaller constructions.
- The centre lines of columns and statements in large projects.
- A line parallel to the longest construction line in the works.
(b) Subsidiary lines: These are set out from the baseline pegs. The data used should always
be figured dimensions from the working drawing or calculated measurement based on
plan information.
(c) Reference marks – since the setting-out pegs are inevitably destroyed during the course
of the work a system of reference or witness marks or recovery pegs must be established
so that the baseline and all subsidiary pegs can be re-established at any time during the
course of the work. Reference marks must therefore be located in such a way that the
following conditions apply.
- That they are not likely to be disturbed.
- That relocation of major point from them can be easily understood with accuracy and
then position proved.
- That if there is there is any possibility of the reference marks being destroyed;
alternatives are still available for the main pegs to be redefined or for the reference marks
to be re-established.

Setting-out plans: The plans required for any construction from beginning to end include the
following:

- The survey plan prepared as a result of the original site survey.

20
 - The working plan, produced by the designer showing the location and form of the new
construction site on the survey plan.
- The setting-out plan, showing the relation between the recovery pegs and the pegs
defining the position of the new works.
- Record plans, also known as AS-BUILT PLANS and AS-LAID PLANS.

Placing level pegs to define working level

Assume that a peg is required to define a 5.00m level. A level is setup and back sight, say 1.490
is observed to a T.B.M with an R.L (Reduced Level) of, say, 4.042. The height of instrument is
then 4.042 + 1.490 = 5.532. Thus, when a reading on a staff of 0.532m is taken its base will be at
the required level of 5.00m. The following procedure on the field is involved when positioning a
peg to a specified level:

(a) The staff is held where the peg is to be placed and raised or lowered until the calculated
reading is obtained. This indicates the approximate peg projection above ground.
(b) The peg is hammered down almost to the required level with frequent checks on the staff
reading until it is accurately placed.
(c) If it is hammered down too far by mistake it cannot be lifted as it will lose stability. A
nail is then placed on top and hammered down to define the reduced level as before.
(d) To save time in accurately positioning the top of the peg it may be left.

SECTION 4: COMPUTATION OF EARTHWORK VOLUME

https://foresternetwork.com/daily/construction/jobsite-infrastructure/taking-the-measure-of-
methods-for-estimating-earthwork-volumes/

There is an old computer acronym called GIGO, which stands for “garbage in, garbage out.” An
earthwork estimate is only as good as the site information used as the basis for the estimate. No
estimator should ever calculate an earthwork volume without physically walking as much of the
site as possible, a copy of the earthwork plans in hand. In short, there is no substitute for good
old-fashioned job-site reconnaissance, even in this age of Computer-Aided Design and Drafting
(CADD) and global positioning systems (GPS). Contractors find time and again that site maps
and surveys are wrong to some degree. Either an error was made during the survey or the site has
been physically altered since the last survey.

21
To correct these errors, the estimator needs to go back to the surveyor’s source, the benchmarks,
and ensure that these are still valid. At least one third-order benchmark (preferably three) is
needed to accurately survey a site. While it may be acceptable to use local, site-specific
“benchmarks” like a previously surveyed manhole lid, or relative benchmarks (such as the corner
of a building designated as elevation “100.00”), these improvisations are inherently prone to a
higher degree of error.

A records search for documents relating to the excavation property is also essential and should
be performed as the first phase of the reconnaissance. How was the site used in the past? What
do the hydrogeological boring logs from onsite drilling operations show? Is there any unstable or
karsts topography? Was the site ever used for dumping or disposal? Are there wetlands present
that could limit the area of excavation?

Sources of error in calculating earthwork volumes include carrying out area measurements
(either cross-section or contour areas) beyond the limit justified by the field data, calculating
volumes beyond the nearest cubic yard, and failing to correct for curvature when a section on a
horizontal curve (such as a roadway alignment) has a cut on one side and fill on the other.
Mistakes in calculating earthwork volumes include math errors, using the wrong formula for the
volume, mixing cut and fill quantities, and not considering transition sections when passing from
cut to fill. Error can never be eliminated; it only be minimized. Furthermore, error is cumulative.
A daisy chain of a half-dozen 90% accurate measurements would result in a final answer of only
50% accuracy.

Even if mistakes are avoided and the calculations are mathematically sound, the results are
always approximate. Surveys may not represent the full extent of the excavation area and the
contours established by the survey are interpolations. For example, even a highly accurate aerial
topographic survey is accurate only to within one half of the smallest contour interval on the
map. So if the resultant topographic map utilizes 2-foot contour intervals, its accuracy will be
plus or minus 1 foot.

When determining acceptable accuracy, the estimator should remember the differences in
volume between in-bank soil, loose soil that has been excavated, and fill soil that has been
compacted. The current practice is to adopt an assumed shrinkage factor of 20%-30% for
adjustment of fill as it is placed and compacted. For example, a structural fill embankment
constructed in controlled lifts may have an 8-inch-thick layer of loose fill soil spread in place and
then compacted to a thickness of 6 inches. In addition, a typical swelling factor of 25% is used to
account for increases in volume during transportation or stockpiling. Therefore, 100 bank cubic
yards in the ground can become 125 cubic yards loose in the trucks hauling soil from the
excavation area. This loose soil could be compacted to an embankment fill volume of 94 cubic
yards.

Estimators should also never forget the difference between precision and accuracy. Precision and
accuracy are two completely different things that even experienced engineers, estimators, and
surveyors can confuse. Precision refers to the number of units used to describe a measurement. It
is a measure of how close together the measurements are, not how close they are to the correct or
true value. A measurement taken to 10 decimal places will be more precise than one taken to

22
only two decimal places. However, being more precise does not improve accuracy. Accuracy of
a measurement describes how close it is to the “real” value, which is not necessarily precise.
Estimators should be concerned with accuracy, as this will determine profit or loss on a project.
Precision is of little importance except where it actually increases the accuracy of the
measurement.

Calculating Areas

Before volumes can be calculated, the areas of excavation (either horizontal or vertical) must be
established. Horizontal areas are associated with cross sections cut through the earthwork
volume and vertical surfaces associated with Digital Terrain Model (DTM) volumes. Horizontal
areas usually refer to either the area extent of the excavation and horizontal areas enclosed by
contour elevation lines. These areas are defined by a series of discreet points along their
boundaries. Areas are calculated by connecting these points in a series of continuous triangles
that extend across the area. Given the northing and easting of each of the three vertices of each
triangle, and the lengths of each of the three sides of the triangles, each triangle’s area can be
calculated as follows:

A = sqrt[s * (s – a) * (s – b) * (s – c)]
Where,
A = the area of the triangular area (square feet)
a, b, c, = the lengths of the three sides of the triangle (feet)
s = (a + b + c) / 2

An alternate method involves measuring the lengths of parallel lines traversing the area from one
side to the opposite side at a constant interval. The area of each strip is calculated by multiplying
the line’s length by the distance interval between the lines. The sum of all the strips’ areas gives
the overall surface area. Computer and CADD programs use either method, but can perform
many more operations, allowing for a higher degree of accuracy.

Calculating Volumes

There are four popular methods of earthwork calculation but in this project, the section method
was used while average method was used as a check.

 Section method
 Average method
 Division by Square method

Contour method

There are several ways of calculating bank (in-place) earth and soil volumes.

23
The simplest is the Depth Area Method (DAM), which involves multiplying the thickness of
the strata to be excavated by the surficial area of the strata. This can be done with any reasonable
accuracy only for strata that is consistently thick and whose area extent is known. It is perfectly
suitable for estimating the amount of topsoil to be stripped at a consistent depth (usually 6
inches). It is also applicable for estimating the volume of regular (square or rectangular with
vertical sideslopes) excavations of a consistent depth below a relatively flat surface. Remember
to use the sloped surficial area of the excavation zone, not the projected plain area. Failure to do
so will introduce additional errors into the volume calculation. For example, a plane acre of a
slope with a 25% grade (approximately 14 degrees to the horizontal) will have a surficial area of
about 1.03 acres. Volumes are calculated as follows:

V = T * A * (1/27)
Where,
V = volume (cubic yards)
A = surficial slope area (square feet)
T = thickness of strata or even cut (feet)

The Grid Method (also known as the Borrow Pit Method) extends DAM to an excavation of
varying depths. Borrow-pit leveling calculates the excavation volume by applying a grid to the
excavation area. The grids can be staked to squares of 10, 20, 50, 100, or more feet depending on
the project size and the accuracy desired. For each grid square, final elevations are established
for each corner of every grid square. These are subtracted from the existing elevations at the
same location to determine the depth of cut or height of fill at each corner. For each grid square
an average of the depths/heights of the four corners is multiplied by the area of the square to
determine the volume of earthwork associated with the grid area. The total earthwork volume for
the project is calculated by adding the volumes of each grid square in the excavation area.
Volumes are calculated as follows:

V = ((D1 + D2 + D3 + D4) / 4) * A * (1/27)

Where,
V = volume (cubic yards)
A = area of the grid square (square feet)
D = depth of cut/fill at each grid corner (feet)

The End Area Method (EAM) utilizes the areas of parallel cross sections at regular intervals
through the proposed earthwork volume. These cross sections are can be spaced at intervals of
25, 50, 100, or 200 feet depending on the size of the site and the required accuracy. They are
aligned perpendicular to a baseline that extends the entire length of the excavation area. There
are several types of cross sections, which can be drawn by hand or generated by CADD. For flat
terrain or level excavation, a level section is suitable. Irregular sections are used for most
excavations in rough terrain. Transition or side-hill sections occur when passing from excavation
cut to embankment fill. Cross-sectional areas are calculated with either the triangular area

24
method described above (if the cross sections are geometrically simple) or by the Length Interval
Method for more complicated cross sections. Volumes are calculated as follows:

V = L * ((A1 + A2) / 2) * (1/27)

Where,
V = volume (cubic yards)
A = areas of the adjacent cross sections (square feet)
L = distance between cross section along the baseline (feet)

The Prismoidal Formula (PF) allows for greater accuracy than EAM. It is especially useful
when the ground is not uniform or significantly irregular between cross sections. PF adds an
additional cross-sectional area midway between the two cross sections defining the volume being
calculated. Note that this cross section is calculated separately and is not an average between the
two end areas. Volumes are calculated as follows:

V = L * ((A1 + (4 * Am) + A2) / 6) * (1/27)

Where,
V = volume (cubic yards)
A1, A2 = areas of the adjacent cross sections (square feet)
Am = area of the midway cross section (square feet)
L = distance between cross section along the baseline (feet)

The Contour Area Method (CAM) uses the area of the excavation elevation contour lines to
determine volumes. From a topographic map of the site, the areas enclosed by regular contour
intervals are measured. This area measurement can be done by hand with a planimeter,
electronically by a digitizer, or directly with a CADD program. If the horizontal areas enclosed
by each contour line are large relative to the elevation difference between the two contour
elevations, averaging the two areas and multiplying the average by the height difference can
determine volumes. However, for relatively small earthworks (like spoil piles and borrow areas),
volumes can be calculated based on the formula for the volume of a truncated pyramid:

The Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN) uses triangles to represent small, continuous
surface areas and is the current standard for accurate terrain modeling. Each corner of each
triangle represents a field survey point with northing, easting, and elevation coordinates. The
TIN model representing the terrain surface (or boundaries between soil strata) is created by
connecting these points to their nearest neighbors (as determined by northing and easting, not the
nearest in terms of elevation) to form a series of contiguous, irregular triangles covering the
entire surface (see Figure 1). Of all the methods used, TIN has the greatest accuracy and can best
handle volumes for different soil strata, but it also requires the greatest amount of calculations.
Therefore it is suitable for CADD and estimation software.

25
DTM utilizes surfaces created by the TIN method. DTM accurately models the ground
surface and allows the estimator to directly calculate volumes without drawing counters. The
volumes are determined by formulas similar to that used by CAM, but use vertical sections rather
than horizontal contour line sections. DTM can be used to determine the volume between a
surface and a fixed elevation or between two or more DTM generated surfaces. This allows for
accurate measurement of excavations the result in an unleveled surface. Furthermore, the
volumes of differing types of soils in an excavation can be determined by DTM defining the
boundary surfaces between the various strata.

https://foresternetwork.com/daily/construction/jobsite-infrastructure/taking-the-measure-of-
methods-for-estimating-earthwork-volumes/

SECTION 5: CURVES

In engineering construction such as roads, railways and pipelines, two straights will
normally be connected by a curve whenever there is a change in direction. There are different
types of curves that include, circular, transitional and vertical curves

Circular curve:

26
The diagram above shows two straights XP and YP that intersect at point P. If these straights are
the set out centre lines of a proposed construction it may be necessary to connect them by means
of the circular, curve AGHKB as shown in the diagram. The following terminology is used in
defining the various Parts of the figure.

 = the angle of deflection or the angle of deviation curve.

T = tangent length = AP = PB.

R = the radius of the curve

L = the arc length of the curve from A to B.

O = the centre of the circle

H = the crown or apex of the curve

A = the first target point

B = the end target point

 = the angle of deflection of the chord or the circumferential angle

AG = GH = HK = KB are equal chords subtending equal are length

HM = the height of the crown or the versed sine of the chord.

Curve formulae: In order to set out a curve, depending on the method to be used, the data
may have to be calculated from the following formulae.

a) tangent length:
T = Rtan ½ 
b) arc length:
L = 𝑅 2𝜋⁄360 (where  is in degrees) OR

27
 L = R (where  is radians)
c) deflection angle:
Sin  = 𝑐⁄2𝑅 (where c is the chord length)

Or  = 1718.9 𝑐⁄𝑅 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠

d) the versed sine of the chord:
MH = R (1 – cos /2)

SETTING OUT CIRCULAR CURVES: There are many methods of setting out circular
curves that include:

 Using two theodolite and a tape

 Using two theodolites
 Using tapes only by method of offsets from tangent
 Using the optical square
 Using co-ordinates
 Using total station

(Read and make notes of other methods)

Setting out function with total station:

1. When the horizontal angle and distance to the setout are known, these are entered into the
instrument which has already had its horizontal circle oriented to a reference station. As
soon as the appropriate keys(s) are pressed to activate the setting out mode on the total
station, it displays the difference (dHA) between the entered and measured horizontal
angle values. In order to set the required direction for setting out, the telescope is rotated
until a difference of zero is displaced (i.e. dHA = 0). Following this, a pole mounted
prism is located on the line of sighted as near to the required distance as possible. Once
aligned, the prism is sighted and the distance to it measured by the TOTAL STATION [
The difference between the measured and entered distances is displaced and by moving
the prism this difference is reduced to zero to locate the point]

28
 2. When the co-ordinates of the point to be set out are known prior to measurement, the
station co-ordinates are entered into the instrument as well as those of a reference station
and the horizontal circle is associated to the co-ordinate grid such that it displays
bearings directly. Next, the co-ordinate values of the point to be set out are entered into
the Total Station. When the setting out mode is selected, the instrument displays the
difference between calculated and measured bearings. There is no need for the observer
to calculate any bearings as the Total Station does this automatically. As with the
horizontal angle and distance mode, the telescope is rotated until this difference goes
such that it is now pointing in the required direction for setting out. With the pole-
mounted prism located in this line of sight, the horizontal distance to it is measured and
the difference between this and the value calculated by the Total Station is displayed.
This is reduced to zero by moving the prism.

Question:

Two straights intersect with an angle of deflection of 120201. They are to be connected by a
circular curve of radius 600m. The change of the intersection point is 12 + 73.16. Calculate the
setting-out data required to peg the curve at a continuous change with pegs at 25-m intervals.

Solution:

a) calculate the tangent length from T = Rtan ½

T = 600tan 6010
= 64.83m
b) calculate the arc length from L = R
L = 600 x 12020 x 2/360
= 600 x 0.21526
= 129.16m
c) calculate the chainage:
29
 Chainage of P = 12 + 73.16
Less T = 64.83
Chainage at A = 12 + 08.33
Add L = 129.16
Chainage at B = 13 + 137.49
d) Calculate the sub-chords: The last peg on the straight is at chainage12 + 00, therefore the
next peg must be at chainage 12 + 25. There is still 8.33m on the straight to the tangent
point, so the will be 25.00 – 8.33 = 16.67m along the curve to the first peg on the curve.
Thus 16.67m is the length of the first sub-chord.

As the curve length is 129.16m and the first sub-chord is 16.67, there is 129.16.67
= 112.49 of arc left. FOUR 25m standard chords make up the next 100m, leaving a final
sub-chord of 12.49m. The measure of the arc distance by these chords is sufficiently
accurate for most practical proposes, although theoretically the measured distance is
shorter than the arc distance.

e) Calculate the deflection angles from

= 1718.9 c/R
= 1718.9 x 25/600
= 71.621
= 1011137”.2
i) The initial sub-chord is 16.67m so its deflection angle will be in the proportion of:
16.67 x 1011.162 = 47.761
25
1 = 47” 45”.6
ii) The final sub-chord is 12.49m so its deflection angle will be in proportion of
12.49 x 10 111 = 35.781
” = 351 4611.8
f) Tabulate the deflection angles: The deflection angles are tabulated as follows:

Instrument at A = 12 + 08.33

30
 OBSTRUCTION TO SETTING OUT

a) The inaccessible intersection point: By setting out a line such as XY in the diagram
below and measuring its length and the angles α and β, the triangle XPY can be solved
for the lengths PX and PY and  can be deduced. The tangent points can then be located
from X and Y and the curve set out in the usual way.

TRANSITION CURVE

The centrifugal force acting on a vehicle as it moves along a curve increases as the radius
of the CURVE DECREASES. A vehicle moving from a straight road; (with no centrifugal force
acting upon it); on entering into a CURVE would suddenly receive the maximum amount of
centrifugal force for that radius of curve. To prevent this sudden lateral shock on passengers in

31
the vehicle a TRANSITIONAL CURVE is inserted between the straight road and the circular
curve.

The radius of a transition curve varies from infinity at its tangent point with the circular
curve.

Generally, transition curves can be used to join intersecting straight in one of the two
ways, either,

a) In conjunction with circular curves to form COMPOSITE CURVES;

b) In pains to form WHOLLY TRANSITIONAL CURVES.
- COMPOSITE CURVES: In these transition curves of equal length are used on either
side of a circular curve of radius R. Although this type of design has widespread use, it
has the disadvantage that the radius and hence the radial force is constant on the circular
section and, if the force is large, the length of the circular section represent a danger
length over which the maximum force applies. There are always standard values given
for limiting radii. This greatly reduces the said danger. However, the use of transitions on
their own with no inter-transitions circular curve is sometimes preferred.
- WHOLLY TRANSITIONAL CURVES: This consists of two transitions of equal
length as shown in the diagram below

Each of the transitions in this curve has a constantly changing radius and hence a constantly
changing force, therefore there is only a short length over which the force is high and hence
safety is increased.

SETTING OUT OF TRANSITIONAL CURVE USING CO-ORDINATE METHOD

32
In this use is made of control points located some distance from the proposed centre line of the
curve. Here the coordinates of points at regular intervals along the centre line are calculated and
points are then pegged out usually by bearing and distance methods from nearly control point
using theodolite/EDM instruments of total stations.

Recently, the calculations involved in co-ordinate method are often done within computer
software highway design packages.

VERTICAL CURVES

Wherever two gradients intersect, it is necessary to smooth out the profile so that there is a
gradient change from one gradient to the other. On the hills such vertical curves, known as
SUMMIT CURVES and in valleys they are known as VALLEY CURVES OR SAGS. The curve
normally adopted for vertical curve in engineering projects road construction for example is the
simple parabola.

There are two main requirements in the design and construction of vertical curves:

- Adequate comfort and safety.

- Passengers comfort and safety.

Adequate visibility: In order for a vehicle travelling at the design speed to stop and overtake
safely, it is essential that on coming vehicles or any obstructions in the road can be seen clearly
and in going. This requirement is achieved by the use of SIGHT DISTANCES AND K-
VALUES

Passengers Comfort and Safety: As the vehicle travels along the curve a radial force, similar to
that which occurs in horizontal curves, acts on the vehicle in the vertical place. This has the
effect of trying to force the vehicle away from the centre of curvature of the vertical curve. In
crest design, this could cause the vehicle to leave the road surface, as in the case of hump back
bridges, while in sag design the underside of the vehicle could come into contact with the
surface, particularly where the gradient are steep and opposed. This result in both discomfort and

33
danger to passengers travelling and must therefore be minimized. This is achieved firstly by
restricting the gradient, which has the effect of reducing the force, and secondly by choosing a
suitable type of length of curve such that this reduced force is introduced as gradually and
uniformly as possible.

The sight distances and K values in road design/construction are supplied by Ministry of
Works responsible for supplying these standards.

1. Why curves are necessary in the alignment of a highway/ railway?

During the survey of the alignment of a road, railway, canals, etc, the direction of
the

line may change due to some unavoidable situations. When two straights of a highway or
rail way are at some angle to each other, a curve is introduced between them to avoid an
abrupt change in direction and to make the vehicle move safely, smoothly and
comfortably.

2. List the various types of curves. Types of curves:

1. Horizontal curve – provided in the horizontal plane.

a. Simple curve
b. Compound curve
c. Reverse curve.
d. Transition curve.
2.Vertical curve – provided where two straight lines of different gradient
intersect in the vertical plane. a. Summit curve.

b. Sag curve.

3. What are the three classes of circular curves?

a. Simple curve - consists of single arc connecting two straights.
b. Compound curve - consists of two arcs of different radii bending in same
direction. Centres being on the same side of the curve. c. Reverse curve -
consists of two arcs of different radii or equal bending in opposite
direction. Centers being on opposite
side of the curve.
4. Define degree of curve according to highway practice.
The degree of a curve can be defined based on either an arc or a chord. According
to

the arc definition, the degree of a curve is the central angle subtended by an arc of 30 or 20 m
length. In highways this arc definition is utilized.

34
 According to the chord definition, the degree of a curve is the central angle
subtended

by an arc of 30 or 20 m length. In railways this chord definition is utilized.

5. State the relationship between the radius of a curve and the degree of the curve.
If the chord length is 30m, R= 1719 / D If the chord length is 20m, R= 1146 / D

Where, R = Radius of a curve

D = Degree of the curve

6. What are the elements of a simple Circular curve?

1. Back tangent 2. Forward tangent. 3. Point of curve. (P.C)- T1

4. Point of tangency (P.T) - T2. 5. Point of intersection (P.I).

6. Intersection angle (I). 7. Deflection angle or Central angle(φ).

8. Tangent length 9. External distance or Apex distance

10. Length of the curve 11. Long chord. (T1 T2 ). 12. Mid
ordinate 7 .Define: Setting out of curves( curve ranging).
Setting out of curves means the location of various points along the curve and
joining

the same to obtain the actual curves.

8. What are the methods used for setting curves?
The methods used for setting curves:

1. Linear methods.
(i). Offsets from long chord.

(ii). Radial offsets from tangents.

(iii). Perpendicular offsets from tangents. (iv).

Successive bisection of arcs.

(v). Offsets from the chord produced.

2. Angular methods.
(i). Rankine‟s method of deflection angle.( One theodolite method)

(ii). Two- theodolite method.

(iii). Tacheometric method.

35
9 . What is Sight distance in highways? Which factors affect if?
Sight distance may be defined as the minimum distance between two vehicles
moving

along a curve, when the driver of one vehicle can just see the other vehicle r ahead on the road.
The factors affecting the sight distance are:
(i). Height of the line of the sight of the driver (ii). Grade or longitudinal slope of
the curve (iii). Speed of the vehicle. (iv). Co efficient of friction (v). Efficiency of the
break. 10 . What is meant by stopping sight distance?
It is the minimum distance necessary for the safe movement of traffic within which
the

driver of a vehicle moving at design speeds. After reaching to the presence of a hazard ahead,
can bring it to a stop before reaching a hazard. It depends upon
(i). Grade or longitudinal slope of the curve (ii). Speed of the vehicle.

(iii). Co efficient of friction (iv). Efficiency of the

break. 11 . Define: transition curve.
A curve of varying radius is known as transition curve or spiral or easement curve.
A

transition curve is a non circular arc introduced on either sides of a circular curve or
between the two branches of compound or a reverse curve. It is not provided in highways
but is provided in railways.

12. What are the functions of a transition curve?

1. The radius of the curvature increases or decreases gradually.
2. It is provided for the gradual change in super elevation.
3. It allows a gradual transition of curvature from the tangent to the circular curve
of
from the circular curve to the tangent.
4. It eliminates the danger of derailment, overturning or side slipping of vehicles
and discomfort to passengers.
13. What are the types of transition curve?
1. Cubic spiral or clothoid or Euler spiral – provided in Railways.
2. Bernoulli‟s Lemniscate.- provided in Highways
3. Cubic parabola or Froude‟s curve. - provided in Railways
14. What are the aims when undertaking setting out operations?
1. The structure to be constructed must be set out correctly in all three dimensions
– both relatively and absolutely, so that it is of correct size, in the correct plan
position and a correct level.

36
 2. The setting out process, once begun, must proceed quickly, without causing any
delay in construction program.

15. What are the controls required for setting out?

In horizontal control, control stations (Triangulation stations) must be established
within or near the construction area. The well-known principle of working from whole to part is
applied.

It consists of reference marks of known height relative to some specified datum.

16. What are the operations involved in setting out a tunnel ?
1. Surface survey
2. The connection of surface and underground surveys.
3. Setting out underground.
4. Levels in tunnels.
17.Define: Shafts
They are hollow vertical members. They are frequently sunk on the centre line of

the tunnel setting out to facilitate construction by providing additional working faces.

18. Write the series of surveys conducted for the location of the roadways, railways,
waterways .
1. Reconnaissance survey – Examination of the entire area and collect the required
details. Select number of routes.
2. Preliminary survey - detailed instrumental examination of the entire area and
finalize
the route.

3. Location survey – set out the alignment of the decided route on the
ground.
Construction Survey – Prepare L.S and C.S. Begin the construction.

19. Define : Lead lines.

The lead lines, also called sounding lines are usually used for depth over 6m. The
lead

line consists of a line of hemp, cotton, or a brass chain having at its end a weight called a lead.

20. What are the instruments used for setting out tunnels? Theodolite. Tape, Tripod,

SECTION SIX: ERROR ANALYSIS AND ACHIEVABLE ACCURACIES

37
SECTION SEVEN: DIGITAL APPROACHES

38