Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Abstract
The Solar-powered Atmospheric Water Generation and Purification (SAWGAP) system is a hybrid system, coupling
rainwater collection with water-from-air condensation. It has built-in ceramic filter and ultraviolet irradiation for water
purification. It can be powered by solar energy stored in battery banks coupled with a variable frequency DC-AC inverter,
which can operate at higher voltages. Its engineering design emphasized the use of readily available automotive and
refrigeration components and non-specialty solid state circuits for adoption and adaptation by remote communities far from
grid power facilities.
In the initial unoptimized tests, it generated 18.3 liters of water in 24 hours in ambient air conditions with an average relative
humidity of 70% RH. Within this period, it consumed 2 kilowatt-hours of energy per liter of water generated. All water
samples collected were tested and found to conform to the Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water (PNSDW).
1 INTRODUCTION
Severe water shortages are currently experienced by 470 million people and it is projected that by 2025, the number of people
living in water-stressed countries will increase to 3 billion [1]. It is also estimated that 2.4 billion people in the world lack
access to safe drinking water and that there are about 1.7 million deaths per year worldwide because of diseases found in poor
water quality [1]. In the Philippines, Department of Health statistics show that approximately 18 people die each day from
diarrhea and water-borne diseases [2].
Clean water remains in demand, with various sectors competing for the same scarce resource. Basic water requirement
(BWR) of 50 liters per person per day has been recommended to serve as the standard to meet basic domestic needs [3]. For
agriculture, 70% of the total global fresh water is consumed [4] while industry utilizes 20-22% of the world’s freshwater. It
is expected that water consumption in industry will increase to 1170 km 3/yr by 2025 [5]. Business also needs water for
power and steam generation, for sanitation or as a component of products [6].
Different water treatment technologies are made available in an attempt to address concerns on both water scarcity and
contamination. Technology to extract potable water from domestic wastewater is being looked into [7]. However, passing
off sludge as fertilizer can have disastrous effects on the agricultural soils [8]. Chemical disinfection is also being widely
used. Oxidizing chemicals, such as chlorine and ozone, kill a variety of pathogenic microorganisms during treatment [9].
The downside of using these chemicals is the generation of disinfection by-products (DBPs) which may have effects on
human health [10].
In a recent paper, it was mentioned that UV irradiation is quickly gaining popularity in the consumer market as a safe,
effective, and economical approach to disinfection [11]. There are many pathogenic organisms that are more susceptible to
UV than they are to chlorine [12]. On the other hand, ceramic water purifiers (CWPs) have been found to reduce E. coli up
to 99.99%. It also reduced MS2, a viral surrogate, by a mean 90-99% in laboratory testing [13].
Atmospheric water generator technologies can address the need for clean water without any health or environment
concerns. They are already available in locations that have grid power and public waterworks. This paper reports the design
and fabrication of a water-from-air system, coupled with rainwater collection, that can run from battery banks powered by the
sun. A custom DC-AC inverter was also developed and built into the system to allow off grid operation. The DC-AC
inverter circuits for UV lamps do not need high purity low harmonic content specifications. To drive down costs, high
harmonic content of about 50% is still suitable in this context. The engineering design also emphasized the use of readily
available parts for low-cost community production
This work presents one of the first designs for a solar-power compatible clean water system that can be easily deployed
in remote and disaster-stricken areas where potable drinking water and public electric grid system are not available.
2 SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
The whole Solar-powered Atmospheric Water Generation and Purification (SAWGAP) system is divided into three major
parts: Water Generation, Water Treatment and the DC-AC Solar Power Generation. Water collected, both from the rain water
catchment set-up and water generator, will pass through the water treatment system. A solar powering device will run the
whole system. Figure 2.1 illustrates these parts and their relationships to each other.
Figure 2.1 Block diagram of the SAWGAP system
The solar panels will charge the car batteries through a charger circuit. Energy from the batteries will pass through the
DC-AC inverter to power the water generator and the water treatment system.
Two prototypes of water generation were assembled. Prototype A in Figure 2.2 was made of a refrigerator compressor, a
car evaporator and condenser coils, copper tubes, capillary tubes, and a filter dryer. This set-up was found to be feasible but
had to be optimized.
Prototype B in Figure 2.3 was a modified dehumidifier which used a commercial household dehumidifier with its
compressor replaced by a 1.1 kilowatt car compressor and assembled with an electric motor, a valve and a filter dryer. The
humidifier can be replaced by a car condenser and evaporator coils and exhaust fan to drive the costs down. Figure 2.4 shows
the process of air vapor condensation and water generation in Prototype B. Prototype B is the one being referred to in all the
experiments done in this paper.
Figure 2.5 shows the process of water treatment. The collected water will pass through a ceramic filter and ultraviolet
(UV) irradiation for disinfection. Figure 2.6 shows the actual water treatment system used for this study.
2
Figure 2.5 Block diagram of the water treatment system Figure 2.6 Water treatment system
The circuit diagram in Figure 2.7 presents the control circuit of the inverter. It switches the primary terminals of the
transformer to give the desired AC voltage output. Figure 2.8 shows the actual DC-AC inverter assembled.
Figure 2.7 DC-AC inverter circuit diagram. Figure 2.8 DC-AC inverter circuit
Design courtesy of Engr. Tristan Calasanz,
Associate Lecturer, Ateneo de Manila University.
3
Figure 3.1 Correlation of volume of water with
temperature and pressure components. (Note that
the graphs are not in-scale with each other. They
were purposely scaled up or down to see
variation of values.)
4
5 SCALING UP THE SAWGAP SYSTEM FOR SMALL COMMUNITIES
Table 5.1 shows that the Water Generator, its DC-AC Inverter, and DC-AC Inverter for Purification system were
recommended to have two units each for reliability of performance.
Main Components Qty Unit Cost Total Amount Table 5.1 Estimated cost of SAWGAP
Water Generator 2 16,000.00 32,000.00 system’s main component for deployment
Purification System 1 10,000.00 10,000.00
DC-AC Inverter for Water This estimate is enough to deploy the
Generator (1280 watts) 2 20,000.00 40,000.00 Solar-powered Atmospheric Water Generation
DC-AC Inverter for and Purification System for a continuous
Purification System (320 watts) 2 10,000.00 20,000.00 twenty-four hour daily operation. However,
Solar Panels, 200 watts, 48 this estimate does not include maintenance,
volts, 5 amperes 12 100,000.00 1,200,000.00 shipment, housing of the system and
Batteries, deep cycle, 200 technician costs.
ampere-hours 96 5,000.00 480,000.00 A ferro cement design could be adopted
Solar Charger 1 8,000.00 8,000.00 for the construction of a Rainwater Catchment
(RWC) system [16]. We could design a
Grand Total, Php 1,790,000.00
rainwater-catchment system for a barangay or
local municipality with a hundred, a thousand, and a ten thousand size population by calculating the needed area of the RWC
system from the volume of water needed per family, average rainfall, and efficiency of collection. Using the formula: liters
caught = (area of catchment)x(average rain fall/ year) x (efficiency of collection) x 1000 [17], one can determine the roof
area and the volume of water storage tank needed by a given population.
Collected rainwater can be made potable by the purification part of the SAWGAP system. In areas where there is no grid
electricity, the DC-AC inverter at 320 watts (or any over-the-counter DC-AC inverter, at least 200 watts) will be more than
enough to power a UV germicidal lamp and a small pump that pushes water into a ceramic filter.
The system can be adapted in any parts of the Philippines. Its usage efficiency will be determined by the amount of
rainfall in a given area at a particular period of time. In areas with heavy amount of rainfall, it can be used only for
purification of rainwater. Since the whole country has an average relative humidity of 82%, the system can condense a
considerable amount of water from the atmosphere. Table 5.2 gives the projected volume of water, in liters, that can be
collected from air, depending on the relative humidity (%RH) and ambient temperature (oC).
5
In making the system easier to deploy in remote areas, it is recommended that other powering alternatives that can be
operated off-grid can be explored, for instance, wind powering. It does not only make the system easily accessible in remote
areas but it can also lower electric consumption, and keep the system environment-friendly.
References
[1] Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council (WSSCC), WHO, cited in Water Harvesting. [Online]. Available:
http://hetv.org/programmes/water-harvesting.htm
[2] (2008, October). Sanitation Pilot in San Fernando, Philippines. [Online]. Available: http://watsan.eco-
asia.org/sus_san/sanfernando/index.html
[3] P.H. Gleick, “Basic water requirements for human activities: Meeting basic needs. Water International, vol. 1, pp. 83-92,
1996. [Online]. Available: http://www.environmental-expert.com/files/
[4] Worldwatch Paper 64, Investing In Children, June 1985. The Worldwatch Institute, 1776 Massachusetts Avenue, NW,
Washington, DC 20036. Cited in Water Harvesting. [Online]. Available: http://hetv.org/programmes/water-harvesting.htm
[5] UN World Water Development Report. Water for people -- Water for life, 2001. Cited in M. Seneviratne. (2007). A
practical approach to water conservation for commercial and industrial facilities. Elsevier Science Publishing. [Online].
Available: http://books.google.com/books/
[6] M. Seneviratne. (2007). A practical approach to water conservation for commercial and industrial facilities. Elsevier
Science Publishing. [Online]. Available: http://books.google.com/books
[7] M. Elimelech, “The global challenge for adequate and safer water,” Clarke Prize, 2005, and Aqua – Journal of Water
Supply: Research and Technology, vol. 55, no. 1, pp. 3-10, Feb. 2006.
[8] A.A. Rockefeller, “Sewer, sewage treatment, sludge: Damage without end,” New Solutions, vol. 12, no. 4, 341-346, 2002.
[Online]. Available: http://www.riles.org/
[9] L. Franken. The application of ozone technology for public health and industry. Food Safety and Security, 2005. [Online].
Available: http://fss.k-state.edu.
[10] Havelaar, et. al. (2000) “Balancing the risks and benefits of drinking water disinfection: Disability adjusted life-years on
the scale,” Environmental Health Perspectives, 108(4), 315-321. Cited in L. Franken (2005). “The application of ozone
technology for public health and industry,” Food Safety and Security. [Online]. Available: http://fss.k-state.edu.
[11] S.C. Wang and Y.H. Liu, “High-power-factor electronic ballast with intelligent energy-saving control for ultraviolet
drinking-water treatment systems,” IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, vol. 55, no. 1, January 2008.
[12] M.D. Sobsey (1989). “Inactivation of health-related microorganisms in water by disinfection processes,” Water Sci.
Technol., vol. 21, p. 179. Cited in S.D. Freese and D.J. Nozaic, “Chlorine: Is it really so bad and what are the alternatives?”,
Water Institute of South Africa, vol. 30, no. 5, 2004 (Special Edition). [Online]. Available: http://www.wrc.org.za.
[13] 2007 Dissertation Paper submitted at the University of North Carolina in Chapel Hill
[14] W.F. Stoeker. Refrigeration and Air Conditioning. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1958, p 336.
[15] C.D. Harvell, K. Kim, J.M. Burkholder, R.R. Colwell, P.R. Epstein, J. Grimes, E.E. Hofmann, E. Lipp, A.D.M.E.
Osterhaus, R. Overstreet R, et al. Emerging marine diseases: climate links and anthropogenic factors. Science 285:1505-1510
(1999). Cited in R.B. Levin, et.al,. (2002). “U.S. drinking water challenges in the twenty-first century,” Environmental
Health Perspectives Supplements, vol. 110, no. S1, Feb. 2002. [Online]. Available: http://www.ehponline.org/members/2002/
[16] J.C. Salas (2007). “Rainwater harvesting: A community’s technology for coping with climate change,” Raindrop
Newsletter, Last Quarter, 2007 [Online] Available: http://raindrop.philwatershed.org/archive/
[17] T. Mays and K. Tung. Hydrosystems Engineering and Management. McGraw-Hill, Inc, U.S.A., 1992.
[18] Step by Step Guide to Making Water Filters [Online]. Available: http://www.Tony.Flynn@.anu.edu.au, 12 May 2008.