PART 1A - INTRODUCTION TO ACOUSTICS  Indoor Acoustics/ Architectural

Acoustics
SCOPE OF ACOUSTICS
1. Earth Sciences LANDSCAPE ACOUSTICS
2. Life Sciences - Environmental noise and soundscapes
3. Arts - Concerned with noise and vibration caused
4. Engineering by traffic, aircraft, industrial equipment and
recreational activities
ACOUSTICS STUDIES - Research work now also has a focus on the
1. Acoustical Oceanography positive use of sound in urban
2. Animal Bioacoustics environments
3. Architectural Acoustics
4. Biomedical Ultrasound/ Bioresponse to ARCHITECTURAL ACOUSTICS
Vibration - The science of sound phenomena in
5. Engineering Acoustics buildings, dealing with the production,
6. Musical Acoustics transmission, and absorption of sound
7. Noise - The science of sound and vibration which
8. Physical Acoustics refers to stress fluctuations and waves in a
9. Psychological-Physiological Acoustics material medium
10. Signal Processing in Acoustics - The art and science of designing a room or
11. Speech Communication building which insures both comfort and
12. Structural Acoustics and Vibration communication, and provides special
13. Underwater Acoustics features as the purpose and use of the
structure requires
PSYCHO ACOUSTICS
- Scientific study of sound perception; SUBDISCIPLINES OF ARCHITECTURAL ACOUSTICS
- It is the branch of science studying the - SPACE ACOUSTICS: designing a space that
psychological and physiological responses enhances sound for optimum acoustical
associated with sound; conditions
- It can be further categorized as a branch of - NOISE CONTROL: eliminating, or at least
psychophysics reducing noise and vibration transmission
- Includes the mechanics of the human ear
and effect of noise on hearing capacities SOUND
- Any vibratory motion of bodies, the
ELECTRO ACOUSTICS transmission of these vibrations in a solid or
- Deals with the generation and detection of liquid media, and the sensation produced
audible sound waves, including sound on the human auditory mechanism
reproduction - An alteration in pressure projected and
- Concerned with the recording, propagated in an elastic material
manipulation and reproduction of audio - Form of energy which continues to subsist
using electronics until filtered through a material turning into
heat by friction
SONICS
- Deals with sounds at frequencies too high PROPERTIES OF SOUND
to be heard by humans - Sound must always have a source, a path,
- Deals with the technical application of and a receiver
mechanical waves in basic scientific - SPEED: sound travels at 344m/s at normal
research, industry, and medicine room temperature (68 degF)
 Sound travels about 1 million times
ENVIRONMENTAL ACOUSTICS slower than light
- Deals with the effects of the environment  Sound travels faster in denser media
upon audible sound waves - INTENSITY: the rate at which sound energy
- Further specialized studies include: is being transmitted, measured at any point
 Outdoor Acoustics/ Landscape in the medium; sound power per unit area
Acoustics  Intensity diminishes inversely as the
square of the distance of the source
- SOUND PRESSURE: the fluctuation in the
atmospheric pressure caused by the
vibration of air particles due to a sound
wave
- LOUDNESS: the subjective attribute of an
auditory sensation
- TRESHOLD OF AUDIBILITY: minimum
intensity that is capable of evoking an
auditory sensation in the ear
- TRESHOLD OF PAIN: minimum sound
pressure level which stimulates the ear to a
point which is painful
- PERCEIVED SOUND
 Dominant frequencies affect sound
perception
 Sound meters that interpret human
hearing use an “A” weighted scale
 dB becomes dBA
- WAVELENGTH: the distance a sound wave
travels during each complete cycle of
vibration
- AMPLITUDE: the strength or power of a
wave signal. The “height” of a wave when
viewed as a graph
- FREQUENCY: the number of displacements
or oscillations that a particle undergoes in 1
second
 The unit of frequency is HERTZ,
numerically equal to cycles per second
 The audio frequency range is 20-
20,000HZ
 Standard frequencies, selected
arbitrarily, represent significance in
environmental acoustics
 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FREQUENCY
AND WAVELENGTH?
 Sound within the frequency range
of 20-10,000HZ produces
wavelengths which extends from
17M to 34mm
- PITCH: the attribute of an auditory system
which enables us to pinpoint sounds on a
scale extending from high to low
frequencies
- TONE: a steady periodic sound; a sensation
having pitch
- TIMBRE: combination of the number,
prominence, pitch, and intensity of the
overtones
- SOUND DIRECTIONALITY: sound sources
radiate sound waves in all directions
PART 1B – CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND
SOUND REFLECTION
- Sound reflected off a surface, usually one
which is hard, rigid, and/or flat
- LAW OF REFLECTIVITY: Angle of incidence
equals the angle of reflection
 Sound waves in contact with concave
and convex surfaces will reflect off
these surfaces in different directions
SOUND ABSORPTION
- Sound waves absorbed into a material upon
contact; change of energy into some other
form
- SOUND ABSORPTION COEFFICIENT:
Fraction of energy of the incident sound
absorbed by the surface; rates the
efficiency of sound absorption of a material
at a specified frequency
- NOISE REDUCTION COEFFICIENT (NRC):
arithmetic average of sound absorption
coefficients at the frequencies 250, 500,
1000, and 2000 Hz, expressed to the
nearest multiple of 0.05
- SURFACE ABSORPTION: product of the area
of a surface and its absorption coefficient/
noise reduction coefficient
- METHODS OF ABSORPTION
 Frictional
 Flexural
 Resonating
SOUND DIFFUSION
- Occurs when sound waves are dispersed
equally in a room
- Uniform distribution of sound in a room
creates a HOMOGENOUS FIELD
- There are several methods to create sound
diffusion:
 Providing several surface irregularities
 Providing an alternating application of
reflective and absorptive finishes
 Providing a random application of
reflective and absorptive finishes
 Providing diffusers
SOUND DIFFRACTION
- An acoustical phenomenon which causes
sound waves to be bent or scattered
around such obstacles as corners, columns,
walls, and beams
- A phenomenon where sound passes
through an opening resulting in a change of
propagation, as influenced by the ratio of
 the sound wavelength to the size of the
opening
SOUND REFRACTION
- Change of sound wave direction as it moves
from one material to another of different
density
SOUND TRANSMISSION
- Sound which penetrates through a surface
- NOISE REDUCTION (NR): the level of
attenuation provided by the building
construction between two rooms
- TRANSMISSION LOSS (TL): the level of
sound isolation provided by a construction,
independent of the effects of wall size or
room absorption
- SOUND TRANSMISSION CLASS (STC):
laboratory measured rating of how well a
building partition attenuates airborne
sound
STC What can be heard
Normal speech can be distinctly
25
understood through wall
Loud speech can be understood
30 fairly well, normal speech heard but
not understood
Loud speech audible but not
35
intelligible
40 Onset of “privacy”
Loud speech not audible; 90% of
45
statistical population not annoyed
Very loud sounds such as musical
instruments or a stereo can be
50
faintly heard; 99% of population not
annoyed
Superior soundproofing; most
60+
sounds inaudible
REVERBERATION
- The prolongation of sound as a result of
successive reflections in an enclosed space
after the source of sound is turned off
- REVERBERATION TIME (RT): time for the
sound pressure in a room to decrease 60db
after the sound is stopped
- OPTIMUM RT: the most favourable
reverberation time for a particular space
and volume
ACOUSTICAL DEFECTS
- Flaws and imperfections in the acoustical
environment
1. Echo
2. Long delayed reflection
3. Sound shadow
4. Sound concentration
ECHO AND SOUND DELAY:
- ECHO: Sound waves which have been
reflected to a listener with sufficient
magnitude and time delay so as to be
perceived separately from those
communicated directly from source to
listener
th
 TIME DELAY FOR SPEECH: 1/25 of a
second
th
 TIME DELAY FOR MUSIC: 1/10 of a
second
- LONG DELAYED REFLECTION: Similar to
echo except that the time delay between
direct and reflected sound is somewhat less
FLUTTER ECHO
- A rapid succession of noticeable small
echoes observed when a short burst of
sound is produced between parallel sound
reflective surfaces
SOUND CONCENTRATION
- Also referred to as SOUND FOCI. Sound
reflections from concave surfaces
concentrating on a single area
- Areas of sound concentration are referred
to as HOT SPOTS
- The intensity of sound at hot spots are
always at the expense of DEAD SPOTS
COUPLED SPACES
- Two rooms adjacent to each other by
openings, with at least one space being
highly reverberant
DISTORTION
- An undesirable change in the quality of
musical sound due to the uneven and
excessive sound absorption of the boundary
surfaces at different frequencies
- ROOM RESONANCE: also called Coloration.
Occurs when certain sounds within a
narrow band of frequencies tend to sound
louder than other frequencies
SOUND SHADOW
- Occurs when an area does not receive an
adequate amount of direct sound
 Noticeable under a balcony
 Also noticeable in seating areas outside
the maximum 140 degree area from
the sound source
WHISPERING GALLERY
- Also referred to as Creep. High frequency
sounds creeping along large concave
 surfaces such as a hemispherical dome,
elliptical or ellipsoidal enclosure
PART 2A – ACOUSTICAL MATERIALS
ACOUSTICAL MATERIALS
- Commercial and custom designed building
materials and surface treatment which
contribute significantly to acoustical
control, through absorption, or to noise
reduction
METHODS OF ABSORPTION
1. Frictional
2. Flexural
3. Resonating
GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF ACOUSTICAL
MATERIALS
- Porous Materials
- Panel or Membrane Absorbers
- Cavity (Helmholtz) Resonators
POROUS MATERIALS
- The basic acoustical characteristic of these
materials is a cellular network of
interlocking pores
- Within these pores, incident sound energy
is converted into heat
- Examples of these include acoustical
boards, diffusers, soft plasters, mineral
wool, and acoustical blankets, among
others
- CHARACTERISTICS: Their sound absorption
is more efficient at high, rather than low
frequencies. However, their acoustical
efficiency improves in the low frequency
range with:
 Increased thickness
 Distance to their solid backing
- CATEGORIES OF COMMERCIAL MATERIALS:
 PRE-FABRICATED ACOUSTICAL UNITS:
Various types of perforated, fissured,
or textured materials constitute typical
units in this group
Commonly used materials include:
1. ACOUSTICAL BOARDS – also
referred to as acoustic tiles. Porous
boards made of various types of
sound absorbing material, usually
used for ceilings
These can be installed in several
ways:
a. Cement to a solid backing
b. Nailed or screwed to wood or
aluminium framing
c. Laid in a ceiling suspension
system
Advantages:
a. Trade catalogues contain
detailed specification
b. Easy installation and
maintenance
c. Flexible absorption
Disadvantages:
a. Difficult to conceal joints
between units
b. Paint redecoration harmful to
absorption
c. Soft structure subject to
damage
2. ACOUSTICAL HANGERS – a system
of fiber-board panels that are
wrapped with insulation and are
hung freely using wire or rope
3. GEOCOUSTIC TILES AND PANELS –
special prefabricated units for
random application on walls and
ceilings
4. DIFFUSERS – absorptive material
that have irregular surfaces, or
angled or curved fonts, so when
mounted on a wall or the ceiling
they stop parallel wall interference
and prevent standing waves
 PLASTERS AND SPRAYS: Absorbent
paint applied in a semi-plastic
consistency. There are two types:
1. TYPE 1: Composed of a
cementitious material such as
gypsum, cement, or lime
2. TYPE 2: Fibrous materials
combined with a binder agent,
sprayed on with an air gun or
blower
Advantages:
1. May be used for irregular surfaces
2. Aesthetic and decorative qualities
Disadvantages:
1. Difficult application
2. Difficult maintenance
 ACOUSTICAL BLANKETS AND FOAM
BOARDS:
ACOUSTIC BLANKETS – also referred to
as “isolation blankets”. Materials
manufactured from rock wool, glass
fibers, hair felt, etc
ACOUSTIC FOAM BOARDS – High
density blankets with covering; also act
as diffusers
 CARPETS AND FABRIC: Carpets do not
have high absorptive qualities, unless
 they are thick and/or are mounted on
rubber
Advantages:
1. Reduce impact noise
2. Reduce shuffling noise and clicking
of heels
3. Have aesthetic and decorative
qualities that help create tranquil
atmospheres
Fabric used as curtains, or simply for
decorative purposes, may be effective
sound absorbers if they are thick and
heavyweight
PANEL ABSORBERS
- Also referred to as “Membrane Absorbers”.
Impervious material installed in a solid
backing but separated from it by an air
space
CAVITY RESONATORS
- Also referred to as “Helmholtz Resonators”.
Materials that consist of an enclosed body
air, confined with rigid walls and connected
by a narrow opening to the surrounding
space
- CLASSIFICATIONS
 INDIVIDUAL CAVITY RESONATORS –
Standard concrete blocks, using regular
concrete mixture, but with slotted
cavities
 PERFORATED PANEL ABSORBERS –
perforated panels spaced away from a
solid backing
 SLIT RESONATORS – isolation blankets
(or alternative) covered with slits, the
whole system forming a resonator
SPACE ABSORBERS
- Sound absorbing objects which are
suspended from the ceiling, used when
regular boundary enclosures of an
auditorium do not provide a suitable or
adequate area for conventional acoustical
treatment
VARIABLE ABSORBERS
- Sliding, hinged, movable, and rotatable
panels constructed to expose either
absorptive or reflective surfaces
DETAILS TO BE EXAMINED IN THE SELECTION OF
SOUND ABSORBING FINISHES
1. Sound absorption/ noise reduction
coefficient
2. Possible installation methods
3. Durability
4. Maintenance
5. Integration with room elements
6. Attraction to vermin
7. Thermal insulation values
8. Fire resistance
9. Cost and availability
10. Aesthetics
PART 2B – SOUND AMPLIFICATION SYSTEMS
There are several architectural methods to increase
sound levels in a room… however, in certain
situations; the use of Sound Amplification Systems is
encouraged and sometimes necessary:
- The distance from sound source to receiver
exceeds 15m
- The room is filled to capacity
- The room is heavily treated with sound
absorbing finishes
- High prevailing background noise levels
- Low voice intensity of sound source
The design and installation of sound amplification
systems involve several disciplines including:
- MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL
CONSULTANTS: involved with the provision
of electrical power supplies and cable route
- ELECTRONIC CONSULTANTS: involved with
the sound requirements, specifications,
equipment performance, etc
- THEATER CONSULTANTS: involved with
how the sound system interfaces with their
respective areas of concern
- ACOUSTICAL CONSULTANTS: involved with
structural isolation, material finishes,
reverberation time, etc
- THE ARCHITECT: concerned with the overall
integration of the sound system into the
project design (i.e. loudspeaker types,
placement and location, appearance, etc)
SOUND AMPLIFICATION SYSTEMS
- Sound systems should meet the following
criteria:
1. Sound amplification systems should
properly transmit a wide range of
frequencies (32-12000Hz)
 To maintain a correct balance
between fundamentals and
harmonics
 To achieve perfect tone color for
each musical instrument
 To provide clear, undistorted
sound
 2. Sound amplification systems should
provide a wide dynamic range
 A pianissimo sound must be clearly
audible
 A fortissimo sound must be
produced without distortion
3. Sound amplification systems should
create a sufficiently low room
reverberation
4. Sound amplification systems should be
free from disturbing echoes or
feedback
FEEDBACK – Squealing or howling
sounds; occurs when:
a. Radiated sound picked up by the
microphone
b. Reflective surface return amplified
sounds
c. In reverberant rooms
5. Sound amplification systems should
remain undetected
 The illusion should be preserved
that amplified sound comes from
the natural sound source
 The time delay between the arrival
of direct and amplified sound must
not exceed 20 to 25 msec
 The distance between sound
source and loudspeaker should not
exceed 7.0 – 8.0M
SYSTEM COMPONENTS
- Sound amplification systems have 3 basic
components:
1. MICROPHONE: picks up the sound
energy radiated by the source, converts
it into electric energy and feeds it into
the amplifier
2. AMPLIFIER: increases magnitude of the
electric signal; delivers it to the
loudspeaker. May include separate
mixers
3. LOUDSPEAKER: converts the electric
signal into airborne sound waves for
distribution to the listeners
- SUBWOOFER: loudspeaker dedicated to the
reproduction of low-pitched audio
frequencies known as bass
- COAXIAL UNITS: loudspeaker system in
which the individual driver units radiate
sound from the same point or axis
LOUDSPEAKER SYSTEMS
- CENTRAL LOUDSPEAKER SYSTEM: uses a
single cluster of loudspeaker over the sound
source. The preferred type because it gives
maximum realism
Provides the room with even coverage
 Cases where Central Loudspeaker
System is impractical:
a. The ceiling height is too low for the
central system
b. Majority of the listeners do not
have an adequate sightline to the
central loudspeaker
c. Sound has to be provided to
overflow audiences
d. The spaces are too large for a
central system
e. The halls are divided into smaller
spaces
- DISTRIBUTED LOUDSPEAKER SYSTEM: uses
a number of low level overhead
loudspeakers located throughout the
auditorium
 PROBLEMS:
a. ARTIFICIAL ECHO: rear end of the
hall receives amplified sound way
before direct sound. This may be
overcome by a Time Delay
Mechanism
b. SOUND OVERLAPS: some areas
receive amplified sound from more
than one speaker
- STEREOPHONIC SYSTEM: employs two or
more microphones adequately spaced in
front of the performing area and connected
through separate amplifying channels to
two or more corresponding loudspeakers
- COMBINATION CENTRAL-DISTRIBUTED
LOUDSPEAKER SYSTEM: uses a cluster of
loudspeakers over the sound source, plus
additional speakers at the rear end of the
hall or under balconies
- TYPES OF LOUDSPEAKERS
 LINE OR COLUMN: concentrates most
of the sound in a narrow angular
spread in the vertical plane and a semi-
narrow spread in the horizontal plane
 RADIAL OR MULTICELLULAR:
concentrates most of the sound in a
wide angular spread in both the vertical
and horizontal plane
HOMETHEATER SYSTEMS
- Home theatre systems have five basic
components
 SOURCES: players, tuners, game
consoles, etc
 RECEIVERS: A/V receivers, controllers,
decoders, power amplifiers, etc
  DISPLAYS: direct projector, rear
projector, flat panel, standard sized
television, computer monitors, etc
 SPEAKERS: front and side speakers,
surround sound speakers, subwoofers
 CONNECTIONS: antennas, satellite,
cable connections, internet DSL
connections, etc
- Home theatre have varying set-up
classifications:
 2-CHANNEL SYSTEMS: front left and
right speakers only. Speakers should
form an equilateral triangle with the
sweet spot
 MULTI-CHANNEL: front, side, and rear
speakers. Set-up relies heavily on
encoding and decoding technologies
 Front speakers should be direct
radiating speakers
 Surround sound speakers maybe dipole
or bipole, and maybe placed at the side
or the rear
 Midrange speakers should be located
away from enclosures, while subwoofer
locations are flexible, but are best
placed in corners
 Tweeter heights of front speakers
should be within 300mm of each other
for seamless, consistent front
soundstage
 Room proportions are critical for good
sound diffusion. Ideally the room is
rectangular in shape, with the short
side equivalent to 2/3 the length of the
long side. For small square rooms, a
diagonal layout is ideal
 Furniture should not be placed
between the sound paths
- Room acoustics requirements:
 The most important consideration is
speech intelligibility
 Thus, of primary concern is reducing or
eliminating, first and second reflections
 This can be solved with acoustical
treatment at points of reflection
- SOUND ISOLATION
 Soundproofing of home theatres is
achieved with 3 main concepts:
1. MASS – make walls heavier or
provide multiple layers
2. DAMPING – to reduce sound and
vibration through absorption,
which in turn mitigate the
transmission of sound to an
adjacent room
3. DECOUPLING – preventing sound
transmission by physically
separating connections
GENERAL PURPOSES OF SOUND SYSTEMS
1. To reinforce sound levels in an auditorium
2. To provide amplified sound for overflowing
audiences
3. To increase sound level on the stage of an
auditorium
4. To provide sound in motion picture theatres
5. To provide sound effects
6. To provide artificial reverberation in dead
halls
7. To reduce the masking effect of an
excessive background noise level in an
auditorium
ELECTRONIC DEVICES HAVE SEVERAL OTHER USES:
1. To distribute radio and recording programs
in factories, schools, hospitals, hotels,
restaurants, etc
2. To provide paging and announcing facilities
in offices, stores, transportation buildings,
hotels, etc
3. To provide background music in stores,
offices, elevators, etc
4. To operate electronic organs, chimes, and
carillons
5. To provide personal communicating
facilities between individuals in separate
locations in a building
6. For signalling time periods
7. To provide individual hearing aids in an
auditorium
8. To provide simultaneous translation for
certain conferences
PART 3 – LIGHTING TERMINOLOGY, COLOR OF
LIGHT, ELECTRIC LIGHTING
BASIC LIGHTING TERMS
- We quantify lights as LUMENS
 “Pieces” of light
- Lumens of light striking a surface =
ILLUMINANCE
 Expressed in FOOT-CANDLES
- Lumens of light leaving a surface generically
= EXITANCE
 Exitance is simply light leaving, with no
indication of direction
- Lumens of light leaving a surface in a
specific direction in a specific density
 Luminance is light leaving in a specific
density as viewed from a specific
vantage point
  Luminance is most closely related to
the assessment of “brightness”
PROPER PREPOSITION FOR EACH INTERACTION
- Illuminance – “onto” a surface
- Exitance – “of” or “from” a surface
- Luminance – “of” or “from” a surface
PHYSICS OF LIGHT
- Light is a member of a large family of
phenomena called electromagnetic
radiation (EMR)
- EMR is raw energy
 Heat, light, x-rays, microwaves, U.V. are
all examples of EMR (Radiation)
 EMR has no mass, no taste, no color
 All EMR radiation travels at the same
speed: “the speed of light”
 EMR varies only I wavelength
 Wavelength is measured in Nano-
Meters
 We can symbolize EMR as tiny squiggly
lines vibrating through space
- We can diagram other types of EMR and
what they do… remember the only
difference from one form of radiation to the
next is WAVELENGTH
- Our eyes can detect only a small portion of
the spectrum: so we call this portion the
“visible spectrum”
 Because we detect this EMR we name
it. We call it light
 The visible spectrum includes radiation
from about 380 nanometers (violet) to
770 nanometers (red) in wavelength
FUNDAMENTALS OF VISION: THE EYE
- The mechanisms we use
 Accommodation (focus at different
distances)
 Adaptation (adjust for dark or bright
situations)
- Diagram the human eye
 CORNEA: clear transmitting/ refracting/
protecting device
 IRIS/PUPIL: some of our dark/light
adaptation (dilate)
 Crystalline lens
 Flexible to change shape to refract
differently to accommodate (focus)
 PRESBYOPIA: the hardening of the
lens as eye ages
 Test your near point (flexibility)
 Aqueous humor, vitreous humor
 THE RETINA: home to all of our
photoreceptors (light detectors)
 Described as three parts:
periphery, macula, fovea
 Can be permanently damaged
 Cones
 Populate the macula and fovea
 Active in high light levels (called
photopic vision)
 Responsible for color vision (if you
perceive color, you are using
cones)
 There are three classes of cones,
each class sensitive to different
wavelengths
 Three different classes/sensitivities
of cones make color translation
possible
 The classes are named for the
photo pigment that they contain
a. RHO “R” CONES: sensitive to
red light (580nm). Contain
erythrolab
b. GAMMA “G” CONES: sensitive
to green light (540nm).
Contain chlorolab
c. BETA “B” CONES: sensitive to
blue light (450nm). Contain
cyanolab
 Rods
 Populate the periphery of the eye
 Active in low light situations (called
Scotopic vision)
 Very sensitive to change and
motion
 Only come in one class (therefore
scotopic rod vision is
monochromatic)
 All rods are most sensitive to
545nm. Contain the photo
pigment Rhodopsin
COLOR SCIENCE AND LIGHT SOURCES
- Completeness of spectrum/CRI
 The more wavelengths that come out
of a light source, the more opportunity
a surface has to reflect light
 We measure the complexity/
completeness of a light source. We call
this the COLOR RENDERING INDEX or
CRI
 It is a numeric value ranging from
0-100 (the higher the better)
 Historically the CRI is assigned by
experimenting on people
 Some sample to get used to
 Daylight: 100
 Incandescent light: 100
  Fluorescent: 75-95 T-8 FLUORESCENT LAMPS
 Metal halide: 75-90 - Reduced diameter provides opportunity for
 High pressure sodium: 25 fixture optical control
 Low pressure sodium: 25 - T-8 lamps utilize tri-phosphor colors
- Balance of spectrum/color temperature
 If a light source gives of more of one GLARE CONTROL
wavelength than another, than our - Wide cell parabolic
brains translation of the light is a slight  Shields reflections if good CRT/ eye
color experience position
 We have devised a numeric description - 45deg parabolic louver
of the color produced by the imbalance  Complete shielding even with poor
called CORRELATED COLOR CRT/ eye position
TEMPERATURE
 Expressed as a temperature in HIGH INTENSITY DISCHARGE LIGHTING
degrees Kelvin K or “Kelvins” - Mercury
 Extracted from the behavior of - Metal Halide
black metals as they are heated up: - High Pressure Sodium
red to orange to yellow to blue, etc
 This behavior follows a predictable PART 4 – LIGHTING DESIGN
path were green would appear we
get a very pale “neutral” 4 STAGES
 We use it most to help describe 1. Conceptualizing
fluorescent sources 2. Scheming
3. Developing
LUMINOUS EFFICACY 4. Finalizing
E=Lumens Produced/Watt Consumed
LIGHTING DESIGN
LAMP SIZE 1. Select lighting system(s)
- Diameter measured in 1/8” increments 2. Calculate lighting requirement
A-19  19/8  2-3/8” 3. Design supplemental/ decorative lighting
T-8  8/8  1” 4. Review
PAR-38  38/8  4-3/4”
MR-16  16/8  2” TASK ANALYSIS
1. Difficulty
SOURCE TYPE 2. Time factor
1. Linear Source 3. Occupant
2. Point Source 4. Cost of errors
5. Special requirements
COLOR RENDERING INDEX (CRI)
- How closely a light source approximates PRELIMINARY DESIGN
daylight of the same color temperature 1. General/Local/Supplementary
- CRI=100  spectral content is equal to 2. Choice of sources
daylight of that temperature 3. Choice of systems
4. Architectural Elements
COMMON LIGHTING TYPES 5. Daylighting/Ambience
- Incandescent
 Filament DETAILED DESIGN
 Quartz-Iodine 1. Fixture/Ceiling Systems
 Halogen 2. Degree of nonuniformity
- Fluorescent 3. Fixed/movable lighting
- High Intensity Discharge (HID) 4. Detailed calculations
 Mercury
 Metal Halide (MH) EVALUATION
 High Pressure Sodium (HPS) 1. Lighting quantity/quality
 Low Pressure Sodium (LPS) 2. Energy use
3. Construction cost
 4. Operating cost 7. Temperature
5. Life cycle cost
LIGHTING DESIGN PROCEDURE 1
ILLUMINATION METHODS - Calculation of Horizontal Illuminance Lumen
1. General Flux Method
2. Local and supplementary
3. Combined general and local LUMEN FLUX METHOD
- System types: - Design assumptions
a. Direct  Space is empty
b. Semi-direct  Surfaces are perfect diffusers
c. General diffuse  Surface reflectance are estimated +/-
d. Direct-indirect 10%
e. Semi-indirect  Maintenance condition are estimated
f. Indirect +/-10%
 No allowance for product deviation
ARCHITECTURAL CONSIDERATIONS from specifications
1. Physical location LUMEN FLUX METHOD DERIVATION
2. Clearance requirements 1. Uniform spacing
3. Visual perception of space FOOTCANDLES=LUMENS/SF
4. HVAC impact  Obtain lamp lumens from
manufacturer’s data (or see MEED:
SIZE AND PATTERN Chapter 12)
- Linearity and direction affects visual  Factors in coefficient of utilization (CU)
perception of lamp to find lumens reaching
a. Lengthen workplane
b. Shorten  Lumens on workplane= Lamp
c. Chaos Lumens x CU
d. Interest  Therefore, illuminance (E) = (LAMP
LUMENS x CU) /AREA
DECORATIVE ACCENTS 2. Obtain lamp CU
1. Cove lighting 3. Determine Light Loss Factor (LLF) due to:
2. Coffered lighting a. Ambient temperature
3. Down lighting b. Voltage
c. Luminaire surface depreciation
LUMINAIRES d. Components (ballast, etc)
1. Hold and protect light source e. Room surface dirt
2. Control light output f. Lamp lumen depreciation
g. Burnouts
DIFFUSERS h. Luminaire dirt depreciation (LDD)
1. Translucent panel - MAINTAINED ILLUMINANCE (E):
2. Louvers/baffles E= (LAMP LUMENS x CU x LLF) / Area
3. Prismatic lens - Lamp Lumens = (LUMENS/LAMP) x
4. Fresnel lens (LAMPS/LUMINAIRE) x LUMINAIRES
5. Batwing diffuser - Formula becomes:
E = (Luminaires x lamps/luminaires x
SPACING/MOUNTING HEIGHT RATIO lumens/lamp x CU x LLF) / AREA
- Defines maximum spacing based on the
mounting height LIGHT LOSS FACTOR (LLF) CALCULATION
1. Ambient temperature
COMPARING FIXTURES 2. Voltage
1. Aesthetics 3. Luminaire surface depreciation
2. Photometric data 4. Components (ballast, etc)
3. Sample of product 5. Room surface dirt
4. Maintenance cost 6. Lamp lumen depreciation
5. Installation cost 7. Burnouts
6. Safety (UL Listing) 8. Luminaire dirt depreciation (LDD)