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N-Period
• Forecasted power output of the non-dispatchable
Forecasting of generators for the following N consecutive periods.
Non-Dispatchable • Forecasted local load for the following N consecutive
Generation
periods.
N-Period Command to
• State of charge of the ESS.
Forecasting of Controllable Loads • Operational limits of dispatchable generators and ESS.
Electrical/Thermal (DSM) On/Off/Shift • Security and reliability constraints of the microgrid.
Load
• Interconnection status.
State-of-Charge
Microgrid Set-points • Main grid energy price forecasting.
for dispatchable DER
of the ESS
Centralized
(droop) controllers for Once all the input variables are gathered in the CEMS, a
EMS
Next Period multi-stage optimization is performed in order to determine
Operational Limits,
the optimal dispatch of units according to a defined cost
Security and
Unit Commitment function, over a pre-specified time frame. Output variables of
Decisions for future
Reliability
Periods
the EMS are the reference values of the control system (e.g.,
Constraints
Microgrid Model
output power and/or terminal voltage) for each dispatchable
Main Grid and Policies DER, together with binary decision variables for connecting or
Interconnection disconnecting loads for load shifting. An additional output
Status and Energy variable is the UC decision of the dispatchable generators (if
Price Forecasting
required); however, this problem can be solved at a lower
frequency than the dispatch, and separately.
Fig. 1. CEMS. The main advantages of the centralized approach are:
allowing for a broad observability of the microgrid, and
approaches are reviewed, to synthesize the conceptual design suitability for application of optimization techniques. Some of
of a CEMS suitable for microgrids in stand-alone operation. its disadvantages are: reduced flexibility, as it needs to be
The rest of the paper is presented as follows: Section II modified to incorporate additional generators, and extensive
describes the characteristics of the current developments in computational requirements to perform the optimization.
EMS and identifies the challenges that need to be addressed in
this area. A typical microgrid configuration and its B. Distributed (Multi-Agent) EMS
components are presented in Section III. Section IV discusses A DEMS based on MAS for microgrids was first proposed
the proposed architecture and framework for the development in [11] as an alternative for coordinated operation of
of an EMS for microgrids in stand-alone mode of operation. microgrids in a competitive market environment and with
Section V describes specific performance evaluation multiple generator owners. The relevant microgrid actors are
procedures for comparison and calibration of EMS models. grouped and represented by different agents that interact in a
Finally, relevant conclusions are presented in Section VI. market environment in order to determine the operation of the
microgrid. In this way, consumers, generators, ESS and the
II. MICROGRID EMS main grid participate in the market by sending buying and
selling bids to the CMO based on their particular needs,
As mentioned in the previous section, there are 2 main
availability, cost functions, technical limitations, expectations
approaches to the development of EMS for microgrids, each
and forecasts. The CMO is responsible for the settlement of
having its own advantages and drawbacks. These two
the microgrid market by matching buying and selling bids
approaches are described and analyzed next.
maximizing the social welfare, while ensuring the feasibility
A. Centralized EMS of the resulting operation plan. A similar MAS approach is
A few cases of CEMS have been discussed in the literature, also proposed in [12]. Additional agents assigned to different
taking into account varied microgrid characteristics and tasks such as load shifting and load curtailment to allow
configurations. A general framework for the development of demand side management are proposed in [13] as well.
CEMS is proposed in [6], while a CEMS for a microgrid The MAS-DEMS approach allows almost autonomous
composed of hydrogen storage and wind power, utilizing a operation of the generating units in a microgrid, and reduces
dynamic linear programming (LP) formulation is presented in the need for manipulation of large amounts of data, thus
[7]. An LP solution technique together with heuristics is reducing computation time. Another important advantage of
proposed in [8] for the implementation of a CEMS for a PV- DEMS is its flexibility, as it provides the plug-and-play
storage microgrid, while [3] proposes a purely heuristic feature, facilitating the installation and coordination of
optimization approach. Different evolutive algorithms for additional DER in the microgrid. On the other hand, DEMS
optimization are also applied to the CEMS problem in [9] and based on MAS shows disadvantages compared to CEMS when
[10]. applied to microgrids that require strong cooperation between
A typical CEMS architecture is shown in Fig. 1, where a the different DER in order to operate the system in a secure
central agent collects all the relevant information from the and reliable way. A typical DEMS model for a microgrid
different microgrid actors to perform an optimization and operating in grid-connected mode is shown in Fig. 2.
determine the inputs of the control system for the next period. In the case of isolated microgrids operating in stand-alone
Depending on the particular resources present in the mode, the small number of generators in the microgrid and the
microgrid, the input variables of the CEMS can be: uneven share of installed power, as well as the lack of a strong
3
Electricity
Main Grid
Heat
PV
Selling Price
Buying Price
AC Thermal
Microgrid Operator AC Storage
Matches Buying and Selling Bids, Maximizing Critical Shiftable
Welfare Load Load
Announcement of Wind
Main Grid Prices for Bidding +
N+1
Turbines
Market Settlement Shiftable Critical
for N+1
Load Load
Diesel
Fuel
Cell Hydrogen
Time Storage
Operation Operation
Period N Period N+1 Critical Electrolyzer
Load
Buying Price
Fig. 3. Microgrid configuration.
Selling Price
Buying Price Selling Price
ESS
more flexible. Furthermore, these hydrogen conversion
processes generate significant amount of heat [16]. However,
one of the main drawbacks of this technology is its low round-
Consumer / Load Distributed Generator trip efficiency (energy input-hydrogen-energy output) which is
in the range of 30-40% [14], [15], and costs [16]. Constraints
Fig. 2. DEMS (Multi-Agent). on the operation of this ESS are typically the maximum and
minimum power output, minimum state-of-charge of the
price signal from the main grid, make a DEMS more difficult hydrogen tank and ramp rates.
to implement. B. Wind Turbines
A wide range of levels of penetration of wind power can be
III. TYPICAL MICROGRID CONFIGURATION
observed in existing microgrids; however, only wind turbines
Although microgrids can be located close to or within the with a significant share of the microgrid peak load are relevant
main grid and be operated in grid-connected mode, the for the operation of the EMS. Different levels of penetration,
microgrids of interest for this work correspond to isolated, wind speed profiles and wind turbine characteristics should be
locally-operated systems that can be found in remote locations considered.
with accessibility problems, and where the connection to the
main grid of electricity is not feasible, either for technical or C. Diesel Generator
economical reasons. Thus, the particular microgrid Mainly due to its flexibility, remote and isolated power
configuration considered here, embodies multiple DER such systems usually rely on the operation of diesel generators to
as wind generators, PV solar arrays, diesel generators, supply the local load. Although at a very expensive rate in this
microturbine CHP, Fuel Cell-Electrolyzer ESS, thermal case, this generator is typically able to supply the peak load on
storage, and both electrical and thermal loads. A microgrid its own, without the need for further energy sources. When
with the aforementioned components connected in a typical considering time frames in the order of minutes, the operation
radial configuration is shown in Fig. 3. of diesel generators is constrained by their power output
Loads that have a defined energy consumption that can be limits, power ramp-up and -down rates and start-up time.
supplied with certain flexibility over a period of time are
D. PV Panels
referred to as “shiftable loads”, as they can be shifted by the
EMS to the most convenient period. A broader description of Together with wind turbines, PV systems are one of the
various microgrid components is provided next. fastest growing renewable energy sources. Although both are
based on non-dispatchable energy sources, the PV panels
A. Fuel Cell-Electrolyzer ESS usually have a more easily predicted power production.
In order to fully embrace the benefits of renewable energy Different levels of penetration, real solar radiation profiles and
sources, it is indispensable to have an ESS capable of dealing PV panel characteristics should be considered.
with intra-day variations of generation. Fuel Cell-Electrolyzer
E. CHP Microturbine
ESS offers interesting benefits for long term energy storage, as
it can consume electricity to produce hydrogen, store Gas microturbine technology has promising CHP
hydrogen without time limitations, and consume hydrogen to applications within microgrids, as it can achieve overall
generate electricity, which makes the operation of the system efficiencies of around 65% when adding a heat recovery cycle
4
Operation
ESS-1
UC UC Cost [$] Improved dispatch Faster ELD
of ESS calculation and
ESS-2
lower TELD
HUC
ELD
. . . . . .
t
HELD TELD ESS-1 Capacity < ESS-2 Capacity
constraints,” in Transmission & Distribution Conference & Exposition: Claudio A. Cañizares (S85, M91, SM00, F07) received in April 1984 the
Asia and Pacific, Oct. 2009, pp. 1-4. Electrical Engineer diploma from the Escuela Politecnica Nacional (EPN),
[5] C. M. Colson, M. H. Nehrir, and S. A. Pourmousavi, “Towards real-time Quito-Ecuador, where he held different teaching and administrative positions
microgrid power management using computational intelligence from 1983 to 1993. His MS (1988) and PhD (1991) degrees in Electrical
methods,” in Proc. IEEE-PES General Meeting, Jul. 2010, pp. 1-8. Engineering are from the University of Wisconsin-Madison. Dr. Cañizares has
[6] N. Hatziargyriou, G. Contaxis, M. Matos, J. A. P. Lopes, G. held various academic and administrative positions at the E&CE Department
Kariniotakis, D. Mayer, J. Halliday, G. Dutton, P. Dokopoulos, A. of the University of Waterloo since 1993, where he is currently a Full
Bakirtzis, J. Stefanakis, A. Gigantidou, P. O'Donnell, D. McCoy, M. J. Professor. His research activities concentrate on the study of modeling,
Fernandes, J. M. S. Cotrim, and A. P. Figueira, “Energy management simulation, control, stability and computational issues in power systems in the
and control of island power systems with increased penetration from context of competitive electricity markets.
renewable sources,” in IEEE-PES Winter Meeting, vol. 1, Jan. 2002, pp.
335-339. Mehrdad Kazerani (S’88–M’96–SM’02) received the B.Sc. degree from
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connected to wind power operating in a power market,” IEEE University, Montreal, QC, Canada, in 1990, and the Ph.D. degree from McGill
Transactions on Energy Conversion, vol. 21, no. 3, Sept. 2006, pp. 742- University, Montreal, in 1995. From 1982 to 1987, he was with the Energy
749. Ministry of Iran. He is currently a Full Professor with the Department of
[8] S. Chakraborty and M. G. Simoes, “PV-microgrid operational cost Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON,
minimization by neural forecasting and heuristic optimization,” in Proc. Canada. His research interests are in the areas of power electronic circuits and
IEEE Industry Applications Society Annual Meeting IAS '08, Oct. 2008, systems design, active power filters, matrix converters, distributed power
pp. 1-8. generation, utility interface of alternative energy sources, battery electric,
[9] R. Noroozian and H. Vahedi, “Optimal management of MicroGrid using hybrid electric and fuel cell vehicles, and FACTS. Dr. Kazerani is a
bacterial foraging algorithm,” in Proc. 18th Iranian Conference on Registered Professional Engineer in the Province of Ontario.
Electrical Engineering (ICEE), May 2010, pp. 895-900.
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MicroGrid using differential evolution approach,” in Proc. 7th
International Conference on the European Energy Market (EEM), Jun.
2010, pp. 1-6.
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Karniotakis, and J. Oyarzabal, “Management of microgrids in market
environment,” in Proc. International Conference on Future Power
Systems, Nov. 2005, pp. 7 pp.-7.
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for DER in MicroGrid,” in Proc. IEEE International Conference on
Sustainable Energy Technologies (ICSET), Nov. 2008, pp. 77-82.
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micro grid management system,” in Proc. International Conference on
Future Power Systems, Nov. 2005, pp. 6 pp.-6.
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of stand-alone hybrid wind/PV/fuel cell power generation systems,” in
Renewable Energy, vol. 31, Aug. 2006, pp. 1641-1656.
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stand-alone renewable energy system based on energy storage as
hydrogen,” in IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, vol. 19, Sept.
2004, pp. 633-640.
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for mixed wind–nuclear power plants in the context of a Hydrogen
Economy,” Int J Hydrogen Energy, vol. 33, Sept. 2008, pp. 4463-4475.
[17] F. E. Pierce, “Summary of Results from Testing a 30kW Microturbine
and Combined Heat and Power (CHP) System”, Federal Energy
Management Program - U.S. Department of Energy, DOE/EE-0316,
May 2007.
[18] T. Tveit, T. Savola, A. Gebremedhin, and C. Fogelholm, “Multi-period
MINLP model for optimising operation and structural changes to CHP
plants in district heating networks with long-term thermal storage,” in
Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 50, Mar. 2009, pp. 639-647.
[19] C. A. Hernandez-Aramburo, T. C. Green, and N. Mugniot, “Fuel
consumption minimization of a microgrid,” in IEEE Transactions on
Industry Applications, vol. 41, May/Jun. 2005, pp. 673-681.
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VIII. BIOGRAPHIES
Daniel E. Olivares was born in Santiago of Chile, received the B.Sc. and the
Engineer degree in electrical engineering from the University of Chile,
Santiago, Chile, in 2006 and 2008 respectively. He is currently working
toward the Ph.D. degree in electrical and computer engineering at the
University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada.