Hydrotechnical Construction, Vol. 27, No.

10, 1993

SCIENCE: THEORY, EXPERIMENT, PRACTICE

STEPPED SPILLWAYS IN WORLD AND DOMESTIC HYDRAULIC
ENGINEERING

Yu. P. Pravdivets UDC 627.635

The search for effective spillway designs has been being carried out since the very beginning of constructing dams.
The most notable example in confirmation of this is "The Barrier of Pagans" dam in Egypt, which according to the data of
archaeologists is more than 5000 years old [1]. The dam was constructed in the desert 30 km southeast of Cairo in a dry
wadi. Only the remains of the structure near the bank abutment have survived to our day (Fig. 1).
The time of construction of the dam was established from shards of a clay vessel found near the presumed village
of the builders. The dam resembles ancient pyramids in design and methods of construction. The slopes of the dam with a
steepness of 1:1.3 were laid out of hewn stone stepwise with bonding of the joints without the use of mortar. The crest
length of the dam was 108 m and the base width 84 m. In all, there are 32 steps with a height of 0.3 m each on the slope
near the right-bank abutment. Consequently, the maximum height of the dam reached 12 m.
The dam did not have either a cut into the foundation or a watertight element in the central part. Evidently, at first
the upstream and downstream shoulders were constructed at a distance of 36 m from each other and then the space
between them was filled with alluvial deposits collected in the channel and on the valley slopes. Water-conveyance devices
were completely absent in the dam, but the crest of the dam along its axis was made with a depression in the central part,
which indicates the possibility of organized overtopping of the structure.
The dam and the reservoir created by it, in the opinion of archaeologists, were intended for supplying water to an
alabaster quarry located 4 km upstream. The storage capacity of the reservoir was 575,000 m3. If we assume that the
climate in the given region changed little in past years, then precipitation falls here in the form of brief rains. During the
period of observations from 1904 to 1944, 29 showers with precipitation ofrnore than 10 ram/day were recorded here, of
which precipitation exceeded 20 ram/day in 10 cases. Each millimeter of precipitation on the drainage area (185 km2)
produces a volume of runoff up to 185,000 m3. Hence follows that the reservoir created by the dam should have been
filled by the first heavy rain, having passed the surplus water by overtopping of the dam.
If the dam withstood several floods, then sediments, including difficultly removable fine clay particles, should have
been deposited in the reservoir created by it. Since no deposits were found near the dam, it follows that the dam was
destroyed during the first flood and, moreover, according to all data, by seepage flow. In the case of overtopping of the
crest a scour pit should have remained in the lower pool, since no protection of the channel near the dam was provided
for. In the opinion of archaeologists, this unfortunate experience in constructing dams impeded dam construction in the
country for a long time, although the construction successfully solved many necessary problems: the combination of the
structure, energy dissipation, automatic character of operation, and economy.
During the millennia after destruction of the stepped overflow dam in Egypt, such a type of structure was not
returned to again in world practice. However, in Russia a stepped design of spillways appeared already in the times of
Peter the Great in timber crib structures [2]. The timber cribs (cells) arranged in steps over the height of the downstream
slope and filled with stones successfully solved problems of passing water and dissipating the excess energy of the flow
(Fig. 2). Thus, the structure was distinguished by considerable labor intensity and short life and allowed the passage of
only small unit discharges. It did not become widespread, but it found use in remote forested regions.
For more than 30 years P. I. Gordienko developed the idea of using earth stepped overflow dams [3]. He per-
formed many laboratory investigations of various designs of protective coverings of the earth spillway slopes and as a
result he proposed a design of an earth overflow dam, consisting of an in situ reinforced concrete overflow bulkhead on
the crest and relatively gentle (1:6-1:12) downstream slope protected by precast V-shaped reinforced-concrete slabs (Fig.
3).

Translated from Gidrotekhnicheskoe Stroitel'stvo, No. 10, pp. 28-32, October, 1992.

0018-8220/93/2710-0589512.50 9 Plenum Publishing Corporation 589

 Fig. 1. The oldest earth overflow dam.

/,7

Fig. 2. Earth overflow dam with stepped crib protection of the

downstream slope: 1) deck on crest; 2) cribs; 3) dry masonry; 4) fill.

As a result of placing V-shaped slabs on the earth slope, a flexible multistepped covering, gradually passing below
the lower pool level, is formed due to their specific shape and presence of a small overlap in the thickened part. The steps
in the thin part of the slab have drainage holes. Directly under the slabs is placed a drainage-filter layer preventing seepage
deformations of the earth slope during passage of water.
Unlike the usual flat slab revetments, the multistepped V-shaped slab revetment is distinguished by a number of
advantages. The multistepped surface of the revetment forms in the bottom region a flow of water with curving of the jet,
which causes additional surcharging of the slabs by hydrodynamic pressure and increases their stability. The overlap covers
the lower-lying slabs, preventing any action of the flow on them. A flexible (hinge) connection of the slabs in the total
blanket of the cover is also provided by the overlap and its performance is maintained in the case of deformation of the
earth slope. The open joints between the slabs and drainage holes provide free flow of the water around the slabs and
reduce seepage pressure. The spillway slope with a multistepped surface has an increased roughness and effectively
dissipates the kinetic energy of the flow.
Studying the hydraulics of the flow on the slope, Gordienko concluded that the free surface regime of transition of
the flow with the lower pool, for technological and economic reasons, best corresponds to the developed design. This
explains the assignment of a relatively small steepness of the spillway slope (1:6-1:12). In the indicated range of variation
of the steepness of the multistepped spillway slope, a free surface jump is formed automatically for any discharge and
water level in the lower pool.

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 ~ . . . . . ~ . max LPL

UPL___. 9 _ , max'LPL

Fig, 3. Earth overflow dam according to Gordienko's proposal.

Z a)

1 2

Fig. 4. End device of an earth overflow dam according to Pravdiets's

suggestion: a) on a rock foundation; b) on soft ground; 1) V-shaped
slabs; 2) flip bucket (plunge bucket); 3) min. LPL; 4) roof-shaped slabs;
5) sheet piling; 6) piles; 7) drainage.

Depending on the state of the flow on the spillway slope (rapid, jump, post-jump), Gordienko divided the revet-
ments into chute, floor, and apron. The difference in the slabs of the chute, floor, and apron consists mainly in their
overall dimensions while keeping the V-shaped form. The slabs of the floor, as a consequence of their location in the zone
of action of the surface jump, are several (4-6) times more massive than the slabs of the chute and apron. It is suggested
to make the transition between the spillway slope and nonoverflow parts of the earth dam either as secured side slopes or
vertical retaining walls.
The design of an stepped overflow earth dam developed by Gordienko and substantiated by laboratory investiga-
tions substantially surpassed the then known designs of other authors9 For all practical purposes, height restrictions in
using the design were removed, the specific discharges of water (up to 60 m3/sec per linear meter, i.e., as on concrete
dams) increased considerably, and the specific consumption of concrete (5-10 m 3) per I m 3 of water being discharged
substantially decreased, and Gordienko's dam became economically competitive with the best overflow dams. At the same
time, the shortcomings inherent to the design (flatness of the profile, presence cf a surface jump moving a!ong the slope,
difficulties in protecting the side earth slopes in the jump zone, various types of precast revetments) evidently prevented
the introduction of this effective design into practice. Therefore, the author of this article set himself the task to eliminate
the shortcomings existing in Gordienko's dam design and to bring it to practical realization in hydrotechnical construction.
It was possible to accomplish this task by changing the transition between the spillway slope and river bottom
(discharge channel). On a rock foundation it is considered expedient to do this in the form of a massive concrete flip
bucket and on soft ground in the form of a plunge bucket (Fig. 4). Here the elevation of the top and the height of the flip
bucket play an important role in providing a surface regime of joint the pools. For the guaranteed existence of a surface
jump in the entire range of variation of the discharges and water levels, a necessary (mandatory) condition is the location
of the top of the bucket not higher than the water level in the lower pool at the time of putting the spillway into operation.

591
The sufficiency of this condition and the appropriate height of the flip bucket are determined by an additional hydraulic
calculation [4].
Making the end section of the spillway slope in the form of a flip or plunge bucket fixed the position of the surface
jump at the bucket in all regimes of passage of water through the structure. There was no need to construct a flattened
earth structure. The steepness of the spillway slope became dependent only on the strength characteristics of the earth
material used (rock fill, gravel, sand, loam) and can be assigned within 1:1.5-1.3 with a gradual transition to the end
bucket. As a result, the same type of revetment - the chute slabs - is sufficient for protecting the spillway slope from
erosion. Appropriate analytical dependences and their graphic interpretation were obtained for determining the thickness of
such revetment [5]. The transition between the spillway slope and nonoverflow sections of the dam was simplified in the
form of side slopes secured by the same revetment as the spillway slope. On a strong rock foundation the end flip bucket
can be elevated above the lower pool level as a ski-jump for deflecting the jet and dissipating the flow in the scour pit.
The new design of the stepped earth dam-spillway, thoroughly investigated in the laboratory and in full scale,
began to be introduced into hydrotechnical construction in 1978 [5, 6]. During this time five earth dams with a height of
7-15 m were constructed in the Moscow region with stepped spillway-chutes of precast elements on the downstream slope
for passage of flood discharges of 30-60 m3/sec. An experimental earth dam with a height of 20 m was constructed in the
Magadan region. For 15 years its stepped spillway-chute of V-shaped elements on the downstream slope with a steepness
of 1:2, ending with a low ski-jump, has been discharging ice and water from early spring to late fall in an automatic
(unregulated) regime (Fig. 5). Two structures, owing to not fulfilling the requirements imposed on the drainage-filter
underlying the revetment, failed already during the first years of operation.
Thus earth dams with suitable protection of their crest and downstream slope from erosion by an appropriate
revetment can allow passage of water on top of the structure, being converted into overflow dams. A precast reinforced-
concrete revetment, which with stepped placement of the elements not only reliably protects the earth structure from
erosion but also effectively dissipates the kinetic energy of the flow being discharged, has the greatest technological and
cost effectiveness.
However, despite the advantages shown for precast stepped spillways on earth dams, in domestic dam construction
practice, except for the above-described examples, these structures are presently not finding further use for a number of
reasons. They should still be simplified. At the same time, a number of foreign firms specializing in the construction of
dams and spillways showed interest in the proposed design and appropriate funds have been allocated for additional
studies, which are being carried out in Great Britain and the USA [7].
In Great Britain the studies were carried out at Salford University near Manchester. The experimental device was
a hydraulic flume 0.6 m wide and 10 m long with a difference of levels of 4.5 m and bottom slope of 1:2.5. On the last 2
m of the length of the flume, where precast revetment elements were investigated, the bottom gradually passed from a
slope of 1:2.5 to a reverse slope on the bucket of 1:10. The maximum water discharge in the flume was 300 liters/sec or
0.5 m3/sec per meter.
In the experimental part of the flume were placed three types of V-shaped elements differing in length and thick-
ness, l = 30, 60, and 180 mm and t = 8.5, 17, and 50 mm. The stability of the elements, loads, effect of openness
(drainability) of the element on stability, and conditions of joining the pools were investigated under various conditions.
The main data obtained confirmed the results of preceding studies in Russia. Therefore, all data of the studies were drawn
up as a guide to the design of stepped spillways of precast elements published by the firm "Ciria" (Great Britain).
In the USA studies of various protective precast revetments of earth slopes, including the V-shaped slabs proposed
by the author of this article, were carried out in the hydraulics laboratory at Fort Collins (Colorado). In a hydraulic flume
27.4 m long, 1.2 m wide, and 3.4 m deep was constructed an overflow section of a 2-m-high earth dam, the downstream
slope of which was protected by the investigated revetment. The revetment of V-shaped slabs, measuring 20 • 20 cm,
showed the best results with respect to stability in all investigated regimes [8, 9].
Simultaneously with investigating precast lightweight revetments of earth overflow slopes, many investigations of
stepped roller-compacted concrete revetments were conducted in the USA. A typical section of such a revetment is shown
in Fig. 6. The need to construct overtopping sections on top of earth dams in the USA is due to the new requirements on
calculating the capacity of spillways. Many structures constructed earlier do not meet the new requirements. Therefore,
additional spillway sections are needed, for which there is no place except the dam in built-up territories. An important

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 Fig. 5. Stepped spillway on an earth dam in the Magadan region.

E
~/ [-", "-~2,#m
~/' ~/ I ~ Roller-compacted

""" "': . ; " "-". : " c ' ~ River

9.--..'.-~-.~::.,..:.-.. i.::~-'-----
Fig. 6. Diagram of protecting the downstream slope
by roller-compacted concrete.

factor in favor of roller-compacted concrete was the circumstance that the technology of placing roller-compacted concrete
does not differ from that of soil, it is well worked out, and a stepped surface is formed rather easily by installing shutter-
ing.
During the past three years several stepped spillways of roller-compacted concrete on the downstream slope of
earth dams were constructed in the USA [10]. One of them is a steeped chute on the Ringtown-5 earth dam in Pennsylva-
nia. The data with a height of 18 m and crest length of 210 m was constructed at the start of the century. After changing
the standards on calculating flood discharges, it was required to construct an additional spillway. After examining a
number of alternatives, the design of a stepped spillway-chute on top of the earth dam, the steepness of the downstream
slope of which is 1:2.75, was selected and realized.
The new spillway is a trapezoidal chute 18 m wide at the crest and 75.6 m long. The head on the crest is 1.8 m,
the height of the side slopes of the chute is 2.1 m. The chute ends in the lower pool with a stilling basin. The roller-
compacted concrete was placed from the bottom up the slope on a drainage-filter layer in sections 0.3 m thick and 2.4 m
wide over the entire width of the chute with compaction by a vibrating roller. In the final form the chute was uniform steps
0.3 m high and 0.24 m long.
In all, 4500 m 3 of concrete was placed in the spillway, of which about 700 m 3 was ordinary concrete - in the slab
of the headwall and in the stilling basin. The total construction cost of the chute was $1.25 million. The works were
completed in the fall of 1991. The consumption of concrete per m3/sec of the waste discharge was 45 m 3, which is several
times higher than on analogous Russian structures of precast reinforced concrete.
Suggestions recently appeared concerning making a stepped spillway surface on concrete dams. This, along with
effective energy dissipation of the flow being discharged, eliminates cavitation phenomena due to aeration of the flow.
There are already constructed experimental structures confirming the positive effect.

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 CONCLUSIONS

1. A stepped overflow surface of a spillway structure not only effectively dissipates the kinetic energy of the flow
being discharged but also eliminates cavitation phenomena on the spillway during passage of water with high velocities.
Due to the curvature of the bottom jets, a part of the kinetic energy of the flow is transformed into a hydrodynamic
pressure surcharging the slope.
2. Both the spillway surface of concrete dams and of outlets constructed on the downstream slope of earth dams
can be made stepped. The stepped surface is formed by placing stepwise overlapping flat reinforced-concrete slabs, use of
special V-shaped reinforced concrete slabs, and also by placing roller-compacted concrete on a drainage-filter layer on the
earth slope. Each of these designs has its own advantages and shortcomings, which are carefully examined before selecting
the final version.
3. Stepped spillways made of precast reinforced-concrete elements on the downstream slope of earth dams have the
best indices with respect to consumption of materials and cost. The publication of a guide to the design of such spillways
will promote their wider introduction into hydrotechnical construction practice.

LITERATURE CITED

. "The oldest dam in the world," La Hoille Blanche, May-Jun (1952).

2. P. I. Gordienko, "Rockfill overflow dams," Gidrotekh. Stroit., No. 3 (1944).
3. P. I. Gordienko, "Reinforced-concrete-earth overflow dams," in: Dams and Spillways: Collection of Works No.
61 [in Russian], MISI, Moscow, Issue 2 (1978).
4. Yu. P. Pravdivets, "Joining of pools by a surface regime on large rivers," l~nerg. Stroit., No. 2 (1978).
5. Yu. P. Pravdivets, "Industrial design of an earth overflow dam," Gidrotekh. Stroit., No. 12 (1987).
6. Yu. P. Pravdivets, "Improvement of the designs of earth overflow dams," in: Current Problems of Hydraulic
Engineering, Collection of Works [in Russian], MISI, Moscow (1991).
7. Y. P. Pravdivets and M. E. Bramley, "Stepped protection block for dam spillways," Water Power and Dam
Construction, July (1989).
8. G. R. Powledge and M. E. Bramley, "Overtopping of embankments to accommodate large flood events - an
overview," in: Proc. Twelfth Annual USCOLD Meeting, Fort Worth (1992).
9. P. E. Clopper, "Protecting embankment dams with concrete block system," SLA. Hydro Review, 10, No. 10
(1991).
10. K. D. Hansen, "Roller-compacted concrete for overtopping protection of embankment dams," in: Proc. Twelfth
Annual USCOLD Meeting, Forth Worth (1992).

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