Polsci 11 Reviewer: FIRST EXAM

Chapter 1:

 Politics:
o A contested concept o Allocation of scarce resources
o Exercise of power o Practice of deception and
o Exercise of authority manipulation
o Making of collective decisions
- Social activity to make, preserve and amend general rules under which they live.
- 4 views:
1. Politics as an act of government.
 What concerns the state
 Concerns executive, legislative, judiciary.
2. Politics as public affairs.
 Beyond government; arena
 Essentially a public activity/takes place in a public or political sphere
3. As compromise and consensus.
 Conflict – competition between opposing forces, reflecting a diversity of opinions,
preferences, needs and interests.
 Cooperation – working together; achieving goals through collective action.
4. As power and the distribution of resources.
 In all social activities and in every corner of human existence.
 At the heart of all collective social activity, formal and informal, public and private in all
human groups.
 Struggle over scarce resources.

4 Approaches:

1.) Philosophical tradition (prescriptive/normative)

- Prescriptive or normative questions, reflecting a concert with what should be rather than what is.
- It cannot be objective in any scientific sense.
2.) Empirical tradition (descriptive)
- Characterized by the attempt to offer a dispassionate and impartial account of political reality.
- Descriptive – it seeks to analyze and explain.
- Belief that experience is only basis of knowledge, and that therefore all hypotheses and theories
should be tested by a process of observation.
3.) Scientific tradition (behavioralist; objective and quantifiable analysis)
- Behaviouralism: gave politics reliable scientific credentials, provided objective and quantifiable data
against which hypotheses could be tested; social theories based on observable behavior.
4.) Recent developments (psychology + economics)
- “Rational Choice Theory”: rationally self-interested behavior of individuals (may be socially
conditioned, and not merely innate).
- “New institutionalism”
Can the study of politics be scientific?

- Yes. It can use the methodology of natural sciences.

 Concept – general idea about something, usually expressed in a single word or a short phrase.
o Tools with which we think, criticize, argue, explain and analyze.
 Model – representation of something, usually on a smaller scale; the purpose of the model is to resemble
the original object as faithfully as possible.
o Conceptual models, however, need not in any way resemble an object.
 Theory – a systematic explanation of empirical data,, usually (unlike a hypothesis) presented as reliable
knowledge.

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Chapter 2:

 Regime – system used; programming.

o Endures, despite the fact that governments come and go.
o You can’t really change easily unless there is military intervention; or you can elect a leader
that acts like an authoritarian.
 Political system – system of politics; include the interrelationships among actors.
 Government – responsible for management of society; involved in decision-making.
o The institutional processes through which collective and usually binding decisions are made;
its core functions are to make law (legislation), implement law (execution) and interpret law
(adjudication).

 Classification of Regimes:

A. Traditional
o Aristotelian Classification of Constitutions
 Monarchies vs Republic
 Unitary vs Federal
 Presidential vs Parliamentary

Who rules?
One person The few The many
Who benefits?
Rulers Tyranny Oligarchy Democracy
All Monarchy Aristocracy Polity

B. Three-World Classification
- Economic, ideological, political, strategic dimensions.
 First World Second World Third World

 Capitalist
- Desirability of private
enterprise, material
incentives, free
market.
 Industrialized western
regimes (economic)
 Liberal-democrat
 Communist
- Social equality,
collective endeavor,
centralized planning.
 Largely industrialized,
capable of satisfying
population’s basic needs.
 One-party; “ruling” parties.
 Developing
 Economically-dependent,
widespread poverty.
 Authoritarian, traditional
monarchs, dictators or the
army.

C. Modern Regimes
- Approaches for classification:
 Constitutional-institutional approach – difference between codified-uncodified
constitutions, parliamentary-presidential systems, federal-unitary systems.
 Structural-functional approach – how political systems work in practice; “inputs” to
“outputs”.
 Economic-ideological – system levels of material development.
 “New approach” – based on political, economic, cultural factors; political and economic
arrangements may operate differently depending on cultural context.

1. Western Polyarchies
2. New Democratic
3. East Asian Regimes
4. Islamic Regimes
5. Military Regimes

 Polity – “mixed” constitution

o Composed of the intersection or the middle class.
 Western Polyarchies New Democratic East Asian Regimes

 Equivalent to “liberal
democracies” or simply just
“democracies”.
 Relatively high tolerance of
opposition; this is guaranteed by:
competitive party system,
institutionally guaranteed and
protected civil liberties, vigorous
and healthy society.
 Opportunities for participating in
politics should be sufficiently
widespread to guarantee popular
responsiveness.
 Multiparty elections.
 Western polyarchies 
influenced by liberal
individualism.
 Process of democratic
consolidation is
incomplete.
 Lack developed democratic
political cultures; handle
the strains produced by
external forces of
globalization and rapid
internal change.
 Economic transition:
central planning to laissez-
faire capitalism.
 Weakness of state power,
especially when confronted
by centrifugal forces.
 Asian values.
 Economic goal-oriented
than political ones; boost
growth and deliver
prosperity than enlarge
individual freedom.
 Support for “strong”
government; general
respect for state and
“ruling” parties are
tolerated.
 Respect leaders; based on
Confucian stress on
loyalty, discipline and duty.
 Community and social
cohesion; central role
accorded to family.
 Existence of political and
cultural differences.

Islamic Regimes Military Regimes

 Combine political, economic and
religious because Islam is a
complete way of life.
 Authoritarianism
 Exercise of military power and systematic repression;
intervention of the military.
 Leading posts in the gov’t are based on the person’s position
within the military chain of command.
 Forms:
- Military junta: collectivemilitary government.
- Military-backed personalized dictatorship.
- Loyalty of armed forces is the decisive factor.

Chapter 3:

 Ideology – set of interrelated ideas that guides or provides basis for organized political action.
- Expression of the ruling class (Marx)
- All ideologies:
 Offer an account of the existing order (worldview).
 Provide a model of a desired future.
 Outline how political change can and should be brought about.
 Political Ideologies:
o Classical Ideologies (19th C)
  Liberalism (IFRETCC)
 Conservatism (TPHiOHAP)
 Socialism (CFSeNScCo)
Liberalism
- Rise of industrializing
society.
- Welfare reform and
economic intervention.
1. Individualism – supreme
importance of the human
being as opposed to any
social group or collective
body; humans  equal moral
worth, separate and unique
identities.
2. Freedom – core principle,
given priority over equality,
justice or authority; ensure
that each person is able to
act as he or she pleases;
“freedom under the law”.
3. Reason – ability of individuals
to make wise judgments on
their own behalf; belief in
progress and debate and
argument over bloodshed
and war.
4. Equality – equality before the
law; political equality; equal
opportunities, not equal
outcomes; meritocracy.
5. Tolerance – forbearance;
open-mindedness and
acceptance.
6. Consent – giving
support/trust; willing
agreement.
7. Constitutionalism –
preserves the individual
freedoms or liberty; bill of
rights.
 Classical liberalism –
extreme form of
individualism.
 Modern liberalism – state
intervention can enlarge
liberty by safeguarding
individuals from social evils.
Conservatism Socialism
- Has tendency to embrace the
past and lean towards
absolutism; reject any idea of
reform and stick to traditional
ways.
1. Tradition – virtues of tradition
and customs; desire to stick to
the status quo.
2. Pragmatism – it is best to rely
on experience or what has
happened before; “what
works”; shaped by practical
circumstances. 1. Community – individualist as a
3. Human imperfection – human part of community.
beings are limited dependent 2. Fraternity – cooperation over
and morally corrupt; crime competition; collectivism over
roots from individuals not individualism.
society. 3. Social equality – equality of
4. Organicism – the whole is outcome rather than
greater than the sum of its opportunities.
parts; society as an organic 4. Need – “from each according
whole. to his ability, to each
5. Hierarchy – differing roles and according to his need”; you
responsibilities. don’t get too much.
6. Authority – exercised “from 5. Social class – eliminate or
above”; provide leadership, reduce social class differences;
guidance, support. equalizing people and class as
7. Property – gives security to the consideration for being a part
people; as a measure of of the community.
independence from the 6. Common ownership –
government; values resources are equitably
individual/private properties distributed.
(allow excess).
 Paternalistic conservatism:
prudence and principle;
“compassionate
conservatism”.
 The New Right:
- Neoliberalism: market
and individual; “private,
good; public, bad”.
- Neoconservatism:
restore authority and
return traditional values.
 Marxism

1. Historical materialism – importance of economic and class factors.

2. Dialectical change – process of interaction between competing forces that results in a higher stage of
development.
3. Alienation – work is depersonalized; separation from one’s genuine or essential nature.
4. Class struggle – division between the bourgeoisie (capitalist) and the proletariat (wage slaves).
5. Surplus value – capitalist extract ‘surplus value’ by exploiting proletariat; paying less than the value of their
labor.
6. Proletarian revolution – inevitable; spontaneous uprising aimed at seizing control of the means of
production.
7. Communism – classless: wealth owned by all; “commodity production”  “production for use” (satisfaction
for human needs).

 Orthodox communism: proletariat would not realize its revolutionary potential, could not develop beyond
“trade-union consciousness”.
 Modern Marxism: existence of interplay between economics and politics; ‘reification’ (dehumanizing
workers into marketable commodities).

Social Democracy Third Way

 Balance between the market and the state;  Draws on various ideological traditions: modern
balance between individual and the community. liberalism, one-nation conservatism and
 Concern for the underdog in society, the weak and modernized social democracy.
vulnerable.  Opportunity, responsibility, community.

o Other Ideologies (20th C)

- They can’t overlap.
A. Fascism – Italian F/German F
B. Anarchism
C. Feminism
D. Environmentalism/Green Politics
E. Religious Fundamentalism
 Fascism Anarchism Feminism

 “without rule” or abolishment

 Strength through unity;
ultranationalist sentiments.
 Women empowerment; gender
of an existing rules (especially
equality and overturn of male
of the state).
power.
 Political authority in all forms is
- First wave – recognition, reform
both evil and unnecessary.
(liberal and socialist feminism).
 Ultraliberalism, ultrasocialism;
- Second wave – enhancement of
Intersection between
women rights (radical).
liberalism and socialism.

Environmentalism Religious Fundamentalism

 Not anthropocentric, but

ecocentric.  Politics as secondary to the ‘revealed truth’; political and social life
 Humankind should adopt organized on the basis of religious principles supported by sacred
ecologically-sound policies texts
and lifestyles.

Chapter 4.

 Democracy
- A system of rule by the poor and the disadvantaged.
- A form of government in which the people participate directly and continuously.
- A society based on equal opportunity and individual merit, rather than hierarchy and privilege.
- A system of welfare and redistribution aimed at narrowing inequalities.
- A system of decision-making based on the principle of majority rule.
- “Government of the people, for the people and by the people.” – Abraham Lincoln

o Who are the people?

 Ancient Greek (exclusive citizenship)
 Modern view (adult citizens; the general will rather than particular will; the majority)
o How should the people rule?
 “Government by the people”;
 Ancient Greek Democracy: Direct Democracy
 Modern: Representative Democracy
 “Government for the people”;
 Totalitarian democracy (plebiscitary).
 Models of Democracy
1. Classical Democracy 2. Protective Democracy

 17th-18th Century – “Lockean democracy”

 Ancient Greek or Athenian Democracy
 Direct democracy – only pure or idea system of
popular participation; government by mass
meeting.
 Democracy for the protection of the people
from the encroachments of the government.
 A government by consent (representative
assembly). However, only propertied people
could vote.

3. Developmental Democracy 4. People’s Democracy

 18th-19th Century – Rousseauist

 “obedience to a law one prescribes to one self”
or “obedience to the general will”
 Requires political equality and economic
equality; shaped the idea of “participatory
democracy”
 JS Mill: broader popular participation –
inclusive citizenship with the exception of
illiterate people.
 “a deliberative democracy”.
 Marxist-inspired democracy: against the
capitalist/bourgeois democracy.
 Social equality more than political equality.
 20th C: Leninist-inspired democracy – power to
the Communist party (the vanguard of the
working class).

 Democracy in practice: rival views

Pluralist view Elitist view Corporatist view

 Multiplicity or diversity of
groups and interests in the
society, especially between
parties at election time;
dispersal of political power
amongst competing groups.
 Absence of elite groups.
New Right view
 “Democracy is to adults
what chocolate is to
children: endlessly tempting;
harmless in small doses;
sickening in excess”.
 Policy is made through
negotiations between
 Democracy is a foolish government officials and
decision; Political power is leaders of powerful economics
always exercised by a interests rather than through
privileged minority: an elite. the deliberations of a
 In all societies, “two classes of representative assembly.
people appear – class that  Neo corporatism or liberal
rules and a class that is ruled”. corporatism gives rise to
 The electorate can decide “tripartite government” in
which elite rules, but cannot which gov’t is conducted
change the fact that power is through organizations, state
always exercised by an elite. officials, employers’ groups
and unions to deal directly
with one another.
Marxist view
 Power is ultimately concentrated in the hands of the few;
emphasize importance of economic factors, notably ownership and
control of the means of production.
 Power cannot be evenly dispersed in society as long as class power
is unequally distributed.
  Electoral competition
encourages politicians to
“outbid” one another with
promise of increased
spending, etc.

Chapter 5.

 The State (16th C)

o State – set of institutions that are recognizably ‘public’ in that they are responsible for the
collective organization of social existence and are funded at the public’s expense.
o 5 Key Features: SPLDT
1. Sovereignty – exercises absolute and unrestricted power above all other associations and
groups in the society.
a. Internal sovereignty – people’s recognition that the state has jurisdiction over
them.
b. External sovereignty – when other nations recognize another state as independent
and capable of being a state.
2. Public
 Whatever the State does, the public should benefit from it; public interest not any
particular/private interest.
 Public good in exchange for their obedience.
3. Legitimation – decisions of the state are usually accepted as binding on the members of
society, because they are claimed to be made for common good.
4. Domination – must be centralized to ensure people are under one rule.
5. Territorial – jurisdiction of state is geographically defined; within state borders  citizens,
otherwise, non-citizen.
o “State” vs “Government”
 State is permanent, governments come and go/temporary.
 Extensive: Government is part of the state.
 Government is the means through which state authority is brought to the people.
o Rival Theories of the State:
a) Pluralist State – state as a neutral arbiter/umpire of individuals and groups in society;
protects each citizen from encroachments of fellow citizens.
 State is neutral insofar as it is susceptible to the influence of various groups and
interests and all social classes.
 Neo-pluralist view – state is biased.
b) Capitalist State – state is united by the Marxist view; state as an instrument of the
capitalist class to claim power over the proletariat; oppression of the exploited class;
economy determines who rules/dominates.
c) Leviathan State – unlimited control, self-serving/bias towards state interest that is
separate from those of society;
 More power/authority; justification of state intervention.
d) Patriarchal State – biased towards male power.
 Liberal Feminism – State is effective; reform.
  Radical Feminism – State favors male power, demands radical changes;
structural change because state is perpetuating power.

o Functionalist view:
a) Minimalist State (19th C UK & US): 3 core functions
 Intervenes only when needed/called for; “nightwatchman” state.
 Confined functions of the state; functions may not concern the economy.
 3 core functions:
o Maintaining domestic order
o Provide protection against State and external attack
o Ensure contracts/voluntary agreements between private citizens are
enforced
b) Developmental State (Jap, Ger, Fra) a.k.a. “Partnership State”
 State  role of the government (promotes industrial growth and economic
development)
 Partnership State (close relationship between the state and major economic
interests)
 Intervene in the name of economic development for all
c) Social Democratic State (Austria, Sweden)
 Shift from negative to positive view of the State.
 Keynesian (manage/regulate capitalism to promote growth and maintain full
employment) and Social welfare
 Big state spending for people’s sake to ensure social equality and equity 
social justice
 May intervene in the economy in the name of social justice and economic
equality.
 Broader social restructuring
d) Collectivized State (USSR and Eastern Europe)
 Entire economic life under state control.
 Common ownership preference over private property.
 Citizens abide by the rules when they plan to open up a business because state
has full control of the mode of production.
e) Totalitarianism State
 All-embracing state.
 Unlimited power over all aspects of life, both public and private.
o State in a global era:
 Supraterritoriality – economic activity takes place within a ‘borderless world’.
 Economic sovereignty – sovereign control over economic life conducted within its
borders.
 Transformed state – nation state to market state.

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Chapter 6.

 Nation
- Complex phenomena that is shaped by a collection of cultural (group of people bound by common
language, tradition, etc), political (people who regard themselves a natural political community) and
psychological (shared loyalty or affection in the form of patriotism) factors.
o Cultural community: nations are ‘natural’ or organic entities that can be traced back to ancient
times and will continue to exist as long as human society survives.
o Political community: nation as a group of people who are bound together primarily by shared
citizenship, regardless of their cultural, ethnic and other loyalties.
 Political nation – one in which citizenship has greater political significance than ethnic
identity; but can contain a number of ethnic groups and so are marked by cultural
heterogeneity.
 Nationalism

 Kinds of Nationalism
o Liberal Nationalism
o Conservative Nationalism
o Expansionist Nationalism
o Anticolonial Nationalism

Liberal Nationalism Conservative Nationalism

 Humankind is naturally divided into a collection of
nations, each possessed of a separate identity.
 Popular sovereignty.
 Universalism; every nation has a right to freedom
and self-determination; promote unity amongst
nations.
 National self-determination  goal: construction
of a world of nation-states.
Expansionist Nationalism
 The nation is everything and the individual is
nothing.
 National chauvinism – superiority or dominance of
one’s own people; rejects the idea that all nations
are equal.
 Another nation or race as a threat or enemy; sense
of ‘them’ and ‘us’.
 National rebirth or regeneration
 Social cohesion and public order embodied in the
sentiment of national patriotism.
 Nationalism  Traditionalism; patriotic loyalty and
consciousness of nationhood roots from idea of a
shared past.
 Immigration – threat because it weakens
established national culture and ethnic identity,
provoking conflict.
 Inward-looking and insular; maintenance of
cultural purity and established traditions.
Anticolonial Nationalism
 Nationalism into a political creed of global
significance.
 Quest for political independence was
inextricably linked to a desire for social
development and end to their subordination to
industrialized states.
 “Armed struggle”

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Chapter 7.

 Traditional Schools in Int’l Politics

 a) Idealism
- What should be instead of what is?
- Perspective of moral values and legal norms.
- Internationalism: belief that human affairs should be organized universally not just nationally, to
ensure natural harmony.
b) Realism
- Deals with reality or what is actually happening?
- Grounded in an emphasis on power politics and the pursuit of national interests.
- State is the principal actor on the international stage and being sovereign, acts as autonomous entity;
no higher authority than sovereign state.
- “State of nature”  anarchy; each state is forced to help itself.
- Pattern of conflict and cooperation  requirements of a balance of power.
- Neo-realism – importance of power in terms of structure of int’l system than goals of states.
c) Pluralism
- Mixed actor approach, different actors working together (including influence exerted by transnational
actors i.e., MNCs and NGOs not just national governments).
- Diffusion of power amongst a number of competing bodies or groups.
- Highlights permeability of state and provides alternative to the state-centrism of realism.
- Shift away from power politics and national aggrandizement; cooperation and integration.
d) Marxism
- World in global capitalist interest; classes in society.
- Economic power and international capital.
- Theory of horizontal organization based on international class than vertically (division of states into
interdependent states).
- Classical Marxist – rivalry between separate national capitalism.
- Neo-Marxism – development of a global capitalist system.

 21st C World Order: From Bipolarity to Unipolarity  New World Order? Multipolar World?
o Bipolarity – the cold war divided the world into two poles (US & USSR); implies equilibrium and
stability.
o Unipolarity – creates conditions of unchecked power and inherent instability; single global
hegemon.
o Cold war ended marked by the fall of the Berlin Wall.
o New World Order – how the world will be divided.
o Multipolar World – three or more power centres; rise of several states (economic
advancements); due to financial crisis in the Europe; i.e., China, India advancement.
 May have a tendency towards instability and chaos, due to wider diffusion of power
amongst world actors.
 Globalization: Forms/Dimensions; Theories
o Globalization – phenomenon; slippery and elusive concept because definition depends on
someone’s point of view.
 “Borderless, interpolitical”; “one world culture”; “interdependent countries”
o Forms/Dimensions:
 Economic globalization
 Trade (free trade) – lower trade barriers; financial capital flows freely
 Neoliberal project
  Economies can go together because interdependent  free flowing of goods;
i.e., outsourcing
 Production of goods that would have comparative advantage
 Cultural globalization
 Whatever is happening to the economy also affects culture/lifestyle
 Mcdonaldization – McD’s lifestyle  fastfood
 Culture is affected but it adjusts.
 Universalizing culture because values.
 Political globalization
 Membership in international organizations that make collective decisions about
issues; formation of global governance.
 Inter-state; Organizations exercising jurisdiction not within a single state, but
within an international area comprising several states.
o Debates: globalization is inevitable; globalization is ever present; it has always been there as
early as industrialization.
o Theories
 Globalist perspective: “It benefits the rich, but it also benefits the poor”
 Sceptics view
 Regionalization
o Alliances formed between and among states  usually regional; collaboration with neighboring
and geographically proximate states.
o A way of counterbalancing the effects of world powers/forces.
o Regional Economic Blocks:
 North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
 European Union (EU)
 Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)
 Association of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN)
 Mercosur
 Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA)
 World Governance
o World Bank, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), International Monetary Fund (IMF)
 open international economy; UN
o Social Contract Theory – people surrender their rights to the state in exchange for peace.