Airworthiness Standards FAA FAR Part 27

Federal Aviation Administration, DOT Pt.
27
(3) For applicants for changes to type Subpart C—Strength Requirements
certificates whose application are sub-
GENERAL
mitted before January 11, 2008, no later
than 180 days after January 11, 2008. 27.301 Loads.
(c) Compliance Plan Implementation. 27.303 Factor of safety.
Each affected person must implement 27.305 Strength and deformation.
27.307 Proof of structure.
the compliance plan as approved in 27.309 Design limitations.
compliance with paragraph (a) of this
section. FLIGHT LOADS
27.321 General.
PART 27—AIRWORTHINESS STAND- 27.337 Limit maneuvering load factor.
ARDS: NORMAL CATEGORY 27.339 Resultant limit maneuvering loads.
27.341 Gust loads.
ROTORCRAFT 27.351 Yawing conditions.
27.361 Engine torque.
Subpart A—General
CONTROL SURFACE AND SYSTEM LOADS
Sec.
27.1 Applicability. 27.391 General.
27.2 Special retroactive requirements. 27.395 Control system.
27.397 Limit pilot forces and torques.
27.399 Dual control system.
Subpart B—Flight
27.411 Ground clearance: tail rotor guard.
GENERAL 27.427 Unsymmetrical loads.
27.21 Proof of compliance. GROUND LOADS
27.25 Weight limits.
27.471 General.
27.27 Center of gravity limits.
27.473 Ground loading conditions and as-
27.29 Empty weight and corresponding cen- sumptions.
ter of gravity. 27.475 Tires and shock absorbers.
27.31 Removable ballast. 27.477 Landing gear arrangement.
27.33 Main rotor speed and pitch limits. 27.479 Level landing conditions.
PERFORMANCE 27.481 Tail-down landing conditions.
27.483 One-wheel landing conditions.
27.45 General. 27.485 Lateral drift landing conditions.
27.49 Performance at minimum operating 27.493 Braked roll conditions.
speed. 27.497 Ground loading conditions: landing
27.51 Takeoff. gear with tail wheels.
27.65 Climb: all engines operating. 27.501 Ground loading conditions: landing
27.67 Climb: one engine inoperative. gear with skids.
27.71 Autorotation performance. 27.505 Ski landing conditions.
27.75 Landing.
27.87 Height-speed envelope. WATER LOADS
27.521 Float landing conditions.
FLIGHT CHARACTERISTICS
27.141 General. MAIN COMPONENT REQUIREMENTS
27.143 Controllability and maneuverability. 27.547 Main rotor structure.
27.151 Flight controls. 27.549 Fuselage, landing gear, and rotor
27.161 Trim control. pylon structures.
27.171 Stability: general.
27.173 Static longitudinal stability. EMERGENCY LANDING CONDITIONS
27.175 Demonstration of static longitudinal 27.561 General.
stability. 27.562 Emergency landing dynamic condi-
27.177 Static directional stability. tions.
27.563 Structural ditching provisions.
GROUND AND WATER HANDLING
CHARACTERISTICS FATIGUE EVALUATION
27.231 General. 27.571 Fatigue evaluation of flight struc-
27.235 Taxiing condition. ture.
27.239 Spray characteristics.
27.241 Ground resonance. Subpart D—Design and Construction
erowe on DSK5CLS3C1PROD with CFR
MISCELLANEOUS FLIGHT REQUIREMENTS GENERAL

27.251 Vibration. 27.601 Design.
635
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Pt. 27 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–10 Edition)
27.602 Critical parts. 27.807 Emergency exits.
27.603 Materials. 27.831 Ventilation.
27.605 Fabrication methods. 27.833 Heaters.
27.607 Fasteners.
27.609 Protection of structure. FIRE PROTECTION
27.610 Lightning and static electricity pro- 27.853 Compartment interiors.
tection. 27.855 Cargo and baggage compartments.
27.611 Inspection provisions. 27.859 Heating systems.
27.613 Material strength properties and de- 27.861 Fire protection of structure, controls,
sign values. and other parts.
27.619 Special factors. 27.863 Flammable fluid fire protection.
27.621 Casting factors.
27.623 Bearing factors. EXTERNAL LOADS
27.625 Fitting factors.
27.629 Flutter. 27.865 External loads.
ROTORS MISCELLANEOUS
27.653 Pressure venting and drainage of 27.871 Leveling marks.

rotor blades. 27.873 Ballast provisions.
27.659 Mass balance.
27.661 Rotor blade clearance. Subpart E—Powerplant
27.663 Ground resonance prevention means.
GENERAL
CONTROL SYSTEMS 27.901 Installation.
27.671 General. 27.903 Engines.
27.672 Stability augmentation, automatic, 27.907 Engine vibration.
and power-operated systems.
ROTOR DRIVE SYSTEM
27.673 Primary flight control.
27.674 Interconnected controls. 27.917 Design.
27.675 Stops. 27.921 Rotor brake.
27.679 Control system locks. 27.923 Rotor drive system and control mech-
27.681 Limit load static tests. anism tests.
27.683 Operation tests. 27.927 Additional tests.
27.685 Control system details. 27.931 Shafting critical speed.
27.687 Spring devices. 27.935 Shafting joints.
27.691 Autorotation control mechanism. 27.939 Turbine engine operating characteris-
27.695 Power boost and power-operated con- tics.
trol system.
FUEL SYSTEM
LANDING GEAR
27.951 General.
27.723 Shock absorption tests. 27.952 Fuel system crash resistance.
27.725 Limit drop test. 27.953 Fuel system independence.
27.727 Reserve energy absorption drop test. 27.954 Fuel system lightning protection.
27.729 Retracting mechanism. 27.955 Fuel flow.
27.731 Wheels. 27.959 Unusable fuel supply.
27.733 Tires. 27.961 Fuel system hot weather operation.
27.735 Brakes. 27.963 Fuel tanks: general.
27.737 Skis. 27.965 Fuel tank tests.
27.967 Fuel tank installation.
FLOATS AND HULLS 27.969 Fuel tank expansion space.
27.751 Main float buoyancy. 27.971 Fuel tank sump.
27.753 Main float design. 27.973 Fuel tank filler connection.
27.755 Hulls. 27.975 Fuel tank vents.
27.977 Fuel tank outlet.
PERSONNEL AND CARGO ACCOMMODATIONS
FUEL SYSTEM COMPONENTS
27.771 Pilot compartment.
27.773 Pilot compartment view. 27.991 Fuel pumps.
27.775 Windshields and windows. 27.993 Fuel system lines and fittings.
27.777 Cockpit controls. 27.995 Fuel valves.
27.779 Motion and effect of cockpit controls. 27.997 Fuel strainer or filter.
27.783 Doors. 27.999 Fuel system drains.
27.785 Seats, berths, litters, safety belts,
OIL SYSTEM
and harnesses.
27.787 Cargo and baggage compartments. 27.1011 Engines: General.

27.801 Ditching. 27.1013 Oil tanks.
27.805 Flight crew emergency exits. 27.1015 Oil tank tests.
636
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT Pt. 27
27.1017 Oil lines and fittings. 27.1357 Circuit protective devices.
27.1019 Oil strainer or filter. 27.1361 Master switch.
27.1021 Oil system drains. 27.1365 Electric cables.
27.1027 Transmissions and gearboxes: Gen- 27.1367 Switches.
eral.
LIGHTS
COOLING
27.1381 Instrument lights.
27.1041 General. 27.1383 Landing lights.
27.1043 Cooling tests. 27.1385 Position light system installation.
27.1045 Cooling test procedures. 27.1387 Position light system dihedral an-
gles.
INDUCTION SYSTEM 27.1389 Position light distribution and in-
27.1091 Air induction. tensities.
27.1093 Induction system icing protection. 27.1391 Minimum intensities in the hori-
zontal plane of forward and rear position
EXHAUST SYSTEM lights.
27.1393 Minimum intensities in any vertical
27.1121 General.
plane of forward and rear position lights.
27.1123 Exhaust piping.
27.1395 Maximum intensities in overlapping
POWERPLANT CONTROLS AND ACCESSORIES beams of forward and rear position
lights.
27.1141 Powerplant controls: general. 27.1397 Color specifications.
27.1143 Engine controls. 27.1399 Riding light.
27.1145 Ignition switches. 27.1401 Anticollision light system.
27.1147 Mixture controls.
27.1151 Rotor brake controls. SAFETY EQUIPMENT
27.1163 Powerplant accessories.
27.1411 General.
POWERPLANT FIRE PROTECTION 27.1413 Safety belts.
27.1415 Ditching equipment.
27.1183 Lines, fittings, and components. 27.1419 Ice protection.
27.1185 Flammable fluids. 27.1435 Hydraulic systems.
27.1187 Ventilation and drainage. 27.1457 Cockpit voice recorders.
27.1189 Shutoff means. 27.1459 Flight data recorders.
27.1191 Firewalls. 27.1461 Equipment containing high energy
27.1193 Cowling and engine compartment rotors.
covering.
27.1194 Other surfaces. Subpart G—Operating Limitations and
27.1195 Fire detector systems. Information
Subpart F—Equipment 27.1501 General.
GENERAL OPERATING LIMITATIONS
27.1301 Function and installation. 27.1503 Airspeed limitations: general.
27.1303 Flight and navigation instruments. 27.1505 Never-exceed speed.
27.1305 Powerplant instruments. 27.1509 Rotor speed.
27.1307 Miscellaneous equipment. 27.1519 Weight and center of gravity.
27.1309 Equipment, systems, and installa- 27.1521 Powerplant limitations.
tions. 27.1523 Minimum flight crew.
27.1317 High-intensity Radiated Fields 27.1525 Kinds of operations.
(HIRF) Protection. 27.1527 Maximum operating altitude.
27.1529 Instructions for Continued Air-
INSTRUMENTS: INSTALLATION worthiness.
27.1321 Arrangement and visibility.
27.1322 Warning, caution, and advisory MARKINGS AND PLACARDS
lights. 27.1541 General.
27.1323 Airspeed indicating system. 27.1543 Instrument markings: general.
27.1325 Static pressure systems. 27.1545 Airspeed indicator.
27.1327 Magnetic direction indicator. 27.1547 Magnetic direction indicator.
27.1329 Automatic pilot system. 27.1549 Powerplant instruments.
27.1335 Flight director systems. 27.1551 Oil quantity indicator.
27.1337 Powerplant instruments. 27.1553 Fuel quantity indicator.
27.1555 Control markings.
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT
27.1557 Miscellaneous markings and plac-
27.1351 General. ards.

27.1353 Storage battery design and installa- 27.1559 Limitations placard.
tion. 27.1561 Safety equipment.
637
§ 27.1 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–10 Edition)
27.1565 Tail rotor. when seated with safety belt and shoul-
ROTORCRAFT FLIGHT MANUAL AND APPROVED
der harness fastened, to perform all
MANUAL MATERIAL functions necessary for flight oper-
ations. There must be a means to se-
27.1581 General.
27.1583 Operating limitations. cure belts and harnesses, when not in
27.1585 Operating procedures. use, to prevent interference with the
27.1587 Performance information. operation of the rotorcraft and with
27.1589 Loading information. rapid egress in an emergency.
APPENDIX A TO PART 27—INSTRUCTIONS FOR (2) Each occupant must be protected
CONTINUED AIRWORTHINESS from serious head injury by a safety
APPENDIX B TO PART 27—AIRWORTHINESS CRI-
belt plus a shoulder harness that will
TERIA FOR HELICOPTER INSTRUMENT
FLIGHT prevent the head from contacting any
APPENDIX C TO PART 27—CRITERIA FOR CAT- injurious object.
EGORY A (3) The safety belt and shoulder har-
APPENDIX D TO PART 27—HIRF ENVIRON- ness must meet the static and dynamic
MENTS AND EQUIPMENT HIRF TEST LEV-
strength requirements, if applicable,
ELS
specified by the rotorcraft type certifi-
AUTHORITY: 49 U.S.C. 106(g), 40113, 44701– cation basis.
44702, 44704.
(4) For purposes of this section, the
SOURCE: Docket No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. date of manufacture is either—
24, 1964, unless otherwise noted. (i) The date the inspection accept-
ance records, or equivalent, reflect
Subpart A—General that the rotorcraft is complete and
meets the FAA-Approved Type Design
§ 27.1 Applicability.
Data; or
(a) This part prescribes airworthiness (ii) The date the foreign civil air-
standards for the issue of type certifi- worthiness authority certifies that the
cates, and changes to those certifi- rotorcraft is complete and issues an
cates, for normal category rotorcraft original standard airworthiness certifi-
with maximum weights of 7,000 pounds
cate, or equivalent, in that country.
or less and nine or less passenger seats.
(b) For rotorcraft with a certification
(b) Each person who applies under
Part 21 for such a certificate or change basis established prior to October 18,
must show compliance with the appli- 1999—
cable requirements of this part. (1) The maximum passenger seat ca-
(c) Multiengine rotorcraft may be pacity may be increased to eight or
type certified as Category A provided nine provided the applicant shows com-
the requirements referenced in appen- pliance with all the airworthiness re-
dix C of this part are met. quirements of this part in effect on Oc-
tober 18, 1999.
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 27–33, 61 FR 21906, May 10, (2) The maximum weight may be in-
1996; Amdt. 27–37, 64 FR 45094, Aug. 18, 1999] creased to greater than 6,000 pounds
provided—
§ 27.2 Special retroactive require- (i) The number of passenger seats is
ments. not increased above the maximum
(a) For each rotorcraft manufactured number certificated on October 18, 1999,
after September 16, 1992, each applicant or
must show that each occupant’s seat is (ii) The applicant shows compliance
equipped with a safety belt and shoul- with all of the airworthiness require-
der harness that meets the requirements of this part in effect on October
ments of paragraphs (a), (b), and (c) of 18, 1999.
this section.
(1) Each occupant’s seat must have a [Doc. No. 26078, 56 FR 41051, Aug. 16, 1991, as
combined safety belt and shoulder har- amended by Amdt. 27–37, 64 FR 45094, Aug. 18,
ness with a single-point release. Each 1999]
pilot’s combined safety belt and shoul-

der harness must allow each pilot,
638
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT § 27.25
Subpart B—Flight weight for which certification is re-

quested.
GENERAL (b) Minimum weight. The minimum
weight (the lowest weight at which
§ 27.21 Proof of compliance. compliance with each applicable re-
Each requirement of this subpart quirement of this part is shown) must
must be met at each appropriate com- be established so that it is—
bination of weight and center of grav- (1) Not more than the sum of—
ity within the range of loading condi- (i) The empty weight determined
tions for which certification is re- under § 27.29; and
quested. This must be shown— (ii) The weight of the minimum crew
(a) By tests upon a rotorcraft of the necessary to operate the rotorcraft, as-
type for which certification is re- suming for each crewmember a weight
quested, or by calculations based on, no more than 170 pounds, or any lower
and equal in accuracy to, the results of weight selected by the applicant or in-
testing; and cluded in the loading instructions; and
(b) By systematic investigation of (2) Not less than—
each required combination of weight
(i) The lowest weight selected by the
and center of gravity if compliance
applicant;
cannot be reasonably inferred from
combinations investigated. (ii) The design minimum weight (the
lowest weight at which compliance
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as with each applicable structural loading
amended by Amdt. 27–21, 49 FR 44432, Nov. 6, condition of this part is shown); or
1984]
(iii) The lowest weight at which com-
§ 27.25 Weight limits. pliance with each applicable flight re-
quirement of this part is shown.
(a) Maximum weight. The maximum
(c) Total weight with jettisonable exter-
weight (the highest weight at which
nal load. A total weight for the rotor-
compliance with each applicable re-
craft with a jettisonable external load
quirement of this part is shown) must
attached that is greater than the max-
be established so that it is—
imum weight established under para-
(1) Not more than—
graph (a) of this section may be estab-
(i) The highest weight selected by the
lished for any rotorcraft-load combina-
applicant;
tion if—
(ii) The design maximum weight (the
highest weight at which compliance (1) The rotorcraft-load combination
with each applicable structural loading does not include human external cargo,
condition of this part is shown); (2) Structural component approval
(iii) The highest weight at which for external load operations under ei-
compliance with each applicable flight ther § 27.865 or under equivalent oper-
requirement of this part is shown; or ational standards is obtained,
(iv) The highest weight in which the (3) The portion of the total weight
provisions of §§ 27.87 or 27.143(c)(1), or that is greater than the maximum
combinations thereof, are dem- weight established under paragraph (a)
onstrated if the weights and operating of this section is made up only of the
conditions (altitude and temperature) weight of all or part of the jettisonable
prescribed by those requirements can- external load,
not be met; and (4) Structural components of the
(2) Not less than the sum of— rotorcraft are shown to comply with
(i) The empty weight determined the applicable structural requirements
under § 27.29; and of this part under the increased loads
(ii) The weight of usable fuel appro- and stresses caused by the weight in-
priate to the intended operation with crease over that established under
full payload; paragraph (a) of this section, and
(iii) The weight of full oil capacity; (5) Operation of the rotorcraft at a
and total weight greater than the max-
(iv) For each seat, an occupant imum certificated weight established

weight of 170 pounds or any lower under paragraph (a) of this section is
639
§ 27.27 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–10 Edition)
limited by appropriate operating limi- with respect to the weights of fuel, oil,
tations under § 27.865(a) and (d) of this coolant, and installed equipment.
part. (Secs. 313(a), 601, 603, 604, and 605 of the Fed-
(Secs. 313(a), 601, 603, 604, and 605 of the Fed- eral Aviation Act of 1958 (49 U.S.C. 1354(a),
eral Aviation Act of 1958 (49 U.S.C. 1354(a), 1421, 1423, 1424, and 1425); and sec. 6(c) of the
Dept. of Transportation Act (49 U.S.C.
1421, 1423, 1424, and 1425); and sec. 6(c) of the
1655(c)))
1655(c))) [Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 27–14, 43 FR 2324, Jan. 16,
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 29, 1964, as 1978]
amended by Amdt. 27–11, 41 FR 55468, Dec. 20,
1976; Amdt. 25–42, 43 FR 2324, Jan. 16, 1978; § 27.31 Removable ballast.
Amdt. 27–36, 64 FR 43019, Aug. 6, 1999; Amdt.
No. 27–44, 73 FR 10998, Feb. 29, 2008; 73 FR Removable ballast may be used in
33876, June 16, 2008] showing compliance with the flight re-
quirements of this subpart.
§ 27.27 Center of gravity limits.
§ 27.33 Main rotor speed and pitch lim-
The extreme forward and aft centers its.
of gravity and, where critical, the ex- (a) Main rotor speed limits. A range of
treme lateral centers of gravity must main rotor speeds must be established
be established for each weight estab- that—
lished under § 27.25. Such an extreme (1) With power on, provides adequate
may not lie beyond— margin to accommodate the variations
(a) The extremes selected by the ap- in rotor speed occurring in any appro-
plicant; priate maneuver, and is consistent
(b) The extremes within which the with the kind of governor or synchro-
structure is proven; or nizer used; and
(c) The extremes within which com- (2) With power off, allows each appro-
pliance with the applicable flight re- priate autorotative maneuver to be
quirements is shown. performed throughout the ranges of
airspeed and weight for which certifi-
[Amdt. 27–2, 33 FR 962, Jan. 26, 1968] cation is requested.
(b) Normal main rotor high pitch limits
§ 27.29 Empty weight and cor- (power on). For rotocraft, except heli-
responding center of gravity. copters required to have a main rotor
(a) The empty weight and cor- low speed warning under paragraph (e)
responding center of gravity must be of this section. It must be shown, with
determined by weighing the rotorcraft power on and without exceeding ap-
without the crew and payload, but proved engine maximum limitations,
with— that main rotor speeds substantially
(1) Fixed ballast; less than the minimum approved main
rotor speed will not occur under any
(2) Unusable fuel; and
sustained flight condition. This must
(3) Full operating fluids, including—
be met by—
(i) Oil; (1) Appropriate setting of the main
(ii) Hydraulic fluid; and rotor high pitch stop;
(iii) Other fluids required for normal (2) Inherent rotorcraft characteris-
operation of roto-craft systems, except tics that make unsafe low main rotor
water intended for injection in the en- speeds unlikely; or
gines. (3) Adequate means to warn the pilot
(b) The condition of the rotorcraft at of unsafe main rotor speeds.
the time of determining empty weight (c) Normal main rotor low pitch limits
must be one that is well defined and (power off). It must be shown, with
can be easily repeated, particularly power off, that—
(1) The normal main rotor low pitch
limit provides sufficient rotor speed, in
any autorotative condition, under the
most critical combinations of weight

and airspeed; and
640
(2) It is possible to prevent over- (b) The performance must correspond
speeding of the rotor without excep- to the engine power available under the
tional piloting skill. particular ambient atmospheric condi-
(d) Emergency high pitch. If the main tions, the particular flight condition,
rotor high pitch stop is set to meet and the relative humidity specified in
paragraph (b)(1) of this section, and if paragraphs (d) or (e) of this section, as
that stop cannot be exceeded inadvert- appropriate.
ently, additional pitch may be made (c) The available power must cor-
available for emergency use. respond to engine power, not exceeding
(e) Main rotor low speed warning for the approved power, less—
helicopters. For each single engine heli- (1) Installation losses; and
copter, and each multiengine heli- (2) The power absorbed by the acces-
copter that does not have an approved sories and services appropriate to the
device that automatically increases particular ambient atmopheric condi-
power on the operating engines when tions and the particular flight condi-
one engine fails, there must be a main tion.
rotor low speed warning which meets (d) For reciprocating engine-powered
the following requirements: rotorcraft, the performance, as affected
(1) The warning must be furnished to by engine power, must be based on a
the pilot in all flight conditions, in- relative humidity of 80 percent in a
cluding power-on and power-off flight, standard atmosphere.
when the speed of a main rotor ap- (e) For turbine engine-powered rotor-
proaches a value that can jeopardize craft, the performance, as affected by
safe flight. engine power, must be based on a rel-
(2) The warning may be furnished ei- ative humidity of—
ther through the inherent aerodynamic (1) 80 percent, at and below standard
qualities of the helicopter or by a de- temperature; and
vice. (2) 34 percent, at and above standard
(3) The warning must be clear and temperature plus 50 degrees F. Between
distinct under all conditons, and must these two temperatures, the relative
be clearly distinguishable from all humidity must vary linearly.
other warnings. A visual device that (f) For turbine-engine-powered rotor-
requires the attention of the crew craft, a means must be provided to per-
within the cockpit is not acceptable by mit the pilot to determine prior to
itself. takeoff that each engine is capable of
(4) If a warning device is used, the de- developing the power necessary to
vice must automatically deactivate achieve the applicable rotorcraft per-
and reset when the low-speed condition formance prescribed in this subpart.
is corrected. If the device has an audi- (Secs. 313(a), 601, 603, 604, and 605 of the Fed-
ble warning, it must also be equipped eral Aviation Act of 1958 (49 U.S.C. 1354(a),
with a means for the pilot to manually 1421, 1423, 1424, and 1425); and sec. 6(c) of the
silence the audible warning before the Dept. of Transportation Act (49 U.S.C.
low-speed condition is corrected. 1655(c)))
(Secs. 313(a), 601, 603, 604, and 605 of the Fed- [Amdt. 27–14, 43 FR 2324, Jan. 16, 1978, as
eral Aviation Act of 1958 (49 U.S.C. 1354(a), amended by Amdt. 27–21, 49 FR 44432, Nov. 6,
1421, 1423, 1424, and 1425); and sec. 6(c) of the 1984]
1655(c))) § 27.49 Performance at minimum oper-
ating speed.
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 27–2, 33 FR 962, Jan. 26, (a) For helicopters—
1968; Amdt. 27–14, 43 FR 2324, Jan. 16, 1978] (1) The hovering ceiling must be de-
termined over the ranges of weight, al-
PERFORMANCE titude, and temperature for which cer-
tification is requested, with—
§ 27.45 General. (i) Takeoff power;
(a) Unless otherwise prescribed, the (ii) The landing gear extended; and
performance requirements of this sub- (iii) The helicopter in-ground effect
part must be met for still air and a at a height consistent with normal
standard atmosphere. takeoff procedures; and
641
§ 27.51 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–10 Edition)
(2) The hovering ceiling determined (ii) With the landing gear retracted;
under paragraph (a)(1) of this section and
must be at least— (iii) For the weights, altitudes, and
(i) For reciprocating engine powered temperatures for which certification is
helicopters, 4,000 feet at maximum requested; and
weight with a standard atmosphere; (2) The climb gradient, at the rate of
(ii) For turbine engine powered heli- climb determined in accordance with
copters, 2,500 feet pressure altitude at paragraph (a)(1) of this section, must
maximum weight at a temperature of be either—
standard plus 22 °C (standard plus 40 (i) At least 1:10 if the horizontal dis-
°F). tance required to take off and climb
(3) The out-of-ground effect hovering over a 50-foot obstacle is determined
performance must be determined over for each weight, altitude, and tempera-
the ranges of weight, altitude, and ture within the range for which certifi-
temperature for which certification is cation is requested; or
requested, using takeoff power. (ii) At least 1:6 under standard sea
(b) For rotorcraft other than heli- level conditions.
copters, the steady rate of climb at the (b) Each helicopter must meet the
minimum operating speed must be de- following requirements:
termined over the ranges of weight, al- (1) VY must be determined—
titude, and temperature for which cer- (i) For standard sea level conditions;
tification is requested, with— (ii) At maximum weight; and
(1) Takeoff power; and (iii) With maximum continuous
(2) The landing gear extended. power on each engine.
(2) The steady rate of climb must be
[Amdt. No. 27–44, 73 FR 10998, Feb. 29, 2008]
determined—
§ 27.51 Takeoff. (i) At the climb speed selected by the
applicant at or below VNE;
The takeoff, with takeoff power and (ii) Within the range from sea level
r.p.m. at the most critical center of up to the maximum altitude for which
gravity, and with weight from the max- certification is requested;
imum weight at sea level to the weight (iii) For the weights and tempera-
for which takeoff certification is re- tures that correspond to the altitude
quested for each altitude covered by range set forth in paragraph (b)(2)(ii) of
this section— this section and for which certification
(a) May not require exceptional pilot- is requested; and
ing skill or exceptionally favorable (iv) With maximum continuous power
conditions throughout the ranges of al- on each engine.
titude from standard sea level condi-
tions to the maximum altitude for (Secs. 313(a), 601, 603, 604, and 605 of the Fed-
which takeoff and landing certification eral Aviation Act of 1958 (49 U.S.C. 1354(a),
is requested, and
(b) Must be made in such a manner 1655(c)))
that a landing can be made safely at
any point along the flight path if an [Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as
engine fails. This must be dem-
1978; Amdt. 27–33, 61 FR 21907, May 10, 1996]
onstrated up to the maximum altitude
for which takeoff and landing certifi- § 27.67 Climb: one engine inoperative.
cation is requested or 7,000 feet density
altitude, whichever is less. For multiengine helicopters, the
steady rate of climb (or descent), at Vy
[Amdt. No. 27–44, 73 FR 10999, Feb. 29, 2008] (or at the speed for minimum rate of
descent), must be determined with—
§ 27.65 Climb: all engines operating. (a) Maximum weight;
(a) For rotorcraft other than heli- (b) The critical engine inoperative
copters— and the remaining engines at either—
(1) The steady rate of climb, at VY, (1) Maximum continuous power and,
must be determined— for helicopters for which certification
(i) With maximum continuous power for the use of 30-minute OEI power is
on each engine; requested, at 30-minute OEI power; or
642
(2) Continuous OEI power for heli- § 27.87 Height-speed envelope.
copters for which certification for the
(a) If there is any combination of
use of continuous OEI power is re-
height and forward speed (including
quested. hover) under which a safe landing can-
(Secs. 313(a), 601, 603, 604, and 605 of the Fed- not be made under the applicable power
eral Aviation Act of 1958 (49 U.S.C. 1354(a), failure condition in paragraph (b) of
1421, 1423, 1424, and 1425); and sec. 6(c) of the this section, a limiting height-speed
Dept. of Transportation Act (49 U.S.C. envelope must be established (includ-
1655(c))) ing all pertinent information) for that
[Doc. No 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as condition, throughout the ranges of—
amended by Amdt. 27–23, 53 FR 34210, Sept. 2, (1) Altitude, from standard sea level
1988] conditions to the maximum altitude
capability of the rotorcraft, or 7000 feet
§ 27.71 Autorotation performance. density altitude, whichever is less; and
For single-engine helicopters and (2) Weight, from the maximum
multiengine helicopters that do not weight at sea level to the weight se-
meet the Category A engine isolation lected by the applicant for each alti-
requirements of Part 29 of this chapter, tude covered by paragraph (a)(1) of this
the minimum rate of descent airspeed section. For helicopters, the weight at
and the best angle-of-glide airspeed altitudes above sea level may not be
must be determined in autorotation less than the maximum weight or the
at— highest weight allowing hovering out-
(a) Maximum weight; and of-ground effect, whichever is lower.
(b) The applicable power failure con-
(b) Rotor speed(s) selected by the ap-
ditions are—
plicant.
(1) For single-engine helicopters, full
[Amdt. 27–21, 49 FR 44433, Nov. 6, 1984] autorotation;
(2) For multiengine helicopters, OEI
§ 27.75 Landing. (where engine isolation features ensure
(a) The rotorcraft must be able to be continued operation of the remaining
landed with no excessive vertical accel- engines), and the remaining engine(s)
eration, no tendency to bounce, nose within approved limits and at the min-
over, ground loop, porpoise, or water imum installed specification power
loop, and without exceptional piloting available for the most critical com-
skill or exceptionally favorable condi- bination of approved ambient tempera-
tions, with— ture and pressure altitude resulting in
7000 feet density altitude or the max-
(1) Approach or autorotation speeds
imum altitude capability of the heli-
appropriate to the type of rotorcraft
copter, whichever is less, and
and selected by the applicant;
(3) For other rotorcraft, conditions
(2) The approach and landing made
appropriate to the type.
with—
(i) Power off, for single engine rotor- (Secs. 313(a), 601, 603, 604, Federal Aviation
craft and entered from steady state Act of 1958 (49 U.S.C. 1354(a), 1421, 1423, 1424),
sec. 6(c), Dept. of Transportation Act (49
autorotation; or
U.S.C. 1655(c)))
(ii) One-engine inoperative (OEI) for
multiengine rotorcraft, with each oper- [Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as
ating engine within approved operating
1978; Amdt. 27–21, 49 FR 44433, Nov. 6, 1984;
limitations, and entered from an estab- Amdt. No. 27–44, 73 FR 10999, Feb. 29, 2008]
lished OEI approach.
(b) Multiengine rotorcraft must be FLIGHT CHARACTERISTICS
able to be landed safely after complete
power failure under normal operating § 27.141 General.
conditions. The rotorcraft must—
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as (a) Except as specifically required in
the applicable section, meet the flight

1978; Amdt. No. 27–44, 73 FR 10999, Feb. 29, characteristics requirements of this
2008] subpart—
643
§ 27.143 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–10 Edition)
(1) At the altitudes and temperatures (vi) Landing (power on and power
expected in operation; off); and
(2) Under any critical loading condi- (vii) Recovery to power-on flight
tion within the range of weights and from a balked autorotative approach.
centers of gravity for which certifi- (b) The margin of cyclic control must
cation is requested; allow satisfactory roll and pitch con-
(3) For power-on operations, under trol at VNE with—
any condition of speed, power, and (1) Critical weight;
rotor r.p.m. for which certification is (2) Critical center of gravity;
requested; and (3) Critical rotor r.p.m.; and
(4) For power-off operations, under (4) Power off (except for helicopters
any condition of speed and rotor r.p.m. demonstrating compliance with para-
for which certification is requested graph (f) of this section) and power on.
that is attainable with the controls (c) Wind velocities from zero to at
rigged in accordance with the approved least 17 knots, from all azimuths, must
rigging instructions and tolerances; be established in which the rotorcraft
(b) Be able to maintain any required can be operated without loss of control
flight condition and make a smooth on or near the ground in any maneuver
transition from any flight condition to appropriate to the type (such as cross-
any other flight condition without ex- wind takeoffs, sideward flight, and
ceptional piloting skill, alertness, or rearward flight)—
strength, and without danger of ex- (1) With altitude, from standard sea
ceeding the limit load factor under any level conditions to the maximum take-
operating condition probable for the off and landing altitude capability of
type, including— the rotorcraft or 7000 feet density alti-
(1) Sudden failure of one engine, for tude, whichever is less; with—
multiengine rotorcraft meeting Trans-
(i) Critical Weight;
port Category A engine isolation re-
(ii) Critical center of gravity;
quirements of Part 29 of this chapter;
(iii) Critical rotor r.p.m.;
(2) Sudden, complete power failure
for other rotorcraft; and (2) For takeoff and landing altitudes
(3) Sudden, complete control system above 7000 feet density altitude with–
failures specified in § 27.695 of this part; (i) Weight selected by the applicant;
and (ii) Critical center of gravity; and
(c) Have any additional char- (iii) Critical rotor r.p.m.
acteristic required for night or instru- (d) Wind velocities from zero to at
ment operation, if certification for least 17 knots, from all azimuths, must
those kinds of operation is requested. be established in which the rotorcraft
Requirements for helicopter instru- can be operated without loss of control
ment flight are contained in appendix out-of-ground-effect, with—
B of this part. (1) Weight selected by the applicant;
(2) Critical center of gravity;
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as
(3) Rotor r.p.m. selected by the appli-
1968; Amdt. 27–11, 41 FR 55468, Dec. 20, 1976; cant; and
Amdt. 27–19, 48 FR 4389, Jan. 31, 1983; Amdt. (4) Altitude, from standard sea level
27–21, 49 FR 44433, Nov. 6, 1984] conditions to the maximum takeoff
and landing altitude capability of the
§ 27.143 Controllability and maneuver- rotorcraft.
ability. (e) The rotorcraft, after (1) failure of
(a) The rotorcraft must be safely con- one engine in the case of multiengine
trollable and maneuverable— rotorcraft that meet Transport Cat-
(1) During steady flight; and egory A engine isolation requirements,
(2) During any maneuver appropriate or (2) complete engine failure in the
to the type, including— case of other rotorcraft, must be con-
(i) Takeoff; trollable over the range of speeds and
(ii) Climb; altitudes for which certification is re-
(iii) Level flight; quested when such power failure occurs
(iv) Turning flight; with maximum continuous power and

(v) Autorotation; critical weight. No corrective action
644
time delay for any condition following § 27.171 Stability: general.
power failure may be less than— The rotorcraft must be able to be
(i) For the cruise condition, one sec- flown, without undue pilot fatigue or
ond, or normal pilot reaction time strain, in any normal maneuver for a
(whichever is greater); and period of time as long as that expected
(ii) For any other condition, normal in normal operation. At least three
pilot reaction time. landings and takeoffs must be made
(f) For helicopters for which a VNE during this demonstration.
(power-off) is established under
§ 27.1505(c), compliance must be dem- § 27.173 Static longitudinal stability.
onstrated with the following require- (a) The longitudinal control must be
ments with critical weight, critical designed so that a rearward movement
center of gravity, and critical rotor of the control is necessary to obtain an
r.p.m.: airspeed less than the trim speed, and a
(1) The helicopter must be safely forward movement of the control is
slowed to VNE (power-off), without ex- necessary to obtain an airspeed more
ceptional pilot skill, after the last op- than the trim speed.
erating engine is made inoperative at (b) Throughout the full range of alti-
power-on VNE. tude for which certification is re-
(2) At a speed of 1.1 VNE (power-off), quested, with the throttle and collec-
the margin of cyclic control must tive pitch held constant during the ma-
allow satisfactory roll and pitch con- neuvers specified in § 27.175(a) through
trol with power off. (d), the slope of the control position
versus airspeed curve must be positive.
(Secs. 313(a), 601, 603, 604, and 605 of the Fed- However, in limited flight conditions
eral Aviation Act of 1958 (49 U.S.C. 1354(a),
or modes of operation determined by
Dept. of Transportation Act (49 U.S.C. the Administrator to be acceptable, the
1655(c))) slope of the control position versus air-
speed curve may be neutral or negative
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as if the rotorcraft possesses flight char-
acteristics that allow the pilot to
1968; Amdt. 27–14, 43 FR 2325, Jan. 16, 1978;
Amdt. 27–21, 49 FR 44433, Nov. 6, 1984; Amdt. maintain airspeed within ±5 knots of
No. 27–44, 73 FR 10999, Feb. 29, 2008] the desired trim airspeed without ex-
ceptional piloting skill or alertness.
§ 27.151 Flight controls. [Amdt. 27–21, 49 FR 44433, Nov. 6, 1984, as
(a) Longitudinal, lateral, directional, amended by Amdt. No. 27–44, 73 FR 10999,
and collective controls may not exhibit Feb. 29, 2008]
excessive breakout force, friction, or § 27.175 Demonstration of static longi-
preload. tudinal stability.
(b) Control system forces and free
(a) Climb. Static longitudinal sta-
play may not inhibit a smooth, direct
bility must be shown in the climb con-
rotorcraft response to control system
dition at speeds from Vy ¥ 10 kt to Vy
input.
+ 10 kt with—
[Amdt. 27–21, 49 FR 44433, Nov. 6, 1984] (1) Critical weight;
§ 27.161 Trim control. (3) Maximum continuous power;
The trim control— (4) The landing gear retracted; and
(5) The rotorcraft trimmed at VY.
(a) Must trim any steady longitu-
(b) Cruise. Static longitudinal sta-
dinal, lateral, and collective control
bility must be shown in the cruise con-
forces to zero in level flight at any ap- dition at speeds from 0.8 VNE ¥ 10 kt to
propriate speed; and 0.8 VNE + 10 kt or, if VH is less than 0.8
(b) May not introduce any undesir- VNE, from VH ¥10 kt to VH + 10 kt,
able discontinuities in control force with—
gradients. (1) Critical weight;
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as

amended by Amdt. 27–21, 49 FR 44433, Nov. 6, (3) Power for level flight at 0.8 VNE or
1984] VH, whichever is less;
645
§ 27.177 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–10 Edition)
(4) The landing gear retracted; and (1) ±25 degrees from trim at a speed of
(5) The rotorcraft trimmed at 0.8 VNE 15 knots less than the speed for min-
or VH, whichever is less. imum rate of descent varying linearly
(c) VNE. Static longitudinal stability to ±10 degrees from trim at VNE;
must be shown at speeds from VNE ¥ 20 (2) The steady state sideslip angles
kt to VNE with— established by § 27.351;
(1) Critical weight;
(3) A sideslip angle selected by the
applicant, which corresponds to a
(3) Power required for level flight at
VNE ¥10 kt or maximum continuous sideforce of at least 0.1g; or
power, whichever is less; (4) The sideslip angle attained by
(4) The landing gear retracted; and maximum directional control input.
(5) The rotorcraft trimmed at VNE ¥ (b) Sufficient cues must accompany
10 kt. the sideslip to alert the pilot when the
(d) Autorotation. Static longitudinal aircraft is approaching the sideslip
stability must be shown in autorota- limits.
tion at— (c) During the maneuver specified in
(1) Airspeeds from the minimum rate paragraph (a) of this section, the side-
of descent airspeed¥10 kt to the min- slip angle versus directional control
imum rate of descent airspeed + 10 kt, position curve may have a negative
with— slope within a small range of angles
(i) Critical weight;
around trim, provided the desired head-
(ii) Critical center of gravity;
ing can be maintained without excep-
(iii) The landing gear extended; and
(iv) The rotorcraft trimmed at the tional piloting skill or alertness.
minimum rate of descent airspeed. [Amdt. No. 27–44, 73 FR 11000, Feb. 29, 2008]
(2) Airspeeds from best angle-of-glide
airspeed¥10 kt to the best angle-of- GROUND AND WATER HANDLING
glide airspeed + 10 kt, with— CHARACTERISTICS
(i) Critical weight;
(ii) Critical center of gravity; § 27.231 General.
(iii) The landing gear retracted; and
The rotorcraft must have satisfac-
(iv) The rotorcraft trimmed at the
tory ground and water handling char-
best angle-of-glide airspeed.
acteristics, including freedom from un-
(Secs. 313(a), 601, 603, 604, and 605 of the Fed- controllable tendencies in any condi-
eral Aviation Act of 1958 (49 U.S.C. 1354(a), tion expected in operation.
1655(c)))
§ 27.235 Taxiing condition.
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as The rotorcraft must be designed to
amended by Amdt. 27–2, 33 FR 963, Jan. 26, withstand the loads that would occur
1968; Amdt. 27–11, 41 FR 55468, Dec. 20, 1976; when the rotorcraft is taxied over the
Amdt. 27–14, 43 FR 2325, Jan. 16, 1978; Amdt. roughest ground that may reasonably
27–21, 49 FR 44433, Nov. 6, 1984; Amdt. 27–34, 62 be expected in normal operation.
FR 46173, Aug. 29, 1997; Amdt. No. 27–44, 73
FR 10999, Feb. 29, 2008]
§ 27.239 Spray characteristics.
§ 27.177 Static directional stability. If certification for water operation is
(a) The directional controls must op- requested, no spray characteristics
erate in such a manner that the sense during taxiing, takeoff, or landing may
and direction of motion of the rotor- obscure the vision of the pilot or dam-
craft following control displacement age the rotors, propellers, or other
are in the direction of the pedal motion parts of the rotorcraft.
with the throttle and collective con-
trols held constant at the trim condi- § 27.241 Ground resonance.
tions specified in § 27.175(a), (b), and (c). The rotorcraft may have no dan-
Sideslip angles must increase with gerous tendency to oscillate on the
steadily increasing directional control
ground with the rotor turning.

deflection for sideslip angles up to the
lesser of—
646
MISCELLANEOUS FLIGHT REQUIREMENTS part must be shown for each critical
loading condition accounting for the
§ 27.251 Vibration. environment to which the structure
Each part of the rotorcraft must be will be exposed in operation. Struc-
free from excessive vibration under tural analysis (static or fatigue) may
each appropriate speed and power con- be used only if the structure conforms
dition. to those structures for which experi-
ence has shown this method to be reli-
Subpart C—Strength Requirements able. In other cases, substantiating
load tests must be made.
GENERAL (b) Proof of compliance with the
strength requirements of this subpart
§ 27.301 Loads. must include—
(a) Strength requirements are speci- (1) Dynamic and endurance tests of
fied in terms of limit loads (the max- rotors, rotor drives, and rotor controls;
imum loads to be expected in service) (2) Limit load tests of the control
and ultimate loads (limit loads multi- system, including control surfaces;
plied by prescribed factors of safety). (3) Operation tests of the control sys-
Unless otherwise provided, prescribed tem;
loads are limit loads. (4) Flight stress measurement tests;
(b) Unless otherwise provided, the (5) Landing gear drop tests; and
specified air, ground, and water loads (6) Any additional test required for
must be placed in equilibrium with in- new or unusual design features.
ertia forces, considering each item of (Secs. 604, 605, 72 Stat. 778, 49 U.S.C. 1424,
mass in the rotorcraft. These loads 1425)
must be distributed to closely approxi-
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as
mate or conservatively represent ac-
amended by Amdt. 27–3, 33 FR 14105, Sept. 18,
tual conditions. 1968; Amdt. 27–26, 55 FR 7999, Mar. 6, 1990]
(c) If deflections under load would
significantly change the distribution of § 27.309 Design limitations.
external or internal loads, this redis- The following values and limitations
tribution must be taken into account. must be established to show compli-
§ 27.303 Factor of safety. ance with the structural requirements
of this subpart:
Unless otherwise provided, a factor of (a) The design maximum weight.
safety of 1.5 must be used. This factor (b) The main rotor r.p.m. ranges
applies to external and inertia loads power on and power off.
unless its application to the resulting (c) The maximum forward speeds for
internal stresses is more conservative. each main rotor r.p.m. within the
ranges determined under paragraph (b)
§ 27.305 Strength and deformation.
of this section.
(a) The structure must be able to (d) The maximum rearward and side-
support limit loads without detri- ward flight speeds.
mental or permanent deformation. At (e) The center of gravity limits cor-
any load up to limit loads, the defor- responding to the limitations deter-
mation may not interfere with safe op- mined under paragraphs (b), (c), and (d)
eration. of this section.
(b) The structure must be able to (f) The rotational speed ratios be-
support ultimate loads without failure. tween each powerplant and each con-
This must be shown by— nected rotating component.
(1) Applying ultimate loads to the (g) The positive and negative limit
structure in a static test for at least maneuvering load factors.
three seconds; or
(2) Dynamic tests simulating actual FLIGHT LOADS
load application.
§ 27.321 General.
§ 27.307 Proof of structure. (a) The flight load factor must be as-
(a) Compliance with the strength and sumed to act normal to the longitu-
deformation requirements of this sub- dinal axis of the rotorcraft, and to be
647
§ 27.337 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–10 Edition)
equal in magnitude and opposite in di- V= The airspeed along flight path (f.p.s.);
rection to the rotorcraft inertia load a= The angle between the projection, in the
factor at the center of gravity. plane of symmetry, of the axis of no feath-
(b) Compliance with the flight load ering and a line perpendicular to the flight
path (radians, positive when axis is point-
requirements of this subpart must be
ing aft);
shown—
omega= The angular velocity of rotor (radi-
(1) At each weight from the design ans per second); and
minimum weight to the design max- R= The rotor radius (ft).
imum weight; and
(2) With any practical distribution of [Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as
disposable load within the operating amended by Amdt. 27–11, 41 FR 55469, Dec. 20,
1976]
limitations in the Rotorcraft Flight
Manual.
§ 27.341 Gust loads.
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as
The rotorcraft must be designed to
1976] withstand, at each critical airspeed in-
cluding hovering, the loads resulting
§ 27.337 Limit maneuvering load fac- from a vertical gust of 30 feet per sec-
tor. ond.
The rotorcraft must be designed for—
(a) A limit maneuvering load factor § 27.351 Yawing conditions.
ranging from a positive limit of 3.5 to (a) Each rotorcraft must be designed
a negative limit of ¥1.0; or for the loads resulting from the maneu-
(b) Any positive limit maneuvering vers specified in paragraphs (b) and (c)
load factor not less than 2.0 and any of this section with—
negative limit maneuvering load factor (1) Unbalanced aerodynamic mo-
of not less than ¥0.5 for which— ments about the center of gravity
(1) The probability of being exceeded which the aircraft reacts to in a ration-
is shown by analysis and flight tests to al or conservative manner considering
be extremely remote; and the principal masses furnishing the re-
(2) The selected values are appro- acting inertia forces; and
priate to each weight condition be- (2) Maximum main rotor speed.
tween the design maximum and design (b) To produce the load required in
minimum weights. paragraph (a) of this section, in unac-
[Amdt. 27–26, 55 FR 7999, Mar. 6, 1990] celerated flight with zero yaw, at for-
ward speeds from zero up to 0.6 VNE—
§ 27.339 Resultant limit maneuvering (1) Displace the cockpit directional
loads. control suddenly to the maximum de-
The loads resulting from the applica- flection limited by the control stops or
tion of limit maneuvering load factors by the maximum pilot force specified
are assumed to act at the center of in § 27.397(a);
each rotor hub and at each auxiliary (2) Attain a resulting sideslip angle
lifting surface, and to act in directions, or 90°, whichever is less; and
and with distributions of load among (3) Return the directional control
the rotors and auxiliary lifting sur- suddenly to neutral.
faces, so as to represent each critical (c) To produce the load required in
maneuvering condition, including paragraph (a) of this section, in unac-
power-on and power-off flight with the celerated flight with zero yaw, at for-
maximum design rotor tip speed ratio. ward speeds from 0.6 VNE up to VNE or
The rotor tip speed ratio is the ratio of VH, whichever is less—
the rotorcraft flight velocity compo-
(1) Displace the cockpit directional
nent in the plane of the rotor disc to
control suddenly to the maximum de-
the rotational tip speed of the rotor
flection limited by the control stops or
blades, and is expressed as follows:
by the maximum pilot force specified
in § 27.397(a);
V cos a
µ= (2) Attain a resulting sideslip angle
ΩR or 15°, whichever is less, at the lesser

where— speed of VNE or VH;
648
EC28SE91.083</MATH>
(3) Vary the sideslip angles of para- (b) Each primary control system, in-
graphs (b)(2) and (c)(2) of this section cluding its supporting structure, must
directly with speed; and be designed as follows:
(4) Return the directional control (1) The system must withstand loads
suddenly to neutral. resulting from the limit pilot forces
prescribed in § 27.397.
[Amdt. 27–26, 55 FR 7999, Mar. 6, 1990, as
amended by Amdt. 27–34, 62 FR 46173, Aug. 29,
(2) Notwithstanding paragraph (b)(3)
1997] of this section, when power-operated
actuator controls or power boost con-
§ 27.361 Engine torque. trols are used, the system must also
withstand the loads resulting from the
(a) For turbine engines, the limit force output of each normally ener-
torque may not be less than the high- gized power device, including any sin-
est of— gle power boost or actuator system
(1) The mean torque for maximum failure.
continuous power multiplied by 1.25; (3) If the system design or the normal
(2) The torque required by § 27.923; operating loads are such that a part of
(3) The torque required by § 27.927; or the system cannot react to the limit
(4) The torque imposed by sudden en- pilot forces prescribed in § 27.397, that
gine stoppage due to malfunction or part of the system must be designed to
structural failure (such as compressor withstand the maximum loads that can
jamming). be obtained in normal operation. The
(b) For reciprocating engines, the minimum design loads must, in any
limit torque may not be less than the case, provide a rugged system for serv-
mean torque for maximum continuous ice use, including consideration of fa-
power multiplied by— tigue, jamming, ground gusts, control
(1) 1.33, for engines with five or more inertia, and friction loads. In the ab-
cylinders; and sence of rational analysis, the design
(2) Two, three, and four, for engines loads resulting from 0.60 of the speci-
with four, three, and two cylinders, re- fied limit pilot forces are acceptable
spectively. minimum design loads.
(4) If operational loads may be ex-
[Amdt. 27–23, 53 FR 34210, Sept. 2, 1988] ceeded through jamming, ground gusts,
control inertia, or friction, the system
CONTROL SURFACE AND SYSTEM LOADS must withstand the limit pilot forces
specified in § 27.397, without yielding.
§ 27.391 General.
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as
Each auxiliary rotor, each fixed or
amended by Amdt. 27–26, 55 FR 7999, Mar. 6,
movable stabilizing or control surface, 1990]
and each system operating any flight
control must meet the requirements of § 27.397 Limit pilot forces and torques.
§§ 27.395, 27.397, 27.399, 27.411, and 27.427.
(a) Except as provided in paragraph
[Amdt. 27–26, 55 FR 7999, Mar. 6, 1990, as (b) of this section, the limit pilot
amended by Amdt. 27–34, 62 FR 46173, Aug. 29, forces are as follows:
1997] (1) For foot controls, 130 pounds.
(2) For stick controls, 100 pounds fore
§ 27.395 Control system.
and aft, and 67 pounds laterally.
(a) The part of each control system (b) For flap, tab, stabilizer, rotor
from the pilot’s controls to the control brake, and landing gear operating con-
stops must be designed to withstand trols, the follows apply (R=radius in
pilot forces of not less than— inches):
(1) The forces specified in § 27.397; or (1) Crank, wheel, and lever controls,
(2) If the system prevents the pilot [1+R]/3 × 50 pounds, but not less than 50
from applying the limit pilot forces to pounds nor more than 100 pounds for
the system, the maximum forces that hand operated controls or 130 pounds
the system allows the pilot to apply, for foot operated controls, applied at
but not less than 0.60 times the forces any angle within 20 degrees of the
specified in § 27.397. plane of motion of the control.
649
§ 27.399 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–10 Edition)
(2) Twist controls, 80R inch-pounds. loads are obtained on each surface. In
[Amdt. 27–11, 41 FR 55469, Dec. 20, 1976, as the absence of more rational data, the
amended by Amdt. 27–40, 66 FR 23538, May 9, unsymmetrical horizontal tail surface
2001] loading distributions described in this
section must be assumed.
§ 27.399 Dual control system.
[Admt. 27–26, 55 FR 7999, Mar. 6, 1990, as
Each dual primary flight control sys- amended by Amdt. 27–27, 55 FR 38966, Sept.
tem must be designed to withstand the 21, 1990]
loads that result when pilot forces of
0.75 times those obtained under § 27.395 GROUND LOADS
are applied—
(a) In opposition; and § 27.471 General.
(b) In the same direction.
(a) Loads and equilibrium. For limit
§ 27.411 Ground clearance: tail rotor ground loads—
guard. (1) The limit ground loads obtained
(a) It must be impossible for the tail in the landing conditions in this part
rotor to contact the landing surface must be considered to be external loads
during a normal landing. that would occur in the rotorcraft
(b) If a tail rotor guard is required to structure if it were acting as a rigid
show compliance with paragraph (a) of body; and
this section— (2) In each specified landing condi-
(1) Suitable design loads must be es- tion, the external loads must be placed
tablished for the guard; and in equilibrium with linear and angular
(2) The guard and its supporting inertia loads in a rational or conserv-
structure must be designed to with- ative manner.
stand those loads. (b) Critical centers of gravity. The crit-
ical centers of gravity within the range
§ 27.427 Unsymmetrical loads.
for which certification is requested
(a) Horizontal tail surfaces and their must be selected so that the maximum
supporting structure must be designed design loads are obtained in each land-
for unsymmetrical loads arising from ing gear element.
yawing and rotor wake effects in com-
bination with the prescribed flight con- § 27.473 Ground loading conditions
ditions. and assumptions.
(b) To meet the design criteria of
paragraph (a) of this section, in the ab- (a) For specified landing conditions,
sence of more rational data, both of the a design maximum weight must be
following must be met: used that is not less than the max-
(1) One hundred percent of the maximum weight. A rotor lift may be as-
imum loading from the symmetrical sumed to act through the center of
flight conditions acts on the surface on gravity throughout the landing impact.
one side of the plane of symmetry, and This lift may not exceed two-thirds of
no loading acts on the other side. the design maximum weight.
(2) Fifty percent of the maximum (b) Unless otherwise prescribed, for
loading from the symmetrical flight each specified landing condition, the
conditions acts on the surface on each rotorcraft must be designed for a limit
side of the plane of symmetry but in load factor of not less than the limit
opposite directions. inertia load factor substantiated under
(c) For empennage arrangements § 27.725.
where the horizontal tail surfaces are
supported by the vertical tail surfaces, [Amdt. 27–2, 33 FR 963, Jan. 26, 1968]
the vertical tail surfaces and sup-
§ 27.475 Tires and shock absorbers.
porting structure must be designed for
the combined vertical and horizontal Unless otherwise prescribed, for each
surface loads resulting from each pre- specified landing condition, the tires
scribed flight condition, considered must be assumed to be in their static
separately. The flight conditions must position and the shock absorbers to be
be selected so the maximum design in their most critical position.
650
§ 27.477 Landing gear arrangement. ground on one aft wheel. In this atti-
tude—
Sections 27.235, 27.479 through 27.485,
(a) The vertical load must be the
and 27.493 apply to landing gear with
same as that obtained on that side
two wheels aft, and one or more wheels
under § 27.479(b)(1); and
forward, of the center of gravity.
(b) The unbalanced external loads
§ 27.479 Level landing conditions. must be reacted by rotorcraft inertia.
(a) Attitudes. Under each of the load- § 27.485 Lateral drift landing condi-
ing conditions prescribed in paragraph tions.
(b) of this section, the rotorcraft is as- (a) The rotorcraft is assumed to be in
sumed to be in each of the following the level landing attitude, with—
level landing attitudes: (1) Side loads combined with one-half
(1) An attitude in which all wheels of the maximum ground reactions ob-
contact the ground simultaneously. tained in the level landing conditions
(2) An attitude in which the aft of § 27.479 (b)(1); and
wheels contact the ground with the for- (2) The loads obtained under para-
ward wheels just clear of the ground. graph (a)(1) of this section applied—
(b) Loading conditions. The rotorcraft (i) At the ground contact point; or
must be designed for the following (ii) For full-swiveling gear, at the
landing loading conditions: center of the axle.
(1) Vertical loads applied under (b) The rotorcraft must be designed
§ 27.471. to withstand, at ground contact—
(2) The loads resulting from a com- (1) When only the aft wheels contact
bination of the loads applied under the ground, side loads of 0.8 times the
paragraph (b)(1) of this section with vertical reaction acting inward on one
drag loads at each wheel of not less side, and 0.6 times the vertical reaction
than 25 percent of the vertical load at acting outward on the other side, all
that wheel. combined with the vertical loads speci-
(3) If there are two wheels forward, a fied in paragraph (a) of this section;
distribution of the loads applied to and
those wheels under paragraphs (b)(1) (2) When all wheels contact the
and (2) of this section in a ratio of ground simultaneously—
40:60. (i) For the aft wheels, the side loads
(c) Pitching moments. Pitching mo- specified in paragraph (b)(1) of this sec-
ments are assumed to be resisted by— tion; and
(1) In the case of the attitude in para- (ii) For the forward wheels, a side
graph (a)(1) of this section, the forward load of 0.8 times the vertical reaction
landing gear; and combined with the vertical load speci-
(2) In the case of the attitude in para- fied in paragraph (a) of this section.
graph (a)(2) of this section, the angular
§ 27.493 Braked roll conditions.
inertia forces.
Under braked roll conditions with
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964; 29 the shock absorbers in their static po-
FR 17885, Dec. 17, 1964]
sitions—
§ 27.481 Tail-down landing conditions. (a) The limit vertical load must be
based on a load factor of at least—
(a) The rotorcraft is assumed to be in (1) 1.33, for the attitude specified in
the maximum nose-up attitude allow- § 27.479(a)(1); and
ing ground clearance by each part of (2) 1.0 for the attitude specified in
the rotorcraft. § 27.479(a)(2); and
(b) In this attitude, ground loads are (b) The structure must be designed to
assumed to act perpendicular to the withstand at the ground contact point
ground. of each wheel with brakes, a drag load
at least the lesser of—
§ 27.483 One-wheel landing conditions. (1) The vertical load multiplied by a
For the one-wheel landing condition, coefficient of friction of 0.8; and
the rotorcraft is assumed to be in the (2) The maximum value based on lim-
level attitude and to contact the iting brake torque.
651
§ 27.497 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–10 Edition)
§ 27.497 Ground loading conditions: (i) For the forward wheels, 0.8 times
landing gear with tail wheels. the vertical reaction (on one side) act-
(a) General. Rotorcraft with landing ing inward, and 0.6 times the vertical
gear with two wheels forward, and one reaction (on the other side) acting out-
wheel aft, of the center of gravity must ward; and
be designed for loading conditions as (ii) For the rear wheel, 0.8 times the
prescribed in this section. vertical reaction.
(b) Level landing attitude with only the (2) The loads specified in paragraph
forward wheels contacting the ground. In (f)(1) of this section must be applied—
this attitude— (i) At the ground contact point with
(1) The vertical loads must be applied the wheel in the trailing position (for
under §§ 27.471 through 27.475; non-full swiveling landing gear or for
(2) The vertical load at each axle full swiveling landing gear with a lock,
must be combined with a drag load at steering device, or shimmy damper to
that axle of not less than 25 percent of keep the wheel in the trailing posi-
that vertical load; and tion); or
(3) Unbalanced pitching moments are (ii) At the center of the axle (for full
assumed to be resisted by angular iner- swiveling landing gear without a lock,
tia forces. steering device, or shimmy damper).
(c) Level landing attitude with all (g) Braked roll conditions in the level
wheels contacting the ground simulta- landing attitude. In the attitudes speci-
neously. In this attitude, the rotorcraft fied in paragraphs (b) and (c) of this
must be designed for landing loading section, and with the shock absorbers
conditions as prescribed in paragraph in their static positions, the rotorcraft
(b) of this section. must be designed for braked roll loads
(d) Maximum nose-up attitude with as follows:
only the rear wheel contacting the (1) The limit vertical load must be
ground. The attitude for this condition based on a limit vertical load factor of
must be the maximum nose-up attitude not less than—
expected in normal operation, includ- (i) 1.0, for the attitude specified in
ing autorotative landings. In this atti- paragraph (b) of this section; and
tude—
(ii) 1.33, for the attitude specified in
(1) The appropriate ground loads paragraph (c) of this section.
specified in paragraphs (b)(1) and (2) of
(2) For each wheel with brakes, a
this section must be determined and
drag load must be applied, at the
applied, using a rational method to ac-
ground contact point, of not less than
count for the moment arm between the
the lesser of—
rear wheel ground reaction and the
rotorcraft center of gravity; or (i) 0.8 times the vertical load; and
(2) The probability of landing with (ii) The maximum based on limiting
initial contact on the rear wheel must brake torque.
be shown to be extremely remote. (h) Rear wheel turning loads in the
(e) Level landing attitude with only one static ground attitude. In the static
forward wheel contacting the ground. In ground attitude, and with the shock
this attitude, the rotorcraft must be absorbers and tires in their static posi-
designed for ground loads as specified tions, the rotorcraft must be designed
in paragraphs (b)(1) and (3) of this sec- for rear wheel turning loads as follows:
tion. (1) A vertical ground reaction equal
(f) Side loads in the level landing atti- to the static load on the rear wheel
tude. In the attitudes specified in para- must be combined with an equal
graphs (b) and (c) of this section, the sideload.
following apply: (2) The load specified in paragraph
(1) The side loads must be combined (h)(1) of this section must be applied to
at each wheel with one-half of the max- the rear landing gear—
imum vertical ground reactions ob- (i) Through the axle, if there is a
tained for that wheel under paragraphs swivel (the rear wheel being assumed
(b) and (c) of this section. In this condi- to be swiveled 90 degrees to the longi-
tion, the side loads must be— tudinal axis of the rotorcraft); or
652
(ii) At the ground contact point, if (2) The resultant ground loads must
there is a lock, steering device or shim- equal the vertical load specified in
my damper (the rear wheel being as- paragraph (b) of this section.
sumed to be in the trailing position). (d) Sideloads in the level landing atti-
(i) Taxiing condition. The rotorcraft tude. In the level attitude,and with the
and its landing gear must be designed rotorcraft contacting the ground along
for loads that would occur when the the bottom of both skids, the following
rotorcraft is taxied over the roughest apply:
ground that may reasonably be ex- (1) The vertical ground reaction must
pected in normal operation. be—
(i) Equal to the vertical loads ob-
§ 27.501 Ground loading conditions: tained in the condition specified in
landing gear with skids. paragraph (b) of this section; and
(a) General. Rotorcraft with landing (ii) Divided equally among the skids.
gear with skids must be designed for (2) The vertical ground reactions
the loading conditions specified in this must be combined with a horizontal
section. In showing compliance with sideload of 25 percent of their value.
this section, the following apply: (3) The total sideload must be applied
(1) The design maximum weight, cen- equally between the skids and along
ter of gravity, and load factor must be the length of the skids.
determined under §§ 27.471 through (4) The unbalanced moments are as-
27.475. sumed to be resisted by angular iner-
(2) Structural yielding of elastic tia.
spring members under limit loads is ac- (5) The skid gear must be inves-
ceptable. tigated for—
(3) Design ultimate loads for elastic (i) Inward acting sideloads; and
spring members need not exceed those (ii) Outward acting sideloads.
obtained in a drop test of the gear (e) One-skid landing loads in the level
with— attitude. In the level attitude, and with
(i) A drop height of 1.5 times that the rotorcraft contacting the ground
specified in § 27.725; and along the bottom of one skid only, the
(ii) An assumed rotor lift of not more following apply:
than 1.5 times that used in the limit (1) The vertical load on the ground
drop tests prescribed in § 27.725. contact side must be the same as that
(4) Compliance with paragraphs (b) obtained on that side in the condition
through (e) of this section must be specified in paragraph (b) of this sec-
shown with— tion.
(i) The gear in its most critically de- (2) The unbalanced moments are as-
flected position for the landing condi- sumed to be resisted by angular iner-
tion being considered; and tia.
(ii) The ground reactions rationally (f) Special conditions. In addition to
distributed along the bottom of the the conditions specified in paragraphs
skid tube. (b) and (c) of this section, the rotor-
(b) Vertical reactions in the level land- craft must be designed for the fol-
ing attitude. In the level attitude, and lowing ground reactions:
with the rotorcraft contacting the (1) A ground reaction load acting up
ground along the bottom of both skids, and aft at an angle of 45 degrees to the
the vertical reactions must be applied longitudinal axis of the rotorcraft.
as prescribed in paragraph (a) of this This load must be—
section. (i) Equal to 1.33 times the maximum
(c) Drag reactions in the level landing weight;
attitude. In the level attitude, and with (ii) Distributed symmetrically among
the rotorcraft contacting the ground the skids;
along the bottom of both skids, the fol- (iii) Concentrated at the forward end
lowing apply: of the straight part of the skid tube;
(1) The vertical reactions must be and
combined with horizontal drag reac- (iv) Applied only to the forward end
tions of 50 percent of the vertical reac- of the skid tube and its attachment to
tion applied at the ground. the rotorcraft.
653
§ 27.505 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–10 Edition)
(2) With the rotorcraft in the level vertically through the center of grav-
landing attitude, a vertical ground re- ity; and
action load equal to one-half of the (2) The vertical load prescribed in
vertical load determined under para- paragraph (a)(1) of this section is ap-
graph (b) of this section. This load plied simultaneously with an aft com-
must be— ponent of 0.25 times the vertical com-
(i) Applied only to the skid tube and ponent.
its attachment to the rotorcraft; and (b) A side-load condition in which—
(ii) Distributed equally over 33.3 per- (1) A vertical load of 0.75 times the
cent of the length between the skid total vertical load specified in para-
tube attachments and centrally located graph (a)(1) of this section is divided
midway between the skid tube attach- equally among the floats; and
ments. (2) For each float, the load share de-
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as termined under paragraph (b)(1) of this
amended by Amdt. 27–2, 33 FR 963, Jan. 26, section, combined with a total side
1968; Amdt. 27–26, 55 FR 8000, Mar. 6, 1990] load of 0.25 times the total vertical
load specified in paragraph (b)(1) of
§ 27.505 Ski landing conditions. this section, is applied to that float
If certification for ski operation is only.
requested, the rotorcraft, with skis,
MAIN COMPONENT REQUIREMENTS
must be designed to withstand the fol-
lowing loading conditions (where P is § 27.547 Main rotor structure.
the maximum static weight on each ski
with the rotorcraft at design maximum (a) Each main rotor assembly (in-
weight, and n is the limit load factor cluding rotor hubs and blades) must be
determined under § 27.473(b). designed as prescribed in this section.
(a) Up-load conditions in which— (b) [Reserved]
(1) A vertical load of Pn and a hori- (c) The main rotor structure must be
zontal load of Pn/4 are simultaneously designed to withstand the following
applied at the pedestal bearings; and loads prescribed in §§ 27.337 through
(2) A vertical load of 1.33 P is applied 27.341:
at the pedestal bearings. (1) Critical flight loads.
(b) A side-load condition in which a (2) Limit loads occurring under nor-
side load of 0.35 Pn is applied at the mal conditions of autorotation. For
pedestal bearings in a horizontal plane this condition, the rotor r.p.m. must be
perpendicular to the centerline of the selected to include the effects of alti-
rotorcraft. tude.
(c) A torque-load condition in which (d) The main rotor structure must be
a torque load of 1.33 P (in foot pounds) designed to withstand loads simu-
is applied to the ski about the vertical lating—
axis through the centerline of the ped- (1) For the rotor blades, hubs, and
estal bearings. flapping hinges, the impact force of
each blade against its stop during
WATER LOADS ground operation; and
(2) Any other critical condition ex-
§ 27.521 Float landing conditions. pected in normal operation.
If certification for float operation is (e) The main rotor structure must be
requested, the rotorcraft, with floats, designed to withstand the limit torque
must be designed to withstand the fol- at any rotational speed, including zero.
lowing loading conditions (where the In addition:
limit load factor is determined under (1) The limit torque need not be
§ 27.473(b) or assumed to be equal to greater than the torque defined by a
that determined for wheel landing torque limiting device (where pro-
gear): vided), and may not be less than the
(a) Up-load conditions in which— greater of—
(1) A load is applied so that, with the (i) The maximum torque likely to be
rotorcraft in the static level attitude, transmitted to the rotor structure in

the resultant water reaction passes either direction; and
654
(ii) The limit engine torque specified (2) The wheels are retracted (where
in § 27.361. applicable); and
(2) The limit torque must be distrib- (3) Each occupant and each item of
uted to the rotor blades in a rational mass inside the cabin that could injure
manner. an occupant is restrained when sub-
(Secs. 604, 605, 72 Stat. 778, 49 U.S.C. 1424, jected to the following ultimate iner-
1425) tial load factors relative to the sur-
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as
rounding structure:
amended by Amdt. 27–3, 33 FR 14105, Sept. 18, (i) Upward—4g.
1968] (ii) Forward—16g.
(iii) Sideward—8g.
§ 27.549 Fuselage, landing gear, and (iv) Downward—20g, after intended
rotor pylon structures.
displacement of the seat device.
(a) Each fuselage, landing gear, and (v) Rearward—1.5g.
rotor pylon structure must be designed (c) The supporting structure must be
as prescribed in this section. Resultant designed to restrain, under any ulti-
rotor forces may be represented as a mate inertial load up to those specified
single force applied at the rotor hub at- in this paragraph, any item of mass
tachment point.
above and/or behind the crew and pas-
(b) Each structure must be designed
senger compartment that could injure
to withstand—
an occupant if it came loose in an
(1) The critical loads prescribed in
emergency landing. Items of mass to be
§§ 27.337 through 27.341;
considered include, but are not limited
(2) The applicable ground loads pre-
to, rotors, transmissions, and engines.
scribed in §§ 27.235, 27.471 through 27.485,
27.493, 27.497, 27.501, 27.505, and 27.521; The items of mass must be restrained
and for the following ultimate inertial load
(3) The loads prescribed in § 27.547 factors:
(d)(2) and (e). (1) Upward—1.5g.
(c) Auxiliary rotor thrust, and the (2) Forward—12g.
balancing air and inertia loads occur- (3) Sideward—6g.
ring under accelerated flight condi- (4) Downward—12g.
tions, must be considered. (5) Rearward—1.5g
(d) Each engine mount and adjacent (d) Any fuselage structure in the area
fuselage structure must be designed to of internal fuel tanks below the pas-
withstand the loads occurring under senger floor level must be designed to
accelerated flight and landing condi- resist the following ultimate inertial
tions, including engine torque. factors and loads and to protect the
(Secs. 604, 605, 72 Stat. 778, 49 U.S.C. 1424, fuel tanks from rupture when those
1425) loads are applied to that area:
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as (i) Upward—1.5g.
amended by Amdt. 27–3, 33 FR 14105, Sept. 18, (ii) Forward—4.0g.
1968] (iii) Sideward—2.0g.
(iv) Downward—4.0g.
EMERGENCY LANDING CONDITIONS
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as
§ 27.561 General. amended by Amdt. 27–25, 54 FR 47318, Nov. 13,
(a) The rotorcraft, although it may 1989; Amdt. 27–30, 59 FR 50386, Oct. 3, 1994;
be damaged in emergency landing con- Amdt. 27–32, 61 FR 10438, Mar. 13, 1996]
ditions on land or water, must be de-
§ 27.562 Emergency landing dynamic
signed as prescribed in this section to conditions.
protect the occupants under those con-
ditions. (a) The rotorcraft, although it may
(b) The structure must be designed to be damaged in an emergency crash
give each occupant every reasonable landing, must be designed to reason-
chance of escaping serious injury in a ably protect each occupant when—
crash landing when— (1) The occupant properly uses the
(1) Proper use is made of seats, belts, seats, safety belts, and shoulder har-
and other safety design provisions; nesses provided in the design; and
655
§ 27.563 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–10 Edition)
(2) The occupant is exposed to the 10° lateral roll, with the directions op-
loads resulting from the conditions tional, to account for possible floor
prescribed in this section. warp.
(b) Each seat type design or other (c) Compliance with the following
seating device approved for crew or must be shown:
passenger occupancy during takeoff (1) The seating device system must
and landing must successfully com- remain intact although it may experi-
plete dynamic tests or be demonstrated ence separation intended as part of its
by rational analysis based on dynamic design.
tests of a similar type seat in accord- (2) The attachment between the seat-
ance with the following criteria. The ing device and the airframe structure
tests must be conducted with an occu- must remain intact, although the
pant, simulated by a 170-pound structure may have exceeded its limit
anthropomorphic test dummy (ATD), load.
as defined by 49 CFR 572, subpart B, or (3) The ATD’s shoulder harness strap
its equivalent, sitting in the normal or straps must remain on or in the im-
upright position. mediate vicinity of the ATD’s shoulder
(1) A change in downward velocity of during the impact.
not less than 30 feet per second when (4) The safety belt must remain on
the seat or other seating device is ori- the ATD’s pelvis during the impact.
ented in its nominal position with re- (5) The ATD’s head either does not
spect to the rotorcraft’s reference sys- contact any portion of the crew or pas-
tem, the rotorcraft’s longitudinal axis senger compartment, or if contact is
is canted upward 60° with respect to made, the head impact does not exceed
the impact velocity vector, and the a head injury criteria (HIC) of 1,000 as
rotorcraft’s lateral axis is perpen- determined by this equation.
dicular to a vertical plane containing
the impact velocity vector and the 2.5
rotorcraft’s longitudinal axis. Peak  1 
HIC = ( t 2 − t 1 )
t2
floor deceleration must occur in not 
 ( t 2 − t 1 )
∫t 1
a(t)dt 

more than 0.031 seconds after impact
and must reach a minimum of 30g’s. Where: a(t) is the resultant acceleration at
(2) A change in forward velocity of the center of gravity of the head form ex-
not less than 42 feet per second when pressed as a multiple of g (the acceleration
the seat or other seating device is ori- of gravity) and t2 ¥ t1 is the time duration,
ented in its nominal position with re- in seconds, of major head impact, not to
spect to the rotorcraft’s reference sys- exceed 0.05 seconds.
tem, the rotorcraft’s longitudinal axis (6) Loads in individual upper torso
is yawed 10° either right or left of the harness straps must not exceed 1,750
impact velocity vector (whichever pounds. If dual straps are used for re-
would cause the greatest load on the taining the upper torso, the total har-
shoulder harness), the rotorcraft’s lat- ness strap loads must not exceed 2,000
eral axis is contained in a horizontal pounds.
plane containing the impact velocity (7) The maximum compressive load
vector, and the rotorcraft’s vertical measured between the pelvis and the
axis is perpendicular to a horizontal lumbar column of the ATD must not
plane containing the impact velocity exceed 1,500 pounds.
vector. Peak floor deceleration must (d) An alternate approach that
occur in not more than 0.071 seconds achieves an equivalent or greater level
after impact and must reach a min- of occupant protection, as required by
imum of 18.4g’s. this section, must be substantiated on
(3) Where floor rails or floor or side- a rational basis.
wall attachment devices are used to at-
tach the seating devices to the air- [Amdt. 27–25, 54 FR 47318, Nov. 13, 1989]
frame structure for the conditions of
this section, the rails or devices must § 27.563 Structural ditching provi-
be misaligned with respect to each sions.
other by at least 10° vertically (i.e., If certification with ditching provi-

pitch out of parallel) and by at least a sions is requested, structural strength
656
EC28SE91.084</MATH>
for ditching must meet the require- tion, each float must be designed for
ments of this section and § 27.801(e). combined vertical and drag loads using
(a) Forward speed landing conditions. a relative limit speed of 20 knots be-
The rotorcraft must initially contact tween the rotorcraft and the water.
the most critical wave for reasonably The vertical load may not be less than
probable water conditions at forward the highest likely buoyancy load deter-
velocities from zero up to 30 knots in mined under paragraph (b)(1) of this
likely pitch, roll, and yaw attitudes. section.
The rotorcraft limit vertical descent [Amdt. 27–26, 55 FR 8000, Mar. 6, 1990]
velocity may not be less than 5 feet per
second relative to the mean water sur- FATIGUE EVALUATION
face. Rotor lift may be used to act
through the center of gravity through- § 27.571 Fatigue evaluation of flight
out the landing impact. This lift may structure.
not exceed two-thirds of the design (a) General. Each portion of the flight
maximum weight. A maximum forward structure (the flight structure includes
velocity of less than 30 knots may be rotors, rotor drive systems between the
used in design if it can be dem- engines and the rotor hubs, controls,
onstrated that the forward velocity se- fuselage, landing gear, and their re-
lected would not be exceeded in a nor- lated primary attachments), the failure
mal one-engine-out touchdown. of which could be catastrophic, must be
(b) Auxiliary or emergency float condi- identified and must be evaluated under
tions—(1) Floats fixed or deployed before paragraph (b), (c), (d), or (e) of this sec-
initial water contact. In addition to the tion. The following apply to each fa-
landing loads in paragraph (a) of this tigue evaluation:
section, each auxiliary or emergency (1) The procedure for the evaluation
float, of its support and attaching must be approved.
structure in the airframe or fuselage, (2) The locations of probable failure
must be designed for the load devel- must be determined.
oped by a fully immersed float unless it (3) Inflight measurement must be in-
can be shown that full immersion is cluded in determining the following:
unlikely. If full immersion is unlikely, (i) Loads or stresses in all critical
the highest likely float buoyancy load conditions throughout the range of
must be applied. The highest likely limitations in § 27.309, except that ma-
buoyancy load must include consider- neuvering load factors need not exceed
ation of a partially immersed float cre- the maximum values expected in oper-
ating restoring moments to com- ation.
pensate the upsetting moments caused (ii) The effect of altitude upon these
by side wind, unsymmetrical rotorcraft loads or stresses.
loading, water wave action, rotorcraft (4) The loading spectra must be as se-
inertia, and probable structural dam- vere as those expected in operation in-
age and leakage considered under cluding, but not limited to, external
§ 27.801(d). Maximum roll and pitch an- cargo operations, if applicable, and
gles determined from compliance with ground-air-ground cycles. The loading
§ 27.801(d) may be used, if significant, to spectra must be based on loads or
determine the extent of immersion of stresses determined under paragraph
each float. If the floats are deployed in (a)(3) of this section.
flight, appropriate air loads derived (b) Fatigue tolerance evaluation. It
from the flight limitations with the must be shown that the fatigue toler-
floats deployed shall be used in sub- ance of the structure ensures that the
stantiation of the floats and their at- probability of catastrophic fatigue fail-
tachment to the rotorcraft. For this ure is extremely remote without estab-
purpose, the design airspeed for limit lishing replacement times, inspection
load is the float deployed airspeed op- intervals or other procedures under
erating limit multiplied by 1.11. section A27.4 of appendix A.
(2) Floats deployed after initial water (c) Replacement time evaluation. it
contact. Each float must be designed for must be shown that the probability of
full or partial immersion perscribed in catastrophic fatigue failure is ex-

paragraph (b)(1) of this section. In addi- tremely remote within a replacement
657
§ 27.601 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–10 Edition)
time furnished under section A27.4 of § 27.602 Critical parts.
appendix A.
(a) Critical part. A critical part is a
(d) Fail-safe evaluation. The following
apply to fail-safe evaluation: part, the failure of which could have a
(1) It must be shown that all partial catastrophic effect upon the rotocraft,
failures will become readily detectable and for which critical characteristics
under inspection procedures furnished have been identified which must be
under section A27.4 of appendix A. controlled to ensure the required level
(2) The interval between the time of integrity.
when any partial failure becomes read- (b) If the type design includes crtical
ily detectable under paragraph (d)(1) of parts, a critical parts list shall be es-
this section, and the time when any tablished. Procedures shall be estab-
such failure is expected to reduce the lished to define the critical design
remaining strength of the structure to characteristics, identify processes that
limit or maximum attainable loads affect those characteristics, and iden-
(whichever is less), must be deter- tify the design change and process
mined. change controls necessary for showing
(3) It must be shown that the interval compliance with the quality assurance
determined under paragraph (d)(2) of requirements of part 21 of this chapter.
this section is long enough, in relation
to the inspection intervals and related [Doc. No. 29311, 64 FR 46232, Aug. 24, 1999]
procedures furnished under section
A27.4 of appendix A, to provide a prob- § 27.603 Materials.
ability of detection great enough to en- The suitability and durability of ma-
sure that the probability of cata- terials used for parts, the failure of
strophic failure is extremely remote. which could adversely affect safety,
(e) Combination of replacement time must—
and failsafe evaluations. A component (a) Be established on the basis of ex-
may be evaluated under a combination
perience or tests;
of paragraphs (c) and (d) of this sec-
(b) Meet approved specifications that
tion. For such component it must be
shown that the probability of cata- ensure their having the strength and
strophic failure is extremely remote other properties assumed in the design
with an approved combination of re- data; and
placement time, inspection intervals, (c) Take into account the effects of
and related procedures furnished under environmental conditions, such as tem-
section A27.4 of appendix A. perature and humidity, expected in
service.
(Secs. 313(a), 601, 603, 604, and 605, 72 Stat. 752,
775, and 778, (49 U.S.C. 1354(a), 1421, 1423, 1424, (Secs. 313(a), 601, 603, 604, Federal Aviation
and 1425; sec. 6(c), 49 U.S.C. 1655(c))) Act of 1958 (49 U.S.C. 1354(a), 1421, 1423, 1424);
[Amdt. 27–3, 33 FR 14106, Sept. 18, 1968, as and sec. 6(c) of the Dept. of Transportation
amended by Amdt. 27–12, 42 FR 15044, Mar. 17, Act (49 U.S.C. 1655(c)))
1977; Amdt. 27–18, 45 FR 60177, Sept. 11 1980; [Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as
Amdt. 27–26, 55 FR 8000, Mar. 6, 1990]
1976; Amdt. 27–16, 43 FR 50599, Oct. 30, 1978]
Subpart D—Design and
Construction § 27.605 Fabrication methods.
(a) The methods of fabrication used
GENERAL
must produce consistently sound struc-
§ 27.601 Design. tures. If a fabrication process (such as
(a) The rotorcraft may have no de- gluing, spot welding, or heat-treating)
sign features or details that experience requires close control to reach this ob-
has shown to be hazardous or unreli- jective, the process must be performed
able. according to an approved process speci-
(b) The suitability of each question- fication.
able design detail and part must be es-

tablished by tests.
658
(b) Each new aircraft fabrication (1) Designing the components to min-
method must be substantiated by a imize the effect of a strike; or
test program. (2) Incorporating acceptable means of
diverting the resulting electrical cur-
(Secs. 313(a), 601, 603, 604, and 605 of the Fed-
eral Aviation Act of 1958 (49 U.S.C. 1354(a), rent so as not to endanger the rotor-
1421, 1423, 1424 and 1425); sec. 6(c) of the Dept. craft.
of Transportation Act (49 U.S.C. 1655(c))) (d) The electrical bonding and protec-
tion against lightning and static elec-
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 27–16, 43 FR 50599, Oct. 30, tricity must—
1978] (1) Minimize the accumulation of
electrostatic charge;
§ 27.607 Fasteners. (2) Minimize the risk of electric
(a) Each removable bolt, screw, nut, shock to crew, passengers, and service
pin, or other fastener whose loss could and maintenance personnel using nor-
jeopardize the safe operation of the mal precautions;
rotorcraft must incorporate two sepa- (3) Provide an electrical return path,
rate locking devices. The fastener and under both normal and fault condi-
its locking devices may not be ad- tions, on rotorcraft having grounded
versely affected by the environmental electrical systems; and
conditions associated with the par- (4) Reduce to an acceptable level the
ticular installation. effects of lightning and static elec-
(b) No self-locking nut may be used tricity on the functioning of essential
on any bolt subject to rotation in oper- electrical and electronic equipment.
ation unless a nonfriction locking de- [Amdt. 27–21, 49 FR 44433, Nov. 6, 1984, as
vice is used in addition to the self-lock- amended by Amdt. 27–37, 64 FR 45094, Aug. 18,
ing device. 1999]
[Amdt. 27–4, 33 FR 14533, Sept. 27, 1968] § 27.611 Inspection provisions.

§ 27.609 Protection of structure. There must be means to allow the
close examination of each part that re-
Each part of the structure must— quires—
(a) Be suitably protected against de- (a) Recurring inspection;
terioration or loss of strength in serv- (b) Adjustment for proper alignment
ice due to any cause, including— and functioning; or
(1) Weathering; (c) Lubrication.
(2) Corrosion; and
(3) Abrasion; and § 27.613 Material strength properties
(b) Have provisions for ventilation and design values.
and drainage where necessary to pre- (a) Material strength properties must
vent the accumulation of corrosive, be based on enough tests of material
flammable, or noxious fluids. meeting specifications to establish de-
sign values on a statistical basis.
§ 27.610 Lightning and static elec-
tricity protection. (b) Design values must be chosen to
minimize the probability of structural
(a) The rotorcraft must be protected failure due to material variability. Ex-
against catastrophic effects from light- cept as provided in paragraphs (d) and
ning. (e) of this section, compliance with
(b) For metallic components, compli- this paragraph must be shown by se-
ance with paragraph (a) of this section lecting design values that assure mate-
may be shown by— rial strength with the following prob-
(1) Electrically bonding the compo- ability—
nents properly to the airframe; or (1) Where applied loads are eventu-
(2) Designing the components so that ally distributed through a single mem-
a strike will not endanger the rotor- ber within an assembly, the failure of
craft. which would result in loss of structural
(c) For nonmetallic components, integrity of the component, 99 percent
compliance with paragraph (a) of this probability with 95 percent confidence;

section may be shown by— and
659
§ 27.619 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–10 Edition)
(2) For redundant structure, those in ty prescribed in § 27.303 must be multi-
which the failure of individual ele- plied by a special factor equal to—
ments would result in applied loads (1) The applicable special factors pre-
being safely distributed to other load- scribed in §§ 27.621 through 27.625; or
carrying members, 90 percent prob- (2) Any other factor great enough to
ability with 95 percent confidence. ensure that the probability of the part
(c) The strength, detail design, and being understrength because of the un-
fabrication of the structure must mini- certainties specified in paragraph (a) of
mize the probability of disastrous fa- this section is extremely remote.
tigue failure, particularly at points of
stress concentration. § 27.621 Casting factors.
(d) Design values may be those con- (a) General. The factors, tests, and in-
tained in the following publications spections specified in paragraphs (b)
(available from the Naval Publications and (c) of this section must be applied
and Forms Center, 5801 Tabor Avenue, in addition to those necessary to estab-
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19120) or lish foundry quality control. The in-
other values approved by the Adminis- spections must meet approved speci-
trator: fications. Paragraphs (c) and (d) of this
(1) MIL-HDBK-5, ‘‘Metallic Materials section apply to structural castings ex-
and Elements for Flight Vehicle Struc- cept castings that are pressure tested
ture’’. as parts of hydraulic or other fluid sys-
(2) MIL-HDBK-17, ‘‘Plastics for tems and do not support structural
Flight Vehicles’’. loads.
(3) ANC-18, ‘‘Design of Wood Aircraft (b) Bearing stresses and surfaces. The
Structures’’. casting factors specified in paragraphs
(4) MIL-HDBK-23, ‘‘Composite Con- (c) and (d) of this section—
struction for Flight Vehicles’’. (1) Need not exceed 1.25 with respect
(e) Other design values may be used if to bearing stresses regardless of the
a selection of the material is made in method of inspection used; and
which a specimen of each individual (2) Need not be used with respect to
item is tested before use and it is de- the bearing surfaces of a part whose
termined that the actual strength bearing factor is larger than the appli-
properties of that particular item will cable casting factor.
equal or exceed those used in design. (c) Critical castings. For each casting
(Secs. 313(a), 601, 603, 604, Federal Aviation whose failure would preclude continued
Act of 1958 (49 U.S.C. 1354(a), 1421, 1423, 1424), safe flight and landing of the rotorcraft
sec. 6(c), Dept. of Transportation Act (49 or result in serious injury to any occu-
U.S.C. 1655(c))) pant, the following apply:
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as (1) Each critical casting must—
amended by Amdt. 27–16, 43 FR 50599, Oct. 30, (i) Have a casting factor of not less
1978; Amdt. 27–26, 55 FR 8000, Mar. 6, 1990] than 1.25; and
(ii) Receive 100 percent inspection by
§ 27.619 Special factors. visual, radiographic, and magnetic par-
(a) The special factors prescribed in ticle (for ferromagnetic materials) or
§§ 27.621 through 27.625 apply to each penetrant (for nonferromagnetic mate-
part of the structure whose strength rials) inspection methods or approved
is— equivalent inspection methods.
(1) Uncertain; (2) For each critical casting with a
(2) Likely to deteriorate in service casting factor less than 1.50, three sam-
before normal replacement; or ple castings must be static tested and
(3) Subject to appreciable variability shown to meet—
due to— (i) The strength requirements of
(i) Uncertainties in manufacturing § 27.305 at an ultimate load cor-
processes; or responding to a casting factor of 1.25;
(ii) Uncertainties in inspection meth- and
ods. (ii) The deformation requirements of
(b) For each part to which §§ 27.621 § 27.305 at a load of 1.15 times the limit
through 27.625 apply, the factor of safe- load.
660
(d) Noncritical castings. For each cast- § 27.625 Fitting factors.
ing other than those specified in para-
For each fitting (part or terminal
graph (c) of this section, the following used to join one structural member to
apply: another) the following apply:
(1) Except as provided in paragraphs (a) For each fitting whose strength is
(d)(2) and (3) of this section, the casting not proven by limit and ultimate load
factors and corresponding inspections tests in which actual stress conditions
must meet the following table: are simulated in the fitting and sur-
Casting factor Inspection
rounding structures, a fitting factor of
at least 1.15 must be applied to each
2.0 or greater ............... 100 percent visual. part of—
Less than 2.0, greater 100 percent visual, and magnetic (1) The fitting;
than 1.5. particle (ferromagnetic materials),
penetrant (nonferromagnetic ma- (2) The means of attachment; and
terials), or approved equivalent (3) The bearing on the joined mem-
inspection methods. bers.
1.25 through 1.50 ........ 100 percent visual, and magnetic
particle (ferromagnetic materials).
(b) No fitting factor need be used—
penetrant (nonferromagnetic ma- (1) For joints made under approved
terials), and radiographic or ap- practices and based on comprehensive
proved equivalent inspection
methods.
test data (such as continuous joints in
metal plating, welded joints, and scarf
(2) The percentage of castings in- joints in wood); and
spected by nonvisual methods may be (2) With respect to any bearing sur-
reduced below that specified in para- face for which a larger special factor is
used.
graph (d)(1) of this section when an ap-
(c) For each integral fitting, the part
proved quality control procedure is es-
must be treated as a fitting up to the
tablished.
point at which the section properties
(3) For castings procured to a speci- become typical of the member.
fication that guarantees the mechan- (d) Each seat, berth, litter, safety
ical properties of the material in the belt, and harness attachment to the
casting and provides for demonstration structure must be shown by analysis,
of these properties by test of coupons tests, or both, to be able to withstand
cut from the castings on a sampling the inertia forces prescribed in
basis— § 27.561(b)(3) multiplied by a fitting fac-
(i) A casting factor of 1.0 may be tor of 1.33.
used; and
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as
(ii) The castings must be inspected as amended by Amdt. 27–35, 63 FR 43285, Aug. 12,
provided in paragraph (d)(1) of this sec- 1998]
tion for casting factors of ‘‘1.25 through
1.50’’ and tested under paragraph (c)(2) § 27.629 Flutter.
of this section. Each aerodynamic surface of the
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as rotorcraft must be free from flutter
amended by Amdt. 27–34, 62 FR 46173, Aug. 29, under each appropriate speed and
1997] power condition.
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as
§ 27.623 Bearing factors.
(a) Except as provided in paragraph 1990]
(b) of this section, each part that has
clearance (free fit), and that is subject ROTORS
to pounding or vibration, must have a
§ 27.653 Pressure venting and drain-
bearing factor large enough to provide age of rotor blades.
for the effects of normal relative mo-
tion. (a) For each rotor blade—
(b) No bearing factor need be used on (1) There must be means for venting
the internal pressure of the blade;
a part for which any larger special fac-

tor is prescribed. (2) Drainage holes must be provided
for the blade; and
661
§ 27.659 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–10 Edition)
(3) The blade must be designed to pre- minimize the probability of any incor-
vent water from becoming trapped in rect assembly that could result in the
it. malfunction of the system.
(b) Paragraphs (a)(1) and (2) of this
section does not apply to sealed rotor § 27.672 Stability augmentation, auto-
blades capable of withstanding the matic, and power-operated systems.
maximum pressure differentials ex- If the functioning of stability aug-
pected in service. mentation or other automatic or
[Amdt. 27–2, 33 FR 963, Jan. 26, 1968] power-operated systems is necessary to
show compliance with the flight char-
§ 27.659 Mass balance. acteristics requirements of this part,
(a) The rotors and blades must be such systems must comply with § 27.671
mass balanced as necessary to— of this part and the following:
(1) Prevent excessive vibration; and (a) A warning which is clearly distin-
(2) Prevent flutter at any speed up to guishable to the pilot under expected
the maximum forward speed. flight conditions without requiring the
(b) The structural integrity of the pilot’s attention must be provided for
mass balance installation must be sub- any failure in the stability augmenta-
stantiated. tion system or in any other automatic
or power-operated system which could
[Amdt. 27–2, 33 FR 963, Jan. 26, 1968]
result in an unsafe condition if the
§ 27.661 Rotor blade clearance. pilot is unaware of the failure. Warning
systems must not activate the control
There must be enough clearance be- systems.
tween the rotor blades and other parts
(b) The design of the stability aug-
of the structure to prevent the blades
mentation system or of any other auto-
from striking any part of the structure
matic or power-operated system must
during any operating condition.
allow initial counteraction of failures
[Amdt. 27–2, 33 FR 963, Jan. 26, 1968] without requiring exceptional pilot
skill or strength by overriding the fail-
§ 27.663 Ground resonance prevention ure by movement of the flight controls
means. in the normal sense and deactivating
(a) The reliability of the means for the failed system.
preventing ground resonance must be (c) It must be shown that after any
shown either by analysis and tests, or single failure of the stability aug-
reliable service experience, or by show- mentation system or any other auto-
ing through analysis or tests that mal- matic or power-operated system—
function or failure of a single means (1) The rotorcraft is safely control-
will not cause ground resonance. lable when the failure or malfunction
(b) The probable range of variations, occurs at any speed or altitude within
during service, of the damping action the approved operating limitations;
of the ground resonance prevention (2) The controllability and maneuver-
means must be established and must be ability requirements of this part are
investigated during the test required met within a practical operational
by § 27.241. flight envelope (for example, speed, al-
[Amdt. 27–2, 33 FR 963, Jan. 26, 1968, as titude, normal acceleration, and rotor-
amended by Amdt. 27–26, 55 FR 8000, Mar. 6, craft configurations) which is described
1990] in the Rotorcraft Flight Manual; and
(3) The trim and stability character-
CONTROL SYSTEMS
istics are not impaired below a level
§ 27.671 General. needed to permit continued safe flight
and landing.
(a) Each control and control system
must operate with the ease, smooth- [Amdt. 27–21, 49 FR 44433, Nov. 6, 1984; 49 FR
ness, and positiveness appropriate to 47594, Dec. 6, 1984]
its function.
(b) Each element of each flight con- § 27.673 Primary flight control.
trol system must be designed, or dis- Primary flight controls are those
tinctively and permanently marked, to used by the pilot for immediate control
662
of pitch, roll, yaw, and vertical motion (1) The direction of the test loads
of the rotorcraft. produces the most severe loading in the
control system; and
[Amdt. 27–21, 49 FR 44434, Nov. 6, 1984]
(2) Each fitting, pulley, and bracket
§ 27.674 Interconnected controls. used in attaching the system to the
main structure is included.
Each primary flight control system (b) Compliance must be shown (by
must provide for safe flight and landing analyses or individual load tests) with
and operate independently after a mal- the special factor requirements for
function, failure, or jam of any auxil- control system joints subject to angu-
iary interconnected control. lar motion.
[Amdt. 27–26, 55 FR 8001, Mar. 6, 1990]
§ 27.683 Operation tests.
§ 27.675 Stops. It must be shown by operation tests
(a) Each control system must have that, when the controls are operated
stops that positively limit the range of from the pilot compartment with the
motion of the pilot’s controls. control system loaded to correspond
(b) Each stop must be located in the with loads specified for the system, the
system so that the range of travel of system is free from—
its control is not appreciably affected (a) Jamming;
by— (b) Excessive friction; and
(1) Wear; (c) Excessive deflection.
(2) Slackness; or § 27.685 Control system details.
(3) Takeup adjustments.
(c) Each stop must be able to with- (a) Each detail of each control sys-
stand the loads corresponding to the tem must be designed to prevent jam-
design conditions for the system. ming, chafing, and interference from
(d) For each main rotor blade— cargo, passengers, loose objects or the
(1) Stops that are appropriate to the freezing of moisture.
blade design must be provided to limit (b) There must be means in the cock-
travel of the blade about its hinge pit to prevent the entry of foreign ob-
points; and jects into places where they would jam
(2) There must be means to keep the the system.
blade from hitting the droop stops dur- (c) There must be means to prevent
ing any operation other than starting the slapping of cables or tubes against
and stopping the rotor. other parts.
(d) Cable systems must be designed
(Secs. 313(a), 601, 603, 604, Federal Aviation as follows:
Act of 1958 (49 U.S.C. 1354(a), 1421, 1423, 1424), (1) Cables, cable fittings, turn-
sec. 6(c), Dept. of Transportation Act (49 buckles, splices, and pulleys must be of
U.S.C. 1655(c)))
an acceptable kind.
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as (2) The design of the cable systems
amended by Amdt. 27–16, 43 FR 50599, Oct. 30, must prevent any hazardous change in
1978] cable tension throughout the range of
travel under any operating conditions
§ 27.679 Control system locks.
and temperature variations.
If there is a device to lock the con- (3) No cable smaller than three thir-
trol system with the rotorcraft on the ty-seconds of an inch diameter may be
ground or water, there must be means used in any primary control system.
to— (4) Pulley kinds and sizes must cor-
(a) Give unmistakable warning to the respond to the cables with which they
pilot when the lock is engaged; and are used. The pulley cable combina-
(b) Prevent the lock from engaging in tions and strength values which must
flight. be used are specified in Military Hand-
book MIL-HDBK-5C, Vol. 1 & Vol. 2,
§ 27.681 Limit load static tests. Metallic Materials and Elements for
(a) Compliance with the limit load Flight Vehicle Structures, (Sept. 15,
requirements of this part must be 1976, as amended through December 15,

shown by tests in which— 1978). This incorporation by reference
663
§ 27.687 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–10 Edition)
was approved by the Director of the (b) Compliance with paragraph (a) of
Federal Register in accordance with 5 this section must be shown by tests
U.S.C. section 552(a) and 1 CFR part 51. simulating service conditions.
Copies may be obtained from the Naval
Publications and Forms Center, 5801 § 27.691 Autorotation control mecha-
Tabor Avenue, Philadelphia, Pennsyl- nism.
vania, 19120. Copies may be inspected Each main rotor blade pitch control
at the FAA, Rotorcraft Standards mechanism must allow rapid entry into
Staff, 4400 Blue Mount Road, Fort autorotation after power failure.
Worth, Texas, or at the National Ar-
chives and Records Administration § 27.695 Power boost and power-oper-
(NARA). For information on the avail- ated control system.
ability of this material at NARA, call (a) If a power boost or power-oper-
202–741–6030, or go to: http:// ated control system is used, an alter-
www.archives.gov/federallregister/ nate system must be immediately
codeloflfederallregulations/ available that allows continued safe
ibrllocations.html. flight and landing in the event of—
(5) Pulleys must have close fitting (1) Any single failure in the power
guards to prevent the cables from being portion of the system; or
displaced or fouled. (2) The failure of all engines.
(6) Pulleys must lie close enough to
(b) Each alternate system may be a
the plane passing through the cable to
duplicate power portion or a manually
prevent the cable from rubbing against
operated mechanical system. The
the pulley flange.
power portion includes the power
(7) No fairlead may cause a change in
source (such as hydraulic pumps), and
cable direction of more than 3°.
such items as valves, lines, and actu-
(8) No clevis pin subject to load or
ators.
motion and retained only by cotter
pins may be used in the control sys- (c) The failure of mechanical parts
tem. (such as piston rods and links), and the
(9) Turnbuckles attached to parts jamming of power cylinders, must be
having angular motion must be in- considered unless they are extremely
stalled to prevent binding throughout improbable.
the range of travel.
LANDING GEAR
(10) There must be means for visual
inspection at each fairlead, pulley, ter- § 27.723 Shock absorption tests.
minal, and turnbuckle.
(e) Control system joints subject to The landing inertia load factor and
angular motion must incorporate the the reserve energy absorption capacity
following special factors with respect of the landing gear must be substan-
to the ultimate bearing strength of the tiated by the tests prescribed in
softest material used as a bearing: §§ 27.725 and 27.727, respectively. These
(1) 3.33 for push-pull systems other tests must be conducted on the com-
than ball and roller bearing systems. plete rotorcraft or on units consisting
(2) 2.0 for cable systems. of wheel, tire, and shock absorber in
(f) For control system joints, the their proper relation.
manufacturer’s static, non-Brinell rat-
ing of ball and roller bearings must not § 27.725 Limit drop test.
be exceeded. The limit drop test must be con-
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as
ducted as follows:
amended by Amdt. 27–11, 41 FR 55469, Dec. 20, (a) The drop height must be—
1976; Amdt. 27–26, 55 FR 8001, Mar. 6, 1990; 69 (1) 13 inches from the lowest point of
FR 18803, Apr. 9, 2004] the landing gear to the ground; or
(2) Any lesser height, not less than
§ 27.687 Spring devices. eight inches, resulting in a drop con-
(a) Each control system spring device tact velocity equal to the greatest
whose failure could cause flutter or probable sinking speed likely to occur
other unsafe characteristics must be at ground contact in normal power-off

reliable. landings.
664
(b) If considered, the rotor lift speci- § 27.727 Reserve energy absorption
fied in § 27.473(a) must be introduced drop test.
into the drop test by appropriate en- The reserve energy absorption drop
ergy absorbing devices or by the use of test must be conducted as follows:
an effective mass. (a) The drop height must be 1.5 times
(c) Each landing gear unit must be that specified in § 27.725(a).
tested in the attitude simulating the (b) Rotor lift, where considered in a
landing condition that is most critical manner similar to that prescribed in
from the standpoint of the energy to be § 27.725(b), may not exceed 1.5 times the
absorbed by it. lift allowed under that paragraph.
(d) When an effective mass is used in (c) The landing gear must withstand
showing compliance with paragraph (b) this test without collapsing. Collapse
of this section, the following formula of the landing gear occurs when a
may be used instead of more rational member of the nose, tail, or main gear
computations: will not support the rotorcraft in the
proper attitude or allows the rotorcraft
h + (1 − L )d structure, other than the landing gear
We = W × ; and and external accessories, to impact the
h+d landing surface.
We
n = nj +L [Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as
W 1990]
where:
We=the effective weight to be used in the § 27.729 Retracting mechanism.
drop test (lbs.);
For rotorcraft with retractable land-
W=WM for main gear units (lbs.), equal to the
static reaction on the particular unit with
ing gear, the following apply:
the rotorcraft in the most critical atti- (a) Loads. The landing gear, retract-
tude. A rational method may be used in ing mechansim, wheel-well doors, and
computing a main gear static reaction, supporting structure must be designed
taking into consideration the moment arm for—
between the main wheel reaction and the (1) The loads occurring in any ma-
rotorcraft center of gravity. neuvering condition with the gear re-
W=WN for nose gear units (lbs.), equal to the tracted;
vertical component of the static reaction (2) The combined friction, inertia,
that would exist at the nose wheel, assum-
and air loads occurring during retrac-
ing that the mass of the rotorcraft acts at
the center of gravity and exerts a force of tion and extension at any airspeed up
1.0g downward and 0.25g forward. to the design maximum landing gear
W=WT for tailwheel units (lbs.), equal to operating speed; and
whichever of the following is critical: (3) The flight loads, including those
in yawed flight, occurring with the
(1) The static weight on the tailwheel with
the rotorcraft resting on all wheels; or gear extended at any airspeed up to the
(2) The vertical component of the ground design maximum landing gear extended
reaction that would occur at the tailwheel, speed.
assuming that the mass of the rotorcraft (b) Landing gear lock. A positive
acts at the center of gravity and exerts a means must be provided to keep the
force of lg downward with the rotorcraft in gear extended.
the maximum nose-up attitude considered in (c) Emergency operation. When other
the nose-up landing conditions. than manual power is used to operate
h=specified free drop height (inches). the gear, emergency means must be
L=ration of assumed rotor lift to the rotor- provided for extending the gear in the
craft weight. event of—
d=deflection under impact of the tire (at the (1) Any reasonably probable failure in
proper inflation pressure) plus the vertical the normal retraction system; or
component of the axle travels (inches) rel-
(2) The failure of any single source of
ative to the drop mass.
n=limit inertia load factor.
hydraulic, electric, or equivalent en-
nj=the load factor developed, during impact, ergy.
(d) Operation tests. The proper func-
on the mass used in the drop test (i.e., the

acceleration dv/dt in g’s recorded in the tioning of the retracting mechanism
drop test plus 1.0). must be shown by operation tests.
665
EC28SE91.085</MATH>
§ 27.731 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–10 Edition)
(e) Position indicator. There must be a the tire and any part of the structure
means to indicate to the pilot when the or systems.
gear is secured in the extreme posi- [Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as
tions. amended by Amdt. 27–11, 41 FR 55469, Dec. 20,
(f) Control. The location and oper- 1976]
ation of the retraction control must
meet the requirements of §§ 27.777 and § 27.735 Brakes.
27.779. For rotorcraft with wheel-type land-
(g) Landing gear warning. An aural or ing gear, a braking device must be in-
equally effective landing gear warning stalled that is—
device must be provided that functions (a) Controllable by the pilot;
continuously when the rotorcraft is in (b) Usable during power-off landings;
a normal landing mode and the landing and
gear is not fully extended and locked. (c) Adequate to—
A manual shutoff capability must be (1) Counteract any normal unbal-
provided for the warning device and the anced torque when starting or stopping
warning system must automatically the rotor; and
reset when the rotorcraft is no longer (2) Hold the rotorcraft parked on a
10-degree slope on a dry, smooth pave-
in the landing mode.
ment.
[Amdt. 27–21, 49 FR 44434, Nov. 6, 1984]
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 27–21, 49 FR 44434, Nov. 6,
§ 27.731 Wheels. 1984]
(a) Each landing gear wheel must be
approved. § 27.737 Skis.
(b) The maximum static load rating The maximum limit load rating of
of each wheel may not be less than the each ski must equal or exceed the max-
corresponding static ground reaction imum limit load determined under the
with— applicable ground load requirements of
(1) Maximum weight; and this part.
(2) Critical center of gravity. FLOATS AND HULLS
(c) The maximum limit load rating of
each wheel must equal or exceed the § 27.751 Main float buoyancy.
maximum radial limit load determined (a) For main floats, the buoyancy
under the applicable ground load re- necessary to support the maximum
quirements of this part. weight of the rotorcraft in fresh water
must be exceeded by—
§ 27.733 Tires. (1) 50 percent, for single floats; and
(a) Each landing gear wheel must (2) 60 percent, for multiple floats.
have a tire— (b) Each main float must have
(1) That is a proper fit on the rim of enough water-tight compartments so
the wheel; and that, with any single main float com-
(2) Of the proper rating. partment flooded, the main floats will
(b) The maximum static load rating provide a margin of positive stability
of each tire must equal or exceed the great enough to minimize the prob-
ability of capsizing.
static ground reaction obtained at its
wheel, assuming— [Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as
(1) The design maximum weight; and amended by Amdt. 27–2, 33 FR 963, Jan. 26,
1968]
(2) The most unfavorable center of
gravity. § 27.753 Main float design.
(c) Each tire installed on a retract-
(a) Bag floats. Each bag float must be
able landing gear system must, at the
designed to withstand—
maximum size of the tire type expected (1) The maximum pressure differen-
in service, have a clearance to sur- tial that might be developed at the
rounding structure and systems that is maximum altitude for which certifi-
adequate to prevent contact between cation with that float is requested; and
666
(2) The vertical loads prescribed in § 27.775 Windshields and windows.
§ 27.521(a), distributed along the length
Windshields and windows must be
of the bag over three-quarters of its
made of material that will not break
projected area.
into dangerous fragments.
(b) Rigid floats. Each rigid float must
be able to withstand the vertical, hori- [Amdt. 27–27, 55 FR 38966, Sept. 21, 1990]
zontal, and side loads prescribed in
§ 27.521. These loads may be distributed § 27.777 Cockpit controls.
along the length of the float. Cockpit controls must be—
(a) Located to provide convenient op-
§ 27.755 Hulls.
eration and to prevent confusion and
For each rotorcraft, with a hull and inadvertent operation; and
auxiliary floats, that is to be approved (b) Located and arranged with re-
for both taking off from and landing on spect to the pilots’ seats so that there
water, the hull and auxiliary floats is full and unrestricted movement of
must have enough watertight compart- each control without interference from
ments so that, with any single com- the cockpit structure or the pilot’s
partment flooded, the buoyancy of the clothing when pilots from 5′2″ to 6′0″ in
hull and auxiliary floats (and wheel height are seated.
tires if used) provides a margin of posi-
tive stability great enough to minimize § 27.779 Motion and effect of cockpit
the probability of capsizing. controls.
PERSONNEL AND CARGO Cockpit controls must be designed so

ACCOMMODATIONS that they operate in accordance with
the following movements and actu-
§ 27.771 Pilot compartment. ation:
(a) Flight controls, including the col-
For each pilot compartment—
lective pitch control, must operate
(a) The compartment and its equip-
with a sense of motion which cor-
ment must allow each pilot to perform
responds to the effect on the rotor-
his duties without unreasonable con-
craft.
centration or fatigue;
(b) Twist-grip engine power controls
(b) If there is provision for a second
pilot, the rotorcraft must be control- must be designed so that, for lefthand
lable with equal safety from either operation, the motion of the pilot’s
pilot seat; and hand is clockwise to increase power
(c) The vibration and noise charac- when the hand is viewed from the edge
teristics of cockpit appurtenances may containing the index finger. Other en-
not interfere with safe operation. gine power controls, excluding the col-
lective control, must operate with a
§ 27.773 Pilot compartment view. forward motion to increase power.
(c) Normal landing gear controls
(a) Each pilot compartment must be
free from glare and reflections that must operate downward to extend the
could interfere with the pilot’s view, landing gear.
and designed so that— [Amdt. 27–21, 49 FR 44434, Nov. 6, 1984]
(1) Each pilot’s view is sufficiently
extensive, clear, and undistorted for § 27.783 Doors.
safe operation; and (a) Each closed cabin must have at
(2) Each pilot is protected from the least one adequate and easily acces-
elements so that moderate rain condi- sible external door.
tions do not unduly impair his view of (b) Each external door must be lo-
the flight path in normal flight and cated where persons using it will not be
while landing. endangered by the rotors, propellers,
(b) If certification for night oper- engine intakes, and exhausts when ap-
ation is requested, compliance with
propriate operating procedures are

paragraph (a) of this section must be
shown in night flight tests.
667
§ 27.785 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–10 Edition)
used. If opening procedures are re- ertial forces, and reactions between oc-
quired, they must be marked inside, on cupant, seat, and safety belt or harness
or adjacent to the door opening device. corresponding with the applicable
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as
flight and ground load conditions, in-
amended by Amdt. 27–26, 55 FR 8001, Mar. 6, cluding the emergency landing condi-
1990] tions of § 27.561(b). In addition—
(1) Each pilot seat must be designed
§ 27.785 Seats, berths, litters, safety for the reactions resulting from the ap-
belts, and harnesses. plication of the pilot forces prescribed
(a) Each seat, safety belt, harness, in § 27.397; and
and adjacent part of the rotorcraft at (2) The inertial forces prescribed in
each station designated for occupancy § 27.561(b) must be multiplied by a fac-
during takeoff and landing must be free tor of 1.33 in determining the strength
of potentially injurious objects, sharp of the attachment of—
edges, protuberances, and hard surfaces (i) Each seat to the structure; and
and must be designed so that a person (ii) Each safety belt or harness to the
making proper use of these facilities seat or structure.
will not suffer serious injury in an (g) When the safety belt and shoulder
emergency landing as a result of the harness are combined, the rated
static inertial load factors specified in strength of the safety belt and shoulder
§ 27.561(b) and dynamic conditions spec- harness may not be less than that cor-
ified in § 27.562. responding to the inertial forces speci-
(b) Each occupant must be protected fied in § 27.561(b), considering the occu-
from serious head injury by a safety pant weight of at least 170 pounds, con-
belt plus a shoulder harness that will sidering the dimensional characteris-
prevent the head from contacting any tics of the restraint system installa-
injurious object except as provided for tion, and using a distribution of at
in § 27.562(c)(5). A shoulder harness least a 60-percent load to the safety
(upper torso restraint), in combination belt and at least a 40-percent load to
with the safety belt, constitutes a the shoulder harness. If the safety belt
torso restraint system as described in is capable of being used without the
TSO-C114. shoulder harness, the inertial forces
(c) Each occupant’s seat must have a specified must be met by the safety
combined safety belt and shoulder har- belt alone.
ness with a single-point release. Each (h) When a headrest is used, the head-
pilot’s combined safety belt and shoul- rest and its supporting structure must
der harness must allow each pilot when be designed to resist the inertia forces
seated with safety belt and shoulder specified in § 27.561, with a 1.33 fitting
harness fastened to perform all func- factor and a head weight of at least 13
tions necessary for flight operations. pounds.
There must be a means to secure belts (i) Each seating device system in-
and harnesses, when not in use, to pre- cludes the device such as the seat, the
vent interference with the operation of cushions, the occupant restraint sys-
the rotorcraft and with rapid egress in tem, and attachment devices.
an emergency. (j) Each seating device system may
(d) If seat backs do not have a firm use design features such as crushing or
handhold, there must be hand grips or separation of certain parts of the seats
rails along each aisle to enable the oc- to reduce occupant loads for the emer-
cupants to steady themselves while gency landing dynamic conditions of
using the aisle in moderately rough § 27.562; otherwise, the system must re-
air. main intact and must not interfere
(e) Each projecting object that could with rapid evacuation of the rotorcraft.
injure persons seated or moving about (k) For the purposes of this section, a
in the rotorcraft in normal flight must litter is defined as a device designed to
be padded. carry a nonambulatory person, pri-
(f) Each seat and its supporting marily in a recumbent position, into
structure must be designed for an occu- and on the rotorcraft. Each berth or
pant weight of at least 170 pounds con- litter must be designed to withstand
sidering the maximum load factors, in- the load reaction of an occupant
668
weight of at least 170 pounds when the (2) Have sufficient strength to with-
occupant is subjected to the forward stand the conditions specified in § 27.561
inertial factors specified in § 27.561(b). including the means of restraint, and
A berth or litter installed within 15° or their attachments, required by para-
less of the longitudinal axis of the graph (b) of this section. Sufficient
rotorcraft must be provided with a pad- strength must be provided for the max-
ded end-board, cloth diaphram, or imum authorized weight of cargo and
equivalent means that can withstand baggage at the critical loading dis-
the forward load reaction. A berth or tribution.
litter oriented greater than 15° with (d) If cargo compartment lamps are
the longitudinal axis of the rotorcraft installed, each lamp must be installed
must be equipped with appropriate re- so as to prevent contact between lamp
straints, such as straps or safety belts, bulb and cargo.
to withstand the forward load reaction.
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as
In addition—
(1) The berth or litter must have a re- 1976; Amdt. 27–27, 55 FR 38966, Sept. 21, 1990]
straint system and must not have cor-
ners or other protuberances likely to § 27.801 Ditching.
cause serious injury to a person occu-
pying it during emergency landing con- (a) If certification with ditching pro-
ditions; and visions is requested, the rotorcraft
must meet the requirements of this
(2) The berth or litter attachment
section and §§ 27.807(d), 27.1411 and
and the occupant restraint system at-
27.1415.
tachments to the structure must be de-
signed to withstand the critical loads (b) Each practicable design measure,
resulting from flight and ground load compatible with the general character-
conditions and from the conditions pre- istics of the rotorcraft, must be taken
scribed in § 27.561(b). The fitting factor to minimize the probability that in an
required by § 27.625(d) shall be applied. emergency landing on water, the be-
havior of the rotorcraft would cause
[Amdt. 27–21, 49 FR 44434, Nov. 6, 1984, as immediate injury to the occupants or
amended by Amdt. 27–25, 54 FR 47319, Nov. 13, would make it impossible for them to
1989; Amdt. 27–35, 63 FR 43285, Aug. 12, 1998] escape.
(c) The probable behavior of the
§ 27.787 Cargo and baggage compart-
ments. rotorcraft in a water landing must be
investigated by model tests or by com-
(a) Each cargo and baggage compart- parison with rotorcraft of similar con-
ment must be designed for its plac- figuration for which the ditching char-
arded maximum weight of contents and acteristics are known. Scoops, flaps,
for the critical load distributions at projections, and any other factor likely
the appropriate maximum load factors to affect the hydrodynamic character-
corresponding to the specified flight istics of the rotorcraft must be consid-
and ground load conditions, except the ered.
emergency landing conditions of (d) It must be shown that, under rea-
§ 27.561. sonably probable water conditions, the
(b) There must be means to prevent flotation time and trim of the rotor-
the contents of any compartment from craft will allow the occupants to leave
becoming a hazard by shifting under the rotorcraft and enter the life rafts
the loads specified in paragraph (a) of required by § 27.1415. If compliance with
this section. this provision is shown by buoyancy
(c) Under the emergency landing con- and trim computations, appropriate al-
ditions of § 27.561, cargo and baggage lowances must be made for probable
compartments must— structural damage and leakage. If the
(1) Be positioned so that if the con- rotorcraft has fuel tanks (with fuel jet-
tents break loose they are unlikely to tisoning provisions) that can reason-
cause injury to the occupants or re- ably be expected to withstand a ditch-
strict any of the escape facilities pro- ing without leakage, the jettisonable
vided for use after an emergency land- volume of fuel may be considered as
ing; or buoyancy volume.
669
§ 27.805 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–10 Edition)
(e) Unless the effects of the collapse (2) Have simple and obvious methods
of external doors and windows are ac- of opening, from the inside and from
counted for in the investigation of the the outside, which do not require ex-
probable behavior of the rotorcraft in a ceptional effort;
water landing (as prescribed in para- (3) Be arranged and marked so as to
graphs (c) and (d) of this section), the be readily located and opened even in
external doors and windows must be darkness; and
designed to withstand the probable (4) Be reasonably protected from
maximum local pressures. jamming by fuselage deformation.
(c) Tests. The proper functioning of
[Amdt. 27–11, 41 FR 55469, Dec. 20, 1976]
each emergency exit must be shown by
§ 27.805 Flight crew emergency exits. test.
(d) Ditching emergency exits for pas-
(a) For rotorcraft with passenger sengers. If certification with ditching
emergency exits that are not conven- provisions is requested, the markings
ient to the flight crew, there must be required by paragraph (b)(3) of this sec-
flight crew emergency exits, on both tion must be designed to remain visible
sides of the rotorcraft or as a top hatch if the rotorcraft is capsized and the
in the flight crew area. cabin is submerged.
(b) Each flight crew emergency exit
must be of sufficient size and must be [Doc. No. 29247, 64 FR 45094, Aug. 18, 1999]
located so as to allow rapid evacuation § 27.831 Ventilation.
of the flight crew. This must be shown
by test. (a) The ventilating system for the
(c) Each flight crew emergency exit pilot and passenger compartments
must not be obstructed by water or flo- must be designed to prevent the pres-
tation devices after an emergency ence of excessive quantities of fuel
landing on water. This must be shown fumes and carbon monoxide.
by test, demonstration, or analysis. (b) The concentration of carbon mon-
oxide may not exceed one part in 20,000
[Doc. No. 29247, 64 FR 45094, Aug. 18, 1999] parts of air during forward flight or
hovering in still air. If the concentra-
§ 27.807 Emergency exits. tion exceeds this value under other
(a) Number and location. (1) There conditions, there must be suitable op-
must be at least one emergency exit on erating restrictions.
each side of the cabin readily acces-
sible to each passenger. One of these § 27.833 Heaters.
exits must be usable in any probable Each combustion heater must be ap-
attitude that may result from a crash; proved.
(2) Doors intended for normal use [Amdt. 27–23, 53 FR 34210, Sept. 2, 1988]
may also serve as emergency exits, pro-
vided that they meet the requirements FIRE PROTECTION
of this section; and
(3) If emergency flotation devices are § 27.853 Compartment interiors.
installed, there must be an emergency For each compartment to be used by
exit accessible to each passenger on the crew or passengers—
each side of the cabin that is shown by (a) The materials must be at least
test, demonstration, or analysis to; flame-resistant;
(i) Be above the waterline; and (b) [Reserved]
(ii) Open without interference from (c) If smoking is to be prohibited,
flotation devices, whether stowed or there must be a placard so stating, and
deployed. if smoking is to be allowed—
(b) Type and operation. Each emer- (1) There must be an adequate num-
gency exit prescribed by paragraph (a) ber of self-contained, removable ash-
of this section must— trays; and
(1) Consist of a movable window or (2) Where the crew compartment is
panel, or additional external door, pro- separated from the passenger compart-
viding an unobstructed opening that ment, there must be at least one illu-
will admit a 19-by 26-inch ellipse; minated sign (using either letters or
670
symbols) notifying all passengers when (1) Approved, quick-acting fire detec-
smoking is prohibited. Signs which no- tors in numbers and locations ensuring
tify when smoking is prohibited must— prompt detection of fire in the heater
(i) When illuminated, be legible to region.
each passenger seated in the passenger (2) Fire extinguisher systems that
cabin under all probable lighting condi- provide at least one adequate discharge
tions; and to all areas of the heater region.
(ii) Be so constructed that the crew (3) Complete drainage of each part of
can turn the illumination on and off. each zone to minimize the hazards re-
sulting from failure or malfunction of
[Amdt. 27–17, 45 FR 7755, Feb. 4, 1980, as
any component containing flammable
1999] fluids. The drainage means must be—
(i) Effective under conditions ex-
§ 27.855 Cargo and baggage compart- pected to prevail when drainage is
ments. needed; and
(ii) Arranged so that no discharged
(a) Each cargo and baggage compart-
fluid will cause an additional fire haz-
ment must be constructed of, or lined
ard.
with, materials that are at least—
(4) Ventilation, arranged so that no
(1) Flame resistant, in the case of
discharged vapors will cause an addi-
compartments that are readily acces-
tional fire hazard.
sible to a crewmember in flight; and
(d) Ventilating air ducts. Each ven-
(2) Fire resistant, in the case of other
tilating air duct passing through any
compartments.
heater region must be fireproof.
(b) No compartment may contain any (1) Unless isolation is provided by
controls, wiring, lines, equipment, or fireproof valves or by equally effective
accessories whose damage or failure means, the ventilating air duct down-
would affect safe operation, unless stream of each heater must be fireproof
those items are protected so that— for a distance great enough to ensure
(1) They cannot be damaged by the that any fire originating in the heater
movement of cargo in the compart- can be contained in the duct.
ment; and (2) Each part of any ventilating duct
(2) Their breakage or failure will not passing through any region having a
create a fire hazard. flammable fluid system must be so
constructed or isolated from that sys-
§ 27.859 Heating systems.
tem that the malfunctioning of any
(a) General. For each heating system component of that system cannot in-
that involves the passage of cabin air troduce flammable fluids or vapors
over, or close to, the exhaust manifold, into the ventilating airstream.
there must be means to prevent carbon (e) Combustion air ducts. Each com-
monoxide from entering any cabin or bustion air duct must be fireproof for a
pilot compartment. distance great enough to prevent dam-
(b) Heat exchangers. Each heat ex- age from backfiring or reverse flame
changer must be— propagation.
(1) Of suitable materials; (1) No combustion air duct may con-
(2) Adequately cooled under all connect with the ventilating airstream un-
ditions; and less flames from backfires or reverse
(3) Easily disassembled for inspec- burning cannot enter the ventilating
tion. airstream under any operating condi-
(c) Combustion heater fire protection. tion, including reverse flow or mal-
Except for heaters which incorporate function of the heater or its associated
designs to prevent hazards in the event components.
of fuel leakage in the heater fuel sys- (2) No combustion air duct may re-
tem, fire within the ventilating air pas- strict the prompt relief of any backfire
sage, or any other heater malfunction, that, if so restricted, could cause heat-
each heater zone must incorporate the er failure.
fire protection features of the applica- (f) Heater control: General. There must
ble requirements of §§ 27.1183, 27.1185, be means to prevent the hazardous ac-

27.1189, 27.1191, and be provided with— cumulation of water or ice on or in any
671
§ 27.861 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–10 Edition)
heater control component, control sys- heater operation. Each heater fuel sys-
tem tubing, or safety control. tem component in the ventilating air-
(g) Heater safety controls. For each stream must be protected by shrouds
combustion heater, safety control so that no leakage from those compo-
means must be provided as follows: nents can enter the ventilating air-
(1) Means independent of the compo- stream.
nents provided for the normal contin- (k) Drains. There must be means for
uous control of air temperature, air- safe drainage of any fuel that might ac-
flow, and fuel flow must be provided for cumulate in the combustion chamber
each heater to automatically shut off or the heat exchanger.
the ignition and fuel supply of that (1) Each part of any drain that oper-
heater at a point remote from that ates at high temperatures must be pro-
heater when any of the following oc- tected in the same manner as heater
curs: exhausts.
(i) The heat exchanger temperature (2) Each drain must be protected
exceeds safe limits. against hazardous ice accumulation
(ii) The ventilating air temperature under any operating condition.
exceeds safe limits.
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as
(iii) The combustion airflow becomes amended by Amdt. 27–23, 53 FR 34211, Sept. 2,
inadequate for safe operation. 1988]
(iv) The ventilating airflow becomes
inadequate for safe operation. § 27.861 Fire protection of structure,
(2) The means of complying with controls, and other parts.
paragraph (g)(1) of this section for any Each part of the structure, controls,
individual heater must— rotor mechanism, and other parts es-
(i) Be independent of components sential to a controlled landing that
serving any other heater, the heat out- would be affected by powerplant fires
put of which is essential for safe oper- must be fireproof or protected so they
ation; and can perform their essential functions
(ii) Keep the heater off until re- for at least 5 minutes under any fore-
started by the crew. seeable powerplant fire conditions.
(3) There must be means to warn the
crew when any heater, the heat output [Amdt. 27–26, 55 FR 8001, Mar. 6, 1990]
of which is essential for safe operation,
has been shut off by the automatic § 27.863 Flammable fluid fire protec-
tion.
means prescribed in paragraph (g)(1) of
this section. (a) In each area where flammable
(h) Air intakes. Each combustion and fluids or vapors might escape by leak-
ventilating air intake must be located age of a fluid system, there must be
so that no flammable fluids or vapors means to minimize the probability of
can enter the heater system— ignition of the fluids and vapors, and
(1) During normal operation; or the resultant hazards if ignition does
(2) As a result of the malfunction of occur.
any other component. (b) Compliance with paragraph (a) of
(i) Heater exhaust. Each heater ex- this section must be shown by analysis
haust system must meet the require- or tests, and the following factors must
ments of §§ 27.1121 and 27.1123. be considered:
(1) Each exhaust shroud must be (1) Possible sources and paths of fluid
sealed so that no flammable fluids or leakage, and means of detecting leak-
hazardous quantities of vapors can age.
reach the exhaust system through (2) Flammability characteristics of
joints. fluids, including effects of any combus-
(2) No exhaust system may restrict tible or absorbing materials.
the prompt relief of any backfire that, (3) Possible ignition sources, includ-
if so restricted, could cause heater fail- ing electrical faults, overheating of
ure. equipment, and malfunctioning of pro-
(j) Heater fuel systems. Each heater tective devices.
fuel system must meet the powerplant (4) Means available for controlling or
fuel system requirements affecting safe extinguishing a fire, such as stopping
672
flow of fluids, shutting down equip- (1) An operating limitation is estab-
ment, fireproof containment, or use of lished limiting external load oper-
extinguishing agents. ations to such angles for which compli-
(5) Ability of rotorcraft components ance with this paragraph has been
that are critical to safety of flight to shown; or
withstand fire and heat. (2) It is shown that the lesser angle
(c) If action by the flight crew is re- can not be exceeded in service.
quired to prevent or counteract a fluid (b) The external load attaching
fire (e.g. equipment shutdown or actu- means, for jettisonable rotorcraft-load
ation of a fire extinguisher) quick act- combinations, must include a quick-re-
ing means must be provided to alert lease system to enable the pilot to re-
the crew. lease the external load quickly during
(d) Each area where flammable fluids flight. The quick-release system must
or vapors might escape by leakage of a consist of a primary quick release sub-
fluid system must be identified and de- system and a backup quick release sub-
fined. system that are isolated from one an-
other. The quick-release system, and
(Secs. 313(a), 601, 603, 604, Federal Aviation the means by which it is controlled,
Act of 1958 (49 U.S.C. 1354(a), 1421, 1423, 1424), must comply with the following:
sec. 6(c), Dept. of Transportation Act (49
(1) A control for the primary quick
U.S.C. 1655(c)))
release subsystem must be installed ei-
[Amdt. 27–16, 43 FR 50599, Oct. 30, 1978] ther on one of the pilot’s primary con-
trols or in an equivalently accessible
EXTERNAL LOADS location and must be designed and lo-
cated so that it may be operated by ei-
§ 27.865 External loads. ther the pilot or a crewmember with-
(a) It must be shown by analysis, out hazardously limiting the ability to
test, or both, that the rotorcraft exter- control the rotorcraft during an emer-
nal load attaching means for rotor- gency situation.
craft-load combinations to be used for (2) A control for the backup quick re-
nonhuman external cargo applications lease subsystem, readily accessible to
can withstand a limit static load equal either the pilot or another crew-
to 2.5, or some lower load factor ap- member, must be provided.
proved under §§ 27.337 through 27.341, (3) Both the primary and backup
multiplied by the maximum external quick release subsystems must—
load for which authorization is re- (i) Be reliable, durable, and function
quested. It must be shown by analysis, properly with all external loads up to
test, or both that the rotorcraft exter- and including the maximum external
nal load attaching means and cor- limit load for which authorization is
responding personnel carrying device requested.
system for rotorcraft-load combina- (ii) Be protected against electro-
tions to be used for human external magnetic interference (EMI) from ex-
cargo applications can withstand a ternal and internal sources and against
limit static load equal to 3.5 or some lightning to prevent inadvertent load
lower load factor, not less than 2.5, ap- release.
proved under §§ 27.337 through 27.341, (A) The minimum level of protection
multiplied by the maximum external required for jettisonable rotorcraft-
load for which authorization is re- load combinations used for nonhuman
quested. The load for any rotorcraft- external cargo is a radio frequency
load combination class, for any exter- field strength of 20 volts per meter.
nal cargo type, must be applied in the (B) The minimum level of protection
vertical direction. For jettisonable ex- required for jettisonable rotorcraft-
ternal loads of any applicable external load combinations used for human ex-
cargo type, the load must also be ap- ternal cargo is a radio frequency field
plied in any direction making the max- strength of 200 volts per meter.
imum angle with the vertical that can (iii) Be protected against any failure
be achieved in service but not less than that could be induced by a failure mode
30°. However, the 30° angle may be re- of any other electrical or mechanical
duced to a lesser angle if— rotorcraft system.
673
§ 27.871 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–10 Edition)
(c) For rotorcraft-load combinations § 27.571 of this part applies to the entire
to be used for human external cargo quick release and personnel carrying
applications, the rotorcraft must— device structural systems and their at-
(1) For jettisonable external loads, tachments.
have a quick-release system that meets
[Amdt. 27–11, 41 FR 55469, Dec. 20, 1976; as
the requirements of paragraph (b) of amended by Amdt. 27–26, 55 FR 8001, Mar. 6,
this section and that— 1990; Amdt. 27–36, 64 FR 43019, Aug. 6, 1999]
(i) Provides a dual actuation device
for the primary quick release sub- MISCELLANEOUS
system, and
(ii) Provides a separate dual actu- § 27.871 Leveling marks.
ation device for the backup quick re- There must be reference marks for
lease subsystem; leveling the rotorcraft on the ground.
(2) Have a reliable, approved per-
sonnel carrying device system that has § 27.873 Ballast provisions.
the structural capability and personnel
Ballast provisions must be designed
safety features essential for external
and constructed to prevent inadvertent
occupant safety;
shifting of ballast in flight.
(3) Have placards and markings at all
appropriate locations that clearly state
the essential system operating instruc- Subpart E—Powerplant
tions and, for the personnel carrying
GENERAL
device system, the ingress and egress
instructions; § 27.901 Installation.
(4) Have equipment to allow direct
intercommunication among required (a) For the purpose of this part, the
crewmembers and external occupants; powerplant installation includes each
and part of the rotorcraft (other than the
(5) Have the appropriate limitations main and auxiliary rotor structures)
and procedures incorporated in the that—
flight manual for conducting human (1) Is necessary for propulsion;
external cargo operations. (2) Affects the control of the major
(d) The critically configured jettison- propulsive units; or
able external loads must be shown by a (3) Affects the safety of the major
combination of analysis, ground tests, propulsive units between normal in-
and flight tests to be both transport- spections or overhauls.
able and releasable throughout the ap- (b) For each powerplant installa-
proved operational envelope without tion—
hazard to the rotorcraft during normal (1) Each component of the installa-
flight conditions. In addition, these ex- tion must be constructed, arranged,
ternal loads must be shown to be re- and installed to ensure its continued
leasable without hazard to the rotor- safe operation between normal inspec-
craft during emergency flight conditions or overhauls for the range of tem-
tions. perature and altitude for which ap-
(e) A placard or marking must be in- proval is requested;
stalled next to the external-load at- (2) Accessibility must be provided to
taching means clearly stating any allow any inspection and maintenance
operational limitations and the max- necessary for continued airworthiness;
imum authorized external load as dem- (3) Electrical interconnections must
onstrated under § 27.25 and this section. be provided to prevent differences of
(f) The fatigue evaluation of § 27.571 potential between major components of
of this part does not apply to rotor- the installation and the rest of the
craft-load combinations to be used for rotorcraft;
nonhuman external cargo except for (4) Axial and radial expansion of tur-
the failure of critical structural ele- bine engines may not affect the safety
ments that would result in a hazard to of the installation; and
the rotorcraft. For rotorcraft-load (5) Design precautions must be taken
combinations to be used for human ex- to minimize the possibility of incorrect

ternal cargo, the fatigue evaluation of assembly of components and equipment
674
essential to safe operation of the rotor- mentation must be designed to give
craft, except where operation with the reasonable assurance that those engine
incorrect assembly can be shown to be operating limitations that adversely
extremely improbable. affect turbine rotor structural integ-
(c) The installation must comply rity will not be exceeded in service.
with— (d) Restart capability: A means to re-
(1) The installation instructions pro- start any engine in flight must be pro-
vided under § 33.5 of this chapter; and vided.
(2) The applicable provisions of this (1) Except for the in-flight shutdown
subpart. of all engines, engine restart capability
(Secs. 313(a), 601, and 603, 72 Stat. 752, 775, 49 must be demonstrated throughout a
U.S.C. 1354(a), 1421, and 1423; sec. 6(c), 49 flight envelope for the rotorcraft.
U.S.C. 1655(c)) (2) Following the in-flight shutdown
of all engines, in-flight engine restart
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 27–2, 33 FR 963, Jan. 26, capability must be provided.
1968; Amdt. 27–12, 42 FR 15044, Mar. 17, 1977; [Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as
Amdt. 27–23, 53 FR 34211, Sept. 2, 1988] amended by Amdt. 27–11, 41 FR 55469, Dec. 20,
1976; Amdt. 27–23, 53 FR 34211, Sept. 2, 1988;
§ 27.903 Engines. Amdt. No. 27–44, 73 FR 11000, Feb. 29, 2008]
(a) Engine type certification. Each en-
gine must have an approved type cer- § 27.907 Engine vibration.
tificate. Reciprocating engines for use (a) Each engine must be installed to
in helicopters must be qualified in ac- prevent the harmful vibration of any
cordance with § 33.49(d) of this chapter part of the engine or rotorcraft.
or be otherwise approved for the in- (b) The addition of the rotor and the
tended usage. rotor drive system to the engine may
(b) Engine or drive system cooling fan not subject the principal rotating parts
blade protection. (1) If an engine or rotor of the engine to excessive vibration
drive system cooling fan is installed, stresses. This must be shown by a vi-
there must be a means to protect the bration investigation.
rotorcraft and allow a safe landing if a (c) No part of the rotor drive system
fan blade fails. This must be shown by may be subjected to excessive vibra-
showing that— tion stresses.
(i) The fan blades are contained in
case of failure; ROTOR DRIVE SYSTEM
(ii) Each fan is located so that a fail-
§ 27.917 Design.
ure will not jeopardize safety; or
(iii) Each fan blade can withstand an (a) Each rotor drive system must in-
ultimate load of 1.5 times the cen- corporate a unit for each engine to
trifugal force resulting from operation automatically disengage that engine
limited by the following: from the main and auxiliary rotors if
(A) For fans driven directly by the that engine fails.
engine— (b) Each rotor drive system must be
(1) The terminal engine r.p.m. under arranged so that each rotor necessary
uncontrolled conditions; or for control in autorotation will con-
(2) An overspeed limiting device. tinue to be driven by the main rotors
(B) For fans driven by the rotor drive after disengagement of the engine from
system, the maximum rotor drive sys- the main and auxiliary rotors.
tem rotational speed to be expected in (c) If a torque limiting device is used
service, including transients. in the rotor drive system, it must be
(2) Unless a fatigue evaluation under located so as to allow continued con-
§ 27.571 is conducted, it must be shown trol of the rotorcraft when the device
that cooling fan blades are not oper- is operating.
ating at resonant conditions within the (d) The rotor drive system includes
operating limits of the rotorcraft. any part necessary to transmit power
(c) Turbine engine installation. For from the engines to the rotor hubs.
turbine engine installations, the pow- This includes gear boxes, shafting, uni-
erplant systems associated with engine versal joints, couplings, rotor brake as-
control devices, systems, and instru- semblies, clutches, supporting bearings
675
§ 27.921 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–10 Edition)
for shafting, any attendant accessory be in the position for normal operation
pads or drives, and any cooling fans under the conditions of the test.
that are a part of, attached to, or (e) A 10-hour part of the test pre-
mounted on the rotor drive system. scribed in paragraph (b) of this section
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as must be run at not less than takeoff
amended by Amdt. 27–11, 41 FR 55469, Dec. 20, torque and the maximum speed for use
1976] with takeoff torque. The main and aux-
iliary rotor controls must be in the
§ 27.921 Rotor brake. normal position for vertical ascent.
If there is a means to control the ro- (1) For multiengine rotorcraft for
tation of the rotor drive system inde- which the use of 21⁄2 minute OEI power
pendently of the engine, any limita- is requested, 12 runs during the 10-hour
tions on the use of that means must be test must be conducted as follows:
specified, and the control for that (i) Each run must consist of at least
means must be guarded to prevent in- one period of 21⁄2 minutes with takeoff
advertent operation. torque and the maximum speed for use
with takeoff torque on all engines.
§ 27.923 Rotor drive system and con- (ii) Each run must consist of at least
trol mechanism tests. one period for each engine in sequence,
(a) Each part tested as prescribed in during which that engine simulates a
this section must be in a serviceable power failure and the remaining en-
condition at the end of the tests. No in- gines are run at 21⁄2 minute OEI torque
tervening disassembly which might af- and the maximum speed for use with
fect test results may be conducted. 21⁄2 minute OEI torque for 21⁄2 minutes.
(b) Each rotor drive system and con- (2) For multiengine turbine-powered
trol mechanism must be tested for not rotorcraft for which the use of 30-sec-
less than 100 hours. The test must be ond and 2-minute OEI power is re-
conducted on the rotorcraft, and the quested, 10 runs must be conducted as
torque must be absorbed by the rotors follows:
to be installed, except that other (i) Immediately following a takeoff
ground or flight test facilities with run of at least 5 minutes, each power
other appropriate methods of torque source must simulate a failure, in turn,
absorption may be used if the condi- and apply the maximum torque and the
tions of support and vibration closely maximum speed for use with 30-second
simulate the conditions that would OEI power to the remaining affected
exist during a test on the rotorcraft. drive system power inputs for not less
(c) A 60-hour part of the test pre- than 30 seconds, followed by applica-
scribed in paragraph (b) of this section tion of the maximum torque and the
must be run at not less than maximum maximum speed for use with 2-minute
continuous torque and the maximum OEI power for not less than 2 minutes.
speed for use with maximum contin- At least one run sequence must be con-
uous torque. In this test, the main ducted from a simulated ‘‘flight idle’’
rotor controls must be set in the posi- condition. When conducted on a bench
tion that will give maximum longitu- test, the test sequence must be con-
dinal cyclic pitch change to simulate ducted following stabilization at take-
forward flight. The auxiliary rotor con- off power.
trols must be in the position for nor- (ii) For the purpose of this para-
mal operation under the conditions of graph, an affected power input includes
the test. all parts of the rotor drive system
(d) A 30-hour or, for rotorcraft for which can be adversely affected by the
which the use of either 30-minute OEI application of higher or asymmetric
power or continuous OEI power is re- torque and speed prescribed by the
quested, a 25-hour part of the test pre- test.
scribed in paragraph (b) of this section (iii) This test may be conducted on a
must be run at not less than 75 percent representative bench test facility when
of maximum continuous torque and the engine limitations either preclude re-
minimum speed for use with 75 percent peated use of this power or would re-
of maximum continuous torque. The sult in premature engine removal dur-

main and auxiliary rotor controls must ing the test. The loads, the vibration
676
frequency, and the methods of applica- OEI torque, in which each engine, in
tion to the affected rotor drive system sequence, is made inoperative and the
components must be representative of remaining engine(s) is run for a 1-hour
rotorcraft conditions. Test components period.
must be those used to show compliance (Secs. 313(a), 601, and 603, 72 Stat. 752, 775, 49
with the remainder of this section. U.S.C. 1354(a), 1421, and 1423; sec. 6(c), 49
(f) The parts of the test prescribed in U.S.C. 1655(c))
paragraphs (c) and (d) of this section
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as
must be conducted in intervals of not amended by Amdt. 27–2, 33 FR 963, Jan. 26,
less than 30 minutes and may be ac- 1968; Amdt. 27–12, 42 FR 15044, Mar. 17, 1977;
complished either on the ground or in Amdt. 27–23, 53 FR 34212, Sept. 2, 1988; Amdt.
flight. The part of the test prescribed 27–29, 59 FR 47767, Sept. 16, 1994]
in paragraph (e) of this section must be
conducted in intervals of not less than § 27.927 Additional tests.
five minutes. (a) Any additional dynamic, endur-
(g) At intervals of not more than five ance, and operational tests, and vibra-
hours during the tests prescribed in tory investigations necessary to deter-
paragraphs (c), (d), and (e) of this sec- mine that the rotor drive mechanism is
tion, the engine must be stopped rap- safe, must be performed.
idly enough to allow the engine and (b) If turbine engine torque output to
rotor drive to be automatically dis- the transmission can exceed the high-
engaged from the rotors. est engine or transmission torque rat-
(h) Under the operating conditions ing limit, and that output is not di-
specified in paragraph (c) of this sec- rectly controlled by the pilot under
tion, 500 complete cycles of lateral con- normal operating conditions (such as
trol, 500 complete cycles of longitu- where the primary engine power con-
dinal control of the main rotors, and trol is accomplished through the flight
500 complete cycles of control of each control), the following test must be
auxiliary rotor must be accomplished. made:
A ‘‘complete cycle’’ involves movement (1) Under conditions associated with
of the controls from the neutral posi- all engines operating, make 200 appli-
tion, through both extreme positions, cations, for 10 seconds each, or torque
and back to the neutral position, ex- that is at least equal to the lesser of—
cept that control movements need not (i) The maximum torque used in
produce loads or flapping motions ex- meeting § 27.923 plus 10 percent; or
ceeding the maximum loads or motions (ii) The maximum attainable torque
encountered in flight. The cycling may output of the engines, assuming that
be accomplished during the testing pre- torque limiting devices, if any, func-
scribed in paragraph (c) of this section. tion properly.
(i) At least 200 start-up clutch en- (2) For multiengine rotorcraft under
gagements must be accomplished— conditions associated with each engine,
(1) So that the shaft on the driven in turn, becoming inoperative, apply to
side of the clutch is accelerated; and the remaining transmission torque in-
(2) Using a speed and method selected puts the maximum torque attainable
by the applicant. under probable operating conditions,
(j) For multiengine rotorcraft for assuming that torque limiting devices,
which the use of 30-minute OEI power if any, function properly. Each trans-
is requested, five runs must be made at mission input must be tested at this
30-minute OEI torque and the max- maximum torque for at least 15 min-
imum speed for use with 30-minute OEI utes.
torque, in which each engine, in se- (3) The tests prescribed in this para-
quence, is made inoperative and the re- graph must be conducted on the rotor-
maining engine(s) is run for a 30- craft at the maximum rotational speed
minute period. intended for the power condition of the
(k) For multiengine rotorcraft for test and the torque must be absorbed
which the use of continuous OEI power by the rotors to be installed, except
is requested, five runs must be made at that other ground or flight test facili-
continuous OEI torque and the max- ties with other appropriate methods of
imum speed for use with continuous torque absorption may be used if the
677
§ 27.931 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–10 Edition)
conditions of support and vibration (c) For governor-controlled engines,
closely simulate the conditions that it must be shown that there exists no
would exist during a test on the rotor- hazardous torsional instability of the
craft. drive system associated with critical
(c) It must be shown by tests that the combinations of power, rotational
rotor drive system is capable of oper- speed, and control displacement.
ating under autorotative conditions for
[Amdt. 27–1, 32 FR 6914, May 5, 1967, as
15 minutes after the loss of pressure in amended by Amdt. 27–11, 41 FR 55469, Dec. 20,
the rotor drive primary oil system. 1976]
(Secs. 313(a), 601, and 603, 72 Stat. 752, 775, 49
U.S.C. 1354(a), 1421, and 1423; sec. 6(c), 49 FUEL SYSTEM
U.S.C. 1655(c))
§ 27.951 General.
[Amdt. 27–2, 33 FR 963, Jan. 26, 1968, as
amended by Amdt. 27–12, 42 FR 15045, Mar. 17, (a) Each fuel system must be con-
1977; Amdt. 27–23, 53 FR 34212, Sept. 2, 1988] structed and arranged to ensure a flow
of fuel at a rate and pressure estab-
§ 27.931 Shafting critical speed. lished for proper engine functioning
(a) The critical speeds of any shafting under any likely operating condition,
must be determined by demonstration including the maneuvers for which cer-
except that analytical methods may be tification is requested.
used if reliable methods of analysis are (b) Each fuel system must be ar-
available for the particular design. ranged so that—
(b) If any critical speed lies within, (1) No fuel pump can draw fuel from
or close to, the operating ranges for more than one tank at a time; or
idling, power on, and autorotative con- (2) There are means to prevent intro-
ditions, the stresses occurring at that ducing air into the system.
speed must be within safe limits. This (c) Each fuel system for a turbine en-
must be shown by tests. gine must be capable of sustained oper-
(c) If analytical methods are used and ation throughout its flow and pressure
show that no critical speed lies within range with fuel initially saturated with
the permissible operating ranges, the water at 80 °F. and having 0.75cc of free
margins between the calculated crit- water per gallon added and cooled to
ical speeds and the limits of the allow- the most critical condition for icing
able operating ranges must be adequate likely to be encountered in operation.
to allow for possible variations be- [Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as
tween the computed and actual values. amended by Amdt. 27–9, 39 FR 35461, Oct. 1,
1974]
§ 27.935 Shafting joints.
Each universal joint, slip joint, and § 27.952 Fuel system crash resistance.
other shafting joints whose lubrication Unless other means acceptable to the
is necessary for operation must have Administrator are employed to mini-
provision for lubrication. mize the hazard of fuel fires to occu-
pants following an otherwise surviv-
§ 27.939 Turbine engine operating able impact (crash landing), the fuel
characteristics. systems must incorporate the design
(a) Turbine engine operating charac- features of this section. These systems
teristics must be investigated in flight must be shown to be capable of sus-
to determine that no adverse charac- taining the static and dynamic decel-
teristics (such as stall, surge, or flame- eration loads of this section, consid-
out) are present, to a hazardous degree, ered as ultimate loads acting alone,
during normal and emergency oper- measured at the system component’s
ation within the range of operating center of gravity, without structural
limitations of the rotorcraft and of the damage to system components, fuel
engine. tanks, or their attachments that would
(b) The turbine engine air inlet sys- leak fuel to an ignition source.
tem may not, as a result of airflow dis- (a) Drop test requirements. Each tank,
tortion during normal operation, cause or the most critical tank, must be
vibration harmful to the engine. drop-tested as follows:
678
(1) The drop height must be at least system where local structural deforma-
50 feet. tion could lead to the release of fuel.
(2) The drop impact surface must be (1) The design and construction of
nondeforming. self-sealing breakaway couplings must
(3) The tank must be filled with incorporate the following design fea-
water to 80 percent of the normal, full tures:
capacity. (i) The load necessary to separate a
(4) The tank must be enclosed in a breakaway coupling must be between
surrounding structure representative 25 to 50 percent of the minimum ulti-
of the installation unless it can be es- mate failure load (ultimate strength)
tablished that the surrounding struc- of the weakest component in the fluid-
ture is free of projections or other de- carrying line. The separation load
sign features likely to contribute to must in no case be less than 300 pounds,
rupture of the tank. regardless of the size of the fluid line.
(5) The tank must drop freely and im- (ii) A breakaway coupling must sepa-
pact in a horizontal position ±10°. rate whenever its ultimate load (as de-
(6) After the drop test, there must be fined in paragraph (c)(1)(i) of this sec-
no leakage. tion) is applied in the failure modes
(b) Fuel tank load factors. Except for most likely to occur.
fuel tanks located so that tank rupture (iii) All breakaway couplings must
with fuel release to either significant incorporate design provisions to vis-
ignition sources, such as engines, heat- ually ascertain that the coupling is
ers, and auxiliary power units, or occu- locked together (leak-free) and is open
pants is extremely remote, each fuel during normal installation and service.
tank must be designed and installed to (iv) All breakaway couplings must in-
retain its contents under the following corporate design provisions to prevent
ultimate inertial load factors, acting uncoupling or unintended closing due
alone. to operational shocks, vibrations, or
(1) For fuel tanks in the cabin: accelerations.
(i) Upward—4g. (v) No breakaway coupling design
(ii) Forward—16g. may allow the release of fuel once the
(iii) Sideward—8g. coupling has performed its intended
(iv) Downward—20g. function.
(2) For fuel tanks located above or (2) All individual breakaway cou-
behind the crew or passenger compart- plings, coupling fuel feed systems, or
ment that, if loosened, could injure an equivalent means must be designed,
occupant in an emergency landing: tested, installed, and maintained so
(i) Upward—1.5g. that inadvertent fuel shutoff in flight
(ii) Forward—8g. is improbable in accordance with
(iii) Sideward—2g. § 27.955(a) and must comply with the fa-
(iv) Downward—4g. tigue evaluation requirements of
(3) For fuel tanks in other areas: § 27.571 without leaking.
(i) Upward—1.5g. (3) Alternate, equivalent means to
(ii) Forward—4g. the use of breakaway couplings must
(iii) Sideward—2g. not create a survivable impact-induced
(iv) Downward—4g. load on the fuel line to which it is in-
(c) Fuel line self-sealing breakaway stalled greater than 25 to 50 percent of
couplings. Self-sealing breakaway cou- the ultimate load (strength) of the
plings must be installed unless haz- weakest component in the line and
ardous relative motion of fuel system must comply with the fatigue require-
components to each other or to local ments of § 27.571 without leaking.
rotorcraft structure is demonstrated to (d) Frangible or deformable structural
be extremely improbable or unless attachments. Unless hazardous relative
other means are provided. The cou- motion of fuel tanks and fuel system
plings or equivalent devices must be components to local rotorcraft struc-
installed at all fuel tank-to-fuel line ture is demonstrated to be extremely
connections, tank-to-tank intercon- improbable in an otherwise survivable

nects, and at other points in the fuel impact, frangible or locally deformable
679
§ 27.953 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–10 Edition)
attachments of fuel tanks and fuel sys- (b) If a single fuel tank is used on a
tem components to local rotorcraft multiengine rotorcraft, the following
structure must be used. The attach- must be provided:
ment of fuel tanks and fuel system (1) Independent tank outlets for each
components to local rotorcraft struc- engine, each incorporating a shutoff
ture, whether frangible or locally de- valve at the tank. This shutoff valve
formable, must be designed such that may also serve as the firewall shutoff
its separation or relative local defor- valve required by § 27.995 if the line be-
mation will occur without rupture or tween the valve and the engine com-
local tear-out of the fuel tank or fuel partment does not contain a hazardous
system components that will cause fuel amount of fuel that can drain into the
leakage. The ultimate strength of fran- engine compartment.
gible or deformable attachments must (2) At least two vents arranged to
be as follows: minimize the probability of both vents
becoming obstructed simultaneously.
(1) The load required to separate a (3) Filler caps designed to minimize
frangible attachment from its support the probability of incorrect installa-
structure, or deform a locally deform- tion or inflight loss.
able attachment relative to its support (4) A fuel system in which those parts
structure, must be between 25 and 50 of the system from each tank outlet to
percent of the minimum ultimate load any engine are independent of each
(ultimate strength) of the weakest part of each system supplying fuel to
component in the attached system. In other engines.
no case may the load be less than 300
pounds. § 27.954 Fuel system lightning protec-
(2) A frangible or locally deformable tion.
attachment must separate or locally The fuel system must be designed
deform as intended whenever its ulti- and arranged to prevent the ignition of
mate load (as defined in paragraph fuel vapor within the system by—
(d)(1) of this section) is applied in the (a) Direct lightning strikes to areas
modes most likely to occur. having a high probability of stroke at-
(3) All frangible or locally deformable tachment;
attachments must comply with the fa- (b) Swept lightning strokes to areas
tigue requirements of § 27.571. where swept strokes are highly prob-
(e) Separation of fuel and ignition able; or
sources. To provide maximum crash re- (c) Corona and streamering at fuel
sistance, fuel must be located as far as vent outlets.
practicable from all occupiable areas [Amdt. 27–23, 53 FR 34212, Sept. 2, 1988]
and from all potential ignition sources.
(f) Other basic mechanical design cri- § 27.955 Fuel flow.
teria. Fuel tanks, fuel lines, electrical (a) General. The fuel system for each
wires, and electrical devices must be engine must be shown to provide the
designed, constructed, and installed, as engine with at least 100 percent of the
far as practicable, to be crash resist- fuel required under each operating and
ant. maneuvering condition to be approved
(g) Rigid or semirigid fuel tanks. Rigid for the rotorcraft including, as applica-
or semirigid fuel tank or bladder walls ble, the fuel required to operate the en-
must be impact and tear resistant. gine(s) under the test conditions re-
quired by § 27.927. Unless equivalent
[Doc. No. 26352, 59 FR 50386, Oct. 3, 1994] methods are used, compliance must be
shown by test during which the fol-
§ 27.953 Fuel system independence.
lowing provisions are met except that
(a) Each fuel system for multiengine combinations of conditions which are
rotorcraft must allow fuel to be sup- shown to be improbable need not be
plied to each engine through a system considered.
independent of those parts of each sys- (1) The fuel pressure, corrected for
tem supplying fuel to other engines. critical accelerations, must be within
However, separate fuel tanks need not the limits specified by the engine type
be provided for each engine. certificate data sheet.
680
(2) The fuel level in the tank may not ations and flight maneuvers involving
exceed that established as the unusable that tank.
fuel supply for that tank under § 27.959,
plus the minimum additional fuel nec- § 27.961 Fuel system hot weather oper-
essary to conduct the test. ation.
(3) The fuel head between the tank Each suction lift fuel system and
outlet and the engine inlet must be other fuel systems with features condu-
critical with respect to rotorcraft cive to vapor formation must be shown
flight attitudes. by test to operate satisfactorily (with-
(4) The critical fuel pump (for pump- in certification limits) when using fuel
fed systems) is installed to produce (by at a temperature of 110 °F under crit-
actual or simulated failure) the critical ical operating conditions including, if
restriction to fuel flow to be expected applicable, the engine operating condi-
from pump failure. tions defined by § 27.927 (b)(1) and (b)(2).
(5) Critical values of engine rotation [Amdt. 27–23, 53 FR 34212, Sept. 2, 1988]
speed, electrical power, or other
sources of fuel pump motive power § 27.963 Fuel tanks: general.
must be applied. (a) Each fuel tank must be able to
(6) Critical values of fuel properties withstand, without failure, the vibra-
which adversely affect fuel flow must tion, inertia, fluid, and structural loads
be applied. to which it may be subjected in oper-
(7) The fuel filter required by § 27.997 ation.
must be blocked to the degree nec- (b) Each fuel tank of 10 gallons or
essary to simulate the accumulation of greater capacity must have internal
fuel contamination required to acti- baffles, or must have external support
vate the indicator required by to resist surging.
§ 27.1305(q). (c) Each fuel tank must be separated
(b) Fuel transfer systems. If normal op- from the engine compartment by a
eration of the fuel system requires fuel firewall. At least one-half inch of clear
to be transferred to an engine feed airspace must be provided between the
tank, the transfer must occur auto- tank and the firewall.
matically via a system which has been (d) Spaces adjacent to the surfaces of
shown to maintain the fuel level in the fuel tanks must be ventilated so that
engine feed tank within acceptable fumes cannot accumulate in the tank
limits during flight or surface oper- compartment in case of leakage. If two
ation of the rotorcraft. or more tanks have interconnected
(c) Multiple fuel tanks. If an engine outlets, they must be considered as one
can be supplied with fuel from more tank, and the airspaces in those tanks
than one tank, the fuel systems must, must be interconnected to prevent the
in addition to having appropriate man- flow of fuel from one tank to another
ual switching capability, be designed to as a result of a difference in pressure
prevent interruption of fuel flow to between those airspaces.
that engine, without attention by the (e) The maximum exposed surface
flightcrew, when any tank supplying temperature of any component in the
fuel to that engine is depleted of usable fuel tank must be less, by a safe mar-
fuel during normal operation, and any gin as determined by the Adminis-
other tank that normally supplies fuel trator, than the lowest expected
to the engine alone contains usable autoignition temperature of the fuel or
fuel. fuel vapor in the tank. Compliance
with this requirement must be shown
[Amdt. 27–23, 53 FR 34212, Sept. 2, 1988] under all operating conditions and
under all failure or malfunction condi-
§ 27.959 Unusable fuel supply. tions of all components inside the
The unusable fuel supply for each tank.
tank must be established as not less (f) Each fuel tank installed in per-
than the quantity at which the first sonnel compartments must be isolated
evidence of malfunction occurs under by fume-proof and fuel-proof enclosures
the most adverse fuel feed condition that are drained and vented to the ex-
occurring under any intended oper- terior of the rotorcraft. The design and
681
§ 27.965 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–10 Edition)
construction of the enclosures must ever, the pressure need not exceed 2.0
provide necessary protection for the p.s.i. on surfaces not exposed to the ac-
tank, must be crash resistant during a celeration loading.
survivable impact in accordance with (d) Each tank with large unsupported
§ 27.952, and must be adequate to with- or unstiffened flat areas, or with other
stand loads and abrasions to be ex- features whose failure or deformation
pected in personnel compartments. could cause leakage, must be subjected
(g) Each flexible fuel tank bladder or to the following test or its equivalent:
liner must be approved or shown to be (1) Each complete tank assembly and
suitable for the particular application its support must be vibration tested
and must be puncture resistant. Punc- while mounted to simulate the actual
ture resistance must be shown by installation.
meeting the TSO-C80, paragraph 16.0, (2) The tank assembly must be vi-
requirements using a minimum punc- brated for 25 hours while two-thirds
ture force of 370 pounds. full of any suitable fluid. The ampli-
(h) Each integral fuel tank must have tude of vibration may not be less than
provisions for inspection and repair of one thirty-second of an inch, unless
its interior. otherwise substantiated.
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as (3) The test frequency of vibration
amended by Amdt. 27–23, 53 FR 34213, Sept. 2, must be as follows:
1988; Amdt. 27–30, 59 FR 50387, Oct. 3, 1994] (i) If no frequency of vibration result-
ing from any r.p.m. within the normal
§ 27.965 Fuel tank tests. operating range of engine or rotor sys-
(a) Each fuel tank must be able to tem speeds is critical, the test fre-
withstand the applicable pressure tests quency of vibration, in number of cy-
in this section without failure or leak- cles per minute must, unless a fre-
age. If practicable, test pressures may quency based on a more rational cal-
be applied in a manner simulating the culation is used, be the number ob-
pressure distribution in service. tained by averaging the maximum and
(b) Each conventional metal tank, minimum power-on engine speeds
nonmetallic tank with walls that are (r.p.m.) for reciprocating engine pow-
not supported by the rotorcraft struc- ered rotorcraft or 2,000 c.p.m. for tur-
ture, and integral tank must be sub- bine engine powered rotorcraft.
jected to a pressure of 3.5 p.s.i. unless (ii) If only one frequency of vibration
the pressure developed during max- resulting from any r.p.m. within the
imum limit acceleration or emergency normal operating range of engine or
deceleration with a full tank exceeds rotor system speeds is critical, that
this value, in which case a hydrostatic frequency of vibration must be the test
head, or equivalent test, must be ap- frequency.
plied to duplicate the acceleration (iii) If more than one frequency of vi-
loads as far as possible. However, the bration resulting from any r.p.m. with-
pressure need not exceed 3.5 p.s.i. on in the normal operating range of en-
surfaces not exposed to the accelera- gine or rotor system speeds is critical,
tion loading. the most critical of these frequencies
(c) Each nonmetallic tank with walls must be the test frequency.
supported by the rotorcraft structure (4) Under paragraphs (d)(3)(ii) and
must be subjected to the following (iii) of this section, the time of test
tests: must be adjusted to accomplish the
(1) A pressure test of at least 2.0 p.s.i. same number of vibration cycles as
This test may be conducted on the would be accomplished in 25 hours at
tank alone in conjunction with the test the frequency specified in paragraph
specified in paragraph (c)(2) of this sec- (d)(3)(i) of this section.
tion. (5) During the test, the tank assem-
(2) A pressure test, with the tank bly must be rocked at the rate of 16 to
mounted in the rotorcraft structure, 20 complete cycles per minute through
equal to the load developed by the re- an angle of 15 degrees on both sides of
action of the contents, with the tank the horizontal (30 degrees total), about
full, during maximum limit accelera- the most critical axis, for 25 hours. If
tion or emergency deceleration. How- motion about more than one axis is
682
likely to be critical, the tank must be not less than 2 percent of the tank ca-
rocked about each critical axis for 121⁄2 pacity. It must be impossible to fill the
hours. fuel tank expansion space inadvert-
ently with the rotorcraft in the normal
(Secs. 313(a), 601, and 603, 72 Stat. 752, 775, 49
U.S.C. 1354(a), 1421, and 1423; sec. 6(c), 49 ground attitude.
U.S.C. 1655(c)) [Amdt. 27–23, 53 FR 34213, Sept. 2, 1988]
[Amdt. 27–12, 42 FR 15045, Mar. 17, 1977]
§ 27.971 Fuel tank sump.
§ 27.967 Fuel tank installation. (a) Each fuel tank must have a drain-
(a) Each fuel tank must be supported able sump with an effective capacity in
so that tank loads are not con- any ground attitude to be expected in
centrated on unsupported tank sur- service of 0.25 percent of the tank ca-
faces. In addition— pacity or 1/16 gallon, whichever is
(1) There must be pads, if necessary, greater, unless—
to prevent chafing between each tank (1) The fuel system has a sediment
and its supports; bowl or chamber that is accessible for
(2) The padding must be non- preflight drainage and has a minimum
absorbent or treated to prevent the ab- capacity of 1 ounce for every 20 gallons
sorption of fuel; of fuel tank capacity; and
(3) If flexible tank liners are used, (2) Each fuel tank drain is located so
they must be supported so that it is that in any ground attitude to be ex-
not necessary for them to withstand pected in service, water will drain from
fluid loads; and all parts of the tank to the sediment
(4) Each interior surface of tank com- bowl or chamber.
partments must be smooth and free of (b) Each sump, sediment bowl, and
projections that could cause wear of sediment chamber drain required by
the liner unless— this section must comply with the
(i) There are means for protection of drain provisions of § 27.999(b).
the liner at those points; or [Amdt. 27–23, 53 FR 34213, Sept. 2, 1988]
(ii) The construction of the liner
itself provides such protection. § 27.973 Fuel tank filler connection.
(b) Any spaces adjacent to tank sur- (a) Each fuel tank filler connection
faces must be adequately ventilated to must prevent the entrance of fuel into
avoid accumulation of fuel or fumes in any part of the rotorcraft other than
those spaces due to minor leakage. If the tank itself during normal oper-
the tank is in a sealed compartment, ations and must be crash resistant dur-
ventilation may be limited to drain ing a survivable impact in accordance
holes that prevent clogging and exces- with § 27.952(c). In addition—
sive pressure resulting from altitude (1) Each filler must be marked as pre-
changes. If flexible tank liners are in- scribed in § 27.1557(c)(1);
stalled, the venting arrangement for (2) Each recessed filler connection
the spaces between the liner and its that can retain any appreciable quan-
container must maintain the proper re- tity of fuel must have a drain that dis-
lationship to tank vent pressures for charges clear of the entire rotorcraft;
any expected flight condition. and
(c) The location of each tank must (3) Each filler cap must provide a
meet the requirements of § 27.1185 (a) fuel-tight seal under the fluid pressure
and (c). expected in normal operation and in a
(d) No rotorcraft skin immediately survivable impact.
adjacent to a major air outlet from the (b) Each filler cap or filler cap cover
engine compartment may act as the must warn when the cap is not fully
wall of the integral tank. locked or seated on the filler connec-
[Doc. No. 26352, 59 FR 50387, Oct. 3, 1994]
tion.
[Doc. No. 26352, 59 FR 50387, Oct. 3, 1994]
§ 27.969 Fuel tank expansion space.
Each fuel tank or each group of fuel § 27.975 Fuel tank vents.
tanks with interconnected vent sys- (a) Each fuel tank must be vented
tems must have an expansion space of from the top part of the expansion
683
§ 27.977 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–10 Edition)
space so that venting is effective under which relative motion could exist must
all normal flight conditions. Each vent have provisions for flexibility.
must minimize the probability of stop- (c) Flexible hose must be approved.
page by dirt or ice. (d) Each flexible connection in fuel
(b) The venting system must be de- lines that may be under pressure or
signed to minimize spillage of fuel subjected to axial loading must use
through the vents to an ignition source flexible hose assemblies.
in the event of a rollover during land- (e) No flexible hose that might be ad-
ing, ground operation, or a survivable versely affected by high temperatures
impact. may be used where excessive tempera-
tures will exist during operation or
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as
after engine shutdown.
1988; Amdt. 27–30, 59 FR 50387, Oct. 3, 1994; [Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as
Amdt. 27–35, 63 FR 43285, Aug. 12, 1998] amended by Amdt. 27–2, 33 FR 964, Jan. 26,
1968]
§ 27.977 Fuel tank outlet.
(a) There must be a fuel stainer for § 27.995 Fuel valves.
the fuel tank outlet or for the booster (a) There must be a positive, quick-
pump. This strainer must— acting valve to shut off fuel to each en-
(1) For reciprocating engine powered gine individually.
rotorcraft, have 8 to 16 meshes per (b) The control for this valve must be
inch; and within easy reach of appropriate crew-
(2) For turbine engine powered rotor- members.
craft, prevent the passage of any object (c) Where there is more than one
that could restrict fuel flow or damage source of fuel supply there must be
any fuel system component. means for independent feeding from
(b) The clear area of each fuel tank each source.
outlet strainer must be at least five (d) No shutoff valve may be on the
times the area of the outlet line. engine side of any firewall.
(c) The diameter of each strainer
must be at least that of the fuel tank § 27.997 Fuel strainer or filter.
outlet. There must be a fuel strainer or filter
(d) Each finger strainer must be ac- between the fuel tank outlet and the
cessible for inspection and cleaning. inlet of the first fuel system compo-
nent which is susceptible to fuel con-
[Amdt. 27–11, 41 FR 55470, Dec. 20, 1976]
tamination, including but not limited
FUEL SYSTEM COMPONENTS to the fuel metering device or an en-
gine positive displacement pump,
§ 27.991 Fuel pumps. whichever is nearer the fuel tank out-
Compliance with § 27.955 may not be let. This fuel strainer or filter must—
jeopardized by failure of— (a) Be accessible for draining and
(a) Any one pump except pumps that cleaning and must incorporate a screen
are approved and installed as parts of a or element which is easily removable;
type certificated engine; or (b) Have a sediment trap and drain
(b) Any component required for pump except that it need not have a drain if
operation except, for engine driven the strainer or filter is easily remov-
pumps, the engine served by that able for drain purposes;
pump. (c) Be mounted so that its weight is
not supported by the connecting lines
[Amdt. 27–23, 53 FR 34213, Sept. 2, 1988] or by the inlet or outlet connections of
the strainer or filter itself, unless ade-
§ 27.993 Fuel system lines and fittings. quate strength margins under all load-
(a) Each fuel line must be installed ing conditions are provided in the lines
and supported to prevent excessive vi- and connections; and
bration and to withstand loads due to (d) Provide a means to remove from
fuel pressure and accelerated flight the fuel any contaminant which would
conditions. jeopardize the flow of fuel through
(b) Each fuel line connected to com- rotorcraft or engine fuel system com-
ponents of the rotorcraft between ponents required for proper rotorcraft
684
fuel system or engine fuel system oper- below the maximum established value.
ation. This must be shown by flight tests.
[Amdt. No. 27–9, 39 FR 35461, Oct. 1, 1974, as [Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 27–20, 49 FR 6849, Feb. 23, amended by Amdt. 27–23, 53 FR 34213, Sept. 2,
1984; Amdt. 27–23, 53 FR 34213, Sept. 2, 1988] 1988]
§ 27.999 Fuel system drains. § 27.1013 Oil tanks.

Each oil tank must be designed and
(a) There must be at least one acces-
installed so that—
sible drain at the lowest point in each
(a) It can withstand, without failure,
fuel system to completely drain the
each vibration, inertia, fluid, and
system with the rotorcraft in any structural load expected in operation;
ground attitude to be expected in serv- (b) [Reserved]
ice. (c) Where used with a reciprocating
(b) Each drain required by paragraph engine, it has an expansion space of not
(a) of this section must— less than the greater of 10 percent of
(1) Discharge clear of all parts of the the tank capacity or 0.5 gallon, and
rotorcraft; where used with a turbine engine, it
(2) Have manual or automatic means has an expansion space of not less than
to assure positive closure in the off po- 10 percent of the tank capacity.
sition; and (d) It is impossible to fill the tank
(3) Have a drain valve— expansion space inadvertently with the
(i) That is readily accessible and rotorcraft in the normal ground atti-
which can be easily opened and closed; tude;
(e) Adequate venting is provided; and
and
(f) There are means in the filler open-
(ii) That is either located or pro-
ing to prevent oil overflow from enter-
tected to prevent fuel spillage in the ing the oil tank compartment.
event of a landing with landing gear re-
tracted. [Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 27–9, 39 FR 35461, Oct. 1,
[Doc. No. 574, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as 1974]
1976; Amdt. 27–23, 53 FR 34213, Sept. 2, 1988] § 27.1015 Oil tank tests.
Each oil tank must be designed and
OIL SYSTEM installed so that it can withstand,
without leakage, an internal pressure
§ 27.1011 Engines: General.
of 5 p.s.i., except that each pressurized
(a) Each engine must have an inde- oil tank used with a turbine engine
pendent oil system that can supply it must be designed and installed so that
with an appropriate quantity of oil at a it can withstand, without leakage, an
temperature not above that safe for internal pressure of 5 p.s.i., plus the
continuous operation. maximum operating pressure of the
(b) The usable oil capacity of each tank.
system may not be less than the prod- [Amdt. 27–9, 39 FR 35462, Oct. 1, 1974]
uct of the endurance of the rotorcraft
under critical operating conditions and § 27.1017 Oil lines and fittings.
the maximum oil consumption of the (a) Each oil line must be supported to
engine under the same conditions, plus prevent excessive vibration.
a suitable margin to ensure adequate (b) Each oil line connected to compo-
circulation and cooling. Instead of a ra- nents of the rotorcraft between which
tional analysis of endurance and con- relative motion could exist must have
sumption, a usable oil capacity of one provisions for flexibility.
gallon for each 40 gallons of usable fuel (c) Flexible hose must be approved.
may be used. (d) Each oil line must have an inside
(c) The oil cooling provisions for each diameter of not less than the inside di-
ameter of the engine inlet or outlet. No
engine must be able to maintain the oil

inlet temperature to that engine at or line may have splices between connec-
tions.
685
§ 27.1019 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–10 Edition)
§ 27.1019 Oil strainer or filter. (b) Have manual or automatic means

for positive locking in the closed posi-
(a) Each turbine engine installation
tion.
must incorporate an oil strainer or fil-
ter through which all of the engine oil [Amdt. 27–20, 49 FR 6849, Feb. 23, 1984]
flows and which meets the following re-
quirements: § 27.1027 Transmissions and gear-
(1) Each oil strainer or filter that has boxes: General.
a bypass must be constructed and in- (a) The lubrication system for com-
stalled so that oil will flow at the nor- ponents of the rotor drive system that
mal rate through the rest of the sys- require continuous lubrication must be
tem with the strainer or filter com- sufficiently independent of the lubrica-
pletely blocked. tion systems of the engine(s) to ensure
(2) The oil strainer or filter must lubrication during autorotation.
have the capacity (with respect to op- (b) Pressure lubrication systems for
erating limitations established for the transmissions and gearboxes must
engine) to ensure that engine oil sys- comply with the engine oil system re-
tem functioning is not impaired when quirements of §§ 27.1013 (except para-
the oil is contaminated to a degree graph (c)), 27.1015, 27.1017, 27.1021, and
(with respect to particle size and den- 27.1337(d).
sity) that is greater than that estab- (c) Each pressure lubrication system
lished for the engine under Part 33 of must have an oil strainer or filter
this chapter. through which all of the lubricant
(3) The oil strainer or filter, unless it flows and must—
is installed at an oil tank outlet, must (1) Be designed to remove from the
incorporate a means to indicate con- lubricant any contaminant which may
tamination before it reaches the capac- damage transmission and drive system
ity established in accordance with components or impede the flow of lu-
paragraph (a)(2) of this section. bricant to a hazardous degree;
(4) The bypass of a strainer or filter (2) Be equipped with a means to indi-
must be constructed and installed so cate collection of contaminants on the
that the release of collected contami- filter or strainer at or before opening
nants is minimized by appropriate lo- of the bypass required by paragraph
cation of the bypass to ensure that col- (c)(3) of this section; and
lected contaminants are not in the by- (3) Be equipped with a bypass con-
pass flow path. structed and installed so that—
(5) An oil strainer or filter that has (i) The lubricant will flow at the nor-
no bypass, except one that is installed mal rate through the rest of the sys-
at an oil tank outlet, must have a tem with the strainer or filter com-
means to connect it to the warning pletely blocked; and
system required in § 27.1305(r). (ii) The release of collected contami-
(b) Each oil strainer or filter in a nants is minimized by appropriate lo-
powerplant installation using recipro- cation of the bypass to ensure that col-
cating engines must be constructed and lected contaminants are not in the by-
installed so that oil will flow at the pass flowpath.
normal rate through the rest of the
(d) For each lubricant tank or sump
system with the strainer or filter ele-
outlet supplying lubrication to rotor
ment completely blocked.
drive systems and rotor drive system
[Amdt. 27–9, 39 FR 35462, Oct. 1, 1974, as components, a screen must be provided
amended by Amdt. 27–20, 49 FR 6849, Feb. 23, to prevent entrance into the lubrica-
1984; Amdt. 27–23, 53 FR 34213, Sept. 2, 1988] tion system of any object that might
obstruct the flow of lubricant from the
§ 27.1021 Oil system drains. outlet to the filter required by para-
A drain (or drains) must be provided graph (c) of this section. The require-
to allow safe drainage of the oil sys- ments of paragraph (c) do not apply to
tem. Each drain must— screens installed at lubricant tank or

(a) Be accessible; and sump outlets.
686
(e) Splash-type lubrication systems sea level conditions of at least 100 de-
for rotor drive system gearboxes must grees F. must be established. The as-
comply with §§ 27.1021 and 27.1337(d). sumed temperature lapse rate is 3.6 de-
[Amdt. 27–23, 53 FR 34213, Sept. 2, 1988, as
grees F. per thousand feet of altitude
amended by Amdt. 27–37, 64 FR 45095, Aug. 18, above sea level until a temperature of
1999] ¥69.7 degrees F. is reached, above
which altitude the temperature is con-
COOLING sidered constant at ¥69.7 degrees F.
However, for winterization installa-
§ 27.1041 General. tions, the applicant may select a max-
(a) Each powerplant cooling system imum ambient atmospheric tempera-
must be able to maintain the temperature corresponding to sea level condi-
tures of powerplant components within tions of less than 100 degrees F.
the limits established for these compo- (c) Correction factor (except cylinder
nents under critical surface (ground or barrels). Unless a more rational correc-
water) and flight operating conditions tion applies, temperatures of engine
for which certification is required and fluids and power-plant components (ex-
after normal shutdown. Powerplant cept cylinder barrels) for which tem-
components to be considered include perature limits are established, must
but may not be limited to engines, be corrected by adding to them the dif-
rotor drive system components, auxil- ference between the maximum ambient
iary power units, and the cooling or lu- atmospheric temperature and the tem-
bricating fluids used with these compo- perature of the ambient air at the time
nents. of the first occurrence of the maximum
(b) Compliance with paragraph (a) of component or fluid temperature re-
this section must be shown in tests corded during the cooling test.
conducted under the conditions pre- (d) Correction factor for cylinder barrel
scribed in that paragraph. temperatures. Cylinder barrel tempera-
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as tures must be corrected by adding to
amended by Amdt. 27–23, 53 FR 34213, Sept. 2, them 0.7 times the difference between
1988] the maximum ambient atmospheric
temperature and the temperature of
§ 27.1043 Cooling tests. the ambient air at the time of the first
(a) General. For the tests prescribed occurrence of the maximum cylinder
in § 27.1041(b), the following apply: barrel temperature recorded during the
(1) If the tests are conducted under cooling test.
conditions deviating from the max-
imum ambient atmospheric tempera- (Secs. 313(a), 601, 603, 604, and 605 of the Fed-
ture specified in paragraph (b) of this 1421, 1423, 1424, and 1425); and sec. 6(c) of the
section, the recorded powerplant tem- Dept. of Transportation Act (49 U.S.C.
peratures must be corrected under 1655(c)))
paragraphs (c) and (d) of this section
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as
unless a more rational correction
method is applicable. 1976; Amdt. 27–14, 43 FR 2325, Jan. 16, 1978]
(2) No corrected temperature deter-
mined under paragraph (a)(1) of this § 27.1045 Cooling test procedures.
section may exceed established limits.
(3) For reciprocating engines, the fuel (a) General. For each stage of flight,
used during the cooling tests must be the cooling tests must be conducted
of the minimum grade approved for the with the rotorcraft—
engines, and the mixture settings must (1) In the configuration most critical
be those normally used in the flight for cooling; and
stages for which the cooling tests are (2) Under the conditions most critical
conducted. for cooling.
(4) The test procedures must be as (b) Temperature stabilization. For the
prescribed in § 27.1045. purpose of the cooling tests, a tempera-
(b) Maximum ambient atmospheric tem- ture is ‘‘stabilized’’ when its rate of
perature. A maximum ambient atmos- change is less than two degrees F. per
pheric temperature corresponding to minute. The following component and
687
§ 27.1091 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–10 Edition)
engine fluid temperature stabilization from entering the engine intake sys-
rules apply: tem; and
(1) For each rotorcraft, and for each (2) The air inlet ducts must be lo-
stage of flight— cated or protected so as to minimize
(i) The temperatures must be sta- the ingestion of foreign matter during
bilized under the conditions from takeoff, landing, and taxiing.
which entry is made into the stage of
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as
flight being investigated; or
(ii) If the entry condition normally 1968; Amdt. 27–23, 53 FR 34214, Sept. 2, 1988]
does not allow temperatures to sta-
bilize, operation through the full entry § 27.1093 Induction system icing pro-
condition must be conducted before tection.
entry into the stage of flight being in-
vestigated in order to allow the tem- (a) Reciprocating engines. Each recip-
peratures to attain their natural levels rocating engine air induction system
at the time of entry. must have means to prevent and elimi-
(2) For each helicopter during the nate icing. Unless this is done by other
takeoff stage of flight, the climb at means, it must be shown that, in air
takeoff power must be preceded by a free of visible moisture at a tempera-
period of hover during which the tem- ture of 30 degrees F., and with the en-
peratures are stabilized. gines at 75 percent of maximum contin-
(c) Duration of test. For each stage of uous power—
flight the tests must be continued (1) Each rotorcraft with sea level en-
until— gines using conventional venturi car-
(1) The temperatures stabilize or 5 buretors has a preheater that can pro-
minutes after the occurrence of the vide a heat rise of 90 degrees F.;
highest temperature recorded, as ap- (2) Each rotorcraft with sea level en-
propriate to the test condition; gines using carburetors tending to pre-
(2) That stage of flight is completed; vent icing has a sheltered alternate
or source of air, and that the preheat sup-
(3) An operating limitation is plied to the alternate air intake is not
reached. less than that provided by the engine
cooling air downstream of the cyl-
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as inders;
1988] (3) Each rotorcraft with altitude en-
gines using conventional venturi car-
INDUCTION SYSTEM buretors has a preheater capable of
providing a heat rise of 120 degrees F.;
§ 27.1091 Air induction. and
(a) The air induction system for each (4) Each rotorcraft with altitude en-
engine must supply the air required by gines using carburetors tending to pre-
that engine under the operating condi- vent icing has a preheater that can
tions and maneuvers for which certifi- provide a heat rise of—
cation is requested. (i) 100 degrees F.; or
(b) Each cold air induction system (ii) If a fluid deicing system is used,
opening must be outside the cowling if at least 40 degrees F.
backfire flames can emerge. (b) Turbine engine. (1) It must be
(c) If fuel can accumulate in any air shown that each turbine engine and its
induction system, that system must air inlet system can operate through-
have drains that discharge fuel— out the flight power range of the en-
(1) Clear of the rotorcraft; and gine (including idling)—
(2) Out of the path of exhaust flames. (i) Without accumulating ice on en-
(d) For turbine engine powered rotor- gine or inlet system components that
craft— would adversely affect engine oper-
(1) There must be means to prevent ation or cause a serious loss of power
hazardous quantities of fuel leakage or under the icing conditions specified in
overflow from drains, vents, or other appendix C of Part 29 of this chapter;

components of flammable fluid systems and
688
(ii) In snow, both falling and blowing, impingement of the fluids or vapors on
without adverse effect on engine oper- any part of the exhaust system includ-
ation, within the limitations estab- ing shields for the exhaust system;
lished for the rotorcraft. (e) Exhaust gases may not impair
(2) Each turbine engine must idle for pilot vision at night due to glare;
30 minutes on the ground, with the air (f) If significant traps exist, each tur-
bleed available for engine icing protec- bine engine exhaust system must have
tion at its critical condition, without drains discharging clear of the rotor-
adverse effect, in an atmosphere that is craft, in any normal ground and flight
at a temperature between 15° and 30 °F attitudes, to prevent fuel accumulation
(between ¥9° and ¥1 °C) and has a liq- after the failure of an attempted en-
uid water content not less than 0.3 gine start;
gram per cubic meter in the form of (g) Each exhaust heat exchanger
drops having a mean effective diameter must incorporate means to prevent
not less than 20 microns, followed by blockage of the exhaust port after any
momentary operation at takeoff power internal heat exchanger failure.
or thrust. During the 30 minutes of idle
(Secs. 313(a), 601, and 603, 72 Stat. 752, 775, 49
operation, the engine may be run up U.S.C. 1354(a), 1421, and 1423; sec. 6(c), 49
periodically to a moderate power or U.S.C. 1655(c))
thrust setting in a manner acceptable
to the Administrator. [Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964 as
(c) Supercharged reciprocating engines. 1977]
For each engine having superchargers
to pressurize the air before it enters § 27.1123 Exhaust piping.
the carburetor, the heat rise in the air
(a) Exhaust piping must be heat and
caused by that supercharging at any
corrosion resistant, and must have pro-
altitude may be utilized in determining
visions to prevent failure due to expan-
compliance with paragraph (a) of this
sion by operating temperatures.
section if the heat rise utilized is that
(b) Exhaust piping must be supported
which will be available, automatically,
to withstand any vibration and inertia
for the applicable altitude and oper-
loads to which it would be subjected in
ating condition because of super-
operations.
charging.
(c) Exhaust piping connected to com-
(Secs. 313(a), 601, and 603, 72 Stat. 752, 775, 49 ponents between which relative motion
U.S.C. 1354(a), 1421, and 1423; sec. 6(c), 49 could exist must have provisions for
U.S.C. 1655(c)) flexibility.
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as
[Amdt. 27–11, 41 FR 55470, Dec. 20, 1976]
1976; Amdt. 27–12, 42 FR 15045, Mar. 17, 1977;
Amdt. 27–20, 49 FR 6849, Feb. 23, 1984; Amdt.
POWERPLANT CONTROLS AND
27–23, 53 FR 34214, Sept. 2, 1988] ACCESSORIES
EXHAUST SYSTEM § 27.1141 Powerplant controls: general.

(a) Powerplant controls must be lo-
§ 27.1121 General. cated and arranged under § 27.777 and
For each exhaust system— marked under § 27.1555.
(a) There must be means for thermal (b) Each flexible powerplant control
expansion of manifolds and pipes; must be approved.
(b) There must be means to prevent (c) Each control must be able to
local hot spots; maintain any set position without—
(c) Exhaust gases must discharge (1) Constant attention; or
clear of the engine air intake, fuel sys- (2) Tendency to creep due to control
tem components, and drains; loads or vibration.
(d) Each exhaust system part with a (d) Controls of powerplant valves re-
surface hot enough to ignite flammable quired for safety must have—
fluids or vapors must be located or (1) For manual valves, positive stops
shielded so that leakage from any sys- or in the case of fuel valves suitable
tem carrying flammable fluids or va- index provisions, in the open and closed
pors will not result in a fire caused by position; and
689
§ 27.1143 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–10 Edition)
(2) For power-assisted valves, a § 27.1145 Ignition switches.
means to indicate to the flight crew
(a) There must be means to quickly
when the valve—
shut off all ignition by the grouping of
(i) Is in the fully open or fully closed switches or by a master ignition con-
position; or trol.
(ii) Is moving between the fully open (b) Each group of ignition switches,
and fully closed position. except ignition switches for turbine en-
(e) For turbine engine powered rotor- gines for which continuous ignition is
craft, no single failure or malfunction, not required, and each master ignition
or probable combination thereof, in control must have a means to prevent
any powerplant control system may its inadvertent operation.
cause the failure of any powerplant
(Secs. 313(a), 601, and 603, 72 Stat. 752, 775, 49
function necessary for safety. U.S.C. 1354(a), 1421, and 1423; sec. 6(c), 49
(Secs. 313(a), 601, and 603, 72 Stat. 752, 775, 49 U.S.C. 1655(c))
U.S.C. 1354(a), 1421, and 1423; sec. 6(c), 49 [Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as
U.S.C. 1655(c)) amended by Amdt. 27–12, 42 FR 15045, Mar. 17,
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as 1977]
1977; Amdt. 27–23, 53 FR 34214, Sept. 2, 1988; § 27.1147 Mixture controls.
Amdt. 27–33, 61 FR 21907, May 10, 1996] If there are mixture controls, each
engine must have a separate control
§ 27.1143 Engine controls. and the controls must be arranged to
(a) There must be a separate power allow—
control for each engine. (a) Separate control of each engine;
(b) Power controls must be grouped and
and arranged to allow— (b) Simultaneous control of all en-
(1) Separate control of each engine; gines.
and
§ 27.1151 Rotor brake controls.
(2) Simultaneous control of all en-
gines. (a) It must be impossible to apply the
(c) Each power control must provide rotor brake inadvertently in flight.
a positive and immediately responsive (b) There must be means to warn the
means of controlling its engine. crew if the rotor brake has not been
(d) If a power control incorporates a completely released before takeoff.
fuel shutoff feature, the control must [Doc. No. 28008, 61 FR 21907, May 10, 1996]
have a means to prevent the inad-
vertent movement of the control into § 27.1163 Powerplant accessories.
the shutoff position. The means must— (a) Each engine-mounted accessory
(1) Have a positive lock or stop at the must—
idle position; and (1) Be approved for mounting on the
(2) Require a separate and distinct engine involved;
operation to place the control in the (2) Use the provisions on the engine
shutoff position. for mounting; and
(e) For rotorcraft to be certificated (3) Be sealed in such a way as to pre-
for a 30-second OEI power rating, a vent contamination of the engine oil
means must be provided to automati- system and the accessory system.
cally activate and control the 30-sec- (b) Unless other means are provided,
ond OEI power and prevent any engine torque limiting means must be pro-
from exceeding the installed engine vided for accessory drives located on
limits associated with the 30-second any component of the transmission and
OEI power rating approved for the rotor drive system to prevent damage
rotorcraft. to these components from excessive ac-
cessory load.
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 27–11, 41 FR 55470, Dec. 20, [Amdt. 27–2, 33 FR 964, Jan. 26, 1968, as
1976; Amdt. 27–23, 53 FR 34214, Sept. 2, 1988; amended by Amdt. 27–20, 49 FR 6849, Feb. 23,
Amdt. 27–29, 59 FR 47767, Sept. 16, 1994] 1984; Amdt. 27–23, 53 FR 34214, Sept. 2, 1988]
690
POWERPLANT FIRE PROTECTION fer from each engine compartment to
the flammable fluid.
§ 27.1183 Lines, fittings, and compo- (d) Absorbent materials close to
nents.
flammable fluid system components
(a) Except as provided in paragraph that might leak must be covered or
(b) of this section, each line, fitting, treated to prevent the absorption of
and other component carrying flam- hazardous quantities of fluids.
mable fluid in any area subject to en-
gine fire conditions must be fire resist- [Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as
ant, except that flammable fluid tanks amended by Amdt. 27–2, 33 FR 964, Jan. 26,
and supports which are part of and at- 1968; Amdt. 27–11, 41 FR 55470, Dec. 20, 1976;
tached to the engine must be fireproof Amdt. 27–37, 64 FR 45095, Aug. 18, 1999]
or be enclosed by a fireproof shield un-
§ 27.1187 Ventilation and drainage.
less damage by fire to any non-fire-
proof part will not cause leakage or Each compartment containing any
spillage of flammable fluid. Compo- part of the powerplant installation
nents must be shielded or located so as must have provision for ventilation
to safeguard against the ignition of and drainage of flammable fluids. The
leaking flammable fluid. An integral drainage means must be—
oil sump of less than 25-quart capacity (a) Effective under conditions ex-
on a reciprocating engine need not be pected to prevail when drainage is
fireproof nor be enclosed by a fireproof needed, and
shield. (b) Arranged so that no discharged
(b) Paragraph (a) does not apply to—
fluid will cause an additional fire haz-
(1) Lines, fittings, and components
ard.
which are already approved as part of a
type certificated engine; and [Doc. No. 29247, 64 FR 45095, Aug. 18, 1999]
(2) Vent and drain lines, and their fit-
tings, whose failure will not result in, § 27.1189 Shutoff means.
or add to, a fire hazard. (a) There must be means to shut off
(c) Each flammable fluid drain and
each line carrying flammable fluids
vent must discharge clear of the induc-
into the engine compartment, except—
tion system air inlet.
(1) Lines, fittings, and components
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as forming an intergral part of an engine;
amended by Amdt. 27–1, 32 FR 6914, May 5,
(2) For oil systems for which all com-
1967; Amdt. 27–9, 39 FR 35462, Oct. 1, 1974;
Amdt. 27–20, 49 FR 6849, Feb. 23, 1984] ponents of the system, including oil
tanks, are fireproof or located in areas
§ 27.1185 Flammable fluids. not subject to engine fire conditions;
(a) Each fuel tank must be isolated and
from the engines by a firewall or (3) For reciprocating engine installa-
shroud. tions only, engine oil system lines in
(b) Each tank or reservoir, other installation using engines of less than
than a fuel tank, that is part of a sys- 500 cu. in. displacement.
tem containing flammable fluids or (b) There must be means to guard
gases must be isolated from the engine against inadvertent operation of each
by a firewall or shroud, unless the de- shutoff, and to make it possible for the
sign of the system, the materials used crew to reopen it in flight after it has
in the tank and its supports, the shut- been closed.
off means, and the connections, lines (c) Each shutoff valve and its control
and controls provide a degree of safety must be designed, located, and pro-
equal to that which would exist if the tected to function properly under any
tank or reservoir were isolated from
condition likely to result from an en-
the engines.
gine fire.
(c) There must be at least one-half
inch of clear airspace between each [Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as
tank and each firewall or shroud iso- amended by Amdt. 27–2, 33 FR 964, Jan. 26,
lating that tank, unless equivalent 1968; Amdt. 27–20, 49 FR 6850, Feb. 23, 1984;
means are used to prevent heat trans- Amdt. 27–23, 53 FR 34214, Sept. 2, 1988]
691
§ 27.1191 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–10 Edition)
§ 27.1191 Firewalls. (f) A means of retaining each open-

(a) Each engine, including the com- able or readily removable panel, cowl-
bustor, turbine, and tailpipe sections of ing, or engine or rotor drive system
turbine engines must be isolated by a covering must be provided to preclude
firewall, shroud, or equivalent means, hazardous damage to rotors or critical
from personnel compartments, struc- control components in the event of
tures, controls, rotor mechanisms, and structural or mechanical failure of the
other parts that are— normal retention means, unless such
(1) Essential to a controlled landing: failure is extremely improbable.
and [Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as
(2) Not protected under § 27.861. amended by Amdt. 27–23, 53 FR 34214, Sept. 2,
(b) Each auxiliary power unit and 1988]
combustion heater, and any other com-
bustion equipment to be used in flight, § 27.1194 Other surfaces.
must be isolated from the rest of the All surfaces aft of, and near, power-
rotorcraft by firewalls, shrouds, or plant compartments, other than tail
equivalent means. surfaces not subject to heat, flames, or
(c) In meeting paragraphs (a) and (b) sparks emanating from a powerplant
of this section, account must be taken compartment, must be at least fire re-
of the probable path of a fire as af- sistant.
fected by the airflow in normal flight
and in autorotation. [Amdt. 27–2, 33 FR 964, Jan. 26, 1968]
(d) Each firewall and shroud must be
constructed so that no hazardous quan- § 27.1195 Fire detector systems.
tity of air, fluids, or flame can pass Each turbine engine powered rotor-
from any engine compartment to other craft must have approved quick-acting
parts of the rotorcraft. fire detectors in numbers and locations
(e) Each opening in the firewall or insuring prompt detection of fire in the
shroud must be sealed with close-fit- engine compartment which cannot be
ting, fireproof grommets, bushings, or readily observed in flight by the pilot
firewall fittings. in the cockpit.
(f) Each firewall and shroud must be
fireproof and protected against corro- [Amdt. 27–5, 36 FR 5493, Mar. 24, 1971]
sion.
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as Subpart F—Equipment
1968] GENERAL
§ 27.1193 Cowling and engine compart- § 27.1301 Function and installation.

ment covering.
Each item of installed equipment
(a) Each cowling and engine compart- must—
ment covering must be constructed and (a) Be of a kind and design appro-
supported so that it can resist the vi- priate to its intended function;
bration, inertia, and air loads to which (b) Be labeled as to its identification,
it may be subjected in operation. function, or operating limitations, or
(b) There must be means for rapid any applicable combination of these
and complete drainage of each part of factors;
the cowling or engine compartment in
(c) Be installed according to limita-
the normal ground and flight attitudes.
tions specified for that equipment; and
(c) No drain may discharge where it
might cause a fire hazard. (d) Function properly when installed.
(d) Each cowling and engine compart- § 27.1303 Flight and navigation instru-
ment covering must be at least fire re- ments.
sistant.
(e) Each part of the cowling or engine The following are the required flight
compartment covering subject to high and navigation instruments:
temperatures due to its nearness to ex- (a) An airspeed indicator.
haust system parts or exhaust gas im- (b) An altimeter.

pingement must be fireproof. (c) A magnetic direction indicator.
692
§ 27.1305 Powerplant instruments. utes of usable fuel remains in the tank;

The following are the required power- and
plant instruments: (2) Be independent of the normal fuel
(a) A carburetor air temperature in- quantity indicating system.
dicator, for each engine having a pre- (m) Means to indicate to the
heater that can provide a heat rise in flightcrew the failure of any fuel pump
excess of 60 °F. installed to show compliance with
(b) A cylinder head temperature indi- § 27.955.
cator, for each— (n) A gas temperature indicator for
(1) Air cooled engine; each turbine engine.
(2) Rotorcraft with cooling shutters; (o) Means to enable the pilot to de-
and termine the torque of each turboshaft
(3) Rotorcraft for which compliance engine, if a torque limitation is estab-
with § 27.1043 is shown in any condition lished for that engine under § 27.1521(e).
other than the most critical flight con-
(p) For each turbine engine, an indi-
dition with respect to cooling.
(c) A fuel pressure indicator, for each cator to indicate the functioning of the
pump-fed engine. powerplant ice protection system.
(d) A fuel quantity indicator, for each (q) An indicator for the fuel filter re-
fuel tank. quired by § 27.997 to indicate the occur-
(e) A manifold pressure indicator, for rence of contamination of the filter at
each altitude engine. the degree established by the applicant
(f) An oil temperature warning device in compliance with § 27.955.
to indicate when the temperature ex- (r) For each turbine engine, a warn-
ceeds a safe value in each main rotor ing means for the oil strainer or filter
drive gearbox (including any gearboxes required by § 27.1019, if it has no bypass,
essential to rotor phasing) having an to warn the pilot of the occurrence of
oil system independent of the engine contamination of the strainer or filter
oil system. before it reaches the capacity estab-
(g) An oil pressure warning device to lished in accordance with § 27.1019(a)(2).
indicate when the pressure falls below (s) An indicator to indicate the func-
a safe value in each pressure-lubricated tioning of any selectable or control-
main rotor drive gearbox (including
lable heater used to prevent ice clog-
any gearboxes essential to rotor phas-
ging of fuel system components.
ing) having an oil system independent
of the engine oil system. (t) For rotorcraft for which a 30-sec-
(h) An oil pressure indicator for each ond/2-minute OEI power rating is re-
engine. quested, a means must be provided to
(i) An oil quantity indicator for each alert the pilot when the engine is at
oil tank. the 30-second and the 2-minute OEI
(j) An oil temperature indicator for power levels, when the event begins,
each engine. and when the time interval expires.
(k) At least one tachometer to indi- (u) For each turbine engine utilizing
cate the r.p.m. of each engine and, as 30-second/2-minute OEI power, a device
applicable— or system must be provided for use by
(1) The r.p.m. of the single main ground personnel which—
rotor; (1) Automatically records each usage
(2) The common r.p.m. of any main and duration of power at the 30-second
rotors whose speeds cannot vary appre- and 2-minute OEI levels;
ciably with respect to each other; or (2) Permits retrieval of the recorded
(3) The r.p.m. of each main rotor data;
whose speed can vary appreciably with
(3) Can be reset only by ground main-
respect to that of another main rotor.
tenance personnel; and
(l) A low fuel warning device for each
fuel tank which feeds an engine. This (4) Has a means to verify proper oper-
device must— ation of the system or device.
(1) Provide a warning to the

flightcrew when approximately 10 min-
693
§ 27.1307 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–10 Edition)
(v) Warning or caution devices to sig- rotorcraft must be designed and in-
nal to the flight crew when ferromag- stalled so that—
netic particles are detected by the chip (1) The function is not adversely af-
detector required by § 27.1337(e). fected during and after the time the
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as rotorcraft is exposed to HIRF environ-
amended by Amdt. 27–9, 39 FR 35462, Oct. 1, ment I, as described in appendix D to
1974; Amdt. 27–23, 53 FR 34214, Sept. 2, 1988; this part;
Amdt. 27–29, 59 FR 47767, Sept. 16, 1994; Amdt. (2) The system automatically recov-
27–37, 64 FR 45095, Aug. 18, 1999; 64 FR 47563,
Aug. 31, 1999]
ers normal operation of that function,
in a timely manner, after the rotor-
§ 27.1307 Miscellaneous equipment. craft is exposed to HIRF environment
The following is the required mis- I, as described in appendix D to this
cellaneous equipment: part, unless this conflicts with other
(a) An approved seat for each occu- operational or functional requirements
pant. of that system;
(b) An approved safety belt for each (3) The system is not adversely af-
occupant. fected during and after the time the
(c) A master switch arrangement. rotorcraft is exposed to HIRF environ-
(d) An adequate source of electrical ment II, as described in appendix D to
energy, where electrical energy is nec- this part; and
essary for operation of the rotorcraft. (4) Each function required during op-
(e) Electrical protective devices. eration under visual flight rules is not
adversely affected during and after the
§ 27.1309 Equipment, systems, and in-
stallations. time the rotorcraft is exposed to HIRF
environment III, as described in appen-
(a) The equipment, systems, and in-
dix D to this part.
stallations whose functioning is re-
(b) Each electrical and electronic
quired by this subchapter must be de-
signed and installed to ensure that system that performs a function whose
they perform their intended functions failure would significantly reduce the
under any foreseeable operating condi- capability of the rotorcraft or the abil-
tion. ity of the flightcrew to respond to an
(b) The equipment, systems, and in- adverse operating condition must be
stallations of a multiengine rotorcraft designed and installed so the system is
must be designed to prevent hazards to not adversely affected when the equip-
the rotorcraft in the event of a prob- ment providing these functions is ex-
able malfunction or failure. posed to equipment HIRF test level 1
(c) The equipment, systems, and in- or 2, as described in appendix D to this
stallations of single-engine rotorcraft part.
must be designed to minimize hazards (c) Each electrical and electronic sys-
to the rotorcraft in the event of a prob- tem that performs a function whose
able malfunction or failure. failure would reduce the capability of
(d) In showing compliance with para- the rotorcraft or the ability of the
graph (a), (b), or (c) of this section, the flightcrew to respond to an adverse op-
effects of lightning strikes on the erating condition, must be designed
rotorcraft must be considered in ac- and installed so the system is not ad-
cordance with § 27.610.
versely affected when the equipment
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as providing these functions is exposed to
amended by Amdt. 27–21, 49 FR 44435, Nov. 6, equipment HIRF test level 3, as de-
1984] scribed in appendix D to this part.
§ 27.1317 High-intensity Radiated (d) Before December 1, 2012, an elec-
Fields (HIRF) Protection. trical or electronic system that per-
(a) Except as provided in paragraph forms a function whose failure would
(d) of this section, each electrical and prevent the continued safe flight and
electronic system that performs a func- landing of a rotorcraft may be designed
tion whose failure would prevent the and installed without meeting the pro-
continued safe flight and landing of the visions of paragraph (a) provided—
694
(1) The system has previously been colors prescribed in paragraphs (a)
shown to comply with special condi- through (c) of this section to avoid pos-
tions for HIRF, prescribed under § 21.16, sible confusion.
issued before December 1, 2007;
[Amdt. 27–11, 41 FR 55470, Dec. 20, 1976]
(2) The HIRF immunity characteris-
tics of the system have not changed § 27.1323 Airspeed indicating system.
since compliance with the special con-
ditions was demonstrated; and (a) Each airspeed indicating instru-
(3) The data used to demonstrate ment must be calibrated to indicate
compliance with the special conditions true airspeed (at sea level with a stand-
is provided. ard atmosphere) with a minimum prac-
ticable instrument calibration error
[Doc. No. FAA–2006–23657, 72 FR 44026, Aug. 6, when the corresponding pitot and stat-
2007] ic pressures are applied.
INSTRUMENTS: INSTALLATION (b) The airspeed indicating system
must be calibrated in flight at forward
§ 27.1321 Arrangement and visibility. speeds of 20 knots and over.
(a) Each flight, navigation, and pow- (c) At each forward speed above 80
erplant instrument for use by any pilot percent of the climbout speed, the air-
must be easily visible to him. speed indicator must indicate true air-
(b) For each multiengine rotorcraft, speed, at sea level with a standard at-
identical powerplant instruments must mosphere, to within an allowable in-
be located so as to prevent confusion as stallation error of not more than the
to which engine each instrument re- greater of—
lates. (1) ±3 percent of the calibrated air-
(c) Instrument panel vibration may speed; or
not damage, or impair the readability (2) Five knots.
or accuracy of, any instrument. (Secs. 313(a), 601, 603, 604, and 605 of the Fed-
(d) If a visual indicator is provided to eral Aviation Act of 1958 (49 U.S.C. 1354(a),
indicate malfunction of an instrument, 1421, 1423, 1424, and 1425); and sec. 6(c) of the
it must be effective under all probable Dept. of Transportation Act (49 U.S.C.
cockpit lighting conditions. 1655(c)))
(Secs. 313(a), 601, 603, 604, and 605 of the Fed- [Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as
eral Aviation Act of 1958 (49 U.S.C. 1354(a), amended by Amdt. 27–13, 42 FR 36972, July 18,
1421, 1423, 1424, and 1425); and sec. 6(c) of the 1977]
1655(c))) § 27.1325 Static pressure systems.
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964; 29 (a) Each instrument with static air
FR 17885, Dec. 17, 1964, as amended by Amdt. case connections must be vented so
27–13, 42 FR 36971, July 18, 1977] that the influence of rotorcraft speed,
the opening and closing of windows,
§ 27.1322 Warning, caution, and advi- airflow variation, and moisture or
sory lights. other foreign matter does not seriously
If warning, caution or advisory lights affect its accuracy.
are installed in the cockpit, they must, (b) Each static pressure port must be
unless otherwise approved by the Ad- designed and located in such manner
ministrator, be— that the correlation between air pres-
(a) Red, for warning lights (lights in- sure in the static pressure system and
dicating a hazard which may require true ambient atmospheric static pres-
immediate corrective action): sure is not altered when the rotorcraft
(b) Amber, for caution lights (lights encounters icing conditions. An anti-
indicating the possible need for future icing means or an alternate source of
corrective action); static pressure may be used in showing
(c) Green, for safe operation lights; compliance with this requirement. If
and the reading of the altimeter, when on
(d) Any other color, including white, the alternate static pressure system,
for lights not described in paragraphs differs from the reading of the altim-
(a) through (c) of this section, provided eter when on the primary static system
the color differs sufficiently from the by more than 50 feet, a correction card
695
§ 27.1327 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–10 Edition)
must be provided for the alternate be placarded in accordance with
static system. § 27.1547(e).
(c) Except as provided in paragraph (Secs. 313(a), 601, 603, 604, and 605 of the Fed-
(d) of this section, if the static pressure eral Aviation Act of 1958 (49 U.S.C. 1354(a),
system incorporates both a primary 1421, 1423, 1424, and 1425); and sec. 6(c) of the
and an alternate static pressure source, Dept. of Transportation Act (49 U.S.C.
the means for selecting one or the 1655(c)))
other source must be designed so [Amdt. 27–13, 42 FR 36972, July 18, 1977]
that—
(1) When either source is selected, the § 27.1329 Automatic pilot system.
other is blocked off; and (a) Each automatic pilot system
(2) Both sources cannot be blocked must be designed so that the automatic
off simultaneously. pilot can—
(d) For unpressurized rotorcraft, (1) Be sufficiently overpowered by
paragraph (c)(1) of this section does not one pilot to allow control of the rotor-
apply if it can be demonstrated that craft; and
the static pressure system calibration, (2) Be readily and positively dis-
when either static pressure source is engaged by each pilot to prevent it
selected is not changed by the other from interfering with control of the
static pressure source being open or rotorcraft.
blocked. (b) Unless there is automatic syn-
(Secs. 313(a), 601, 603, 604, and 605 of the Fed- chronization, each system must have a
eral Aviation Act of 1958 (49 U.S.C. 1354(a), means to readily indicate to the pilot
1421, 1423, 1424, and 1425); and sec. 6(c) of the the alignment of the actuating device
Dept. of Transportation Act (49 U.S.C. in relation to the control system it op-
1655(c))) erates.
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as (c) Each manually operated control
amended by Amdt. 27–13, 42 FR 36972, July 18, for the system’s operation must be
1977] readily accessible to the pilots.
(d) The system must be designed and
§ 27.1327 Magnetic direction indicator. adjusted so that, within the range of
(a) Except as provided in paragraph adjustment available to the pilot, it
(b) of this section— cannot produce hazardous loads on the
(1) Each magnetic direction indicator rotorcraft or create hazardous devi-
must be installed so that its accuracy ations in the flight path under any
is not excessively affected by the flight condition appropriate to its use,
rotorcraft’s vibration or magnetic either during normal operation or in
fields; and the event of a malfunction, assuming
(2) The compensated installation may that corrective action begins within a
not have a deviation, in level flight, reasonable period of time.
greater than 10 degrees on any heading. (e) If the automatic pilot integrates
(b) A magnetic nonstabilized direc- signals from auxiliary controls or fur-
tion indicator may deviate more than nishes signals for operation of other
10 degrees due to the operation of elec- equipment, there must be positive
trically powered systems such as elec- interlocks and sequencing of engage-
trically heated windshields if either a ment to prevent improper operation.
magnetic stabilized direction indi- (f) If the automatic pilot system can
cator, which does not have a deviation be coupled to airborne navigation
in level flight greater than 10 degrees equipment, means must be provided to
on any heading, or a gyroscopic direc- indicate to the pilots the current mode
tion indicator, is installed. Deviations of operation. Selector switch position
of a magnetic nonstabilized direction is not acceptable as a means of indica-
indicator of more than 10 degrees must tion.
[Amdt. 27–21, 49 FR 44435, Nov. 6, 1984, as

1998]
696
§ 27.1335 Flight director systems. (d) Oil quantity indicator. There must
be means to indicate the quantity of
If a flight director system is in-
oil in each tank—
stalled, means must be provided to in-
(1) On the ground (including during
dicate to the flight crew its current
the filling of each tank); and
mode of operation. Selector switch po-
(2) In flight, if there is an oil transfer
sition is not acceptable as a means of
system or reserve oil supply system.
indication.
(e) Rotor drive system transmissions
(Secs. 313(a), 601, 603, 604, and 605 of the Fed- and gearboxes utilizing ferromagnetic
eral Aviation Act of 1958 (49 U.S.C. 1354(a), materials must be equipped with chip
1421, 1423, 1424, and 1425); and sec. 6(c) of the detectors designed to indicate the pres-
ence of ferromagnetic particles result-
1655(c)))
ing from damage or excessive wear.
[Amdt. 27–13, 42 FR 36972, July 18, 1977] Chip detectors must—
(1) Be designed to provide a signal to
§ 27.1337 Powerplant instruments. the device required by § 27.1305(v) and
(a) Instruments and instrument lines. be provided with a means to allow
(1) Each powerplant instrument line crewmembers to check, in flight, the
must meet the requirements of §§ 27.- function of each detector electrical cir-
961 and 27.993. cuit and signal.
(2) Each line carrying flammable (2) [Reserved]
fluids under pressure must— (Secs. 313(a), 601, and 603, 72 Stat. 752, 775, 49
(i) Have restricting orifices or other U.S.C. 1354(a), 1421, and 1423; sec. 6(c) 49
safety devices at the source of pressure U.S.C. 1655(c))
to prevent the escape of excessive fluid
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as
if the line fails; and amended by Amdt. 27–12, 42 FR 15046, Mar. 17,
(ii) Be installed and located so that 1977; Amdt. 27–23, 53 FR 34214, Sept. 2, 1988;
the escape of fluids would not create a Amdt. 27–37, 64 FR 45095, Aug. 18, 1999]
hazard.
(3) Each powerplant instrument that ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT
utilizes flammable fluids must be in-
stalled and located so that the escape § 27.1351 General.
of fluid would not create a hazard. (a) Electrical system capacity. Elec-
(b) Fuel quantity indicator. Each fuel trical equipment must be adequate for
quantity indicator must be installed to its intended use. In addition—
clearly indicate to the flight crew the (1) Electric power sources, their
quantity of fuel in each tank in flight. transmission cables, and their associ-
In addition— ated control and protective devices
(1) Each fuel quantity indicator must must be able to furnish the required
be calibrated to read ‘‘zero’’ during power at the proper voltage to each
level flight when the quantity of fuel load circuit essential for safe oper-
remaining in the tank is equal to the ation; and
unusable fuel supply determined under (2) Compliance with paragraph (a)(1)
§ 27.959; of this section must be shown by an
(2) When two or more tanks are close- electrical load analysis, or by elec-
ly interconnected by a gravity feed sys- trical measurements that take into ac-
tem and vented, and when it is impos- count the electrical loads applied to
sible to feed from each tank sepa- the electrical system, in probable com-
rately, at least one fuel quantity indi- binations and for probable durations.
cator must be installed; and (b) Function. For each electrical sys-
(3) Each exposed sight gauge used as tem, the following apply:
a fuel quantity indicator must be pro- (1) Each system, when installed,
tected against damage. must be—
(c) Fuel flowmeter system. If a fuel (i) Free from hazards in itself, in its
flowmeter system is installed, each method of operation, and in its effects
metering component must have a on other parts of the rotorcraft; and
means for bypassing the fuel supply if (ii) Protected from fuel, oil, water,
malfunction of that component se- other detrimental substances, and me-

verely restricts fuel flow. chanical damage.
697
§ 27.1353 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–10 Edition)
(2) Electric power sources must func- phase sequence, can supply power to
tion properly when connected in com- the rotorcraft’s electrical system.
bination or independently. (Secs. 313(a), 601, 603, 604, and 605 of the Fed-
(3) No failure or malfunction of any eral Aviation Act of 1958 (49 U.S.C. 1354(a),
source may impair the ability of any 1421, 1423, 1424, and 1425); and sec. 6(c) of the
remaining source to supply load cir- Dept. of Transportation Act (49 U.S.C.
cuits essential for safe operation. 1655(c)))
(4) Each electric power source control [Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as
must allow the independent operation amended by Amdt. 27–11, 41 FR 55470, Dec. 20,
1976; Amdt. 27–13, 42 FR 36972, July 18, 1977]
of each source.
(c) Generating system. There must be § 27.1353 Storage battery design and
at least one generator if the system installation.
supplies power to load circuits essen- (a) Each storage battery must be de-
tial for safe operation. In addition— signed and installed as prescribed in
(1) Each generator must be able to this section.
deliver its continuous rated power; (b) Safe cell temperatures and pres-
(2) Generator voltage control equip- sures must be maintained during any
ment must be able to dependably regu- probable charging and discharging con-
late each generator output within dition. No uncontrolled increase in cell
rated limits; temperature may result when the bat-
(3) Each generator must have a re- tery is recharged (after previous com-
verse current cutout designed to dis- plete discharge)—
connect the generator from the battery (1) At maximum regulated voltage or
and from the other generators when power;
enough reverse current exists to dam- (2) During a flight of maximum dura-
age that generator; and tion; and
(3) Under the most adverse cooling
(4) Each generator must have an
condition likely to occur in service.
overvoltage control designed and in-
(c) Compliance with paragraph (b) of
stalled to prevent damage to the elec-
this section must be shown by test un-
trical system, or to equipment supplied less experience with similar batteries
by the electrical system, that could re- and installations has shown that main-
sult if that generator were to develop taining safe cell temperatures and
an overvoltage condition. pressures presents no problem.
(d) Instruments. There must be means (d) No explosive or toxic gases emit-
to indicate to appropriate crew- ted by any battery in normal oper-
members the electric power system ation, or as the result of any probable
quantities essential for safe operation malfunction in the charging system or
of the system. In addition— battery installation, may accumulate
(1) For direct current systems, an in hazardous quantities within the
ammeter that can be switched into rotorcraft.
each generator feeder may be used; and (e) No corrosive fluids or gases that
(2) If there is only one generator, the may escape from the battery may dam-
ammeter may be in the battery feeder. age surrounding structures or adjacent
(e) External power. If provisions are essential equipment.
(f) Each nickel cadmium battery in-
made for connecting external power to
stallation capable of being used to
the rotorcraft, and that external power
start an engine or auxiliary power unit
can be electrically connected to equip-
must have provisions to prevent any
ment other than that used for engine hazardous effect on structure or essen-
starting, means must be provided to tial systems that may be caused by the
ensure that no external power supply maximum amount of heat the battery
having a reverse polarity, or a reverse can generate during a short circuit of
the battery or of its individual cells.
(g) Nickel cadmium battery installa-
tions capable of being used to start an
engine or auxiliary power unit must

have—
698
(1) A system to control the charging spare fuses of each rating, whichever is
rate of the battery automatically so as greater.
to prevent battery overheating; (Secs. 313(a), 601, 603, 604, and 605 of the Fed-
(2) A battery temperature sensing eral Aviation Act of 1958 (49 U.S.C. 1354(a),
and over-temperature warning system 1421, 1423, 1424, and 1425); and sec. 6(c) of the
with a means for disconnecting the Dept. of Transportation Act (49 U.S.C.
battery from its charging source in the 1655(c)))
event of an over-temperature condi- [Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964; 29
tion; or FR 17885, Dec. 17, 1964, as amended by Amdt.
(3) A battery failure sensing and 27–13, 42 FR 36972, July 18, 1977]
warning system with a means for dis-
§ 27.1361 Master switch.
connecting the battery from its charg-
ing source in the event of battery fail- (a) There must be a master switch ar-
ure. rangement to allow ready disconnec-
tion of each electric power source from
(Secs. 313(a), 601, 603, 604, and 605 of the Fed- the main bus. The point of disconnec-
tion must be adjacent to the sources
controlled by the switch.
1655(c))) (b) Load circuits may be connected so
that they remain energized after the
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as switch is opened, if they are protected
amended by Amdt. 27–13, 42 FR 36972, July 18, by circuit protective devices, rated at
1977; Amdt. 27–14, 43 FR 2325, Jan. 16, 1978]
five amperes or less, adjacent to the
electric power source.
§ 27.1357 Circuit protective devices.
(c) The master switch or its controls
(a) Protective devices, such as fuses must be installed so that the switch is
or circuit breakers, must be installed easily discernible and accessible to a
in each electrical circuit other than— crewmember in flight.
(1) The main circuits of starter mo-
tors; and § 27.1365 Electric cables.
(2) Circuits in which no hazard is pre- (a) Each electric connecting cable
sented by their omission. must be of adequate capacity.
(b) A protective device for a circuit (b) Each cable that would overheat in
essential to flight safety may not be the event of circuit overload or fault
used to protect any other circuit. must be at least flame resistant and
(c) Each resettable circuit protective may not emit dangerous quantities of
device (‘‘trip free’’ device in which the toxic fumes.
tripping mechanism cannot be over- (c) Insulation on electrical wire and
ridden by the operating control) must cable installed in the rotorcraft must
be designed so that— be self-extinguishing when tested in ac-
(1) A manual operation is required to cordance with Appendix F, Part I(a)(3),
restore service after trippling; and of part 25 of this chapter.
(2) If an overload or circuit fault ex- [Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as
ists, the device will open the circuit re- amended by Amdt. 27–35, 63 FR 43285, Aug. 12,
gardless of the position of the oper- 1998]
ating control.
§ 27.1367 Switches.
(d) If the ability to reset a circuit
breaker or replace a fuse is essential to Each switch must be—
safety in flight, that circuit breaker or (a) Able to carry its rated current;
fuse must be located and identified so (b) Accessible to the crew; and
that it can be readily reset or replaced (c) Labeled as to operation and the
in flight. circuit controlled.
(e) If fuses are used, there must be
one spare of each rating, or 50 percent LIGHTS
§ 27.1381 Instrument lights.

The instrument lights must—
699
§ 27.1383 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–10 Edition)
(a) Make each instrument, switch, § 27.1387 Position light system dihe-
and other devices for which they are dral angles.
provided easily readable; and (a) Except as provided in paragraph
(b) Be installed so that— (e) of this section, each forward and
(1) Their direct rays are shielded rear position light must, as installed,
from the pilot’s eyes; and show unbroken light within the dihe-
(2) No objectionable reflections are dral angles described in this section.
visible to the pilot. (b) Dihedral angle L (left) is formed
by two intersecting vertical planes, the
§ 27.1383 Landing lights. first parallel to the longitudinal axis of
(a) Each required landing or hovering the rotorcraft, and the other at 110 de-
light must be approved. grees to the left of the first, as viewed
(b) Each landing light must be in- when looking forward along the longi-
stalled so that— tudinal axis.
(1) No objectionable glare is visible (c) Dihedral angle R (right) is formed
to the pilot; by two intersecting vertical planes, the
(2) The pilot is not adversely affected first parallel to the longitudinal axis of
by halation; and the rotorcraft, and the other at 110 de-
(3) It provides enough light for night grees to the right of the first, as viewed
operation, including hovering and land- when looking forward along the longi-
ing. tudinal axis.
(c) At least one separate switch must (d) Dihedral angle A (aft) is formed
be provided, as applicable— by two intersecting vertical planes
(1) For each separately installed making angles of 70 degrees to the
landing light; and right and to the left, respectively, to a
(2) For each group of landing lights vertical plane passing through the lon-
installed at a common location. gitudinal axis, as viewed when looking
aft along the longitudinal axis.
§ 27.1385 Position light system installa- (e) If the rear position light, when
tion. mounted as far aft as practicable in ac-
(a) General. Each part of each posi- cordance with § 25.1385(c), cannot show
tion light system must meet the appli- unbroken light within dihedral angle A
cable requirements of this section, and (as defined in paragraph (d) of this sec-
each system as a whole must meet the tion), a solid angle or angles of ob-
requirements of §§ 27.1387 through structed visibility totaling not more
27.1397. than 0.04 steradians is allowable within
that dihedral angle, if such solid angle
(b) Forward position lights. Forward
is within a cone whose apex is at the
position lights must consist of a red
rear position light and whose elements
and a green light spaced laterally as
make an angle of 30° with a vertical
far apart as practicable and installed
line passing through the rear position
forward on the rotorcraft so that, with
light.
the rotorcraft in the normal flying po-
sition, the red light is on the left side (49 U.S.C. 1655(c))
and the green light is on the right side. [Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as
Each light must be approved. amended by Amdt. 27–7, 36 FR 21278, Nov. 5,
(c) Rear position light. The rear posi- 1971]
tion light must be a white light mount-
ed as far aft as practicable, and must § 27.1389 Position light distribution
be approved. and intensities.
(d) Circuit. The two forward position (a) General. the intensities prescribed
lights and the rear position light must in this section must be provided by new
make a single circuit. equipment with light covers and color
(e) Light covers and color filters. Each filters in place. Intensities must be de-
light cover or color filter must be at termined with the light source oper-
least flame resistant and may not ating at a steady value equal to the av-
change color or shape or lose any ap- erage luminous output of the source at
preciable light transmission during the normal operating voltage of the

normal use. rotorcraft. The light distribution and
700
intensity of each position light must Angle from right or left
Dihedral angle (light in- of longitudinal axis, Intensity
meet the requirements of paragraph (b) cluded) measured from dead (candles)
of this section. ahead
(b) Forward and rear position lights. L and R (forward red 10° to 10° ................... 40
The light distribution and intensities and green). 10° to 20° ................... 30
of forward and rear position lights 20° to 110° ................. 5
A (rear white) .............. 110° to 180° ............... 20
must be expressed in terms of min-
imum intensities in the horizontal
plane, minimum intensities in any § 27.1393 Minimum intensities in any
vertical plane of forward and rear
vertical plane, and maximum inten- position lights.
sities in overlapping beams, within di-
hedral angles L, R, and A, and must Each position light intensity must
equal or exceed the applicable values in
meet the following requirements:
the following table:
(1) Intensities in the horizontal plane.
Each intensity in the horizontal plane Angle above or below the horizontal plane Intensity, l
(the plane containing the longitudinal 0° ......................................................................... 1.00
axis of the rotorcraft and perpendicular 0° to 5° ................................................................ 0.90
to the plane of symmetry of the rotor- 5° to 10° .............................................................. 0.80
10° to 15° ............................................................ 0.70
craft) must equal or exceed the values 15° to 20° ............................................................ 0.50
in § 27.1391. 20° to 30° ............................................................ 0.30
(2) Intensities in any vertical plane. 30° to 40° ............................................................ 0.10
40° to 90° ............................................................ 0.05
Each intensity in any vertical plane
(the plane perpendicular to the hori-
zontal plane) must equal or exceed the § 27.1395 Maximum intensities in over-
lapping beams of forward and rear
appropriate value in § 27.1393, where I is position lights.
the minimum intensity prescribed in
No position light intensity may ex-
§ 27.1391 for the corresponding angles in
ceed the applicable values in the fol-
the horizontal plane.
lowing table, except as provided in
(3) Intensities in overlaps between adja- § 27.1389(b)(3).
cent signals. No intensity in any over-
lap between adjacent signals may ex- Maximum Intensity
ceed the values in § 27.1395, except that Overlaps
Area A Area B
higher intensities in overlaps may be (candles) (candles)
used with main beam intensities sub- Green in dihedral angle L ............. 10 1
stantially greater than the minima Red in dihedral angle R ................ 10 1
Green in dihedral angle A ............. 5 1
specified in §§ 27.1391 and 27.1393, if the Red in dihedral angle A ................ 5 1
overlap intensities in relation to the Rear white in dihedral angle L ...... 5 1
main beam intensities do not adversely Rear white in dihedral angle R ..... 5 1
affect signal clarity. When the peak in-
tensity of the forward position lights is Where—
greater than 100 candles, the maximum (a) Area A includes all directions in
overlap intensities between them may the adjacent dihedral angle that pass
exceed the values in § 27.1395 if the through the light source and intersect
overlap intensity in Area A is not more the common boundary plane at more
than 10 percent of peak position light than 10 degrees but less than 20 de-
intensity and the overlap intensity in grees, and
Area B is not more than 2.5 percent of (b) Area B includes all directions in
the adjacent dihedral angle that pass
peak position light intensity.
through the light source and intersect
§ 27.1391 Minimum intensities in the the common boundary plane at more
horizontal plane of forward and than 20 degrees.
rear position lights.
§ 27.1397 Color specifications.
Each position light intensity must
Each position light color must have
equal or exceed the applicable values in the applicable International Commis-
the following table: sion on Illumination chromaticity co-

ordinates as follows:
701
§ 27.1399 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–10 Edition)
(a) Aviation red— be solid angles of obstructed visibility
totaling not more than 0.5 steradians.
y is not greater than 0.335; and
z is not greater than 0.002. (c) Flashing characteristics. The ar-
rangement of the system, that is, the
(b) Aviation green— number of light sources, beam width,
x is not greater than 0.440¥0.320y; speed of rotation, and other character-
x is not greater than y¥0.170; and istics, must give an effective flash fre-
y is not less than 0.390¥0.170x. quency of not less than 40, nor more
than 100, cycles per minute. The effec-
(c) Aviation white— tive flash frequency is the frequency at
x is not less than 0.300 and not greater than which the rotorcraft’s complete anti-
0.540; collision light system is observed from
y is not less than x¥0.040’’ or yc¥0.010, a distance, and applies to each sector
whichever is the smaller; and of light including any overlaps that
y is not greater than x+0.020 nor
exist when the system consists of more
0.636¥0.400x;
Where yc is the y coordinate of the Planck-
than one light source. In overlaps,
ian radiator for the value of x considered. flash frequencies may exceed 100, but
not 180, cycles per minute.
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as
(d) Color. Each anticollision light
amended by Amdt. 27–6, 36 FR 12972, July 10,
1971] must be aviation red and must meet
the applicable requirements of § 27.1397.
§ 27.1399 Riding light. (e) Light intensity. The minimum
light intensities in any vertical plane,
(a) Each riding light required for
measured with the red filter (if used)
water operation must be installed so
and expressed in terms of ‘‘effective’’
that it can—
intensities, must meet the require-
(1) Show a white light for at least
ments of paragraph (f) of this section.
two nautical miles at night under clear
The following relation must be as-
atmospheric conditions; and
sumed:
(2) Show a maximum practicable un-
broken light with the rotorcraft on the t2
water. ∫t I (t )dt
(b) Externally hung lights may be Ie = 1
used. 0.2 + (t 2 − t1 )
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as where:
Ie=effective intensity (candles).
1968]
I(t)=instantaneous intensity as a function of
time.
§ 27.1401 Anticollision light system. t2¥t1=flash time interval (seconds).
(a) General. If certification for night Normally, the maximum value of effective
operation is requested, the rotorcraft intensity is obtained when t2 and t1 are cho-
must have an anticollision light sys- sen so that the effective intensity is equal to
tem that— the instantaneous intensity at t2 and t1.
(1) Consists of one or more approved (f) Minimum effective intensities for
anticollision lights located so that anticollision light. Each anticollision
their emitted light will not impair the light effective intensity must equal or
crew’s vision or detract from the con- exceed the applicable values in the fol-
spicuity of the position lights; and lowing table:
(2) Meets the requirements of para-
graphs (b) through (f) of this section. Effective
Angle above or below the horizontal plane intensity
(b) Field of coverage. The system must (candles)
consist of enough lights to illuminate
0° to 5° ................................................................ 150
the vital areas around the rotorcraft, 5° to 10° .............................................................. 90
considering the physical configuration 10° to 20° ............................................................ 30
and flight characteristics of the rotor- 20° to 30° ............................................................ 15
craft. The field of coverage must ex-
tend in each direction within at least
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as

30 degrees below the horizontal plane of amended by Amdt. 27–6, 36 FR 12972, July 10,
the rotorcraft, except that there may 1971; Amdt. 27–10, 41 FR 5290, Feb. 5, 1976]
702
EC28SE91.086</MATH>
SAFETY EQUIPMENT § 27.1419 Ice protection.
§ 27.1411 General. (a) To obtain certification for flight
into icing conditions, compliance with
(a) Required safety equipment to be this section must be shown.
used by the crew in an emergency, such
(b) It must be demonstrated that the
as flares and automatic liferaft re-
rotorcraft can be safely operated in the
leases, must be readily accessible.
continuous maximum and intermittent
(b) Stowage provisions for required
maximum icing conditions determined
safety equipment must be furnished
and must— under appendix C of Part 29 of this
(1) Be arranged so that the equip- chapter within the rotorcraft altitude
ment is directly accessible and its loca- envelope. An analysis must be per-
tion is obvious; and formed to establish, on the basis of the
(2) Protect the safety equipment rotorcraft’s operational needs, the ade-
from damage caused by being subjected quacy of the ice protection system for
to the inertia loads specified in § 27.561. the various components of the rotor-
craft.
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as (c) In addition to the analysis and
1976]
physical evaluation prescribed in para-
graph (b) of this section, the effective-
§ 27.1413 Safety belts. ness of the ice protection system and
its components must be shown by
Each safety belt must be equipped
flight tests of the rotorcraft or its com-
with a metal to metal latching device.
ponents in measured natural atmos-
(Secs. 313, 314, and 601 through 610 of the Fed- pheric icing conditions and by one or
eral Aviation Act of 1958 (49 U.S.C. 1354, 1355, more of the following tests as found
and 1421 through 1430) and sec. 6(c), Dept. of
necessary to determine the adequacy of
Transportation Act (49 U.S.C. 1655(c)))
the ice protection system:
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as (1) Laboratory dry air or simulated
amended by Amdt. 27–15, 43 FR 46233, Oct. 5,
icing tests, or a combination of both, of
1978; Amdt. 27–21, 49 FR 44435, Nov. 6, 1984]
the components or models of the com-
§ 27.1415 Ditching equipment. ponents.
(2) Flight dry air tests of the ice pro-
(a) Emergency flotation and sig-
tection system as a whole, or its indi-
naling equipment required by any oper-
ating rule in this chapter must meet vidual components.
the requirements of this section. (3) Flight tests of the rotorcraft or
(b) Each raft and each life preserver its components in measured simulated
must be approved and must be installed icing conditions.
so that it is readily available to the (d) The ice protection provisions of
crew and passengers. The storage pro- this section are considered to be appli-
visions for life preservers must accom- cable primarily to the airframe. Power-
modate one life preserver for each oc- plant installation requirements are
cupant for which certification for contained in Subpart E of this part.
ditching is requested. (e) A means must be indentified or
(c) Each raft released automatically provided for determining the formation
or by the pilot must be attached to the of ice on critical parts of the rotor-
rotorcraft by a line to keep it alongside craft. Unless otherwise restricted, the
the rotorcraft. This line must be weak means must be available for nighttime
enough to break before submerging the as well as daytime operation. The
empty raft to which it is attached. rotorcraft flight manual must describe
(d) Each signaling device must be the means of determining ice forma-
free from hazard in its operation and tion and must contain information nec-
must be installed in an accessible loca- essary for safe operation of the rotor-
tion. craft in icing conditions.
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as

[Amdt. 27–19, 48 FR 4389, Jan. 31, 1983]
1976]
703
§ 27.1435 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–10 Edition)
§ 27.1435 Hydraulic systems. flight deck when directed to those sta-

(a) Design. Each hydraulic system tions; or
and its elements must withstand, with- (2) By installing a continually ener-
out yielding, any structural loads ex- gized or voice-actuated lip microphone
pected in addition to hydraulic loads. at the first and second pilot stations.
(b) Tests. Each system must be sub- The microphone specified in this
stantiated by proof pressure tests. paragraph must be so located and, if
When proof tested, no part of any sys- necessary, the preamplifiers and filters
tem may fail, malfunction, or experi- of the recorder must be adjusted or
ence a permanent set. The proof load of supplemented so that the recorded
each system must be at least 1.5 times communications are intelligible when
the maximum operating pressure of recorded under flight cockpit noise
that system. conditions and played back. The level
(c) Accumulators. No hydraulic accu- of intelligibility must be approved by
mulator or pressurized reservoir may the Administrator. Repeated aural or
be installed on the engine side of any visual playback of the record may be
firewall unless it is an integral part of used in evaluating intelligibility.
an engine. (c) Each cockpit voice recorder must
be installed so that the part of the
§ 27.1457 Cockpit voice recorders. communication or audio signals speci-
(a) Each cockpit voice recorder re- fied in paragraph (a) of this section ob-
quired by the operating rules of this tained from each of the following
chapter must be approved, and must be sources is recorded on a separate chan-
installed so that it will record the fol- nel:
lowing: (1) For the first channel, from each
(1) Voice communications trans- microphone, headset, or speaker used
mitted from or received in the rotor- at the first pilot station.
craft by radio. (2) For the second channel, from each
(2) Voice communications of flight microphone, headset, or speaker used
crewmembers on the flight deck. at the second pilot station.
(3) Voice communications of flight (3) For the third channel, from the
crewmembers on the flight deck, using cockpit-mounted area microphone, or
the rotorcraft’s interphone system. the continually energized or voice-ac-
(4) Voice or audio signals identifying tuated lip microphone at the first and
navigation or approach aids introduced second pilot stations.
into a headset or speaker. (4) For the fourth channel, from:
(5) Voice communications of flight (i) Each microphone, headset, or
crewmembers using the passenger loudspeaker used at the stations for the
speaker system, if there is such a sys- third and fourth crewmembers; or
tem, and if the fourth channel is avail- (ii) If the stations specified in para-
able in accordance with the require- graph (c)(4)(i) of this section are not re-
ments of paragraph (c)(4)(ii) of this sec- quired or if the signal at such a station
tion. is picked up by another channel, each
(6) If datalink communication equip- microphone on the flight deck that is
ment is installed, all datalink commu- used with the passenger loudspeaker
nications, using an approved data mes- system if its signals are not picked up
sage set. Datalink messages must be by another channel.
recorded as the output signal from the (iii) Each microphone on the flight
communications unit that translates deck that is used with the rotorcraft’s
the signal into usable data. loudspeaker system if its signals are
(b) The recording requirements of not picked up by another channel.
paragraph (a)(2) of this section may be (d) Each cockpit voice recorder must
met: be installed so that:
(1) By installing a cockpit-mounted (1)(i) It receives its electrical power
area microphone located in the best po- from the bus that provides the max-
sition for recording voice communica- imum reliability for operation of the
tions originating at the first and sec- cockpit voice recorder without jeopard-
ond pilot stations and voice commu- izing service to essential or emergency
nications of other crewmembers on the loads.
704
(ii) It remains powered for as long as flight data recorders under this part
possible without jeopardizing emer- are met.
gency operation of the airplane. [Amdt. 27–22, 53 FR 26144, July 11, 1988, as
(2) There is an automatic means to amended by Amdt. 27–43, 73 FR 12563, Mar. 7,
simultaneously stop the recorder and 2008; 74 FR 32800, July 9, 2009]
prevent each erasure feature from func-
tioning, within 10 minutes after crash § 27.1459 Flight data recorders.
impact; (a) Each flight recorder required by
(3) There is an aural or visual means the operating rules of Subchapter G of
for preflight checking of the recorder this chapter must be installed so that:
for proper operation; (1) It is supplied with airspeed, alti-
tude, and directional data obtained
(4) Whether the cockpit voice re-
from sources that meet the accuracy
corder and digital flight data recorder
requirements of §§ 27.1323, 27.1325, and
are installed in separate boxes or in a
27.1327 of this part, as applicable;
combination unit, no single electrical (2) The vertical acceleration sensor is
failure external to the recorder may rigidly attached, and located longitu-
disable both the cockpit voice recorder dinally within the approved center of
and the digital flight data recorder; gravity limits of the rotorcraft;
and (3)(i) It receives its electrical power
(5) It has an independent power from the bus that provides the max-
source— imum reliability for operation of the
(i) That provides 10 ± 1 minutes of flight data recorder without jeopard-
electrical power to operate both the izing service to essential or emergency
cockpit voice recorder and cockpit- loads.
mounted area microphone; (ii) It remains powered for as long as
(ii) That is located as close as prac- possible without jeopardizing emer-
ticable to the cockpit voice recorder; gency operation of the airplane.
and (4) There is an aural or visual means
for preflight checking of the recorder
(iii) To which the cockpit voice re-
for proper recording of data in the stor-
corder and cockpit-mounted area
age medium;
microphone are switched automati- (5) Except for recorders powered sole-
cally in the event that all other power ly by the engine-driven electrical gen-
to the cockpit voice recorder is inter- erator system, there is an automatic
rupted either by normal shutdown or means to simultaneously stop a re-
by any other loss of power to the elec- corder that has a data erasure feature
trical power bus. and prevent each erasure feature from
(e) The record container must be lo- functioning, within 10 minutes after
cated and mounted to minimize the any crash impact; and
probability of rupture of the container (6) Whether the cockpit voice re-
as a result of crash impact and con- corder and digital flight data recorder
sequent heat damage to the record are installed in separate boxes or in a
from fire. combination unit, no single electrical
(f) If the cockpit voice recorder has a failure external to the recorder may
bulk erasure device, the installation disable both the cockpit voice recorder
must be designed to minimize the prob- and the digital flight data recorder.
ability of inadvertent operation and ac- (b) Each nonejectable recorder con-
tuation of the device during crash im- tainer must be located and mounted so
as to minimize the probability of con-
pact.
tainer rupture resulting from crash im-
(g) Each recorder container must be
pact and subsequent damage to the
either bright orange or bright yellow. record from fire.
(h) When both a cockpit voice re- (c) A correlation must be established
corder and a flight data recorder are between the flight recorder readings of
required by the operating rules, one airspeed, altitude, and heading and the
combination unit may be installed, corresponding readings (taking into ac-
provided that all other requirements of count correction factors) of the first pi-
this section and the requirements for lot’s instruments. This correlation
705
§ 27.1461 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–10 Edition)
must cover the airspeed range over occupants nor adversely affect contin-
which the aircraft is to be operated, ued safe flight.
the range of altitude to which the air-
[Amdt. 27–2, 33 FR 964, Jan. 26, 1968]
craft is limited, and 360 degrees of
heading. Correlation may be estab-
lished on the ground as appropriate. Subpart G—Operating Limitations
(d) Each recorder container must: and Information
(1) Be either bright orange or bright
yellow; § 27.1501 General.
(2) Have a reflective tape affixed to (a) Each operating limitation speci-
its external surface to facilitate its lo- fied in §§ 27.1503 through 27.1525 and
cation under water; and other limitations and information nec-
(3) Have an underwater locating de- essary for safe operation must be es-
vice, when required by the operating tablished.
rules of this chapter, on or adjacent to (b) The operating limitations and
the container which is secured in such other information necessary for safe
a manner that they are not likely to be operation must be made available to
separated during crash impact. the crewmembers as prescribed in
(e) When both a cockpit voice re- §§ 27.1541 through 27.1589.
corder and a flight data recorder are (Secs. 313(a), 601, 603, 604, and 605 of the Fed-
required by the operating rules, one eral Aviation Act of 1958 (49 U.S.C. 1354(a),
combination unit may be installed, 1421, 1423, 1424, and 1425); and sec. 6(c) of the
provided that all other requirements of Dept. of Transportation Act (49 U.S.C.
this section and the requirements for 1655(c)))
cockpit voice recorders under this part [Amdt. 27–14, 43 FR 2325, Jan. 16, 1978]
are met.
OPERATING LIMITATIONS
[Amdt. 27–22, 53 FR 26144, July 11, 1988, as
2008; 74 FR 32800, July 9, 2009]
§ 27.1503 Airspeed limitations: general.
(a) An operating speed range must be
§ 27.1461 Equipment containing high established.
energy rotors. (b) When airspeed limitations are a
(a) Equipment containing high en- function of weight, weight distribution,
ergy rotors must meet paragraph (b), altitude, rotor speed, power, or other
(c), or (d) of this section. factors, airspeed limitations cor-
(b) High energy rotors contained in responding with the critical combina-
equipment must be able to withstand tions of these factors must be estab-
damage caused by malfunctions, vibra- lished.
tion, abnormal speeds, and abnormal
temperatures. In addition— § 27.1505 Never-exceed speed.
(1) Auxiliary rotor cases must be able (a) The never-exceed speed, VNE, must
to contain damage caused by the fail- be established so that it is—
ure of high energy rotor blades; and (1) Not less than 40 knots (CAS); and
(2) Equipment control devices, sys- (2) Not more than the lesser of—
tems, and instrumentation must rea- (i) 0.9 times the maximum forward
sonably ensure that no operating limi- speeds established under § 27.309;
tations affecting the integrity of high (ii) 0.9 times the maximum speed
energy rotors will be exceeded in serv- shown under §§ 27.251 and 27.629; or
ice. (iii) 0.9 times the maximum speed
(c) It must be shown by test that substantiated for advancing blade tip
equipment containing high energy ro- mach number effects.
tors can contain any failure of a high (b) VNE may vary with altitude,
energy rotor that occurs at the highest r.p.m., temperature, and weight, if—
speed obtainable with the normal speed (1) No more than two of these vari-
control devices inoperative. ables (or no more than two instru-
(d) Equipment containing high en- ments integrating more than one of
ergy rotors must be located where these variables) are used at one time;
rotor failure will neither endanger the and
706
(2) The ranges of these variables (or (i) The minimum shown during the
of the indications on instruments inte- type tests; and
grating more than one of these vari- (ii) The minimum determined by de-
ables) are large enough to allow an sign substantiation; and
operationally practical and safe vari- (2) Not more than a value determined
ation of VNE. under § 27.33(a)(1) and (b)(1).
(c) For helicopters, a stabilized
power-off VNE denoted as VNE (power- § 27.1519 Weight and center of gravity.
off) may be established at a speed less
than VNE established pursuant to para- The weight and center of gravity lim-
graph (a) of this section, if the fol- itations determined under §§ 27.25 and
lowing conditions are met: 27.27, respectively, must be established
(1) VNE (power-off) is not less than a as operating limitations.
speed midway between the power-on [Amdt. 27–2, 33 FR 965, Jan. 26, 1968, as
VNE and the speed used in meeting the amended by Amdt. 27–21, 49 FR 44435, Nov. 6,
requirements of— 1984]
(i) § 27.65(b) for single engine heli-
copters; and § 27.1521 Powerplant limitations.
(ii) § 27.67 for multiengine heli- (a) General. The powerplant limita-
copters. tions prescribed in this section must be
(2) VNE (power-off) is— established so that they do not exceed
(i) A constant airspeed; the corresponding limits for which the
(ii) A constant amount less than
engines are type certificated.
power-on VNE; or
(iii) A constant airspeed for a portion (b) Takeoff operation. The powerplant
of the altitude range for which certifi- takeoff operation must be limited by—
cation is requested, and a constant (1) The maximum rotational speed,
amount less than power-on VNE for the which may not be greater than—
remainder of the altitude range. (i) The maximum value determined
by the rotor design; or
(ii) The maximum value shown dur-
1421, 1423, 1424, and 1425); and sec. 6(c) of the ing the type tests;
Dept. of Transportation Act (49 U.S.C. (2) The maximum allowable manifold
1655(c))) pressure (for reciprocating engines);
[Amdt. 27–2, 33 FR 964, Jan. 26, 1968, and (3) The time limit for the use of the
Amdt. 27–14, 43 FR 2325, Jan. 16, 1978; Amdt. power corresponding to the limitations
27–21, 49 FR 44435, Nov. 6, 1984] established in paragraphs (b)(1) and (2)
of this section;
§ 27.1509 Rotor speed. (4) If the time limit in paragraph
(a) Maximum power-off (autorotation). (b)(3) of this section exceeds two min-
The maximum power-off rotor speed utes, the maximum allowable cylinder
must be established so that it does not head, coolant outlet, or oil tempera-
exceed 95 percent of the lesser of— tures;
(1) The maximum design r.p.m. deter- (5) The gas temperature limits for
mined under § 27.309(b); and turbine engines over the range of oper-
(2) The maximum r.p.m. shown dur- ating and atmospheric conditions for
ing the type tests. which certification is requested.
(b) Minimum power off. The minimum
(c) Continuous operation. The contin-
power-off rotor speed must be estab-
uous operation must be limited by—
lished so that it is not less than 105
percent of the greater of— (1) The maximum rotational speed
(1) The minimum shown during the which may not be greater than—
type tests; and (i) The maximum value determined
(2) The minimum determined by de- by the rotor design; or
sign substantiation. (ii) The maximum value shown dur-
(c) Minimum power on. The minimum ing the type tests;
power-on rotor speed must be estab- (2) The minimum rotational speed
lished so that it is— shown under the rotor speed require-

(1) Not less than the greater of— ments in § 27.1509(c); and
707
§ 27.1521 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–10 Edition)
(3) The gas temperature limits for (h) Thirty-minute OEI power operation.
turbine engines over the range of oper- Unless otherwise authorized, the use of
ating and atmospheric conditions for 30-minute OEI power must be limited
which certification is requested. to multiengine, turbine-powered rotor-
(d) Fuel grade or designation. The min- craft for not longer than 30 minutes
imum fuel grade (for reciprocating en- after failure of an engine. The use of 30-
gines), or fuel designation (for turbine minute OEI power must also be limited
engines), must be established so that it by—
is not less than that required for the (1) The maximum rotational speed,
operation of the engines within the which may not be greater than—
limitations in paragraphs (b) and (c) of (i) The maximum value determined
this section. by the rotor design; or
(e) Turboshaft engine torque. For (ii) The maximum value dem-
rotorcraft with main rotors driven by onstrated during the type tests;
turboshaft engines, and that do not (2) The maximum allowable gas tem-
have a torque limiting device in the perature; and
transmission system, the following (3) The maximum allowable torque.
apply: (i) Continuous OEI power operation.
(1) A limit engine torque must be es- Unless otherwise authorized, the use of
tablished if the maximum torque that continuous OEI power must be limited
the engine can exert is greater than— to multiengine, turbine-powered rotor-
(i) The torque that the rotor drive craft for continued flight after failure
system is designed to transmit; or of an engine. The use of continuous
(ii) The torque that the main rotor OEI power must also be limited by—
assembly is designed to withstand in (1) The maximum rotational speed,
showing compliance with § 27.547(e). which may not be greater than—
(i) The maximum value determined
(2) The limit engine torque estab-
by the rotor design; or
lished under paragraph (e)(1) of this
(ii) The maximum value dem-
section may not exceed either torque
onstrated during the type tests;
specified in paragraph (e)(1)(i) or (ii) of
(2) The maximum allowable gas tem-
this section.
perature; and
(f) Ambient temperature. For turbine
(3) The maximum allowable torque.
engines, ambient temperature limita-
(j) Rated 30-second OEI power oper-
tions (including limitations for winter-
ation. Rated 30-second OEI power is
ization installations, if applicable)
permitted only on multiengine, tur-
must be established as the maximum
bine-powered rotorcraft, also certifi-
ambient atmospheric temperature at
cated for the use of rated 2-minute OEI
which compliance with the cooling pro-
power, and can only be used for contin-
visions of §§ 27.1041 through 27.1045 is
ued operation of the remaining en-
shown.
gine(s) after a failure or precautionary
(g) Two and one-half-minute OEI power shutdown of an engine. It must be
operation. Unless otherwise authorized, shown that following application of 30-
the use of 21⁄2-minute OEI power must second OEI power, any damage will be
be limited to engine failure operation readily detectable by the applicable in-
of multiengine, turbine-powered rotor- spections and other related procedures
craft for not longer than 21⁄2 minutes furnished in accordance with Section
after failure of an engine. The use of A27.4 of appendix A of this part and
21⁄2-minute OEI power must also be lim- Section A33.4 of appendix A of part 33.
ited by— The use of 30-second OEI power must be
(1) The maximum rotational speed, limited to not more than 30 seconds for
which may not be greater than— any period in which that power is used,
(i) The maximum value determined and by—
by the rotor design; or (1) The maximum rotational speed,
(ii) The maximum demonstrated dur- which may not be greater than—
ing the type tests; (i) The maximum value determined
(2) The maximum allowable gas tem- by the rotor design; or
perature; and (ii) The maximum value dem-

(3) The maximum allowable torque. onstrated during the type tests;
708
(2) The maximum allowable gas tem- with the applicable certification re-
perature; and quirements and by the installed equip-
(3) The maximum allowable torque. ment.
(k) Rated 2-minute OEI power oper-
[Amdt. 27–21, 49 FR 44435, Nov. 6, 1984]
ation. Rated 2-minute OEI power is per-
mitted only on multiengine, turbine-
§ 27.1527 Maximum operating altitude.
powered rotorcraft, also certificated
for the use of rated 30-second OEI The maximum altitude up to which
power, and can only be used for contin- operation is allowed, as limited by
ued operation of the remaining en- flight, structural, powerplant, func-
gine(s) after a failure or precautionary tional, or equipment characteristics,
shutdown of an engine. It must be must be established.
shown that following application of 2-
minute OEI power, any damage will be eral Aviation Act of 1958 (49 U.S.C. 1354(a),
readily detectable by the applicable in- 1421, 1423, 1424, and 1425); and sec. 6(c) of the
spections and other related procedures Dept. of Transportation Act (49 U.S.C.
furnished in accordance with Section 1655(c)))
A27.4 of appendix A of this part and
[Amdt. 27–14, 43 FR 2325, Jan. 16, 1978]
Section A33.4 of appendix A of part 33.
The use of 2-minute OEI power must be § 27.1529 Instructions for Continued
limited to not more than 2 minutes for Airworthiness.
any period in which that power is used,
and by— The applicant must prepare Instruc-
(1) The maximum rotational speed, tions for Continued Airworthiness in
which may not be greater than— accordance with appendix A to this
(i) The maximum value determined part that are acceptable to the Admin-
by the rotor design; or istrator. The instructions may be in-
(ii) The maximum value dem- complete at type certification if a pro-
onstrated during the type tests; gram exists to ensure their completion
(2) The maximum allowable gas tem- prior to delivery of the first rotorcraft
perature; and or issuance of a standard certificate of
(3) The maximum allowable torque. airworthiness, whichever occurs later.
(Secs. 313(a), 601, 603, 604, and 605 of the Fed- [Amdt. 27–18, 45 FR 60177, Sept. 11, 1980]
1421, 1423, 1424, and 1425); and sec. 6(c) of the MARKINGS AND PLACARDS
1655(c))) § 27.1541 General.
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as (a) The rotorcraft must contain—
amended by Amdt. 27–14, 43 FR 2325, Jan. 16, (1) The markings and placards speci-
1978; Amdt. 27–23, 53 FR 34214, Sept. 2, 1988;
fied in §§ 27.1545 through 27.1565, and
Amdt. 27–29, 59 FR 47767, Sept. 16, 1994]
(2) Any additional information, in-
§ 27.1523 Minimum flight crew. strument markings, and placards re-
quired for the safe operation of rotor-
The minimum flight crew must be es-
craft with unusual design, operating or
tablished so that it is sufficient for safe
handling characteristics.
operation, considering—
(a) The workload on individual crew- (b) Each marking and placard pre-
members; scribed in paragraph (a) of this sec-
(b) The accessibility and ease of oper- tion—
ation of necessary controls by the ap- (1) Must be displayed in a con-
propriate crewmember; and spicuous place; and
(c) The kinds of operation authorized (2) May not be easily erased, dis-
under § 27.1525. figured, or obscured.
§ 27.1525 Kinds of operations. § 27.1543 Instrument markings: gen-

eral.
The kinds of operations (such as
VFR, IFR, day, night, or icing) for For each instrument—
which the rotorcraft is approved are es- (a) When markings are on the cover
tablished by demonstrated compliance glass of the instrument, there must be
709
§ 27.1545 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–10 Edition)
means to maintain the correct align- cause a deviation of more than 10 de-
ment of the glass cover with the face of grees when turned on.
the dial; and (Secs. 313(a), 601, 603, 604, and 605 of the Fed-
(b) Each arc and line must be wide eral Aviation Act of 1958 (49 U.S.C. 1354(a),
enough, and located, to be clearly visi- 1421, 1423, 1424, and 1425); and sec. 6(c) of the
ble to the pilot. Dept. of Transportation Act (49 U.S.C.
1655(c)))
§ 27.1545 Airspeed indicator. [Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 27–13, 42 FR 36972, July 18,
(a) Each airspeed indicator must be
1977]
marked as specified in paragraph (b) of
this section, with the marks located at § 27.1549 Powerplant instruments.
the corresponding indicated airspeeds. For each required powerplant instru-
(b) The following markings must be ment, as appropriate to the type of in-
made: strument—
(1) A red radial line— (a) Each maximum and, if applicable,
(i) For rotocraft other than heli- minimum safe operating limit must be
copters, at VNE; and marked with a red radial or a red line;
(ii) For helicopters at VNE (power- (b) Each normal operating range
on). must be marked with a green arc or
(2) A red cross-hatched radial line at green line, not extending beyond the
VNE (power-off) for helicopters, if VNE maximum and minimum safe limits;
(power-off) is less than VNE (power-on). (c) Each takeoff and precautionary
(3) For the caution range, a yellow range must be marked with a yellow
arc or yellow line;
arc.
(d) Each engine or propeller range
(4) For the safe operating range, a that is restricted because of excessive
green arc. vibration stresses must be marked with
(Secs. 313(a), 601, 603, 604, and 605 of the Fed- red arcs or red lines; and
eral Aviation Act of 1958 (49 U.S.C. 1354(a), (e) Each OEI limit or approved oper-
1421, 1423, 1424, and 1425); and sec. 6(c) of the ating range must be marked to be
Dept. of Transportation Act (49 U.S.C. clearly differentiated from the mark-
1655(c))) ings of paragraphs (a) through (d) of
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as this section except that no marking is
amended by Amdt. 27–14, 43 FR 2325, Jan. 16, normally required for the 30-second
1978; 43 FR 3900, Jan. 30, 1978; Amdt. 27–16, 43 OEI limit.
FR 50599, Oct. 30, 1978] [Amdt. 27–11, 41 FR 55470, Dec. 20, 1976, as
§ 27.1547 Magnetic direction indicator. 1988; Amdt. 27–29, 59 FR 47768, Sept. 16, 1994]
(a) A placard meeting the require-
§ 27.1551 Oil quantity indicator.
ments of this section must be installed
on or near the magnetic direction indi- Each oil quantity indicator must be
cator. marked with enough increments to in-
(b) The placard must show the cali- dicate readily and accurately the quan-
bration of the instrument in level tity of oil.
flight with the engines operating. § 27.1553 Fuel quantity indicator.
(c) The placard must state whether
If the unusable fuel supply for any
the calibration was made with radio re-
tank exceeds one gallon, or five per-
ceivers on or off. cent of the tank capacity, whichever is
(d) Each calibration reading must be greater, a red arc must be marked on
in terms of magnetic heading in not its indicator extending from the cali-
more than 45 degree increments. brated zero reading to the lowest read-
(e) If a magnetic nonstabilized direc- ing obtainable in level flight.
tion indicator can have a deviation of
more than 10 degrees caused by the op- § 27.1555 Control markings.
eration of electrical equipment, the (a) Each cockpit control, other than
placard must state which electrical primary flight controls or control

loads, or combination of loads, would whose function is obvious, must be
710
plainly marked as to its function and lesser weight must be permanently at-
method of operation. tached to the seat structure.
(b) For powerplant fuel controls— (c) Fuel and oil filler openings. The fol-
(1) Each fuel tank selector control lowing apply:
must be marked to indicate the posi- (1) Fuel filler openings must be
tion corresponding to each tank and to marked at or near the filler cover
each existing cross feed position; with—
(2) If safe operation requires the use (i) The word ‘‘fuel’’;
of any tanks in a specific sequence, (ii) For reciprocating engine powered
that sequence must be marked on, or rotorcraft, the minimum fuel grade;
adjacent to, the selector for those (iii) For turbine engine powered
tanks; and
rotorcraft, the permissible fuel des-
(3) Each valve control for any engine
ignations; and
of a multiengine rotorcraft must be
(iv) For pressure fueling systems, the
marked to indicate the position cor-
responding to each engine controlled. maximum permissible fueling supply
pressure and the maximum permissible
(c) Usable fuel capacity must be
marked as follows: defueling pressure.
(1) For fuel systems having no selec- (2) Oil filler openings must be
tor controls, the usable fuel capacity of marked at or near the filler cover with
the system must be indicated at the the word ‘‘oil’’.
fuel quantity indicator. (d) Emergency exit placards. Each
(2) For fuel systems having selector placard and operating control for each
controls, the usable fuel capacity emergency exit must be red. A placard
available at each selector control posi- must be near each emergency exit con-
tion must be indicated near the selec- trol and must clearly indicate the loca-
tor control. tion of that exit and its method of op-
(d) For accessory, auxiliary, and eration.
emergency controls— [Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as
(1) Each essential visual position in- amended by Amdt. 27–11, 41 FR 55471, Dec. 20,
dicator, such as those showing rotor 1976]
pitch or landing gear position, must be
marked so that each crewmember can § 27.1559 Limitations placard.
determine at any time the position of
There must be a placard in clear view
the unit to which it relates; and
of the pilot that specifies the kinds of
(2) Each emergency control must be
operations (such as VFR, IFR, day,
red and must be marked as to method
night, or icing) for which the rotorcraft
of operation.
is approved.
(e) For rotorcraft incorporating re-
tractable landing gear, the maximum [Amdt. 27–21, 49 FR 44435, Nov. 6, 1984]
landing gear operating speed must be
displayed in clear view of the pilot. § 27.1561 Safety equipment.
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as (a) Each safety equipment control to
amended by Amdt. 27–11, 41 FR 55470, Dec. 20, be operated by the crew in emergency,
1976; Amdt. 27–21, 49 FR 44435, Nov. 6, 1984] such as controls for automatic liferaft
releases, must be plainly marked as to
§ 27.1557 Miscellaneous markings and its method of operation.
placards.
(b) Each location, such as a locker or
(a) Baggage and cargo compartments, compartment, that carries any fire ex-
and ballast location. Each baggage and tinguishing, signaling, or other life
cargo compartment, and each ballast saving equipment, must be so marked.
location must have a placard stating
any limitations on contents, including § 27.1565 Tail rotor.
weight, that are necessary under the
Each tail rotor must be marked so
loading requirements.
that its disc is conspicuous under nor-
(b) Seats. If the maximum allowable
mal daylight ground conditions.

weight to be carried in a seat is less
than 170 pounds, a placard stating the [Amdt. 27–2, 33 FR 965, Jan. 26, 1968]
711
§ 27.1581 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–10 Edition)
ROTORCRAFT FLIGHT MANUAL AND (d) Flight crew. When a flight crew of
APPROVED MANUAL MATERIAL more than one is required, the number
and functions of the minimum flight
§ 27.1581 General. crew determined under § 27.1523 must be
(a) Furnishing information. A Rotor- furnished.
craft Flight Manual must be furnished (e) Kinds of operation. Each kind of
with each rotorcraft, and it must con- operation for which the rotorcraft and
tain the following: its equipment installations are ap-
(1) Information required by §§ 27.1583 proved must be listed.
through 27.1589. (f) [Reserved]
(2) Other information that is nec- (g) Altitude. The altitude established
essary for safe operation because of de- under § 27.1527 and an explanation of
sign, operating, or handling character- the limiting factors must be furnished.
istics. (Secs. 313(a), 601, 603, 604, and 605 of the Fed-
(b) Approved information. Each part of eral Aviation Act of 1958 (49 U.S.C. 1354(a),
the manual listed in §§ 27.1583 through 1421, 1423, 1424, and 1425); and sec. 6(c) of the
27.1589, that is appropriate to the rotor- Dept. of Transportation Act (49 U.S.C.
craft, must be furnished, verified, and 1655(c)))
approved, and must be segregated, [Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as
identified, and clearly distinguished amended by Amdt. 27–2, 33 FR 965, Jan. 26,
from each unapproved part of that 1968; Amdt. 27–14, 43 FR 2325, Jan. 16, 1978;
manual. Amdt. 27–16, 43 FR 50599, Oct. 30, 1978]
(c) [Reserved] § 27.1585 Operating procedures.
(d) Table of contents. Each Rotorcraft
Flight Manual must include a table of (a) Parts of the manual containing
contents if the complexity of the man- operating procedures must have infor-
ual indicates a need for it. mation concerning any normal and
emergency procedures and other infor-
(Secs. 313(a), 601, 603, 604, and 605 of the Fed- mation necessary for safe operation,
eral Aviation Act of 1958 (49 U.S.C. 1354(a), including takeoff and landing proce-
dures and associated airspeeds. The
1655(c))) manual must contain any pertinent in-
formation including—
[Amdt. 27–14, 43 FR 2325, Jan. 16, 1978] (1) The kind of takeoff surface used
in the tests and each appropriate
§ 27.1583 Operating limitations.
climbout speed; and
(a) Airspeed and rotor limitations. In- (2) The kind of landing surface used
formation necessary for the marking of in the tests and appropriate approach
airspeed and rotor limitations on, or and glide airspeeds.
near, their respective indicators must (b) For multiengine rotorcraft, infor-
be furnished. The significance of each mation identifying each operating con-
limitation and of the color coding must dition in which the fuel system inde-
be explained. pendence prescribed in § 27.953 is nec-
(b) Powerplant limitations. The fol- essary for safety must be furnished, to-
lowing information must be furnished: gether with instructions for placing
(1) Limitations required by § 27.1521. the fuel system in a configuration used
(2) Explanation of the limitations, to show compliance with that section.
when appropriate. (c) For helicopters for which a VNE
(3) Information necessary for mark- (power-off) is established under
ing the instruments required by § 27.1505(c), information must be fur-
§§ 27.1549 through 27.1553. nished to explain the VNE (power-off)
(c) Weight and loading distribution. and the procedures for reducing air-
The weight and center of gravity limits speed to not more than the VNE (power-
required by §§ 27.25 and 27.27, respec- off) following failure of all engines.
tively, must be furnished. If the vari- (d) For each rotorcraft showing com-
ety of possible loading conditions war- pliance with § 27.1353 (g)(2) or (g)(3), the
rants, instructions must be included to operating procedures for disconnecting
allow ready observance of the limita- the battery from its charging source
tions. must be furnished.
712
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT Pt. 27, App. A
(e) If the unusable fuel supply in any (iii) For reciprocating engine-pow-
tank exceeds five percent of the tank ered rotorcraft, the maximum atmos-
capacity, or one gallon, whichever is pheric temperature at which compli-
greater, information must be furnished ance with the cooling provisions of
which indicates that when the fuel §§ 27.1041 through 27.1045 is shown; and
quantity indicator reads ‘‘zero’’ in (iv) Glide distance as a function of al-
level flight, any fuel remaining in the titude when autorotating at the speeds
fuel tank cannot be used safely in and conditions for minimum rate of de-
flight. scent and best glide as determined in
(f) Information on the total quantity § 27.71.
of usable fuel for each fuel tank must (b) The Rotorcraft Flight Manual
be furnished. must contain—
(g) The airspeeds and rotor speeds for (1) In its performance information
minimum rate of descent and best glide section any pertinent information con-
angle as prescribed in § 27.71 must be cerning the takeoff weights and alti-
provided. tudes used in compliance with § 27.51;
and
(Secs. 313(a), 601, 603, 604, and 605 of the Fed- (2) The horizontal takeoff distance
determined in accordance with
Dept. of Transportation Act (49 U.S.C. § 27.65(a)(2)(i).
1655(c))) (Secs. 313(a), 601, 603, 604, and 605 of the Fed-
[Amdt. 27–1, 32 FR 6914, May 5, 1967, as eral Aviation Act of 1958 (49 U.S.C. 1354(a),
amended by Amdt. 27–14, 43 FR 2326, Jan. 16, 1421, 1423, 1424, and 1425); and sec. 6(c) of the
1978; Amdt. 27–16, 43 FR 50599, Oct. 30, 1978; Dept. of Transportation Act (49 U.S.C.
Amdt. 27–21, 49 FR 44435, Nov. 6, 1984] 1655(c)))
[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as
§ 27.1587 Performance information. amended by Amdt. 27–14, 43 FR 2326, Jan. 16,
(a) The Rotorcraft Flight Manual 1978; Amdt. 27–21, 49 FR 44435, Nov. 6, 1984;
Amdt. No. 27–44, 73 FR 11000, Feb. 29, 2008; 73
must contain the following informa-
FR 33876, June 16, 2008]
tion, determined in accordance with
§§ 27.49 through 27.87 and 27.143(c) and § 27.1589 Loading information.
(d):
There must be loading instructions
(1) Enough information to determine
for each possible loading condition be-
the limiting height-speed envelope.
tween the maximum and minimum
(2) Information relative to—
weights determined under § 27.25 that
(i) The steady rates of climb and de-
can result in a center of gravity beyond
scent, in-ground effect and out-of-
any extreme prescribed in § 27.27, as-
ground effect hovering ceilings, to-
suming any probable occupant weights.
gether with the corresponding air-
speeds and other pertinent information APPENDIX A TO PART 27—INSTRUCTIONS
including the calculated effects of alti- FOR CONTINUED AIRWORTHINESS
tude and temperatures;
(ii) The maximum weight for each al- A27.1 General.
titude and temperature condition at (a) This appendix specifies requirements
which the rotorcraft can safely hover for the preparation of Instructions for Con-
in-ground effect and out-of-ground ef- tinued Airworthiness as required by § 27.1529.
(b) The Instructions for Continued Air-
fect in winds of not less than 17 knots
worthiness for each rotorcraft must include
from all azimuths. These data must be the Instructions for Continued Airworthiness
clearly referenced to the appropriate for each engine and rotor (hereinafter des-
hover charts. In addition, if there are ignated ‘products’), for each appliance re-
other combinations of weight, altitude quired by this chapter, and any required in-
and temperature for which perform- formation relating to the interface of those
ance information is provided and at appliances and products with the rotorcraft.
which the rotorcraft cannot land and If Instructions for Continued Airworthiness
are not supplied by the manufacturer of an
take off safely with the maximum wind
appliance or product installed in the rotor-
value, those portions of the operating craft, the Instructions for Continued Air-
envelope and the appropriate safe wind
worthiness for the rotorcraft must include

conditions must be stated in the Rotor- the information essential to the continued
craft Flight Manual; airworthiness of the rotorcraft.
713
Pt. 27, App. B 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–10 Edition)
(c) The applicant must submit to the FAA (2) Troubleshooting information describing
a program to show how changes to the In- problem malfunctions, how to recognize
structions for Continued Airworthiness made those malfunctions, and the remedial action
by the applicant or by the manufacturers of for those malfunctions.
products and appliances installed in the (3) Information describing the order and
rotorcraft will be distributed. method of removing and replacing products
A27.2 Format. and parts with any necessary precautions to
(a) The Instructions for Continued Air- be taken.
worthiness must be in the form of a manual (4) Other general procedural instructions
or manuals as appropriate for the quantity including procedures for system testing dur-
of data to be provided. ing ground running, symmetry checks,
(b) The format of the manual or manuals weighing and determining the center of grav-
must provide for a practical arrangement. ity, lifting and shoring, and storage limita-
A27.3 Content. tions.
(c) Diagrams of structural access plates
The contents of the manual or manuals and information needed to gain access for in-
must be prepared in the English language.
spections when access plates are not pro-
The Instructions for Continued Airworthi-
vided.
ness must contain the following manuals or
sections, as appropriate, and information: (d) Details for the application of special in-
spection techniques including radiographic
(a) Rotorcraft maintenance manual or section.
(1) Introduction information that includes an and ultrasonic testing where such processes
explanation of the rotorcraft’s features and are specified.
data to the extent necessary for mainte- (e) Information needed to apply protective
nance or preventive maintenance. treatments to the structure after inspection.
(2) A description of the rotorcraft and its (f) All data relative to structural fasteners
systems and installations including its en- such as identification, discarded rec-
gines, rotors, and appliances. ommendations, and torque values.
(3) Basic control and operation information (g) A list of special tools needed.
describing how the rotorcraft components A27.4 Airworthiness Limitations section.
and systems are controlled and how they op-
erate, including any special procedures and The Instructions for Continued Airworthi-
limitations that apply. ness must contain a section, titled Air-
(4) Servicing information that covers de- worthiness Limitations that is segregated
tails regarding servicing points, capacities of and clearly distinguishable from the rest of
tanks, reservoirs, types of fluids to be used, the document. This section must set forth
pressures applicable to the various systems, each mandatory replacement time, struc-
location of access panels for inspection and tural inspection interval, and related struc-
servicing, locations of lubrication points, the tural inspection procedure approved under
lubricants to be used, equipment required for § 27.571. If the Instructions for Continued Air-
servicing, tow instructions and limitations, worthiness consist of multiple documents,
mooring, jacking, and leveling information. the section required by this paragraph must
(b) Maintenance instructions. (1) Scheduling be included in the principal manual. This
information for each part of the rotorcraft section must contain a legible statement in
and its engines, auxiliary power units, ro- a prominent location that reads: ‘‘The Air-
tors, accessories, instruments and equipment worthiness Limitations section is FAA ap-
that provides the recommended periods at proved and specifies inspections and other
which they should be cleaned, inspected, ad- maintenance required under §§ 43.16 and
justed, tested, and lubricated, and the degree 91.403 of the Federal Aviation Regulations
of inspection, the applicable wear tolerances, unless an alternative program has been FAA
and work recommended at these periods. approved.’’
However, the applicant may refer to an ac-
cessory, instrument, or equipment manufac- [Amdt. 27–17, 45 FR 60178, Sept. 11, 1980, as
turer as the source of this information if the amended by Amdt. 27–24, 54 FR 34329, Aug. 18,
applicant shows the item has an exception- 1989]
ally high degree of complexity requiring spe-
cialized maintenance techniques, test equip- APPENDIX B TO PART 27—AIRWORTHI-
ment, or expertise. The recommended over- NESS CRITERIA FOR HELICOPTER IN-
haul periods and necessary cross references STRUMENT FLIGHT
to the Airworthiness Limitations section of
the manual must also be included. In addi- I. General. A normal category helicopter
tion, the applicant must include an inspec- may not be type certificated for operation
tion program that includes the frequency under the instrument flight rules (IFR) of
and extent of the inspections necessary to this chapter unless it meets the design and
provide for the continued airworthiness of installation requirements contained in this
the rotorcraft. appendix.
714
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT Pt. 27, App. B
II. Definitions. (a) VYI means instrument (5) Approach. Stability must be shown
climb speed, utilized instead of VY for com- throughout the speed range from 0.7 times
pliance with the climb requirements for in- the minimum recommended approach speed
strument flight. to 20 knots above the maximum rec-
(b) VNEI means instrument flight never ex- ommended approach speed with—
ceed speed, utilized instead of VNE for com- (i) The helicopter trimmed at the rec-
pliance with maximum limit speed require- ommended approach speed or speeds;
ments for instrument flight. (ii) Landing gear extended and retracted, if
(c) VMINI means instrument flight min- applicable; and
imum speed, utilized in complying with min- (iii) Power required to maintain a 3° glide
imum limit speed requirements for instru- path and power required to maintain the
ment flight. steepest approach gradient for which ap-
III. Trim. It must be possible to trim the proval is requested.
cyclic, collective, and directional control (c) Helicopters approved for a minimum
forces to zero at all approved IFR airspeeds, crew of two pilots must comply with the pro-
power settings, and configurations appro- visions of paragraphs IV(b)(2) and IV(b)(5) of
priate to the type. this appendix.
IV. Static longitudinal stability. (a) General. V. Static Lateral Directional Stability. (a)
The helicopter must possess positive static Static directional stability must be positive
longitudinal control force stability at crit- throughout the approved ranges of airspeed,
ical combinations of weight and center of power, and vertical speed. In straight and
gravity at the conditions specified in para- steady sideslips up to ±10° from trim, direc-
graph IV (b) or (c) of this appendix, as appro- tional control position must increase with-
out discontinuity with the angle of sideslip,
priate. The stick force must vary with speed
except for a small range of sideslip angles
so that any substantial speed change results
around trim. At greater angles up to the
in a stick force clearly perceptible to the
maximum sideslip angle appropriate to the
pilot. For single-pilot approval, the airspeed
type, increased directional control position
must return to within 10 percent of the trim
must produce an increased angle of sideslip.
speed when the control force is slowly re-
It must be possible to maintain balanced
leased for each trim condition specified in
flight without exceptional pilot skill or
paragraph IV(b) of the this appendix.
alertness.
(b) For single-pilot approval:
(b) During sideslips up to ±10° from trim
(1) Climb. Stability must be shown in climb
throughout the approved ranges of airspeed,
throughout the speed range 20 knots either
power, and vertical speed, there must be no
side of trim with—
negative dihedral stability perceptible to the
(i) The helicopter trimmed at VYI;
pilot through lateral control motion or
(ii) Landing gear retracted (if retractable); force. Longitudinal cyclic movement with
and sideslip must not be excessive.
(iii) Power required for limit climb rate (at VI. Dynamic stability. (a) For single-pilot
least 1,000 fpm) at VYI or maximum contin- approval—
uous power, whichever is less. (1) Any oscillation having a period of less
(2) Cruise. Stability must be shown than 5 seconds must damp to 1⁄2 amplitude in
throughout the speed range from 0.7 to 1.1 VH not more than one cycle.
or VNEI, whichever is lower, not to exceed ±20 (2) Any oscillation having a period of 5 sec-
knots from trim with— onds or more but less than 10 seconds must
(i) The helicopter trimmed and power ad- damp to 1⁄2 amplitude in not more than two
justed for level flight at 0.9 VH or 0.9 VNEI, cycles.
whichever is lower; and (3) Any oscillation having a period of 10
(ii) Landing gear retracted (if retractable). seconds or more but less than 20 seconds
(3) Slow cruise. Stability must be shown must be damped.
throughout the speed range from 0.9 VMINI to (4) Any oscillation having a period of 20
1.3 VMINI or 20 knots above trim speed, which- seconds or more may not achieve double am-
ever is greater, with— plitude in less than 20 seconds.
(i) the helicopter trimmed and power ad- (5) Any aperiodic response may not achieve
justed for level flight at 1.1 VMINI; and double amplitude in less than 6 seconds.
(ii) Landing gear retracted (if retractable). (b) For helicopters approved with a min-
(4) Descent. Stability must be shown imum crew of two pilots—
throughout the speed range 20 knots either (1) Any oscillation having a period of less
side of trim with— than 5 seconds must damp to 1⁄2 amplitude in
(i) The helicopter trimmed at 0.8 VH or 0.8 not more than two cycles.
VNEI (or 0.8 VLE for the landing gear extended (2) Any oscillation having a period of 5 sec-
case), whichever is lower; onds or more but less than 10 seconds must
(ii) Power required for 1,000 fpm descent at be damped.
trim speed; and (3) Any oscillation having a period of 10

(iii) Landing gear extended and retracted, seconds or more may not achieve double am-
if applicable. plitude in less than 10 seconds.
715
Pt. 27, App. B 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–10 Edition)
VII. Stability Augmentation System (SAS). whether or not the rotorcraft is certificated
(a) If a SAS is used, the reliability of the for operation in icing conditions.
SAS must be related to the effects of its fail- (2) There must be means in the generating
ure. Any SAS failure condition that would system to automatically de-energize and dis-
prevent continued safe flight and landing connect from the main bus any power source
must be extremely improbable. It must be developing hazardous overvoltage.
shown that, for any failure condition of the (3) Each required flight instrument using a
SAS that is not shown to be extremely im- power supply (electric, vacuum, etc.) must
probable— have a visual means integral with the instru-
(1) The helicopter is safely controllable ment to indicate the adequacy of the power
when the failure or malfunction occurs at being supplied.
any speed or altitude within the approved (4) When multiple systems performing like
IFR operating limitations; and functions are required, each system must be
(2) The overall flight characteristics of the grouped, routed, and spaced so that physical
helicopter allow for prolonged instrument separation between systems is provided to
flight without undue pilot effort. Additional ensure that a single malfunction will not ad-
unrelated probable failures affecting the con- versely affect more than one system.
trol system must be considered. In addi- (5) For systems that operate the required
tion— flight instruments at each pilot’s station—
(i) The controllability and maneuver- (i) Only the required flight instruments for
ability requirements in Subpart B of this the first pilot may be connected to that op-
part must be met throughout a practical erating system;
flight envelope; (ii) Additional instruments, systems, or
(ii) The flight control, trim, and dynamic equipment may not be connected to an oper-
stability characteristics must not be im- ating system for a second pilot unless provi-
paired below a level needed to allow contin- sions are made to ensure the continued nor-
ued safe flight and landing; and mal functioning of the required instruments
(iii) The static longitudinal and static di- in the event of any malfunction of the addi-
rectional stability requirements of Subpart tional instruments, systems, or equipment
B must be met throughout a practical flight which is not shown to be extremely improb-
envelope. able;
(b) The SAS must be designed so that it (iii) The equipment, systems, and installa-
cannot create a hazardous deviation in flight tions must be designed so that one display of
path or produce hazardous loads on the heli- the information essential to the safety of
copter during normal operation or in the flight which is provided by the instruments
event of malfunction or failure, assuming
will remain available to a pilot, without ad-
corrective action begins within an appro-
ditional crewmember action, after any single
priate period of time. Where multiple sys-
failure or combination of failures that is not
tems are installed, subsequent malfunction
shown to be extremely improbable; and
conditions must be considered in sequence (iv) For single-pilot configurations, instru-
unless their occurrence is shown to be im- ments which require a static source must be
probable. provided with a means of selecting an alter-
VIII. Equipment, systems, and installation.
nate source and that source must be cali-
The basic equipment and installation must
brated.
comply with §§ 29.1303, 29.1431, and 29.1433
IX. Rotorcraft Flight Manual. A Rotorcraft
through Amendment 29–14, with the fol-
Flight Manual or Rotorcraft Flight Manual
lowing exceptions and additions:
IFR Supplement must be provided and must
(a) Flight and Navigation Instruments. (1) A
contain—
magnetic gyro-stablized direction indicator
(a) Limitations. The approved IFR flight en-
instead of a gyroscopic direction indicator
velope, the IFR flightcrew composition, the
required by § 29.1303(h); and
revised kinds of operation, and the steepest
(2) A standby attitude indicator which
IFR precision approach gradient for which
meets the requirements of §§ 29.1303(g)(1)
the helicopter is approved;
through (7) instead of a rate-of-turn indi-
(b) Procedures. Required information for
cator required by § 29.1303(g). For two-pilot
proper operation of IFR systems and the rec-
configurations, one pilot’s primary indicator
ommended procedures in the event of sta-
may be designated for this purpose. If stand-
bility augmentation or electrical system
by batteries are provided, they may be
failures; and
charged from the aircraft electrical system
(c) Performance. If VYI differs from VY,
if adequate isolation is incorporated.
climb performance at VYI and with maximum
(b) Miscellaneous requirements. (1) Instru-
continuous power throughout the ranges of
ment systems and other systems essential
weight, altitude, and temperature for which
for IFR flight that could be adversely af-
approval is requested.
fected by icing must be adequately protected
when exposed to the continuous and inter- [Amdt. 27–19, 48 FR 4389, Jan. 31, 1983, as
mittent maximum icing conditions defined amended by Amdt. No. 27–44, 73 FR 11000,
in appendix C of Part 29 of this chapter, Feb. 29, 2008]
716
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT Pt. 27, App. D
APPENDIX C TO PART 27—CRITERIA FOR 29.1309(b)(2) (i) and (d)—Equipment, systems,
CATEGORY A and installations.
29.1323(c)(1)—Airspeed indicating system.
C27.1 General. 29.1331(b)—Instruments using a power supply.
A small multiengine rotorcraft may not be 29.1351(d)(2)—Electrical systems and equip-
type certificated for Category A operation ment: General (operation without normal
unless it meets the design installation and electrical power).
performance requirements contained in this 29.1587(a)—Performance information.
appendix in addition to the requirements of NOTE: In complying with the paragraphs
this part. listed in paragraph C27.2 above, relevant ma-
C27.2 Applicable part 29 sections. The fol- terial in the AC ‘‘Certification of Transport
lowing sections of part 29 of this chapter Category Rotorcraft’’ should be used.
must be met in addition to the requirements [Doc. No. 28008, 61 FR 21907, May 10, 1996]
of this part:
29.45(a) and (b)(2)—General. APPENDIX D TO PART 27—HIRF ENVI-
29.49(a)—Performance at minimum operating RONMENTS AND EQUIPMENT HIRF
speed. TEST LEVELS
29.51—Takeoff data: General.
29.53—Takeoff: Category A. This appendix specifies the HIRF environ-
29.55—Takeoff decision point: Category A. ments and equipment HIRF test levels for
29.59—Takeoff Path: Category A. electrical and electronic systems under
29.60—Elevated heliport takeoff path: Cat- § 27.1317. The field strength values for the
egory A. HIRF environments and laboratory equip-
29.61—Takeoff distance: Category A. ment HIRF test levels are expressed in root-
29.62—Rejected takeoff: Category A. mean-square units measured during the peak
29.64—Climb: General. of the modulation cycle.
29.65(a)—Climb: AEO. (a) HIRF environment I is specified in the
29.67(a)—Climb: OEI. following table:
29.75—Landing: General.
29.77—Landing decision point: Category A. TABLE I.—HIRF ENVIRONMENT I
29.79—Landing: Category A.
29.81—Landing distance (Ground level sites): Field strength
(volts/meter)
Category A. Frequency
29.85—Balked landing: Category A. Peak Average
29.87(a)—Height-velocity envelope.
29.547(a) and (b)—Main and tail rotor struc- 10 kHz–2 MHz ................................... 50 50
2 MHz–30 MHz ................................. 100 100
ture. 30 MHz–100 MHz ............................. 50 50
29.861(a)—Fire protection of structure, con- 100 MHz–400 MHz ........................... 100 100
trols, and other parts. 400 MHz–700 MHz ........................... 700 50
29.901(c)—Powerplant: Installation. 700 MHz–1 GHz ................................ 700 100
29.903(b) (c) and (e)—Engines. 1 GHz–2 GHz .................................... 2,000 200
29.908(a)—Cooling fans. 2 GHz–6 GHz .................................... 3,000 200
6 GHz–8 GHz .................................... 1,000 200
29.917(b) and (c)(1)—Rotor drive system: De- 8 GHz–12 GHz .................................. 3,000 300
sign. 12 GHz–18 GHz ................................ 2,000 200
29.927(c)(1)—Additional tests. 18 GHz–40 GHz ................................ 600 200
29.953(a)—Fuel system independence.
In this table, the higher field strength applies at the fre-
29.1027(a)—Transmission and gearboxes: Gen- quency band edges.
eral.
29.1045(a)(1), (b), (c), (d), and (f)—Climb cool- (b) HIRF environment II is specified in the
ing test procedures. following table:
29.1047(a)—Takeoff cooling test procedures.
29.1181(a)—Designated fire zones: Regions in- TABLE II.—HIRF ENVIRONMENT II
cluded. Field strength
29.1187(e)—Drainage and ventilation of fire (volts/meter)
Frequency
zones.
29.1189(c)—Shutoff means. Peak Average
29.1191(a)(1)—Firewalls. 10 kHz–500 kHz ................................ 20 20
29.1193(e)—Cowling and engine compartment 500 kHz–2 MHz ................................. 30 30
covering. 2 MHz–30 MHz ................................. 100 100
29.1195(a) and (d)—Fire extinguishing sys- 30 MHz–100 MHz ............................. 10 10
tems (one shot). 100 MHz–200 MHz ........................... 30 10
200 MHz–400 MHz ........................... 10 10
29.1197—Fire extinguishing agents.
400 MHz–1 GHz ................................ 700 40
29.1199—Extinguishing agent containers. 1 GHz–2 GHz .................................... 1,300 160
29.1201—Fire extinguishing system materials. 2 GHz–4 GHz .................................... 3,000 120

29.1305(a) (6) and (b)—Powerplant instru- 4 GHz–6 GHz .................................... 3,000 160
ments. 6 GHz–8 GHz .................................... 400 170
717
Pt. 29 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–10 Edition)
TABLE II.—HIRF ENVIRONMENT II—Continued ation curves. Testing must cover the fre-
quency band of 10 kHz to 8 GHz.
Field strength (f) Equipment HIRF Test Level 3. (1) From 10
(volts/meter) kHz to 400 MHz, use conducted susceptibility
Frequency
Peak Average tests, starting at a minimum of 0.15 mA at 10
kHz, increasing 20 dB per frequency decade
8 GHz–12 GHz .................................. 1,230 230 to a minimum of 7.5 mA at 500 kHz.
12 GHz–18 GHz ................................ 730 190 (2) From 500 kHz to 40 MHz, use conducted
18 GHz–40 GHz ................................ 600 150 susceptibility tests at a minimum of 7.5 mA.
In this table, the higher field strength applies at the fre- (3) From 40 MHz to 400 MHz, use conducted
quency band edges. susceptibility tests, starting at a minimum
(c) HIRF environment III is specified in the of 7.5 mA at 40 MHz, decreasing 20 dB per fre-
following table: quency decade to a minimum of 0.75 mA at
400 MHz.
TABLE III.—HIRF ENVIRONMENT III (4) From 100 MHz to 8 GHz, use radiated
susceptibility tests at a minimum of 5 V/m.
Field strength
(volts/meter) [Doc. No. FAA–2006–23657, 72 FR 44027, Aug. 6,
Frequency 2007]
Peak Average
10 kHz–100 kHz ................................ 150 150 PART 29—AIRWORTHINESS STAND-

100 kHz–400 MHz .............................
400 MHz–700 MHz ...........................
200
730
200
200
ARDS: TRANSPORT CATEGORY
700 MHz–1 GHz ................................ 1,400 240 ROTORCRAFT
1 GHz–2 GHz .................................... 5,000 250
2 GHz–4 GHz .................................... 6,000 490 Subpart A—General
4 GHz–6 GHz .................................... 7,200 400
6 GHz–8 GHz .................................... 1,100 170 Sec.
8 GHz–12 GHz .................................. 5,000 330 29.1 Applicability.
12 GHz–18 GHz ................................ 2,000 330
18 GHz–40 GHz ................................ 1,000 420
29.2 Special retroactive requirements.
In this table, the higher field strength applies at the fre- Subpart B—Flight
quency band edges.
(d) Equipment HIRF Test Level 1. GENERAL

(1) From 10 kilohertz (kHz) to 400 mega- 29.21 Proof of compliance.
hertz (MHz), use conducted susceptibility 29.25 Weight limits.
tests with continuous wave (CW) and 1 kHz 29.27 Center of gravity limits.
square wave modulation with 90 percent 29.29 Empty weight and corresponding cen-
depth or greater. The conducted suscepti- ter of gravity.
bility current must start at a minimum of 29.31 Removable ballast.
0.6 milliamperes (mA) at 10 kHz, increasing 29.33 Main rotor speed and pitch limits.
20 decibels (dB) per frequency decade to a
minimum of 30 mA at 500 kHz. PERFORMANCE
(2) From 500 kHz to 40 MHz, the conducted 29.45 General.
susceptibility current must be at least 30 29.49 Performance at minimum operating
mA. speed.
(3) From 40 MHz to 400 MHz, use conducted 29.51 Takeoff data: general.
susceptibility tests, starting at a minimum 29.53 Takeoff: Category A.
of 30 mA at 40 MHz, decreasing 20 dB per fre- 29.55 Takeoff decision point (TDP): Cat-
quency decade to a minimum of 3 mA at 400 egory A.
MHz. 29.59 Takeoff path: Category A.
(4) From 100 MHz to 400 MHz, use radiated 29.60 Elevated heliport takeoff path: Cat-
susceptibility tests at a minimum of 20 volts egory A.
per meter (V/m) peak with CW and 1 kHz 29.61 Takeoff distance: Category A.
square wave modulation with 90 percent 29.62 Rejected takeoff: Category A.
depth or greater. 29.63 Takeoff: Category B.
(5) From 400 MHz to 8 gigahertz (GHz), use 29.64 Climb: General.
radiated susceptibility tests at a minimum 29.65 Climb: All engines operating.
of 150 V/m peak with pulse modulation of 4 29.67 Climb: One engine inoperative (OEI).
percent duty cycle with a 1 kHz pulse repeti- 29.71 Helicopter angle of glide: Category B.
tion frequency. This signal must be switched 29.75 Landing: General.
on and off at a rate of 1 Hz with a duty cycle 29.77 Landing Decision Point (LDP): Cat-
of 50 percent. egory A.
(e) Equipment HIRF Test Level 2. Equipment 29.79 Landing: Category A.
HIRF test level 2 is HIRF environment II in 29.81 Landing distance: Category A.

table II of this appendix reduced by accept- 29.83 Landing: Category B.
able aircraft transfer function and attenu- 29.85 Balked landing: Category A.
718

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Airworthiness Standards FAA FAR Part 27

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Federal Aviation Administration, DOT Pt.

MISCELLANEOUS FLIGHT REQUIREMENTS GENERAL

27.653 Pressure venting and drainage of 27.871 Leveling marks.

27.787 Cargo and baggage compartments. 27.1011 Engines: General.

27.1351 General. ards.

pilot’s combined safety belt and shoul-

Subpart B—Flight weight for which certification is re-

(iv) For each seat, an occupant imum certificated weight established

most critical combinations of weight

amended by Amdt. 27–14, 43 FR 2324, Jan. 16,

(iv) Turning flight; with maximum continuous power and

[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as

ground with the rotor turning.

ΩR or 15°, whichever is less, at the lesser

rotorcraft in the static level attitude, transmitted to the rotor structure in

other by at least 10° vertically (i.e., If certification with ditching provi-

full or partial immersion perscribed in catastrophic fatigue failure is ex-

able design detail and part must be es-

[Amdt. 27–4, 33 FR 14533, Sept. 27, 1968] § 27.611 Inspection provisions.

compliance with paragraph (a) of this probability with 95 percent confidence;

a part for which any larger special fac-

requirements of this part must be 1976, as amended through December 15,

other unsafe characteristics must be at ground contact in normal power-off

on the mass used in the drop test (i.e., the

PERSONNEL AND CARGO Cockpit controls must be designed so

propriate operating procedures are

ble requirements of §§ 27.1183, 27.1185, be means to prevent the hazardous ac-

combinations to be used for human ex- to minimize the possibility of incorrect

of maximum continuous torque. The sult in premature engine removal dur-

connections, tank-to-tank intercon- improbable in an otherwise survivable

§ 27.999 Fuel system drains. § 27.1013 Oil tanks.

engine must be able to maintain the oil

§ 27.1019 Oil strainer or filter. (b) Have manual or automatic means

tem. Each drain must— screens installed at lubricant tank or

overflow from drains, vents, or other appendix C of Part 29 of this chapter;

EXHAUST SYSTEM § 27.1141 Powerplant controls: general.

§ 27.1191 Firewalls. (f) A means of retaining each open-

§ 27.1193 Cowling and engine compart- § 27.1301 Function and installation.

haust system parts or exhaust gas im- (b) An altimeter.

§ 27.1305 Powerplant instruments. utes of usable fuel remains in the tank;

(1) Provide a warning to the

[Amdt. 27–21, 49 FR 44435, Nov. 6, 1984, as

malfunction of that component se- other detrimental substances, and me-

engine or auxiliary power unit must

§ 27.1381 Instrument lights.

preciable light transmission during the normal operating voltage of the

the following table: sion on Illumination chromaticity co-

[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as

[Doc. No. 5074, 29 FR 15695, Nov. 24, 1964, as

§ 27.1435 Hydraulic systems. flight deck when directed to those sta-

lished so that it is— shown under the rotor speed require-

perature; and (ii) The maximum value dem-

§ 27.1525 Kinds of operations. § 27.1543 Instrument markings: gen-

placard must state which electrical primary flight controls or control

mal daylight ground conditions.

worthiness for the rotorcraft must include

trim speed; and (3) Any oscillation having a period of 10

29.1201—Fire extinguishing system materials. 2 GHz–4 GHz .................................... 3,000 120

10 kHz–100 kHz ................................ 150 150 PART 29—AIRWORTHINESS STAND-

(d) Equipment HIRF Test Level 1. GENERAL

HIRF test level 2 is HIRF environment II in 29.81 Landing distance: Category A.

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