I.

INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION

Hydroelectricity is electricity produced from hydropower. In 2015 hydropower generated

16.6% of the world's total electricity and 70% of all renewable electricity, and was expected to
increase about 3.1% each year for the next 25 years.Hydropower is produced in 150 countries,
with the Asia-Pacific region generating 33 percent of global hydropower in 2013. China is the
largest hydroelectricity producer, with 920 TWh of production in 2013, representing 16.9 percent
of domestic electricity use. The cost of hydroelectricity is relatively low, making it a competitive
source of renewable electricity. The hydro station consumes no water, unlike coal or gas plants.
The average cost of electricity from a hydro station larger than 10 megawatts is 3 to 5 U.S. cents
per kilowatt-hour. [With a dam and reservoir it is also a flexible source of electricity since the
amount produced by the station can be changed up or down very quickly to adapt to changing
energy demands. Once a hydroelectric complex is constructed, the project produces no direct
waste, and in many cases, has a considerably lower output level of greenhouse gases than fossil
fuel powered energy plants.

The increasing global demand for energy combined with the quest for clean, renewable energy
has placed high demand on hydroelectric power development. Modern hydroelectric dam
development is driven by politics, economics, and energy demand. Large dams are developed for
many purpose.Hydroelectric power project often times requires the construction of dam along a
river to create reservoir, thereby affecting the flow of the river, altering ecosystems and affecting
wildlife and people who depend on those rivers. The construction of hydroelectric dam has an
enormous and devastating impact on the environment.

History

Hydropower has been used since ancient times to grind flour and perform other tasks. In the mid-
1770s, French engineer Bernard Forest de Bélidor published Architecture Hydraulique which
described vertical- and horizontal-axis hydraulic machines. By the late 19th century,
the electrical generator was developed and could now be coupled with hydraulics. The growing
demand for the Industrial Revolution would drive development as well. In 1878 the world's first
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hydroelectric power scheme was developed at Crag side in Northumberland, England by William
Armstrong. It was used to power a single arc lamp in his art gallery. The old Schoelk of Power
Station No. 1 near Niagara Falls in the U.S. side began to produce electricity in 1881. The
first Edison hydroelectric power station, the Vulcan Street Plant, began operating September 30,
1882, in Appleton, Wisconsin, with an output of about 12.5 kilowatts.By 1886 there were 45
hydroelectric power stations in the U.S. and Canada. By 1889 there were 200 in the U.S. alone.

Future potential

The technical potential for the growth of hydropower around the world are, 71% Europe, 75%
North America, 79% South America, 95% Africa, 95% Middle East, 82% Asia Pacific. The
political realities of new reservoirs in western countries, economic limitations in the third world
and the lack of a transmission system in undeveloped areas, result in the possibility of
developing 25% of the remaining potential before 2050, with the bulk of that being in the Asia
Pacific area. A few countries are highly developed and have very little room for growth,
Switzerland 12% and Mexico 20%.

Conventional (dams)

Most hydroelectric power comes from the potential energy of dammed water driving a water
turbine and generator. The power extracted from the water depends on the volume and on the
difference in height between the source and the water's outflow. This height difference is called
the head. A large pipe (the "penstock") delivers water from the reservoir to the turbine.

Pumped-storage

This method produces electricity to supply high peak demands by moving water
between reservoirs at different elevations. At times of low electrical demand, the excess
generation capacity is used to pump water into the higher reservoir. When the demand becomes
greater, water is released back into the lower reservoir through a turbine. Pumped-storage
schemes currently provide the most commercially important means of large-scale grid energy
storage and improve the daily capacity factor of the generation system. Pumped storage is not an
energy source, and appears as a negative number in listings.

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Run-of-the-river

Run-of-the-river hydroelectric stations are those with small or no reservoir capacity, so that only
the water coming from upstream is available for generation at that moment, and any oversupply
must pass unused. A constant supply of water from a lake or existing reservoir upstream is a
significant advantage in choosing sites for run-of-the-river. In the United States, run of the river
hydropower could potentially provide 60,000 megawatts (80,000,000 hp) (about 13.7% of total
use in 2011 if continuously available).

Tide

A tidal power station makes use of the daily rise and fall of ocean water due to tides; such
sources are highly predictable, and if conditions permit construction of reservoirs, can also
be dispatch able to generate power during high demand periods. Less common types of hydro
schemes use water's kinetic energy or undammed sources such as undershot water wheels. Tidal
power is viable in a relatively small number of locations around the world. In Great Britain, there
are eight sites that could be developed, which have the potential to generate 20% of the
electricity used in 2012.

ADVANTAGES

Hydropower is a fueled by water, so it's a clean fuel source. Hydropower doesn't pollute the air
like power plants that burn fossil fuels, such as coal or natural gas. Hydropower is a domestic
source of energy, produced in the United States. Hydropower relies on the water cycle, which is
driven by the sun, thus it's a renewable power source. Hydropower is generally available as
needed; engineers can control the flow of water through the turbines to produce electricity on
demand. Hydropower plants provide benefits in addition to clean electricity. Impoundment
hydropower creates reservoirs that offer a variety of recreational opportunities, notably fishing,
swimming, and boating. Most hydropower installations are required to provide some public
access to the reservoir to allow the public to take advantage of these opportunities. Other benefits
may include water supply and flood control.

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 Flexibility

Hydropower is a flexible source of electricity since stations can be ramped up and down very
quickly to adapt to changing energy demands. Hydro turbines have a start-up time of the order of
a few minutes. It takes around 60 to 90 seconds to bring a unit from cold start-up to full load; this
is much shorter than for gas turbines or steam plants. Power generation can also be decreased
quickly when there is a surplus power generation. Hence the limited capacity of hydropower
units is not generally used to produce base power except for vacating the flood pool or meeting
downstream needs. Instead, it serves as backup for non-hydro generators.

 Low cost/high value power

The major advantage of conventional hydroelectric dams with reservoirs is their ability to store
water at low cost for dispatch later as high value clean electricity. The average cost of electricity
from a hydro station larger than 10 megawatts is 3 to 5 U.S. cents per kilowatt-hour. When used
as peak power to meet demand, hydroelectricity has a higher value than base power and a much
higher value compared to intermittent energy sources.

Hydroelectric stations have long economic lives, with some plants still in service after 50–100
years. Operating labor cost is also usually low, as plants are automated and have few personnel
on site during normal operation.

Where a dam serves multiple purposes, a hydroelectric station may be added with relatively low
construction cost, providing a useful revenue stream to offset the costs of dam operation. It has
been calculated that the sale of electricity from the Three Gorges Dam will cover the
construction costs after 5 to 8 years of full generation. Additionally, some data shows that in
most countries large hydropower dams will be too costly and take too long to build to deliver a
positive risk adjusted return, unless appropriate risk management measures are put in place.

 Suitability for industrial applications

While many hydroelectric projects supply public electricity networks, some are created to serve
specific industrial enterprises. Dedicated hydroelectric projects are often built to provide the
substantial amounts of electricity needed for aluminium electrolytic plants, for example.
The Dam switched to support Alcoa aluminium in Bellingham, Washington, United States for
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 American World War II airplanes before it was allowed to provide irrigation and power to
citizens (in addition to aluminium power) after the war. In Suriname, the Brokopondo
Reservoir was constructed to provide electricity for the Alcoa aluminium industry. New
Zealand’s Manapouri Power Station was constructed to supply electricity to the
aluminiumsmelter at Tiwai Point.

 Reduced CO2 emissions

Since hydroelectric dams do not use fuel, power generation does not produce carbon dioxide.
While carbon dioxide is initially produced during construction of the project, and some methane
is given off annually by reservoirs, hydro in specific Nordiccases, has the lowest lifecycle
greenhouse gas emissions for power generation. Compared to fossil fuels generating an
equivalent amount of electricity, hydro displaced three billion tons of CO2 emissions in 2011.
One measurement of greenhouse gas related and other externality comparison between energy
sources can be found in the Extern project by the Paul Scherer Institute and the University of
Stuttgart which was funded by the European Commission. According to that study,
hydroelectricity in Europe produces the least amount of greenhouse gases and externality of any
energy source. Coming in second place was wind, third was nuclear energy, and fourth
was solar photovoltaic. The low greenhouse gas impact of hydroelectricity is found especially
in temperate climates. The above study was for local energy in Europe; presumably similar
conditions prevail in North America and Northern Asia, which all see a regular, natural
freeze/thaw cycle (with associated seasonal plant decay and regrowth). Greater greenhouse gas
emission impacts are found in the tropical regions because the reservoirs of power stations in
tropical regions produce a larger amount of methane than those in temperate areas.

 Other uses of the reservoir

Reservoirs created by hydroelectric schemes often provide facilities for water sports, and become
tourist attractions themselves. In some countries, aquaculture in reservoirs is common. Multi-use
dams installed for irrigation support agriculture with a relatively constant water supply. Large
hydro dams can control floods, which would otherwise affect people living downstream of the
project.

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DISADVANTAGES

Large reservoirs associated with traditional hydroelectric power stations result in submersion of
extensive areas upstream of the dams, sometimes destroying biologically rich and productive
lowland and riverine valley forests, marshland and grasslands. Damming interrupts the flow of
rivers and can harm local ecosystems, and building large dams and reservoirs often involves
displacing people and wildlife. The loss of land is often exacerbated by habitat fragmentation of
surrounding areas caused by the reservoir.

Fish populations can be impacted if fish cannot migrate upstream past impoundment dams to
spawning grounds or if they cannot migrate downstream to the ocean. Upstream fish passage can
be aided using fish ladders or elevators, or by trapping and hauling the fish upstream by truck.
Downstream fish passage is aided by diverting fish from turbine intakes using screens or racks or
even underwater lights and sounds, and by maintaining a minimum spill flow past the turbine.

Hydropower can impact water quality and flow. Hydropower plants can cause low dissolved
oxygen levels in the water, a problem that is harmful to riparian (riverbank) habitats and is
addressed using various aeration techniques, which oxygenate the water. Maintaining minimum
flows of water downstream of a hydropower installation is also critical for the survival of
riparian habitats.

Hydropower plants can be impacted by drought. When water is not available, the hydropower
plants can't produce electricity.

New hydropower facilities impact the local environment and may compete with other uses for
the land. Those alternative uses may be more highly valued than electricity generation. Humans,
flora, and fauna may lose their natural habitat. Local cultures This fish ladder on the Ice Harbor
Dam on the lower Snake River provides safe passage for migrating fish. Wind and Hydropower
Technologies Program: Advantages and Disadvantages of Hydropower and historical sites may
be impinged upon. Some older hydropower facilities may have historic value, so renovations of
these facilities must also be sensitive to such preservation concerns and to impacts on plant and
animal life.

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 Hydroelectric projects can be disruptive to surrounding aquatic ecosystems both upstream and
downstream of the plant site. Generation of hydroelectric power changes the downstream river
environment. Water exiting a turbine usually contains very little suspended sediment, which
canlead to scouring of river beds and loss of riverbanks. Since turbine gates are often opened
intermittently, rapid or even daily fluctuations in river flow are observed.

 Water loss by evaporation

A 2011 study by the United States National Renewable Energy Laboratory concluded that
hydroelectric plants in the U.S. consumed between 1,425 and 18,000 gallons of water per
megawatt-hour (gal/MWh) of electricity generated, through evaporation losses in the reservoir.
The median loss was 4,491 gal/MWh, which is higher than the loss for generation technologies
that use cooling towers, including concentrating solar power (865 gal/MWh for CSP trough, 786
gal/MWh for CSP tower), coal (687 gal/MWh), nuclear (672 gal/MWh), and natural gas (198
gal/MWh). Where there are multiple uses of reservoirs such as water supply, recreation, and
flood control, all reservoir evaporation is attributed to power production.

 Siltation and flow shortage

When water flows it has the ability to transport particles heavier than itself downstream. This has
a negative effect on dams and subsequently their power stations, particularly those on rivers or
within catchment areas with high siltation. Siltation can fill a reservoir and reduce its capacity to
control floods along with causing additional horizontal pressure on the upstream portion of the
dam. Eventually, some reservoirs can become full of sediment and useless or over-top during a
flood and fail.

Changes in the amount of river flow will correlate with the amount of energy produced by a dam.
Lower river flows will reduce the amount of live storage in a reservoir therefore reducing the
amount of water that can be used for hydroelectricity. The result of diminished river flow can be
power shortages in areas that depend heavily on hydroelectric power. The risk of flow shortage
may increase as a result of climate change. One study from the Colorado River in the United
States suggest that modest climate changes, such as an increase in temperature in 2 degree
Celsius resulting in a 10% decline in precipitation, might reduce river run-off by up to

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 40%. Brazil in particular is vulnerable due to its heavy reliance on hydroelectricity, as increasing
temperatures, lower water flow and alterations in the rainfall regime, could reduce total energy
production by 7% annually by the end of the century.

 Relocation

Another disadvantage of hydroelectric dams is the need to relocate the people living where the
reservoirs are planned. In 2000, the World Commission on Dams estimated that dams had
physically displaced 40-80 million people worldwide.

 Failure risks

Because large conventional dammed-hydro facilities hold back large volumes of water, a failure
due to poor construction, natural disasters or sabotage can be catastrophic to downriver
settlements and infrastructure.

During Typhoon Nina in 1975 Banqiao Dam failed in Southern China when more than a year's
worth of rain fell within 24 hours. The resulting flood resulted in the deaths of 26,000 people,
and another 145,000 from epidemics. Millions were left homeless.

The creation of a dam in a geologically inappropriate location may cause disasters such as 1963
disaster at Vajont Dam in Italy, where almost 2,000 people died.The Malpasset Dam failure
in Fréjus on the French Riviera (Côte d'Azur), southern France, collapsed on December 2, 1959,
killing 423 people in the resulting flood.

Smaller dams and micro hydro facilities create less risk, but can form continuing hazards even
after being decommissioned. For example, the small earthen embankment Kelly Barnes
Dam failed in 1977, twenty years after its power station was decommissioned; causing 39 deaths.

Hydroelectric project in India

India is the 7th largest producer of hydroelectric power in the world. As of 30 april2017, India’s
installed utility-scale hydro-electric capacity was 44,594 MW, or 13.5% of its total utility power
generation capacity. Additional smaller hydroelectric power units with a total capacity of 4380
MW (1.3%of its total utility power generation capacity) have been installed. India’s
hydroelectric power potential is estimated at 148,700 MW at 60% load factor. In the fiscal year
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2016-17, the total hydroelectric power generated in India was 122.31 TWh (excluding same
hydro) with average capacity.

The hydro- electric power plants a Darjeeling and Shivanasamudram were established in 1898
and 1902, respectively. They were among the first Asia and India has been a dominant player in
global hydroelectric power development. Indiaalso imports surplus hydroelectric power from
Bhutan.

India’s economically exploitable and viable hydroelectric potential is estimated to be 148,701

MW. An additional 6,780 MW from smaller hydro schemes (with capacities of less than 25
MW) is estimated as exploitable. 56 sites for pumped storage schemes with an aggregate
installed capacity of 94,000 MW have also been identified. In central India, the hydroelectric
power potential from the Godavari, Mahanadi,Nagavali, Vamsadhara and Narmada river basins
has not been developed on a scale due to potential opposition from the tribal population., Hs an
installed capacity of 2.9GW. The generation cost after four decades of operation is about 27
paise (0.14¢ US) per kWh. BBMB is a major source of peaking power and lack start capability to
the northern grid in India and its large reservoirs provide wide operational flexibility. BBMB
reservoirs also supply water for the irrigation of 12.5 million acres (51,000km2; 19,500sq mi) of
agricultural land in Partner sates, enabling the green revolution in the northern India. The public
sector accounts for 92.5% of India’s hydroelectric power production. The National Hydroelectric
Power Corporation (NHPC), Northeast Electric Power Company (NEEPCO),
SatlujJalVidyutNigam(SJVNL), THDC, and NTPC- Hydro are some of the public sector
companies in India. The private sector is also expected to grow with the development of
hydroelectric energt in the Himalayan mountain ranges and in the northest of India. Indian
companies have also constructed hydropower projects in Bhutan, Nepal, Afghanistan, and other
countries. Bhakra Beas Management Board (BBMB), a state- owned enterprise in north India.

HYDROELECTRIC PROJECT IN ATHIRAPALLY

In Kerala a Hydroelectric project is proposed in the vicinity of the Athirappilly waterfalls.

Athirappilly is a Panchayath in Chalakudy Taluk of Thrissur district. The proposed project has
direct and indirect impact on the socio economic life of the people of Athirappilly. The primitive
tribes like Malayas, Mala Malasars, Mannans and Kadars live in the project area and the most
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affected tribes are the Kadar tribe. The government of Kerala has to take immediate initiative to
rehabilitate them to a suitable surrounding.

The Kerala State Electricity Board (KSEB), proposed a hydro-electric dam across the Chalakudy
River in Thrissur district, Kerala, to generate 163 MW of power to meet the deficit during the
peak hours from 6 pm to 10 pm. The proposed Athirappilly hydroelectric project (hereafter,
HEP) is poised to get a fillip; with the State Government deciding to go ahead with the project
since environmental clearances from the Central Government is sanctioned recently. The
concrete gravity of dam is envisaged to be 23 m in height and 311 m in length. The water spread
area would be 104 hectares whereas the total forest area required would be 138 hectares. Water
from the dam will be brought through a 4.69 km tunnel of 6.4 m diameter to the main power
house situated north-west of the dam site and above Kannankuzhithodu into which the tail race
water will be emptied. These discharges through the Kannankuzhithodu will join the Chalakudy
River at a distance of 1.5 km. Two penstocks each of 3.4 diameter and 50 m length will be
provided to the power house with an installed capacity of 2 x 80 MW. Apart from these two
dams, two generators with 1.5 MW capacity each are planned 50 m down the dam, thus making
the total installed capacity to163 MW (Gadgil Report). In this paper it is envisaged to make an
analysis of the socio-economic problems including the threat of shifting the dwellings of the
Kadar tribe from the vicinity of the forest and the Athirappilly waterfalls due to the arrival of
HEP. There are four major tribal communities namely Malayas, Mala Malasars, Mannans and
Kadars living in the surrounding area of the project but the most affected ones are the
Kadars.The hydroelectric and irrigation projects, namely; Parambikulam/Aliyar, Peringalkuthu,
Sholayar, Pothundi, Mangalam and Thunakadavu had forced them to abandon their habitats and
move to resettlement areas which had a direct impact on their social life and

The Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, gave environmental clearance
on 20.1.1998 and forest clearances to the Athirappilly Project on 22.12.1997 (Stage I - Forest
Clearance) and on 16.12.1999 Stage II Forest Clearance). Before construction of any big/small
dam on river its impact assessment/analysis should be done in a scientific way otherwise it will
pose threat to present ecology as well as economy. Prior to clearance it is mandatory to conduct
public hearing as well as EIA study but NGOs are claiming that there wasn’t any EIA study or
public hearing for this project.In 1998, Athirappilly hydro-power project got clearance from
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Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) without public hearing. So in October 2001,
Kerala high Court directed Kerala State Electricity Board and MoEF to follow all procedures for
Environment Clearances. Public hearing was held in February 2002, in which it was observed
that local communities and environmentalist are against the project. But on the basis of a report
prepared by EIA agency -Water and Power Consultancy Services (India) Ltd. (WAPCOS),
MoEF sanctioned clearance to the project in February 2005. In March 2006, Kerala High Court
cancelled the clearance and directed to reorganize public hearing. The court ordered the authority
to publish the report and public hearing details. On directives of court public hearing is held on
15 June 2012.

The honorable High Court of Kerala suspended the above sanction on three Public Interest
Litigations(PILs), based on the irregularities in the procedure followed for tendering and against
the clearance of the Ministry of Environment and Forest (MoEF) which was in violation of the
Environmental Protection Act. The High Court further asked the KSEB to re-examine the
procedure and directed the Central Government to withdraw the sanction given earlier and
conduct a public hearing in accordance with the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
notification of the MoEF (1994) and the amendment to it dated 10.4.1997 (Kerala High Court
judgment dated 17.10.2001) and then reconsider the grant of Environmental Clearance.
Accordingly, a public hearing was conducted by the Kerala State Pollution Control Board on
6.2.2002 at Thrissur. The arguments against the reliability of the EIA conducted by the Tropical
Botanical Gardens and Research Institute (TBGRI) in 1996, the impact on environment and
biodiversity and, the technical feasibility of the project based on the actual availability of water
were raised by the gathering. Considering all these, the Public Hearing Panel asked for a second
EIA which should be comprehensive and should include Chalakudy River Protection Council on
various grounds: its period of study, consultations with various agencies (local bodies, various
departments of the government and the local communities) suggested by the High Court,
methodology, and scientific reliability were to be dealt with in detail. The KSBB (Kerala State
Biodiversity Board) in an affidavit filed in the High Court of Kerala categorically stated that the
EIA report was not comprehensive, and that the methods followed for the biodiversity studies
were wrong and unacceptable. Another PIL was filed by the Athirappilly Gram Panchayat and
the Kadar tribe, the actual potential sufferers of the proposed dam, challenging the sanction

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accorded, mainly on the ground that the report of the second EIA was not circulated and kept
away from the public and that there was no public hearing on the second EIA.

According to the written submission made by CPSS (ChalakudyPuzhaSamrakshanaSamithi)

more than 1200 people attended the Public Hearing where none spoke in favour of the project
and, in the 252 written representations submitted to the Public Hearing Panel, the ratio for and
against the project was 1:9. Pressure from civil society mounted up again, against the project.
PILs were filed again by Ms. Geetha, representative of the Primitive Kadar Tribe, challenging
the project on the ground of ecology and biodiversity and the impact on their life-support system.
To sum up, the KSEB on 23rd July 2015 filed an affidavit to go ahead with the Athirappilly
Project. The Ministry of Environment and Forest sanctioned the final ‘No Objection Certificate’
on 11th August 2015 to the KSEB to go ahead with the Project. This research piece is intended
to analyse exclusively the socio economic problems of the Kadar tribe living in the project area
due to the arrival of Athirappillyhydroelectric dam.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

This study is based on the concept of socio-economic impact. An impact is a measurable change
in the characteristic or property of resources.Impact types most commonly observed during
construction projects include alteration, rearrangement, dispersal, removal and total destruction
of ecological resources. A socio-economic impact study examines how a proposed development
will change the lives of current and future residents of a community.Because socio-economic
impact is designed to estimate the effects of a proposed development on a community’s social
and economic welfare, the process should rely heavily on involving community members who
may be affected by the development.

This study is going to investigate whether the community has received socio-economic benefits
though tourism development in their neighborhood and the study analyses the socio economic
challenges of Kadar tribe living in the proposed project area.This study can contribute to
understanding the transition in tribal life in the different stages of forest produce collection,
wage labour, and other income-generating activities. Seven tribal settlements in the Vazhachal
division in inside the forest have been enclose for the study. As such the study is entitled “A

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 study on Socio – Economic challenges faced by Kadar tribes with reference to proposed
Hydroelectric Project in Athirappilly”

1.3 SCOPE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY

The Kerala State Electricity Board (KSEB), proposed a hydro-electric dam across the Chalakudy
River in Thrissur district, Kerala, to generate 163 MW of power to meet the deficit during the
peak hours from 6 pm to 10 pm. The proposed Athirappillyhydroelectric project (hereafter,
HEP) is poised to get a fillip; with the State Government deciding to go ahead with the project
since environmental clearances from the Central Government is sanctioned recently.

In this paper it is envisaged to make an analysis of the socio-economic problems including the
threat of shifting the dwellings of the Kadar tribe from the vicinity of the forest and the
Athirappilly waterfalls due to the arrival of HEP. There are four major tribal communities
namely Malayas, Mala Malasars, Mannans and Kadars living in the surrounding area of the
project but the most affected ones are the Kadar’s. The hydroelectric and irrigation projects,
namely; Parambikulam/Aliyar, Peringalkuthu, Sholayar, Pothundi, Mangalam and Thunakadavu
had forced them to abandon their habitats and move to resettlement areas which had a direct
impact on their social life and economy.

Kadar tribes in this area has been categorized as Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTG).
Traditional Kadar economy consisted largely of subsistence on honey, roots and tubers,
supplemented through hunting and fishing. The Kadar ‘s led a nomadic lifestyle and practiced
shifting cultivation. Now the situation has changed drastically and their livelihood patterns have
become comparable with other community. Even though they depend on the forest resources,
most of the Kadar are engaged in wage labour to meet their livelihood.

1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

 To find out the socio economic problems faced by the Kadar tribe due to the arrival of the
proposed dam project in Athirappilly.
 To give appropriate measures to overcome the challenges.
 To analyse the socio – economic profile of Kadar tribes.

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 To collect opinion of local people especially Kadar tribes regarding proposed hydroelectric
project.

1.5 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

 Every study has its limit so the major limitations for the study was the job constraint. Needs and
wants of peoples changes day by day.
 Government and political issues also create limitations to the study. And legal formalities of
government for the data collection also take time.
 The study of the impact that tourism has on environment and communities involved is relatively
new. Impacts are not easily categorized, having direct and indirect components. Also tourism is
often seasonal, and impacts only become apparent after time, with varying effects, and at
different stages of development. There are three main categories.

1.6CHAPTER PLAN
To ensure a structured and systematic research project, various chronological steps have been
undertaken by the researcher. The stages are demonstrated within this document by 9 main
chapters and their subsections; a summary of each chapter’s purpose and content is as follows.
Firstly, the introduction provides the reader with some background information. Then, the
literature review explores academic literature surrounding the research topic.

The destination profiles help to know overall awareness and knowledge of the destination. And
tourism impact will explain the terms of impacts and changes of the local community through
tourism and proposed hydroelectric project

The methodology for planned research was then developed and undertaken. The primary
research methods used, including a questionnaire and a focus group are identified and explained
in the methodology section. From the research devolved the quantitative and qualitative data,
which is presented in the results section in the form of tables and graphs.

The discussion and analysis section then interpret and correlates the data, comparisons and
contrasts are made by referring back to information found when reviewing literature. Following
two chapters are methodology and results. Findings are summarized and recommendations made
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for future research. Finally, conclusion is presented in the last chapter of this paper. The
conclusion is an overview and reflection upon the project as a whole.

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II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Though environmental groups and people’s collectives have raised strong and valid arguments
against AHEP, the KSEB is still trying to get the project sanctioned. Discussing the issue in the
context of global climate change, arguing for the project becomes less legitimate; but exposing
the connection changing climate has with large dams such as climate change increases dam
vulnerability and vice-versa may have a chance for reflection in the policy making dialogues.

Panel report on Athirappilly project biased - K Radhakrishnan, "The Hindu", January, 1, 2012,
former Member (Generation) of the Kerala State Electricity Board said he fears that the latest
report by the Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel (WGEEP) on the Athirappilly hydro-electric
project smacks of a move to torpedo major power projects evolved by Kerala. Reacting to the
report, Mr. Radhakrishnan told The Hindu, that the recommendations appear to be highly biased
in order to suit the interests of such a move. Mr. Radhakrishnan, who headed the KSEB team for
the technical discussion with the WGEEP on the issue, said it is unfortunate that all major power
projects planned by Kerala are being consistently stalled by objections from various groups.
Kerala is losing about 1,400 million units of electricity annually from the major projects stalled
in this manner. This situation leads to more dependence by the State on power producers outside
the State. It leads to a situation where large merchant power plants selling power at market
driven costs benefit.

Gadgil Report (2011), - Report of the Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel Submitted to the
Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India. Western Ghats in Karnataka;
Source: Man on Mission, Wikimedia. Citing these as reasons, the Kerala State Advisory Board
recommends scrapping of the project. According to Dr. SathisChandran Nair, an expert on the
Southern Western Ghats, “Chalakudy River is perhaps the only major river in Kerala where
along the main river channel, some stretches of the riparian vegetation remains in spite of so
much destruction.” The case of Athirappilly is intricately woven to the larger context of the
Western Ghats. The Western Ghats stretches along the western edge of the Indian peninsula
sandwiched between the Deccan Plateau and the coastal plain along the Arabian Sea.

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 Prof. MadhavGadgil, renowned ecologist known for his studies on people-
environment relationships, has fostered his love of ecological field work by extensive work in
the Western Ghats. At a recent lecture on 'Science, democracy & ecology in contemporary India'
in New Delhi, Gadgil talked about the Athirappilly project. Gadgil, as Chairman of the Western
Ghats Ecology Expert Panel (WGEEP), had come up with a report in September 2011, which
triggered a public debate on environment-development choices. Gadgil’s report had demarcated
areas to be notified as 'ecologically sensitive' and had put key curbs on the mining industry.
Listed by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) as
one of the top eight bio-diversity hotspots in the world, the Western Ghats area was in need of
nuanced regulation of activities, Gadgil said.

India times articles economic times 2013-07-17 Ghats-Ecology-Expert-Panel-Western-

Ghats-kasturirangan-panel referred The Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF), didn't
disclose the details of this report to the public. Instead, it roped in former Indian Space Research
Organization (ISRO) chief Kasturirangan to head a High Level Working Group to advise the
government on how to conserve the Western Ghats. Gadgil pointed out the holes in
Kasturirangan’s report by saying that it would open the Ghats to economic exploitation, while
continuing to play lip service to conservation. Gadgil also noted that the MoEF was “even
hesitant to implement the Kasturirangan Panel report, which according to him was a watered
down version of his report.”

A study by Environics Trust, an NGO that enables research and development on

environmental and human behavior, also says that “appropriate grievance redressal mechanisms
need to be put in place for the Western Ghats. If one analyses the appeals filed before the
National Environment Appellate Authority, they will see that the maximum number of cases
have been filed from the Western Ghats region. It is clear that projects in the Western Ghats are
legally opposed by affected communities and civil society groups.”

IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science (IOSR-JHSS), Volume 20, Issue 9, Ver. II (Sep.
2015), PP 01-05, also discussing about the challenges of local community’s. And issues faced by
Kadar tribes especially with the socio economic problems. The employment pattern and income
are clear indicators of their economic backwardness and requires immediate government

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interference and social support to uplift them. They clearly focusing to the literacy, employment
basic needs and education of the Kadar tribes.

RanjithKavumkara’s comprehensive article decries the unplanned construction of large dams in

light of the proposed Athirappilly Hydro Electric Project across the Chalakudyriver in Kerala. He
says Dams would change the delicate workings of the ecosystem. Discussing the issue in the
context of global climate change, arguing for the project becomes less legitimate; but exposing
the connection changing climate has with large dams such as climate change increases dam
vulnerability and vice-versa may have a chance for reflection in the policy making dialogues.

The green squad is a campaign they submit report to: Chief Minister- Kerala,
Electricity Minister- Kerala, Chairman- Kerala State Electricity Board Ltd. (KSEB) about Why
the Project is no Good. And they clearing the minds of people with the Impact on lives of Kadar
Tribes.The habitats will be seriously affected Environmental Relevance.The submergence of the
forest will lead to:Loss of forest rich in biodiversity and known for its unique riverine forest
system, Habitat loss for nearly endemic plants (155 species) and animals, Habitat loss for the
already threatened Hornbills, could lead to extinction, Loss of migratory route for elephants and
also Construction of dam will affect migration of fishes it also creates Financial Implication. A

loss of approximately Rs. 500 crores/year worth benefits by ecological destruction and this is not
considered in the cost of the project.

Tourism in Destination Communities book by Shalini Singh, DalLen j. Timothy &Ross K.

Dowling discussing that the Tribal communities live in close proximity with forest and its
products. The tribes have lost control over their resources such as forest and land and its
resources in recent ties these has made change in their economy and culture. Many of the tribal
groups had to leave their traditional occupations and seek employment outside forest as non
skilled wage labourers. The interaction between the changing environment and their cultural
practices influence the indigenous lifestyle, traditional economy and livelihood practices.

India has second largest tribal population in the world with a rich, unique, ethnic
culture and traditions. Tribal economy and culture associate harmony with nature, the life style
and tradition being unique for each of the tribal communities. The tribes always maintained a

Page | 18
symbiotic relationship between their livelihood quest and the surrounding natural resource. The
tribes used to collect various minor forest products from forest for their survival and livelihood.

Chalakudy River Protection Forum, Issues related to the proposed Athirappilly hydroelectric
project, 2007. The fear is that the falls may possibly dry up if the project becomes a reality.
KSEB suggests that it would adjust the water releases to maintain the waterfall but
environmentalists doubt that. Another worry is that the project could displace “Kadar’s”, a
primitive tribal group of the area. They dwell in the forests near the Chalakudy River and their
numbers are as low as 1500 today given the forced displacement they have been subject to in the
last nearly 150 years owing to forest clearances.

While specifically studying the Athirappilly hydroelectric project, the Gadgil Panel found that
“the Environmental Impact Assessment Report (EIA) prepared for the project and the public
hearings conducted were flawed and the High Court had repeatedly set them aside.

Indeed, it is not an exception, but very much the rule that EIAs are never objective neutral
evaluations of the project but are deliberately distorted to expedite clearance.” Specifically, the
Gadgil Panel noted that 70% of the EIA of this project was bogus. The panel said that
Athirappilly fell in Ecologically Sensitive Zone 1, a zone where no new dams based on large-
scale storage should be permitted. Therefore, it should not be accorded environmental
clearance. K Radhakrishnan, former member (Generation) KSEB, did not agree with the Panel
report and said that the report “was highly biased and the project was eco-friendly doing
minimum damage to environment and forests.

The people too are opposed to the project and nearly all 1200 present at the second public
hearing on the proposed dam had spoken against it. Nearly, 90% of the written representations
after the public hearing too were opposed to the project. Gadgil sees hope in grassroots research
and advocacy groups like the River Research Centre (RRC), which conducted an independent
assessment of the proposed project. RRC’s assessment points to a number of flaws as per Gadgil.

According to the Chalakudy River Protection Forum set up by RRC, there is not enough water to
generate the power as claimed. Power generation would also adversely impact the current

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irrigation capacity of the river. It could also affect the scenic waterfall itself and thereby the
thriving tourism industry, which draws 8-10 lakh tourists a year.

It is clear that development can't happen at any cost yet the answer to the environment-
development dichotomy isn't clear. Gadgil says that it lies in “implementing the many well
thought provisions of various Acts and Schemes for protecting the environment, and for
devolution of democratic powers”.

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III. DESTINATION PROFILE

3.1 ATHIRAPPILLY
Athirappilly is a first grade GramaPanchayat with 489.00 km2 area in ChalakudyTaluk, Thrissur
district in Kerala, India. It is located 60 km from Thrissur city, 70 km northeast of Kochi city, 55
km northeast of Cochin International Airport, and 30 km from Chalakudytown. TheAthirappilly
Falls is situated 1000 ft. above sea level on the Chalakudyriver, at the entrance to the Sholayar
ranges of the Western Ghats, Athirappilly is a scenic combination of forests and little streams.
Falling from a height of 80 feet, this is one of the largest waterfalls in the state. Many
endangered and endemic species of flora and fauna are found in the forests of the Athirappilly-
Vazhachal area. This area is the only place in the Western Ghats where four endangered hornbill
species are seen.

The Western Ghats is one of the most important biodiversity hot spot in the world. This valuable
natural world is already degraded by mining and hydroelectric projects. Environmentalists claim
that Athirappilly is a one-of its-kind riparian ecosystem in Kerala. Athirappilly -Vazhachal forest
division is the second most biodiverse area in the State. The International Bird Association has
declared it an "Important Bird Area" and the Asian Nature Conservation Foundation has
recommended that the area should be declared a sanctuary or a national park. Athirappilly is
popular among tourists. Athirappilly Falls is one of the best places to visit in Kerala. Another
popular waterfall to visit is the Vazhachal Falls. Athirappilly Falls is a part of Chalakudyriver
and it is approximately 80 feet in height.

Proper precautions are taken on site to prevent mishaps while swimming and a police camp is
always positioned there. Athirappilly is situated on SH-21 highway connecting Tamil Nadu and
Kerala, night driving is not advised. But you can enjoy the adventurous drive in the middle of
jungle.

Jungle Safari: Daily Jungle Safari trips are organized by Thrissur District Tourism Promotion
Council with Athirappilly Destination Management Council from Chalakudy to Malakkappara. It
is the most attractive wildlife watch and Ecotourism Junglesafari through the evergreen forest of
Sholayar ranges of Western Ghats - Kerala. It is also the most beautiful Jungle Safari watching
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Wildlife in the entire Kerala and is about 90 km across the rain forests of Sholayar ranges. A
unique opportunity to experience the rich flora & fauna of Athirappilly-VazhachalEcotourism,
covering Kauthukapark, Thumboormuzhy Dam &Butterfly garden, Athirappilly water falls,
Vazhachal falls, 40 km of amidst thick forests, valleys, lofty peaks, tea garden and wildlife
watch.

Vazhachal Colony

Vazhachal Tribal colony is located near by the Vazhachal tourism area. Vazhachal is 5 km from
Athirapilly waterfalls with natural forests and derisive trees, a stream having a good fall of water
and a small garden near by the water stream. There are 64 families residing in the colony. This
colony is the more advanced society compared to the other colonies. They have a regular contact
with the general community. They are working on the basis of daily wages in the Vazhachal
tourism area and in plantations in Chalakudy and Athirapilly. They depend on forest for their
livelihood collecting minor forest produce. They were shifted from the Athirapilly area years
back. They have a prayer place a, small place underneath a Banyan tree where they light a lamp
every day.

An upper primary school and a primary metric hostel are situated near by the colony. Forest
range offices, forest dormitory, and Inspection Bungalow are also situated near the Colony. One
region of the colony connected with the deep forest and trench were made for protection from
wild animals. There are teashops and provision shops near the settlement. Kadar‘s of this
settlement has more opportunities than the Kadar‘s of the other settlements to interact with the
outside world. Majority of the houses are electrified. Drinking water is collected from the nearby
ChalakkudyRiver.

The children of the tribe go to various schools nearby the colony studying in secondary, and
higher secondary levels staying in hostels. A lower primary school and pre-metric tribal hostel
are situated near by the colony. The major source of income for the tribe is from the activities of
VSS (VanaSamrakshanaSamithi), and forest department in relation with tourism and
conservation practices in the Vazhachal. The forest department helps the Kadar people through
VSS with a mutual understanding of participatory conservation and community development.
Most of them are getting work as guides, plastic cleaners, watchers etc. in the tourism spot. They
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get the wage through the VSS monthly based on their attendance in the work. They are appointed
as daily wage workers in Palapilly, Varantharapilly plantations and estates. The VSS members
are assigned the work of maintaining and clearing fire line (daily wage) for Forest department
and KSEB. The NWFP collection is also one of the sources of incomes in this Kadar colony. The
items of NWFP collected from this area are Honey, white dammer, Maramanjalkol,
Nellika(gooseberry), Kasthurimanjal, Chandanakizhangu, Nannari, Beewax, Kudampulietc.
Girijan Co-operative society is also functioning in the colony for collecting the forest produce.
Some of them are engaged in occupations such as as roofing with eetta(Bamboo) leaf in a
traditional style for hotels and restaurants in the locale. Two members from Kadar tribe are
working as line men in the Kerala State Electricity Board.

The tribe are not in procession with the Pattaya(the official document claiming the ownership)
for the land they reside in, except for the 25 persons who holds the official land proof ‘withPhoto
ID. PVTG project provided 13 houses as a housing scheme. (3.5 Lakh per house). Individually
they have only a few cents of land ranging from 3 to 10 cents of land.

They have a community hall built in 2001; the hall is not yet used for any purpose and is not
wired to electricity. For conducting public functions, they use the forest dormitory near by the
colony. The colony has temporary VSS office for conducting meetings and keeping the records.
Vazhachal Kadar colony members having good relationship with forest department. They need
to travel 8 km to reach the ration shop or Post office situated in Puliyilappara. They maintained a
good relation with other communities. They even have marriage connections with other tribal
groups and other Hindu caste groups. Some of the members of the community are married to
Christian families and such families follow Christian beliefs. Alcoholism is habitual in this
colony. Most men in the colony drink alcohol regularly. A few older women in the colony also
have the habit of taking alcohol. Both native and foreign liquor are consumed which are easily
available.

3.2KADAR TRIBE IN KERALA

India has second largest tribal population in the world with a rich, unique, ethnic culture and
traditions. Tribal economy and culture associate harmony with nature, the life style and tradition
being unique for each of the tribal communities. The tribes always maintained a symbiotic
Page | 23
relationship between their livelihood quest and the surrounding natural resource. The tribes used
to collect various minor forest products from forest for their survival and livelihood.
Tribal communities live in close proximity with forest and its products. The tribes have lost
control over their resources such as forest and land and its resources in recent ties these has made
change in their economy and culture. Many of the tribal groups had to leave their traditional
occupations and seek employment outside forest as non-skilled wage labourers. The interaction
between the changing environment and their cultural practices influence the indigenous lifestyle,
traditional economy and livelihood practices. Gender role and social capital has a significant role
in making livelihood promotion in a sustainable manner.

Kadar tribe is one of the thirty-two tribal aborigines in Kerala. They belong to the primitive tribal
groups and used to live in huts made of mud, wooden poles, bamboo and leaves. The
government of Kerala has taken initiatives under different schemes to provide them with houses
and quarters. Kadar speaks a form of Tamil with Malayalam elements. The hereditary headman
of the settlement is called ‘Mooppan’ who deal with the social control mechanism of the
community. They subsist mainly on non-timber forest produce collection and forest labour.
Traditionally they were expert food gatherers, hunters and trappers. They were adept in making
strong ropes required for their honey collection and elephant capturing expeditions. The total
population of the Kadar tribe in Kerala is 2736 (Report, DFO 2015).

The Western Ghats hill range of India, recognized as a global biodiversity hotspot, also contains
impressive cultural diversity including different tribal communities. These hill ranges have been
home to indigenous communities of different ethnic origin such as the Kadar, Muthuvan,
MalaiMalasars etc. Kadar tribe is the most well-known tribal community and occupies in
forested hills, valleys, riverside regions, and lower slopes of hills. Now Kadar tribe divided into
Kerala and Tamilnadu with unique culture and traditions. Being distributed over a vast area they
identify themselves as a community divided into groups by geographical similarity. These
groups were identified in the regions of Parambikulam, Vachimaram, Vazhachal, Valparai,
Udumalpet, Thalli, Anamalai, Kuriarkutty, Aanapandam etc. The rituals, cultural traditions and
traditional governing system of Kadar make them different from other tribes. They were
continuing the traditional system existing in past. Fishing and depending on the forest products
was their sole livelihood in the past. Kadar tribe is the one of the forest dwelling community
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depend the forest for their livelihood. . 'Forest dwelling Scheduled Tribes' means the members or
community of the Scheduled Tribes who primarily reside in and who depend on the forests or
forest lands for bona fide livelihood needs and includes the Scheduled Tribe pastoralist
communities‘(FRA Act, 2006)

Kadar colonies

The seven Kadar colonies are located in different areas around 50 km from Vazhachal. The
Vazhachal Tribal colony is near by the tourism area and has 64 families. It‘s an advanced
community compared to other colonies. They mainly resort to tourism related wage labour
through the VSS. Pokalappara tribal colony basically depends on the forest products with 27
families. They have a honey treatment and bottling plant. Poringalkuthu tribal colony is near by a
dam site with 33 families. They mainly depend the NWFP for their livelihood. Mukkampuzha is
situated in beautiful edge of the dam reservoir known as Sidhanpokkat. They mainly depend on
fishing and NWFP for their livelihood. Being an introvert community they have less relation
with the other communities. Malaya tribe families are also settled in Wachumarm Kadar colony.
But their customs and traditions are entirely different. They are also engaged in reed and bamboo
collection. Amalappara and Anakkayam are the two Kadar colonies in Sholayar area. These two
colonies are located close to the Sholayar power house. Anakkayam colony is more primitive
and follows all the traditional customs. Malakkappara tribal colony is situated in the Kerala-
Tamilnadu border, and has 65 families. This colony was established amalgamating the
government land of the state. Most of the tribes are working in the Govt. plantations formed as
part of the program.

Livelihood practices

In the study area most of the houses of the Kadar tribes are concrete building. The majority of
the Kadar‘s are not bothered about their settlement and its facilities. But some of them have
modern household facilities. Only 42 percent of the respondents have the toilet facility. The
Kadar has to travel long distance to reach the market at the town in Chalakkudy. Day to day
shopping is done at the Puliyilappara. Rice and kerosene are purchased from the ration shop.
Road and transport facilities are available to all colonies. All the colonies located near
Chalakkudy - Valppara road.
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Even though they own their land (no pattaya), the forest policies and laws influence their rights.
Most of them have only below 5 cent of land. The Jalanithiproject has provided drinking water
facility. Some of the drinking water projects continued with limitations and in many colonies the
beneficiary system stopped due to damage to equipment’s, people‘s committee problems etc. The
project does not operate in dry season. Most of the Kadar tribe depends on water from river or
dam for their domestic purposes.Kadar are actively involved in conservation activities like
plastic cleaning, preventing forest fire etc. Men are mostly engaged in honey collection. Fishing
is a main livelihood activity of the Kadar men and women. They also collect different NWFPs
for their livelihood like tubers, wild fruits thelly, fruits of mimusasaponifera,inchapatta, matti,
cane, nellikka, kanhirakkuru, lemon grass etc.

Kadar tribe is educationally backward and the level of education poor. The dropout rate is also
high among the Kadar. Remoteness of settlement, poor financial level of the parents and their
life style effect their education. The project of Hornbill foundation has started initiatives for the
education. Kadar tribes are very healthy, but due to change in food habits the tribal lost their
natural immune system. At the same time the indigenous ethno-medicine system helps to cure
their diseases. They have much knowledge on medicinal plants. PHC/CHCs and Govt. hospitals
provide free health services for the tribes. Usage of liquor, betel chewing and smoking are
prevalent among the all Kadar colonies. Women and children are exposed to their practices.

On an average Kadar earn Rs.150 to 500 as their daily wage. They engage in different activities.
Male and female wage rate is different in the plantations and estates. Wages for males are higher
than these of women. An average annual family income is Rs.10000. Their Income comes
mainly from NWFP and VSS activities. The availability of NWFP is seasonal and they depend
alternative income from the wage labour. The VSS in the tribal settlements is constituted with a
general body and an executive committee. The development happened through the VSS is
exemplary. The 185 Oorukoottamworking in all the colonies by the leadership of the Mooppan
and it take decisions regarding the disputes in colony. The new FRA (forest Right Act-2006)
provides an enormous power to the Oorukoottam(Gramasabha) and recognition to their forest
rights.

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Ethnographic profile

The word kadan, in Malayalam, means the dweller of the forest (plural–Kadar). The name
obviously derives from the soul dependence of the community on forest as their habitat. They
used to lead a nomadic life, lived in small communities,practiced shifting cultivation and
changed from place to place in the forest. Thetraditional utensils were earthen wares obtained
from local markets. Drinking water wasdrawn from the streams and stored the water in bamboo
cylinders which they would carrywith them. Bamboo cylinders were also used for the storage of
honey and oil.

Gender Role in tribal life

Gender plays a central role in how societies assign roles, responsibilities, resources and rights
among men and women (Metha and Srinivasan, 2000). Gender refers to the socially constructed
behaviors and attitudes expected of males and females from the society in which they live.
Because gender is culturally defined, it differs from the biological traits which define men and
women respectively. Gender is a variable concept that can be changed through social, political
and institutional processes. Gender is one component of the gender/sex system, which refers to
the set of arrangements by which a society transforms biological sexuality into products of
human activity, and in which these transformed needs are satisfied. Almost all societies, to a
certain effect, have a gender/sex system, although the components and workings of this system
vary markedly from society to society. Tribal women exercised a very important role in the
community in all their activities. Their livelihood is linked with the division of labour between
the men and women in the community. Every society has its socio-cultural attributes that are
acquired from what women and men of the society are expected to do in their life. Gender role
refers to the behaviors, attitudes, values and beliefs that a particular culture considers normative
for one’s biological sex. Gender roles are learned patterns in a given community that perform the
gender division of labor i.e. which activities; tasks and responsibilities are performed by male
and female. It’s a perceived behavioral norms associated particularly with males or females, in a
given social group or system. Women are traditionally, by division of work, responsible for
resource mobilization and management. Water, Fire wood collection are the accepted
responsibilities of women. The types of activities members of households are involved in

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contribute to their household welfare and decision-making abilities. In the past the gender role
performance of men and women contribute to each other in way of division of labour by sharing
their works in the family and community, based on their physical nature. The term gender
equality has given the women equal right and role of men exercising in the society. Women‘s
participation in development programmes can empower them to acquire equal right with men.

Social capital a resource for tribal development

The social capital is mainly deals with social relations and social network between the people.
Social capital explains functionally to a situation where people share a sense of identity, hold
similar values, trust each other and reciprocally do things for each other. The nature of the social
capital depends on various dimensions of the interactions in which it is produced, such as the
quality of the internal-external interactions, reciprocity, trust and the shared values and norms.

Fukuyama (1999) encapsulates the idea of trust within his approach to the concept: Social capital
can be defined simply as a set of informal values or norms shared among members of a group
that permits co-operation among them. The World Bank, however, takes more expansive views,
suggesting: Social capital refers to the institutions, relationships, and norms that shape the
quality and quantity of a society ‘s social interactions. Social relationships between the members
of a community help them to bring together as a common entity. The value of good interactions
and relationships within the community and with the other people can consider as a capital ‘.
This can be regarded as the social capital, the wealth of the community. It is an asset that creates
opportunities for enhancing well-being and for reducing vulnerability among the members of the
community. Social capital is referred to sociability, social networks, social support, trust,
reciprocity and civic engagement and it is also a prime factor for contributing to the livelihood.
Buchan (2003) has elicited social capital down to the ―glue‖ made up of community norms,
values, and networks that brings together to work toward a common cause; without this glue,
human alienation and environmental degradation will occur. Thus, social capital refers to the
relationships between people and not just people themselves. Social capital is an invisible form
of capital as it is build upon unseen social structures and relationships that form the foundation of
networks (Koniordos, 2008).

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Life cycle rituals

Birth

A pregnant woman is generally restricted to a seclusion shed (a separate hut) as soon as the
labour pain starts. Traditional midwives assist the childbirth. Immediately after the birth, the
child is bathed in warm water. The Kadar observes 91 days of birth pollution and the mother and
baby are confined to the seclusion shed. The baby is nursed and cared by other women from the
colony who are closely related.

Marriage

Marriages within the settlements were forbidden during the past, though the restrictions are
found to be tapering. Cross cousin marriages are permitted even though consanguineous
marriages are prohibited. The Kadar are having a low marriage age for both boys and girls. A
boy selects a girl and obtains permission from the Mooppanof his settlement for wooing her. The
parents of the girl are presented with clothes when the actual marriage takes place. Widow
Remarriages are allowed in the community, though the remarriage does not assume the nature of
a formal marriage. Instead, the partners begin the married life on their own without a customary
marriage ceremony. Polygamy used to be prevalent among the older generation but the tendency
has almost vanished. Practice of dowry is absent in the community. Divorces and remarriages are
permitted but with the sanction of the Mooppan. Love marriages also permissible with the
approval of Mooppan. Small and nuclear families are found mostly among the tribe. Natural
contraceptive methods involving the use of herbal extracts were widely in use among the tribe.
However the younger generation is mostly unaware of these practices nowadays or too reluctant
to disclose the details regarding it. Kinship is followed through the male line.

Funeral and Death

A person on the verge of death is given a little water by relatives. The corpse, wrapped in a fresh
piece of cloth (kodi) is placed on a bier made of bamboo decorated with a plantain stem. Kadar‘s
perform dancing and singing with Kuzhal(a wind instrument) and Chenda(a drum- a percussion
instrument) around the corpse to make the spirit of the dead, appeased. All the members of the
tribe, irrespective of gender and age, take part in the ritual with loud singing and dancing. The

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Kadar buries the corpse in a common burial place situated near the colony. The 16th day after the
day of death is observed with a number of rituals and rites.

Food habits

Food habits of the tribe underwent several changes over the decades. The principal diet includes
rice. Rice is cooked in the form of a gruel or taken solid, once or twice a day. The tubers and
roots are collected from the neighboring forest, and used to be once the major source of food.
Honey and honey combs collected from the forest were a part of the dietary pattern along with a
number of wild tubers and wild fruits. They also used Attatac (a wild variety of spinach), wild
tomato, EenthalKoombu(Leaf bud of Cycad tree) for making curry. Wild tomato leaf is also used
for thoran (vegetable stir fry) for to get rid of worms in children. The traditional staple diet
included a variety of grains such as Thina (Foxtail Millet), Chaama(little millet), Ragi(finger
millet), bamboo rice etc as grains. Naarukizhangu, Chandanakizhangu, Thalikkizhangu,
Kanjirakkizhanguetcwere the different wild tubers traditionally used. Small varieties of wild
animals also had their place in the diet of the tribe. Beef, milk and milk products were not
included in the diet. Eating cow meat and Beef were traditionally forbidden and considered to be
a great sin. Fish also had its place in the menu. They collected forest resources like Ginger,
Cardamom, Thelly, fruits of Mimusasaponifera, inchapatta, matti, cane, nellikka, kanhirakkuru,
and lemon grass for their livelihood.

Kadar Dialect

The tribe speaks their own dialect. The language has strong similarities with Malayalam. It‘s
much alike to Malayalam merged with the Tamil language and is without any scriptures,
„edithiriba‟ means ‗bring it here‘ in the Kadar language and „kallyanamadina‟ means „are you
married?‘. Almost all members of the Kadar tribe has a working knowledge of the Malayalam
language

Musical instruments

Kuzhal, a wind pipe is a musical instrument and is used during the dancing and other rituals. It’s
an instrument with seven holes, smaller than the clarinet made out of the branch of paalatree. The
chenda, a drum is also used for ritual ceremonies. It’s made with the Palm stem tide with leather

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in two sides. They used these types of instruments even in earlier times which can be found in
the literature on Kadar life. Group dances are held during the burial rites, marriage, and religious
functionaries. Irrespective of the age, from small children to aged people participate in the Tribal
dance and festivals.

Festivals and Worship

Maladaivam and Athuvancherry Amman are the goddesses worshipped in most of the festivals.
The festivals are the manifestation of their group dynamism with dance and songs. The tribe
invariably enjoy dancing and singing without any age or sex difference. Kooran kali, Maankali,
Karadikkalietc are their different art forms. Kudiyirakkupaatu, Kozhippattu, Pannippattu,
Aanappattu, Thavalappattu, Kallayanappattu, Maanppattu, Karadippattu, and Thenpattuare the
ritualistic hymns. Makarasankranthiis their main festival. Garudanthookkamis also practiced.
Alcoholic beverages still

Festivals and Worship

Maladaivam and Athuvancherry Amman are the goddesses worshipped in most of the festivals.
The festivals are the manifestation of their group dynamism with dance and songs. The tribe
invariably enjoy dancing and singing without any age or sex difference. Kooran kali, Maankali,
Karadikkali etc. are their different art forms. Kudiyirakkupaatu, Kozhippattu, Pannippattu,
Aanappattu, Thavalappattu, Kallayanappattu, Maanppattu, Karadippattu, and Thenpattuare the
ritualistic hymns. Makarasankranthiis their main festival.Garudanthookk aims also practiced.
Alcoholic beverages still have a significant place in all their celebrations. The priest of the tribe
or Vichayaali takes the leading role in performing rituals and witchcrafts. T the priest will be
appointed by the Mooppan of the tribe. Kadar approach the Vichyaalifor faith healing as well.
Kadar believe in the worship of the dead spirits of their ancestors whom they refer to as
Karnavanmar ‘and they give special offerings for them during their special days.

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IV. TRIBAL TOURISM AND DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITY

4.1 TRIBAL TOURISM

Tribal Tourism is connected with tribal culture, values and traditions, tourism products owned
and operated by tribal people. Tourism which includes tribal habitat, heritage, history and
handicrafts, typically involves small tourism businesses owned by tribes or families. Tourism
focused on indigenous knowledge of culture and nature. Modern India has many indigenous
tribes, that even today, have retained their primitive customs and their lives are directly
associated with their natural surroundings.

‘Tribal tourism’ as defined by Terry Ward, journalist and travel writer, is “a new form of travel
in which tourists visit tribal villages in order to be exposed to a culture completely different from
their own.” In India, states of Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, Orissa, Nagaland, Himachal and
Chhattisgarh see maximum tribal tourism. Tribal tourism has been instrumental in creating
various financial opportunities for the tribes living in the hinterlands. It has helped foster
awareness about the indigenous people in India, many of whom face oppression, lack of
opportunities and social exclusion. While tourism may seem to be doing good for the society, it
also is creating social and psychological consequences for the tribals that are more detrimental
than beneficial. In the past decade, many tourism companies have mushroomed offering tours of
tribal areas.

History has seen the far-reaching consequences of indigenous tribals interacting with tourists. In
Andaman and Nicobar, since the Grand Andaman Trunk Road connected the city to the
hinterlands, Jarawas, a pre-historic indigenous tribe came in contact with the tourists. According
to reports, tourists would give naked Jarawa men and women money, throw empty water bottles
at them, and some offered cigarettes to small Jarawa children. This led to the Jarawa children
becoming addicted to smoking and the adults dancing naked in exchange for money.

‘Responsible tourism’ that is guided by ethical practices and cultural sensitivity is the need of the
hour. Visitors must be educated on the negative impact tribal tourism can have on the indigenous
communities. Travellers participating in any form of tribal tourism should be sensitised about the

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community they are visiting. On a more formal level, the government must lay down
fundamental rules regarding activities carried out in tribal tourism. Rules should also delineate
the role of travel agencies and companies and the extent to which they can participate in tribal
tourism activities. Moreover, every tourism activity in indigenous and protected areas must be
monitored and sanctioned by a team of professionals that will evaluate the risks of the same.

The Hornbill festival of Nagaland is an excellent example of tribal tourism. This festival is an
initiative of the Government of Nagaland to celebrate the rich cultural heritage of Nagaland and
its people. People from all over the world come together in the first week of December to take
part in the celebrations. This festival is one of its kind because it opens up the areas with
‘restricted entry’ into protected areas for visitors without compromising on ethics and traditions.

Similar ethical tourism festivals are catching up in the rest of India. The Daman and Diu festival,
and Maharashtra and Odisha’s tribal tourism initiatives are slowly moving towards responsible
tourism.Carefully formulated tribal tourism can act as a powerful medium towards social and
economic inclusion of tribals. Similarly, it would also provide for the tribals to have a sense of
belonging to the nation and live a life of dignity and respect.

IMPACTS OF TOURISM ON INDEGENOUS POPULATION

Indigenous peoples are self-defined groups of ethnically and culturally distinct peoples, whose
language, traditions and social institutions have largely withstood the impacts of colonisation or
other incoming groups and cultures to a region. They typically have an intrinsic, spiritual link to
their lands. However, in many countries, indigenous peoples are socially, politically and
economically marginalised from mainstream society, which views them as inferior and ‘under-
developed’. Their opinions are not sought about tourism development on their ancestral lands.

Displacement from or violation of these lands can amount to cultural devastation.In other
instances, tribal villages become showcases for visiting tourists, with little benefits shared with
the communities themselves. Cultural dances and artefacts become little more than commodities
for tourists, often bought very cheaply and sold by "middlemen" and even mass produced in
factories overseas. All of this can lead to feelings of frustration and resentment amongst local
people towards tourists, undermining the positive experience that should come with equitable
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cultural exchange. Everyone is welcome including the general public, staff and students and
members of Tourism Concern. There will also be an opportunity to network and refreshments
will be provided.

4.2TRIBES OR INDEGENOUS POPULATION

Different terms used to describe Indigenous groups include Ethnic minorities (China, Vietnam,
Philippines); Tribes (Africa, Americas); Hill tribes (Thailand); Dcheduled Tribes or adivasis
(India); Native American, Indian or Amerindian (North and South America); Indigenes (Latin
America); Aboriginal (Australia, Canada, Taiwan) and First Nations (Canada). The United
Nations defines Indigenous or tribal communities, peoples and nations as those having „a
historical continuity with pre-invasion and pre-colonial societies that developed on their
territories‟, are distinct from other settler groups and want to „preserve, develop and transmit to
future generations their ancestral territories, and their ethnic identity‟. This historical continuity
is based on occupation of ancestral lands, common ancestry, cultural practices and language.
Indigenous people are also economically and culturally marginalized and often live in extreme
poverty. A tribe is viewed, historically or developmentally, as a social group existing before the
development of, or outside of states. Many anthropologists used the term, tribal society, to refer
to societies organized largely on the basis of kinship, especially corporate descent groups.

Tribal tourism is a showcase of tribal life, art, culture and heritage. Tribal tourism enables
interaction between the tourists and the local residents for an enriching experience. In his 1975
study, The Notion of the Tribe, anthropologist Morton H. Fried provided numerous examples of
tribes the members of which spoke different languages and practiced different rituals, or that
shared languages and rituals with members of other tribes. Similarly, he provided examples of
tribes where people followed different political leaders, or followed the same leaders as members
of other tribes. He concluded that tribes in general are characterized by fluid boundaries and
heterogeneity, are not parochial and are dynamic. Indigenous tourist attractions include museums
and cultural villages, nature-based tours, Indigenous fairs and festivals or events and art galleries.
Cultural, environmental and spiritual aspects of Indigenous heritage and traditions are especially
featured in Indigenous tourism. The UN Commission on Sustainable Development highlighted

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the key role of Indigenous peoples in the conservation of natural areas and species on their lands.
Indigenous people comprise five percent of the world‟s population but embody 80% of the
world‟s cultural diversity. They are estimated to occupy 20% of the world‟s land surface but
nurture 80% of the world‟s biodiversity on ancestral lands and territories. India has a large
number of tribal people who still belong to a social set-up, of which very little is known. These
tribes who stay in different parts of the country are still to come out of their traditional way of
life and join the mainstream. Not-with-standing this apparent aloofness, these tribes are very
much a part of Indian society. Having a culture and tradition that is distinctly different from
others, the tribes still occupy the yet to be discovered horizons. Modern India has many
indigenous tribes, that even today, have been able to retain their primitive customs and their lives
are directly associated with their natural surroundings. The tribals in India, are the pro-
environmental communities who are fighting to protect rivers, lands and forests that are the
sources of their livelihood. The congruity that exists between local tribal and Nature only helps
in making tribal territories full of exotic biodiversities. In the western part of the country, in
Rajasthan and Gujarat one can witness a way of life that is colorful, while in South India, the
skillful craftsmanship of Todas of Nilgiri Hills will fascinate. Their pastoral way of life clearly
brings out the beauty in simplicity. In Central India, in the picturesque Jharkhand, you will get to
see the Santhals and the tribals of Bastar. The Santhals are one of the oldest tribals living in
India. Again, the north-eastern tribes of India are known for their traditional songs and dances,
their colorful handmade clothing and intricately woven bamboo handicrafts. There are often
more to be seen than what meet the eyes. The tribal society is always a thing of great interest.
With a well chalked out tour to any of these places you will be able to explore the roots of a
multicultural and multilingual India, where unity in diversity is the essence of national spirit.

4.3 TRIBAL TOURISM DESTINATIONS IN INDIA

The majority of India‟s tribal groups are present in central, northeast, western and east India.
Tropical central states of Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh are home to the Gond, the region‟s
largest tribe.. In Eastern India, almost one fourth of Odisha‟s population belongs to tribal
community. India‟s tribes are known for their arts and craftsmanship. Northeast India: The
northeastern region of India includes the states of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur,

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Nagaland, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram. The entire Northeast India is home to several
ethnic groups, who have inhabited this region since antiquity. The Northeast Indian tribes are
known for their distinctive culture, ancient language, hand-woven dress and handicrafts, all of
which are distinctive and most appealing too. Some of the prominent tribes of the northeast India
include Nagas, Khasis, Jaintias, Mizos, Boros, and Cacharis.

There are 16 major tribes in untamed Nagaland, which shares a border with Myanmar in remote
north east India. These villages are just a few hours from Kohima or to the far-off districts of
Mon (renowned for having the last surviving head hunters) and Mokokchung. Odisha: Odisha,
girdled by the Bay of Bengal is a lush green state with the best fusion of traditional Indian art
depicted in its temples and an exceptional natural world that is loaded with immense splendour.
Lush green mountains, with rich paddies and terraces dot this state everywhere. Odisha is a
traditional dwelling place of several tribes who endorse its antiquity. The largest number of
tribes can be found in this state. These ancient people with mystical ancient ways dwell in
Odisha's remote, deep forests and hilly interiors. Most of them are in the southwest part of the
state. Some tribal areas are quite inaccessible and require permission and language is also a
barrier. The tribes continue to inhabit Odisha's remote areas in the deep forests and hilly
interiors. Immersed in obscurity that revolves around ethnic lifestyle, the Odishan tribes continue
to be a source of deep interest for numerous tourists, alongside anthropologists and sociologists.
Tourists flock to Odisha to find the unusual charm of this comparatively unsung state. Major
tribal sites in Odisha are : Jeypore, Baliguda, Kothagargh, Rayagada, Chatikiona Ankadeli and
these are few of the places which are worth seeing in this state. Activities around the jungles are
main source of income for the Odisha's tribes. The Juang, Bhuyan, Bondo, Saura, and Dhruba
tribes follow the shifting cultivation practice. The Koya tribals are cattle breeders while the
Mahali and Lohara are simple artisans involved in basket weaving and tool making. The Santal,
Munda and other tribes have now also become involved in the mining and industrial belt of
Odisha. The tribals of Odisha treasure a rich and diverse cultural heritage. The changing seasons,
religious customs and the traditional values are strong motivation for creating a series of festivals
that enrich their life cycle.

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4.4 TRIBES IN INDIA

Tribes in India The term tribe ‘hasbeen derived from a Latin word tribes ‘which means a social
group ‘. Tribe is a group of people in a primitive stage of development acknowledging the
authority of a chief and usually regarding themselves as having a common ancestor. The
scheduled tribes of India are the indigenous people and the vulnerable groups of the country.
They considered the oldest ethnological groups referred to as Adivasis or original inhabitants of
India. Living in remote forest and hill regions, the tribal people of India have remained
unrecognized and ignored, and suffered a long isolation all through the centuries. Speaking over
150 languages and 225 subsidiary languages, the tribals are scattered along the length and
breadth of India from the Himalayas to the Indian Ocean and from the Arabian Sea to the Eastern
Frontiers . Scheduled tribes constitute 8.6 percent of the total population in India (2011 Census).

The tribal population is distributed among all states and most of the union territories, with large
concentration in Mizoram, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan. Bihar, Orissa,
Madhya Pradesh, Maharastra, Andra Pradesh, West - Bengal, Kerala, Andaman Nicober Islands,
Laccadives etc.(Robert, Good Land, 1982) The Government of India identified the tribes based
on the following characteristics of their behavior, viz,

(i) primitive way of living,

(ii) habitation in remote and less easily accessible area, and
(iii) nomadic habits.
The geographical situation of tribal concentration in India can be broadly divided
into:
1. Central- Southern Tribal region,
2. Central- Northern Tribal region,
3. Western Tribal region,
4. North-Eastern Tribal region,
5. North-western Tribal region,
6. Southern Tribal Pockets,
7. The Oceanic Groups. Each region has some specific features, traits, social value
systems, cultural fabrics and way of life.

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MAJOR TRIBES OF INDIA

Muria: The people of Muria tribe are inhabitants of Bastar district in the state of Chhattisgarh.
They are relatively prosperous when compared to other tribes in the district. They are self
sufficient in producing chickpeas, dal and lentils. The tribe follows pre-marital sex. The youth
are expected to engage in sexual activities while they are discouraged to become emotionally
attached to the sex partner. The Muria tribe worships village and clan deities.

Korwa: People of Korwa tribe live in the hills and forests of Chhoanagpur, Chhattisgarh. The
Korwa community consists of four sub groups namely Agaria Korwa, Dam Korwa, Dih Korwa
and Pahar Korwa. All four sub groups worship the same deity named Dih. People of Korwa tribe
speak Korba language, which is also known as Ernga, Singli and Bhashi.

Kamar: Kamar is one of the tribes in India who lives in the Raipur and Rewa districts of Madhya
Pradesh. Their local language is called Kamar. Military service is considered to be their
traditional occupation. Farming is the occupation of most of the Kamar people. There are four
sub groups called Gots in the Kamar tribe. They follow Hinduism and each home has its own
family God.

Munda: Munda people are found in Indian states of Jharkhand, Assam, Odisha, West Bengal,
Chhattisgarh, Bihar, Tripura and Madhya Pradesh and in Bangladesh. Munda is one of the
largest tea tribes of the nation. They speak Mundari language. The contemporary culture of the
Munda people is a mix of Sarnaism and Christianity. The traditional occupation of Munda
people is hunting, but now-a-days they are employed in various sectors.

Kharia: The Kharia people are found in the Indian states of Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha,
West Bengal and Assam. There are a few inhabitants in Andaman Islands also. There are mainly
three tribes which constitute the entire Kharia. They are: Dudh Kharia, Dhelki Kharia, and Hill
Kharia. They practice hunting, gathering and collecting of forest resources for their livelihood.

Juang: Juang tribal people are the inhabitants of Gonasika hill range in the state of Odisha. They
belong to the Munda ethnic group. The primitive Juang people were mainly hunters and
gatherers. Father and all females of one family live together in a hut, whereas boys live in
separate huts at the entrance of their village. They were forced to take up basket weaving as their
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occupation after the British declared their forests as reserves. The Juang people worshipped
forest spirits in the olden days. The contemporary Juang people worship Laksmi and are
considered as a Hindu caste with basket- making as occupation.

Bhumij: The people of Bhumij tribe can be found in the Indian states of Assam, Jhakhand,
Odisha and West Bengal. They speak Mundari language. The term Bhumij means one who is
born from soil. Although they have traditional beliefs, the modern Bhumij people adopted
Hinduism as their religion.

Koya: Koya tribal people are inhabitants of Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka and Odisha. They are also referred to as Koi, Koyalu, Koyollu and
so on. Their language is known as Koya, which does not have a script. The Koya people are
primarily cultivators and artisans.

Galo: The Galo tribe people live in the central eastern Himalayas. They are the descendents of
Abotani and speak Galo language. They are also referred with names such as Duba, Doba,
Dobah Abor, Gallong Abor, Galong, Gallong Adi, etc. The Galo people follow monogamy, but
the elite people of the tribe follow polygamy. They follow the religion Donyi Polo and now
Christianity is spreading rapidly.

Badagas: The Badagas are tribal people, inhabitants of the Nilgiri Hills of the South Indian state
of Tamil Nadu. They are the largest indigenous tribe in the Nilgiri Hills and they speak Badugu
language which has no script. They depend on agriculture and their population is spread across
nearly 440 villages. Even though their main deity is Hethai, they also worship several Hindu
deities.

Bhil: Bhils, also known as Bheels, are the tribal people inhabited in the central India (mainly in
the states of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Tripura) and
also in certain parts of Sindh in Pakistan. They are the largest tribal group in India and they
speak Bhil language. The Bhils include several clans and lineages such as Barda, Vasava, Bhil
Mavchi etc. An important element of the Bhil culture is the Ghoomar dance.

Gondi: The Gondi or the Gond is the tribal people of Dravidian origin who are inhabited in the
states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh, Telangana, Andhra
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Pradesh, Odisha and so on. Their main languages are Gondi and Hindi, but other Indo-Aryan
languages are also spoken. The script called Gunjala Gondi Lipi is used to write Gondi language.
The Gonds are well known for their knowledge of astronomy

Apatani: Apatani, also known as Tanw, Apa and Apa Tani, are the tribal people inhabited in the
Ziro valley in the Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh. The tribe follows democracy and their
village council is known as Bulyang. Their oral folk tales are known as Miji and Migun. 5 They
worship the nature and believe that every object in the nature has divine power. They are known
for the nose plugs and face tattoos.

Jarawa: Jarawa or Jarwa is one among the several indigenous tribes of Andaman and Nicobar
islands. The name Jarawa means “people on earth”. They speak Jarawa language, one of the
Ongan languages. They are believed to have inhabited Andaman islands for about seven
thousand years. They were totally isolated from the outside world till few years ago.

Urali: The Urali tribe is one among several tribes inhabited in the south Indian state of Kerala.
Agriculture is their prime occupation. Hunting, mat weaving, basket making, pottery etc., are
also done by Urali people. They worship nature and believe that sun is the creator of all souls.

Mikir: Mikir, also known as Karbi, is an important tribe in the North-East India. The Mikir
people are mainly inhabited in the state of Assam. Linguistically, the Mikir people belong to
Tibeto-Burman group. The tribe includes five major clans and marriage between people of same
clan is not practiced. Rongker and Chomkan are important among the various festivals celebrated
by the Mikir people.

4.5 TRIBES IN KERALA

Tribal situation in Kerala Total Scheduled Tribal population in Kerala composes 1.5 percent of
the total population. Kerala has the population in its all districts. Wayanad, Idukki, and Palakkad
districts constitute major tribal population in Kerala. In Kerala Koraga, Cholanaikkans,
Kurumba, Kadar and Kattunaikkans are the five indigenous tribal groups categorized as
PVTGs(Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups).

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Tribals in Kerala (Adivasis of Kerala) are the indigenous population found in the southern Indian
state of Kerala. Most of the tribal people of Kerala live in the forests and mountains of Western
Ghats, bordering Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.Wayanad has the highest number of tribals
(1,36,062). [idukki- (50973) and Palakkad (39665) districts are the next two that make the lion
portion of the native tribal people groups in the state. The Paniya (Paniyar) are the largest of the
35 major tribes.

Tribal people groups who are food-gatherers, with diminishing population and very low or little
literacy rates can be called as Primitive Tribes. Cholanaikkans, Kurumbas, Kattunaikans, Kadars
and Koragas are the five primitive tribal groups in Kerala. They constitute nearly 5% of the total
tribal population in the State. Cholanaikkans can be said as the most primitive of them and found
only in the Malappuram District. Only a handful of families are living in the Mancheri hills of
Nilambur forest division. Kattunaikans, another lower-hill community related to Cholanaikkans,
are mainly seen in Wayanad district and some in Malappuram and Kozhikode districts. Kadar
population is found in Trisur and Palakkad districts. Kurumbas are living in the Attappady Block
of Palakkad district. The Koraga habitat is in the plain areas of Kasaragod district.

4.6 NON WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS (NWFP) AND TRIBES

Non Wood Forest Products (NWFP) can be defined as all goods and services for commercial,
industrial and subsistence use, other than wood, derived from forests and their biomass which
can be sustainably extracted, i.e. extracted from a forest ecosystem in quantities and ways that do
not alter its basic reproductive functions. NWFP may be gathered from the wild, or produced in
forest plantations, agro-forestry schemes and from trees outside forests. Also known as
"byproducts of forests", "minor forest products", "non-timber forest products". International
human rights laws, forest policies, conservation norms and environmental laws now place
significant obligations on governments to revise their forest management rules to accommodate
the claims of customary law of the forest dependent communities. Indian forest laws also
restricted the people around the reserved forests and protected areas. The tribal people living
inside and fringes of the forests are allowed to collect NWFP from the forest with a mutual
understanding of conservation forests and Livelihood of the people. Seasonality and fluctuation
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of NWFP prices coupled with products being sold in bulk without value addition provides
minimal returns. The NWFP policies being followed in many states 9 across India have failed to
give them the desired benefits and left them at the mercy contractors and traders.

SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOOD FOR TRIBES

A definition of livelihood as the activities, the assets, and the access that jointly determine the
living gained by an individual or household‘. 'For many of the poor, livelihood seems to fit better
than employment as a concept to capture how poor people live, their realistic priorities, and what
can help them' (Chambers, 1995). Livelihood concerns of the tribal or marginalized people are
major issue relating how to achieve the process of sustainable development. Different
researchers and agencies made many experiments and contributions in this area. The term
Livelihood ‘implies the capability and capacity to survive (Gregory 2008). The word sustainable
livelihood ‘covers a whole range of sustainable paradigms- sustainable life style, sustainable
agriculture, sustainable community, sustainable economy etc. (Raman K V 2003) The
Brandtland Commission (1987) introduced Sustainable Livelihood in terms of resources
ownership, access to basic needs and livelihood security. The sustainable livelihoods framework
therefore seeks an accurate understanding of people ‘s assets and capital endowments and the
processes and conversion of these into desirable livelihood outcome (Mubangizi, 2003). The
sustainable livelihoods framework can be applied at a range of different scales, from individuals
to households; social capital is one of the necessary conditions for sustainable livelihoods. In
dealing with livelihoods, the diversification of income sources is a key factor in sustainability
because it influences the well-being of households. People diversify their livelihoods for a
variety of reasons. Sometimes the main motivation is survival; at other times it is to save and
accumulate resources, or to improve their standard of living.

TRIBAL DEVELOPMENT UNDER DECENTRALIZED GOVERNANCE IN KERALA

Tribal Population in Kerala the Western Ghats and its peripheries form the main abode of the
tribal people in Kerala. The scheduled tribe population of the state is 364,189 which is 1.14% of
its general population (Census, 2001). There are 36 different tribal communities in the state, of
which five are primitive tribes. Highest concentration of scheduled tribes is seen in Wayanad
district (37,4%), followed by Idukki and Palakkad districts. A total of 72.8%of tribal population
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is concentrated in six districts: Wayanad, Idukki, Palakkad, Kasaragod, Thiruvananthapuram and
Kannur. Since the formation of Kerala, the State Government has been formulating a series of
development programmes addressing poverty, land alienation, education, health care,
employment, social development and welfare programmes well in advance of the Millennium
Development Goals. In spite of the various welfare measures initiated and the constitutional
protection given, the adivasi4 group of Kerala has been subject to various forms of deprivation,
oppression and poverty. The incidence of poverty among the adivasi group of Kerala is half that
of all India .The index of deprivation based on four basic necessities for wellbeing such as
housing quality, access to drinking water, good sanitation and electricity for lighting, the district
Wayanad has the highest index of deprivation (66) followed by Idukki (65.3), Kannur (61.3) and
Thiruvananthapuram (60.1) registering indices greater than that of the state average (57.9)
(HDR, Kerala. 2005).

Tribal Development Activities in the State The developmental programmes for the scheduled
tribes in the state are implemented through the Scheduled Tribes Development Department,
Local Self Government Institutions (LSGIs) and Oorukoottams. The Scheduled Tribes
Development Department, which came into existence in 1980, has seven Intensive Tribal
Development (ITD) project offices, Nine Tribal Development offices and 48 Tribal Extension
Officers (TEO) at field level. The Scheduled Tribes Development Department is implementing
various schemes (about 47 projects/schemes/ programs/initiatives), which can be broadly
categorized under five headings: educational, health care, social upliftment, cultural development
and other development schemes utilizing the funds of the State as well as Central Government.
The introduction of Panchayats Extension Act to the scheduled areas popularly known as PESA
was enacted by the Indian Parliament on Dec 24, 1996.

The PESA Act has been eulogized by many social activists as the epitome of grass root level
democracy, it is a revolutionary step towards tribal administration and development. The fifth
schedule of the Indian Constitution provides guidelines for the administration of scheduled areas,
flows of grants-in-aids out of the consolidated fund of the India to the status for the scheduled
areas for promoting the welfare of the scheduled tribes, functions of the National Commissions
of the scheduled tribes. The PESA Act is assumed to offer immense possibility of self-rule to the
tribal people to the institutions like Panchayat and Grama Sabha. The powers vested in the
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Grama Sabha in the scheduled area are: a. Ownership of Minor Forest Produce (MFP) b.
Approval of development plans c. Selection of beneficiaries under various programmes d.
Consultation on land acquisition e. Management of minor water bodies f. Control of minor
minerals g. Regulation prohibition on sale of intoxicants h. Prevention of alienation of ;and
restoration of unlawfully alienated land of the STs i. Management of village markets j. Control
of money lending to the STs k. Controlling institutions and functionaries in all social sectors l.
Giving utilization certificate for funds used for the projects and programmes of social social and
economic development etc. to the village panchayats .

‘Oorukoottams’ as a Democratic Niche for Tribal Communities The local development plan
would fan out to every tribal settlement and hold preliminary Oorukoottam meetings and
meetings of the tribal neighbourhood groups through trained tribes known as tribal promoters. In
these meetings, the forthcoming planning process would be explained clearly in the local dialect
and the Oorukootam would be required to come out with their suggestions for development
projects. Simultaneously, a situation analysis of each tribal hamlet based on the data from the
survey organized by the tribal development department would be given to the tribal promoters
who take it to the hamlets and provide it for internal discussions in the Oorukoottams and
neighbourhood groups of tribal women. The Oorukoottams would be held with two weeks prior
notice and the meeting would be facilitated by different functionaries assigned by the
government. The local government should set up a team of government functionaries consisting
of two tribal promoters, Village Extension Officers (VEOs), agricultural demonstrators, health
workers, anganwadi8 workers and school teachers. Each team would be given a definite number
of hamlets where they have to be present in Oorukoottam meetings. The quorum for the
Oorukoottam meetings would be 50 % of the adult population and among those participating at
least 50% should be women.

4.7 PROGRAMMES AND IMPORTANT ASPECTS RELATED TO

SCHEDULED TRIBES

The following Centrally Sponsored Schemes are presently being run by the Ministry of Tribal
Affairs for development of Scheduled Tribes.

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(i) Post Matric Scholarship for STs /Book Bank

(ii) Upgradation of Merit of ST Students

(iii) Pre matric scholarship for ST students

(iv) Girls Hostels

(v) Boys Hostels

(vi) Establishment of Ashram Schools

(vii) Research and Training

(viii) Information and Mass Media

(ix) National Tribal Affairs Awards

(x) Centre of Excellence

(xi) Supporting Projects of All-India nature or Inter-State nature for Scheduled Tribes

(xii) Organisation of Tribal Festival

(xiii) Exchange of visits by Tribals

(xiv) Monitoring and Evaluation

(xv) Information Technology

(xvi) Lump-sum Provision for N.E.

Central Sector Schemes under which 100% Grant is given to States and UTs.The following
Central Sector Schemes are presently being run by the Ministry of Tribal Affairs for
development of Scheduled Tribes:

(i) Grants-in-Aid to Voluntary Organisations

(ii) Special Incentives to NGOs performing exemplary tasks

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(iii) Coaching & Allied Schemes

(iv) Vocational Training in Tribal Areas

(v) Strengthening of Education among ST Girls in Low Literacy Districts

(vi) Market Development of Tribal Products/ Produce (Tribal Cooperative Marketing

Development Federation of India Ltd. (TRIFED)

(vii) State Tribal Development Cooperative Corporation for Minor Forest Produce

(viii) Development of Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs)

(ix) National Scheduled Tribes Finance & Development Corporation

(x) Rajiv Gandhi National Fellowship for ST Students

(xi) Scheme of Institute of Excellence/ Top Class Institute

(xii) National Overseas Scholarship Scheme

(xiii) Mechanism for Marketing of Minor Forest Produce (MFP) through Minimum Support
Price (MSP) and Development of value Chain for MFP

(xiv) World Bank Project- Improving Development Programmes in the Tribal Areas

RECENT INITIATIVES OF MINISTRY OF TRIBAL AFFAIRS

The Ministry of Tribal Affairs committed to overall development of the people belonging to
Scheduled Tribes and to project the rights of such people and preserve and promote tribal culture
and heritage has recently taken up a number of new initiatives towards their development.

The capacity of tribal people to harness the fruits of development and to access various schemes
for delivery of public goods and services has remained limited. The Integrated Tribal
Development Agencies were the Institutions assigned with the role to facilitate such access.

UMBRELLA SCHEME FOR EDUCATION OF ST CHILDREN

The following schemes for education have been merged into the umbrella scheme.
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a) Establishing and strengthening of Ashram Schools.

b) Establishing and strengthening of Hostels.

c) Vocational training in tribal areas.

d) Post-Matric Scholarship.

e) Pre-Matric Scholarship.

INSTITUTIONAL MECHANISMS FOR PROMOTION OF TRIBAL PRODUCTS AND

MARKETING:

SCHEME FOR MINOR FOREST PRODUCE

The price of MFP is very often determined by traders rather than by demand and supply because
of skewed information. The scheme is initially implemented in States having areas under fifth
Schedule of the Constitution for 12 MFPs namely

(i) Tendu Leaves

(ii) Bamboo

(iii) Mahua seed

(iv) Sal Leaf

(v) Sal Seed

(vi) Lac

(vii) Chironjee

(viii) Wild Honey

(ix) Myrobalan

(x) Tamarind

(xi) Gums (Gum Karaya) and

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(xii) Karanj.

The Ministry’s agency, TRIFED has hosted ‘MFPNET’, a web-based portal through which
current price of MFPs can be known across important Mandis of different States.

INAUGRATION OF CALL CENTRE AND TOLL FREE NUMBER

In order to provide real time information, daily prices of Minor Forest Produce in various Mandis
across the country can now be obtained through Toll Free Number 1800- 180-1551 which was
inaugurated by the Hon’ble Minister for Tribal Affairs on 02.09.2014

E-COMMERCE PORTAL

A portal for direct selling has been launched by TRIFED. In addition, TRIFED has tied up with
“snapdeal.com”.

IMPLEMENTATION OF FOREST RIGHTS ACT

The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act,
2006 is a landmark legislation to recognize the pre-existing rights of tribals and other traditional
forest dwellers who are in occupation of forest land, but whose rights could not be recorded.

VANBANDHUKALYANYOJANA

In order to achieve comprehensive development of tribals, VanbandhuKalyanYojana (VKY) is

being implemented by the Ministry of Tribal Affairs which focuses on convergence of different
schemes of development. VKY also envisages a shift in working character and rather than
focusing merely on physical and financial achievements. For example, instead of number of
schools, it will see the number of students who have passed with distinction. The proposed
intervention is aimed at adopting a holistic approach commensurate to the Gujarat Model for
overall development of the tribal people with sustainability.

HEALTH AND NUTRITION INITIATIVES

Initiatives taken by the Ministry of Tribal Affairs in relation to Health and Nutrition aspect of
Scheduled Tribes are: a. Sickle Cell Anemia: To eradicate Sickle Cell Anemia, health check-up

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followed by issue of Health cards of students of tribal department schools/ hostels to identify
sickle cell trait (HbAS) (SCT) cases has been undertaken. Parents are to be made aware of the
problems and its prevention methods. Health ministry has been requested to include Sickle Cell
test for all population groups in malariaprone areas. b. Malaria: Composite fish culture for
controlling mosquito population and also to provide protein supplement to the people has been
advocated and supported. c. Traditional Corps and Food: Growing and consumption of minor
millets, kitchen garden for green leafy vegetable are encouraged in the project approvals to
address nutritional issues d. Tribal Medicines and Practices: Documentation of Tribal Medicines
and practices through Tribal Research Institutes has been initiated. Efforts to mainstream tribal
medicines and validated practices for effective health service delivery for Tribal people has been
started.

NATIONAL TRIBAL FESTIVAL

The Ministry of Tribal Affairs organized the National Tribal Festival ‘VANAJ’. The festival
provided glimpses of rich cultural heritage 10 of tribal communities across the country through
unique forms of folk dances, songs and other traditional practices and focused on developing a
sense of appreciation of the cultural diversity of the country. The highlights of the Festival
included state specific tribal huts, exhibition of books, art and crafts, tribal cuisine, award
winning photographs and demonstration of traditional skill in painting, craft and traditional
medical practices. Screening of documentary films and seminars on subject relevant to tribal
issues were other attractions of the six days event. The event would be organised from 2nd
Friday to 3rd Wednesday of February every year.

CRITERIA FOR SPECIFICATION OF A COMMUNITY AS A SCHEDULED

TRIBE

The criteria followed for specification of a community as a Scheduled Tribe are:

(a) Indication of primitive traits

(b) Distinctive culture

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(c) Geographical isolation

(d) Shyness of contact with the community at large

(e) Backwardness.

4.8 HISTORY OF HYDROELECTIV PROJECT IN KERALA

THE PERIYAR HYDEL POWER PROJECT

The Periyar (big river) is a river of south India which rises on theWestern Ghats and flows down
to the Arabian Sea through the native stateof Travancore. The Periyar Power project is originally
taken up as ascheme for irrigation and water supply to the once barren lands ofMadurai and
Ramnad districts of Madras state. The Periyar projectutilizes an area of 232,8 sq. miles (602-92
sq.km). The scheme was takenup by the Madras state based on the Royal Lease of 1886,
executed by theMaharaja Sri Mulam Thirunal (1885-1924) of the erstwhile TravancoreState with
the help of Madras government. The project was completed in1896.
A masonry dam of 1241 ft. (278.257m) long with a maximum height of 158 ft. (48.158 m) above
the deepest river bed was constructed across the Periyar about 8 miles (12.874 km) below the
Mullayar confluence. The reservoir has a capacity of 15,662 m.c.ft (443-479 M.cu.m), Water
from the reservoir is directed from Thekkady to the east of the dam side, through an irrigation
tunnel of 5887 ft (1794.358 m) long driven across the bordering ridge to the Vaigai basin in the
Kambam valley. The dam was constructed by Benny Quick an European, overcoming many
ordeals. In 1951, the Madras Government entered into a ftirther agreement with the former
Travancore-Cochin Government for Hydro-power generation from the Periyar waters. There is a
drop of more than 1000 ft. (304,80m) from the exit of the irrigation tunnel to the bed of the
streams down the hills. This fall has of late (1951-56)been utilized for power development.
THE LOWER PERIYAR POWER PROJECT
The lower Periyar project is yet another useful project for irrigation. With the implementation of
all the projects upstream, the Periyar will carry an assured supply of 1400 cusecs (39.64
cu.m./sec.) just below the Periyar-Mudirapuzha confluence. The lower Periyar Hydro-Electric.

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THE PALLIVASAL PROJECT
The Pallivasal project was developed from the small power station of 200 kw. which was
installed by Kannan Devan Company in 1960. The Pallivasal project is the first Hydro power
station in the state that utilizes the waters of the Mudirapuzha river. The work was commenced
in 1935 and was completed in 1939 with an installed capacity of 13,500 kw, C.P. Ramaswamy
Iyer inaugurated Pallivasal Hydro Electric Power on March 19, 1940. Its headquarters was called
Chitrapuram after the Maharaja Chithira Thirunal. The power shortage during the Second World
War time gave rise to the second stage of development of Pallivasal project. Its second stage of
the Pallivasal power project was completed in two stages. The first stage works were
commissioned in 1940 and the second stage in the first plan period.'' The project harnesses the
water of the Mudirapuzha, a tributary of Periyar by utilizing a gross head of about 2000ft. (609 -
6m). The first stage of the Pallivasal Hydro Electric Scheme with an installed capacity of 13,500
K.W. was commissioned in 1940.

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V. IMPACTS OF TOURISM
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The study of the impact that tourism has on environment and communities involved is relatively
new. Impacts are not easily categorized, having direct and indirect components. Also tourism is
often seasonal, and impacts only become apparent after time, with varying effects, and at
different stages of development. There are three main categories.

1. Environmental impacts: impacts that affect the carrying capacity of the area, vegetation, air
quality, bodies of water, the water table, wildlife, and natural phenomena.

2. Sociocultural impacts: associated with interactions between peoples and culture background,
attitudes and behaviours, and their relationships to material goods. The introduction of tourists to
sensitive areas can be detrimental, cause a loss of culture, or, alternatively, contribute to the
preservation of culture and cultural sites through increased resources.

3. Economic impacts: usually seen as positive, contributing to employment, better services, and
social stability. Yet these impacts can also contribute to high living costs within the community,
pushing local business out of the areas, and raising costs for locals.

5.2 ENVIORNMENTAL IMPACT

Ecotourism, nature tourism, wildlife tourism, and adventure tourism take place in environments
such as rain forests, high alpine, wilderness, lakes and rivers, coastlines and marine
environments, as well as rural villages and coastline resorts. Peoples' desire for more authentic
and challenging experiences results in their destinations becoming more remote, to the few
remaining pristine and natural environments left on the planet. The positive impact of this can be
an increased awareness of environmental stewardship. The negative impact can be a destruction
of the very experience that people are seeking. There are direct and indirect impacts, immediate
and long-term impacts, and there are impacts that are both proximal and distal to the tourist
destination. These impacts can be separated into three categories: facility impacts, tourist
activities, and the transit effect.

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5.2.1 FACILITY IMPACT

Facility impacts occur when a regional area evolves from "exploration" to "involvement" and
then into the "development" stage of the tourist area life cycle. During the latter phase there can
be both direct and indirect environmental impacts through the construction of superstructure such
as hotels, restaurants, and shops, and infrastructure such as roads and power supply. As the
destination develops, more tourists seek out the experience. Their impacts increase accordingly.
The requirement for water for washing, waste disposal, and drinking increases. Rivers can be
altered, excessively extracted, and polluted by the demands of tourists. Noise pollution has the
capacity to disturb wildlife and alter behaviour, and light pollution can disrupt the feeding and
reproductive behaviour of many creatures. When power is supplied by diesel or gasoline
generators there is additional noise and pollution. General waste and garbage are also a result of
the facilities. As more tourists arrive there is an increase in food and beverages consumed, which
in turn creates waste plastic and non-biodegradable products.

5.2.2 TOURIST ACTIVITIES

For many tourists the main reason for their vacation is to engage in various types of physical
activities and enjoy interacting with nature in a way that they would not ordinarily be able to do.
These activities, such as hiking, trekking, kayaking, bird watching, wildlife safaris, surfing,
snorkeling, and scuba-diving all have an impact on the local ecology. Even the most
environmentally aware tourist cannot help but cause some degree of impact while partaking in
their activity.

There are a range of impacts from hiking, trekking, and camping that directly affect the activity
area. The most obvious is the erosion and compaction of the trail itself. The daily use of the trail
by hikers the trail wears the trail down and compacts it. If there are any obstacles such as fallen
trees or puddles of mud, then the trail becomes widened or informal trails are created to bypass
the obstacle. There are a number of other direct impacts on the treaded area, such as damage or
removal of vegetation, loss of vegetation height, reduction in foliage cover, exposure of tree root
systems, migration of trampled vegetation, and introduction of non-native species.

As well as the direct impacts, there are indirect impacts on the trails, such as a change in soil
porosity, changes to microflora composition, problems with seed dispersion and germination,
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and degradation of soil nutrient composition. As many hikers and trekkers take multi-day trips, a
large number will camp overnight either in formal or random campgrounds. There are similar
impacts on campgrounds such as soil compaction, erosion and composition, loss of vegetation
and foliage, plus the additional issues of campfires for cooking and warmth. Informal trails are
created around the campsite in order to collect firewood and water, and trees and saplings can be
trampled, damaged, or cut-down for fuel. The heat of campfires may damage tree-root systems.
In formal campgrounds, tent pad areas are normally devoid of any vegetation while random
camping can damage sensitive plants and grasses during a single overnight stay.

As with most recreation activities, including hiking and camping, there will be waste generated,
food scraps, and human waste. This can cause human-wildlife interactions, such as the
habituation of wildlife to human contact and unusual food sources. This can have a detrimental
effect on the wildlife and pose dangers for the human. Provision for deposit, collection, and
removal of all waste will also have a direct impact on the local environment.

Another activity that can have severe direct and indirect impacts on the environment is wildlife
viewing. This happens in a range of formats, on land and in the ocean. Wildlife safaris in African
countries such as Kenya, Botswana, and Tanzania have been popular for many years. Their focus
is the big five game megafauna: The African lion, African elephant, African leopard, cape
buffalo, and rhinoceros. As with every human-wildlife interaction, there is a change in the
natural interaction of the species. The mere presence of humans can increase the heart rate and
stress hormones of even the largest animal. Other changes in behaviour have been recognized.
For example, baboons and hyenas have learnt to track tourist safari vehicles to lead them to
cheetah kills, which they then steal. This direct impact of can severely damage the delicate
balance of the webs and keystone species.

There is a small but significant number of tourists who pay considerable sums of money in order
to trophy hunt lions, rhino, leopards, and even giraffes. It has been argued that there is a positive
and negative, direct and indirect, environmental impact caused by trophy hunting. There is a
continued discussion at federal and international government level as to the ethics of funding
conservation efforts through hunting activities.

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Another tourism destination activity is scuba diving. There are many negative direct
environmental impacts caused by recreational diving. The most apparent is the damage caused
by poorly skilled divers standing on the reef itself or by accidentally hitting the fragile coral with
their fins. Studies have shown that "naïve" divers who engage in underwater photography are
considerably more likely to accidentally damage the reef. As the cost of underwater photography
equipment has declined and its availability increased, it is inevitable that there will be an increase
of direct damage to reefs by divers. Other direct impacts include over-fishing for "marine
curios", sedimentation, and in-fill. There is also direct environmental impact due to disturbed and
altered species behaviour from fish feeding, as well as import of invasive species and pollution
caused by dive-boats. There are also indirect impacts such as shoreline construction of
superstructure and infrastructure.

5.2.3 TRANSIT EFFECT

Since 2009 there has been a steady yearly increase in the number of tourist arrivals worldwide of
approximately 4.4 percent. In 2015 there were 1.186 billion tourist arrivals worldwide, of which
54 percent arrived by air (640 million), 39 percent (462 million) by motor vehicle, 5 percent by
water (59 million), and 2 percent by rail (23.7 million). A seven-hour flight on a Boeing 747
produces 220 tons of CO2, which is the equivalent of driving an average size family saloon car
for a year, or the energy requirement of an average family home for nearly 17 years. With the
ever-increasing number of tourist arrivals, there is an ever-increasing quantity of global
greenhouse gasses (GHG) being produced by the tourism industry. In 2015 it is estimated that 5
percent of global GHG emissions was attributable to air travel alone.

As more eco-tourists seek remote, pristine, undeveloped regions, and practice low-impact, "leave
no trace" adventure vacations, their GHG contributions have increased exponentially. As a result
of the accumulation of GHGs the annual average global temperature is rising each year. New
records were set in 2014, 2015 and it is predicted that 2016 will yet again exceed the previous
highest average global temperature. It is causing the oceans to warm and causing increased
frequency of abnormal weather events such as floods and hurricanes. The increase in the amount
of CO2 dissolved into the oceans is changing its chemical composition, leading to acidification
of the oceans, which in turn has led to bleaching of coral reefs worldwide.

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In 2016 it was determined that the world's largest coral reef, the Great Barrier Reef, is so badly
affected by bleaching that only 10 percent remained unspoiled and the remaining 90 percent has
varying degrees of degradation. A recently discovered issue in the Pacific Northwest caused by
acidification, is the decreased survival of pteropods, a key source of food for salmon. These
microscopic invertebrates, known as sea butterflies, are unable to form their outer shells and die.
These tiny creatures make up a significant portion of the salmon diet. Without this nutrition
available to the salmon, they may not grow to maturity to return to their spawning grounds to
reproduce and provide food for bears. Bears cycle nutrients through the forest, where tourists
come to view or hunt the bears. Thus the food web is disturbed. Anthropogenic climate change
has both a direct and indirect impact on tourism.

5.3SOCIO CULTURE IMPACT

An inherent aspect of tourism is the seeking of authenticity, the desire to experience a different
cultural setting in its natural environment. Although cultural tourism provides opportunities for
understanding and education, there are serious impacts that arise as a result. It is not only the
volume of tourism at work, but the types of social interactions that occur between tourist and
host. There are three broad effects at the local level: the commodification of culture, the
demonstration effect, and the acculturation of another culture.

5.3.1 COMMODIFICATION EFFECT

Commodification of culture refers to the use of a cultural traditions and artefacts in order to sell
and profit for the local economy. With the rise of tourism, authors argue that commodification is
inevitable. There are both positive and negative sociocultural impacts of commodification on a
culture. One positive is the creation of business and jobs for local craftsmen, who are able to sell
their goods to tourists. Rural tourism is seen as a “cure” for poverty and leads to the
improvement of transportation and development of telecommunications in an area. For the
tourist, commodification creates an interest for traditional arts and social practices. However,
critics of commodification believe that tourists are not interested in cultural beliefs and traditions
of the locals, but are rather obsessed with owning a part of it. The argument that by monetizing
cultural artefacts locals lose the value to their culture also exists. It then leads to the belief that

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tours are no longer authentic experiences. However, development economists will argue that
culture can be utilized just as any other natural resource.

Researchers look at the impact of tourists on a culture and in short, many argue that the contact
with the secular West leads to the destruction of pre-tourist cultures. In addition, the
“development cure”, the idea that increasing tourism will spur economic change while
strengthening local culture, is claimed to lead to new diseases, such as “drug addiction, crime,
pollution, prostitution, and a decline in social stability” as well as growth of capitalist values and
a consumer culture.

5.3.2 DEMONSTARTION EFFECT

The demonstration effect was introduced to tourism when researchers were looking into the
effects of social influences from tourism on local communities. The demonstration effect argues
that local inhabitants copy the behavioural patterns of tourists. There are a number of social,
economic and behavioural reasons as to why the demonstration effect comes into play. One
economic and social reason is that locals copy the consumption patterns of those higher up the
social scale in order to improve their social status. Tourism has also been accused of affecting
social behaviour of the younger members of a host community, who may imitate what tourists
do, impacting traditional value systems.

5.3.3 CRITICISM TO THE DEMONSTRATION EFFECT

There are many criticisms to the demonstration effect in tourism. Firstly, tourism is seen as only
one aspect of change in a society. Local people will also see examples of foreign lifestyles and
consumption in advertisements, magazines, on television, and in films, and therefore tourism is
not the only influence on local culture. In addition, the demonstration effect implies that a culture
is “weak” and needs to be protected by outside influences. In many cases, the demonstrative
effect is seen as a negative consequence, but it is argued that “all cultures are in a continual
process of change”, therefore tourism should not be considered destructive. Also, there are
arguments that the demonstration effect works the opposite as well, where a local culture will
influence tourists, and the tourists will imitate local behaviour.

5.3.4 COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION.

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Community participation refers to the collaboration between community members for the
purposes of achieving common goals, improving their local community and pursuing individual
benefits. Local community members are actively involved in tourism, rather than passively
benefiting from it. Community participation strengthens communities and help to create a sense
of belonging, trust and credibility among members. By involving local community members,
tourism can become more authentic. The community and the tourists both benefit from
community participation, as it boosts their respect for the traditional lifestyle and values of the
destination community. Most destination community members are also the ones most impacted
by tourism, therefore there is an importance in their involvement in tourism planning. Some
researchers will argue that some of the negative impacts of tourism might be avoided and the
positive impacts maximized through community participation in the planning process.

5.3.5 ACCULTURATION

Acculturation is the process of modifying an existing culture through borrowing from the more
dominant of cultures. Typically, in tourism, the community being acculturated is the destination
community, which then experiences dramatic shifts in social structure and world view. Societies
adapt to acculturation in one of two ways. Innovation diffusion is when the community adopts
practices that are developed by another group; whereas cultural adaptation is less adoption of a
new culture and more the process of changing when the existing culture is changed.
Acculturation is often seen as a method of modernizing a community and there are many
opposing views to the concept of modernization. One argument against modernization is that it
contributes to the “homogenization of cultural differences and the decline of traditional
societies”. This means that communities will advertise their modernity to attract tourists, and will
disregard their traditional customs and values. On the other hand, others argue that acculturation
and modernization will help traditional communities adjust in a modern world. The idea being
that teaching people to adapt will save the community from future extinction.

5.3.6 POSITIVE SOCIAL IMPACT

There are number of benefits for the host community as a result of tourism. This includes
economic benefits such as opportunities for local businesses which allows for increased trade
among the increased number of visitors and then develops a variety of local businesses. In
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addition, tourism also brings employment opportunities, enhances the economy of the region,
and creates revenue for the local government. Tourists also use public services, creating funding
for public services, such as health, the police and the fire department, as well as increasing the
demand for public transport. Other public facilities, such as parks and benches are also well kept
by the community for the tourists, improving the overall aesthetics of the host community. On a
more social level, tourism leads to intercultural interaction. Tourists often engage and learn from
the locals. Tourism can also increase pride in locals. They want to show off their community that
tourists have chosen to visit. The increase in people also leads to creating more social venues and
experiences where locals and tourists can interact in. Entertainment and recreational facilities
will allow for more opportunity to socialize and engage with each other. Tourism can be
beneficial for the host community as it provides the financial means and the incentive to preserve
cultural histories, local heritage sites, and customs. It stimulates interest in local crafts,
traditional activities, songs, dance, and oral histories. It also opens up the community to the
wider world, new ideas, new experiences, and new ways of thinking.

5.3.7 NEGATIVE SOCIO CULTURE IMPACT

There can be negative effects from cultural interactions. In terms of economic disadvantages,
local communities need to be able to fund the tourist demands, which leads to an increase of
taxes. The overall price of living increases in tourist destinations in terms of rent and rates, as
well as property values going up. This can be problematic for locals looking to buy property or
others on a fixed income. In addition, to balance out tourist destinations, the number of locals to
tourists must be relatively equal. This can be more problematic for tourists as their access could
be denied. Other negative sociocultural impacts are differences in social and moral values among
the local host community and the visiting tourist. Outside of affecting the relationship between
tourist and local, it can also cause friction between groups of the local population. In addition, it
can cause drifts in the dynamics between the old and new generations. Tourism has also
correlated to the rise of delinquent behaviours in local host communities. Crime rates have been
seen to rise with the increase of tourists. Crimes are typically those of rowdy behaviour, alcohol
and illegal drug use, and loud noise. In addition, gambling and prostitution is increased due to
tourists looking for a “good time”. Tourism has also caused more disruption in host
communities. Crowding of locals and tourists may create a vibrant ambiance, it also causes
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frustration and leads to the withdrawal of local residents in many places. Increased tourists also
result in increased traffic which can hinder daily life of the local residents.

5.4ECONOMIC IMPACT
Global tourism in 2014 contributed 3.7 percent (US$2.5 billion) to the world's GDP, with its
total contribution rising to almost 10 percent of world GDP. The GDP increase comes from the
over one billion international tourists worldwide, a number that has been growing by 5 percent
annually since 2012. Visits and boosts to GDP are expected to continue to rise in the near future
as falling oil prices contribute to reduced living costs and increased available income for
households, as well as reduced costs for air travel.

Tourism can be divided into subcategories into which impacts fall: spending from visitors on
tourism experiences like beach holidays and theme parks (domestic and international), spending
on leisure items like bicycles, business spending, and capital investment.

The economic contribution of tourism is felt in both direct and indirect ways, where direct
economic impacts are created when commodities like the following are sold: accommodation
and entertainment, food and beverages services, and retail opportunities. Residents, visitors,
businesses, and various levels of governments (municipal to federal) all influence direct tourism
impacts through their spending in or near a given tourism area. The key component of direct
economic impacts of tourism is that they occur within a country's borders and are implemented
by "residents and non-residents for business and leisure purposes".

In contrast, indirect economic impacts of tourism can be found in investment spending

surrounding a tourism offering from private and governmental interests. This investment may not
explicitly be related to tourism, but benefits the tourist and local stakeholders all the same.
Indirect impacts of tourism are exemplified by the purchase and sale of intermediary items like
additional supplies for restaurants during the high tourism season or widened sidewalks in busy
downtown centers. Indirect economic impacts (the supply chain, investment, and government
collective) account for 50.7 percent of the total GDP contribution from travel and tourism in
2014.

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Induced spending, the re-circulation of a tourist dollar within a community, is another way that
tourism indirectly has an impact on a community. For example, a foreign tourist injects money
into the local economy when he spends a dollar on a souvenir made by a local at the tourism
destination. That individual goes on to spend that dollar on lunch from a local vendor, and that
vendor goes on to spend it locally.

5.4.1 POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE ECONOMIC IMPACT ON TOURISM

There are both positive and negative effects on communities related to the economic impacts of
tourism in their communities. A positive impact can refer to the increase in jobs, a higher quality
of life for locals, and an increase in wealth of an area. Tourism also has the advantage of
rebuilding and restoring historic sites and encouraging the revitalization of cultures. A positive
impact is to increase or to make better either for the tourist, the host community and residence
and/or the tourist destination. Positive impacts are related more to the materialistic well-being,
rather than to the happiness of a host community or tourist.

The tourist destination enjoys positive impacts, if there have been improvements to the natural
environment such as protection, national parks, or man-made infrastructure, waste-treatment
plants. Tourism provides the economic stimulus to allow for diversification of employment and
income potential and develop resources within the community. Improvements in infrastructure
and services can benefit both the locals and the tourists. Whereas, heritage tourism focuses on
local history or historical events that occurred in the area and tends to promote education.
Positive impacts begin when there is an increase in job opportunities for locals as the tourism
industry becomes more developed. There is also an increase in average income that spreads
throughout the community when tourism is capitalized on. In addition, the local economy is
stimulated and diversified, goods are manufactured more locally, and new markets open for local
business owners to expand to. Unfortunately, these benefits are not universal nor invulnerable.
While more employment may be available, tourism-related jobs are often seasonal and low-
paying. Prices are known to fluctuate throughout the year. They rise in the high tourist season to
take advantage of more tourist dollars, but have the side effect of pricing goods above the
economic reach of local residents, effectively starving them out of a place that was once their
home.

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Negative impacts are the effects, that are caused in most cases, at the tourist destination site with
detrimental impacts to the social and cultural area, as well as the natural environment. As the
population increases so do the impacts, resources become unsustainable and exhausted, the
carrying capacity for tourists in a destination site may become depleted. Often, when negative
impacts occur, it is too late to impose restrictions and regulations. Tourist destinations seem to
discover that many of the negative impacts are found in the development stage of the tourism
area life cycle (TALC).

Additionally, the economics of tourism have been shown to push out local tourism business
owners in favour of strangers to the region. Foreign ownership creates leakage (revenues leaving
the host community for another nation or multinational business) which strips away the
opportunity for locals to make meaningful profits. Foreign companies are also known to hire
non-resident seasonal workers because they can pay those individuals lower wages, which
further contributes to economic leakage. Tourism can raise property values near the tourism area,
effectively pushing out locals and encouraging businesses to migrate inwards to encourage and
take advantage of more tourist spending.

5.4.2 EMPLOYMENT

Employment, and both its availability and exclusivity, are subsets of economic impacts of
tourism. Travel and tourism create 10.7 percent of the total available jobs worldwide, in both the
direct and indirect tourism sectors. Direct tourism jobs, those that provide the visitor with their
tourism experience include, but are not limited to: accommodation (building, cleaning,
managing), food and drink services, entertainment, manufacturing, and shopping. Indirect
tourism employment opportunities include the manufacturing of aircraft, boats, and other
transportation, as well as the construction of additional superstructure and infrastructure
necessary to accommodate these travel products (airports, harbours, etc.)

5.4.3 TOURISM SATELITE ACCOUNT

The World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) tourism satellite account (TSA) is a system of
measurement recognized by the United Nations to define the extent of an economic sector that is

Page | 62
not so easily defined as industries like forestry or oil and gas. Tourism does not fit neatly into a
statistical model; because it is not so much dependent on the physical movement of products and
services, as it is on the position of the consumer. Therefore, TSAs were designed to standardize
these many offerings for an international scale to facilitate better understanding of current
tourism circumstances locally and abroad. The standardization includes concepts, classifications,
and definitions, and is meant to enable researchers, industry professionals, and the average
tourism business owner to view international comparisons. Before TSAs were widely
implemented, a gap existed in the available knowledge about tourism as an economic driver for
GDP, employment, investment, and industry consumption; indicators were primarily
approximations and therefore lacking in scientific and analytical viewpoints.This gap meant
missed opportunities for development, as tourism stakeholders were unable to understand where
they might be able to better establish themselves in the tourism economy. For example, a TSA
can measure tax revenues related to tourism, which is a key contributor to the level of
enthusiasm any level of government might have towards potential tourism investment. In
addition, Tyrrell and Johnston suggest that stakeholders in tourism benefit from the TSA because
it:

 provides credible data on the impact of tourism and the associated employment
 is a framework for organizing statistical data on tourism?
 is an international standard endorsed by the UN Statistical Commission?
 is an instrument for designing economic policies related to tourism development?
 provides data on tourism's impact on a nation's balance of payments
 provides information on tourism human resource characteristics

Through collection of more qualitative data and translating it into a more concise and effective
form for tourism providers, TSAs are able to fill the previous knowledge gap. Information
delivered and measured by a TSA includes tax revenues, economic impact on national balances,
human resources, employment, and "tourism's contribution to gross domestic product".

5.4.4 PROJECTIONS FOR 2020

Predictions for the extent to which impacts of tourism will impact the world's economic system
appear to agree that the number of international tourist arrivals will reach approximately 1.6
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billion by the year 2020. Of those tourists, 1.18 billion are expected to be intra-regional, and 377
million to be long-haul. Of these travelers, arrivals in developing countries are expected to
continue growing from the recorded 47% of total arrivals recorded in 2011 as access to these
more remote locations becomes easier Direct contributions of travel and tourism to the world
economy and GDP are expected to rise from 3.09 percent in 2015 to 3.3 percent in 2025, with
most impacts found in the investment and supply chain sectors. Employment is anticipated to
rise parallel to GDP contributions; reaching 3.9 percent of world employment in 2025 (up from
3.6 percent in 2015). Direct tourism employment in 2025 will be an estimated 3.9 percent of total
world employment (up from approximately 3.6 percent in 2015), while indirect tourism
employment will be at approximately 4.5 percent (up from 3.6 percent in 2015).

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VI. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

6.1 RESEARCH METHODS

Research methods are the procedures or techniques deployed to collect and scrutinize the data
connected to specific questions. Survey method is used for data collection. Questionnaire and
interview schedules are used as research tools.The major data collection techniques utilized in
qualitative research study contain questionnaire, study of documents, interviews and
observations.

Both primary and secondary data is used for the present study. The primary data collected from
direct interviews and questionnaires.

Secondary data was gathered from available and related sources including research reports,
papers accessible in a printed form as well as on internet. The data pertaining to the key areas of
the study were collected from various sources such as the records, reports and publications of
Scheduled tribe department, Forest Department, and other Government sources and various
journals. The secondary data is also collected from the annual reports of the Forest department of
Kerala, the handbooks of AthirappillyPanchayath and the relevant journals.

6.2 AREA AND SAMPLE

Athirappilly- Vazhachal forest division, a part of the Western Ghats, falls within
Mukundapuramtaluk, Thrissur District, Kerala State. This Division has evergreen, semi-
evergreen and moist deciduous forests, with vast variety of flora and fauna.

The present study focuses on the Kadar tribe and their socio economic problems due to the
emergence of a hydro-electric dam in Athirappilly. A stretch of 28.5 hectares of riparian forest
falls under the submergence area of the hydroelectric project. The survey is mainly done on the
settlements of the Kadar tribe comprising 50 families who are worse affected by the project. The
interview schedules were administered in a cordial and friendly atmosphere and the Kadar tribe
was very co-operative.

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 The sample of the study is 50 local people who belongs from Kadar tribes in vazhachal. 13 male
and 37 female respondents.The major data collection techniques utilized in qualitative research
study contain questionnaire, study of documents, interviews and observations.

6.3 TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES

 Published and unpublished research data and governmentstatistics.

 Qualitative methods: participant observation, informal andin depth interviews.
 Questionnaire-based surveys: One to one (Face to face) andsite surveys.

SEMI STRUCTURED INTERVIEW

This research organized semi-structured interviews to collect a primary data from the field. It is a
type of qualitative interview.Secondary data was gathered from available and related sources
including research reports, papers accessible in a printed form as well as on internet.

Qualitative interviewing is a very useful method for evaluating individual’s approach.Also open-
ended questions usually get more impulsive responses than closed questions can offer the
researcher in acquiring interviewee’s standpoint, explanations of events, understandings,
opinions and experiences. A qualitative interviewing inclines to be very supple which enables the
interviewee to speak their own thoughts and with their own language that occasionally creates
complex issues easier to explore. It can also facilitate in an in-depth examination and perceiving
of complication of issues that might not be viable with other approaches like a survey.

Semi-structured is a qualitative technique that contains open-ended, comparatively unstructured

questions in which the interviewer looks for in detail information on the interviewee’s
experiences, perceptions and feelings.
To analyze and study the socio economic issues is a complex task. Structured interviews of
gathering information might ignore some information as the respondents may experience to be
bounded by the approach itself, resulting in unfairness in the responses and that somehow give
the wrong impression about the interpretation. For this research, the data was collected about
how the people experience socio-economic changes and feel, describe and makes logic of it.

Page | 66
Therefore, considered a semi-structured interview as an appropriate tool for collecting the field
data.

The questionnaire consists of closed ended questions where the respondent is forced to select an
answer from the given choices. Under closed- ended questions there are multiple choices, so that
the respondents don’t have any problem to answer. By using the questionnaire face to face
interview were also possible. The sample of respondents chosen by random basis and finally the
investigator could collect filled- in questionnaires from the respondents.

6.4 DATA COLLECTION

After the reviewof literature and survey at area, impacts were studied in the questionnaire by
using 5 point Likert scale (Strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree and strongly disagree).
Questionnaires are divided in three parts; first part is Demographic profile of the respondent,
second part is related to socio - economic impacts of tourism on the people who are involved in
tourist related business and the third part of the questionnaire is related with theproposed
hydroelectric project.

Data presentation was done by using percentage pie charts. Because according to this study, the
data can be easily presented by a pie chart with percentage. And also content analysis (data
analysis) was done with percentages. Pie charts were used to present the data by using Microsoft
Excel.

Page | 67
VII. DATAANALYSIS ANDINTERPRETATION

7.1 Respondent age group

Table 7.1
AGE GROUP OF THE RESPONDENTS

Age No. of correspondent Percentage

below 25 9 18
25-35 18 36
35-45 11 22
45-55 5 10
above 55 7 14

Figure 7.1

Age Group
40
36
35

30

25 22
20 18
14
15
10
10

0
below 25 25-35 35-45 45-55 above 55

Legend: - Y axis = percentage of age group X axis = age group

Interpretation: -
Chart 7.1 shows that 18% respondent are aged at less than 25, 36% aged 25-35 and 22% are
between 35-45.10% of respondents are the age of 45-55, 14% of were above 55.
Hints: - most of the respondents are from the age group of youngsters and middle aged persons.
Page | 68
7.2 Income level
Table 7.2
INCOME LEVEL
Rate No. of respondent percentage
Below-1000 0 0
1000-5000 2 4
5000-10000 12 24
10000-15000 31 62
above15000 5 10

Figure 7.2

Income Level
70
62
60

50

40

30 24
20
10
10 4
0
0
Below-1000 1000-5000 5000-10000 10000-15000 above15000

Legend: - Y axis = percentage of age group X axis = income level

Interpretation: -
Chart 7.2 shows that only 10% of respondents earning above 15000. 62% of respondent are
earning more than 10000 and below 15000, and 24% respondents earning between 5000-10000.
Remaining 4% respondents are earning only below 5000.
Hints: - most of the respondents are earning between 10000- 15000.and no one is earning below
1000.

Page | 69
7.3 Major occupation of respondents
Table 7.3
OCCUPATION
Major occupation No.of respondent percentage
(hus&wife)

Collection of honey,fire woods and other 6 12

forest resources
Local area jobs 9 18
Watcher men under VSS 31 62
Fishing 1 2
Government employement 3 6

Figure 7.3

Occupations
70 62
60
50
40
30
20 18
12
10 6
2
0
Collection of Local area jobs Watcher men Fishing Government
honey,fire woods under VSS employement
and other forest
resources

Legend: - Y axis = percentage of age group X axis = occupation

Interpretation: -
Chart 7.3 shows that 62% respondent were worked under VSS, and 18% of respondents
involving local area jobs. 7% of respondents are following their traditional jobs, then 6% are
government employees. only 2% have use fishing to earn income.
Hints: - most of the respondents are worked under VSS. Only few numberof people have
government jobs.

Page | 70
7.4 Education status of respondents
Table 7.4

EDUCATION STATUS
Qualification No. of respondent Percentage

illiterate/ only read 7 14

primary school 5 10
upper primary 9 18
high school/sslc 19 38
higher secondary 3 6
degree/above 7 14

Figure 7.4

Education Status
40 38
35
30
25
20 18
14 14
15
10
10 6
5
0
illiterate/ only primary upper high higher degree/above
read school primary school/sslc secondary

Legend: - Y axis = percentage of age group X axis = Education status

Interpretation: -
Chart 7.4 shows that 38% of respondent are educated in high school level, 10% to 18% have
basic education and 14% of respondents are highly educated with degree or above. 6% of people
have high secondary qualification and lefted 14% of respondents are illiterate.
Hints: -majority of respondents are educated, only few number of them are illiterate but they
know to at least read. All one have at least basic education.
Page | 71
7.5 The community attitude towards the hydroelectric project.
Table 7.5

THE PROJECT WILL DISTROY YOUR

COMMUNITY&SURROUNDINGS
Opinion No. of respondents Percentage
Strongly agree 49 98
Agree 0 0
Neutral 1 2
Disagree 0 0
Strongly disagree 0 0

Figure 7.5

Community attitude towards Hydro elecic Project

120

98
100

80

60

40

20

0 2 0 0
0
Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree

Legend: - Y axis = percentage of age group X axis = Respondents attitude

Interpretation: -
Chart 7.5 shows that 98% respondent are strongly agree that the proposed project will destroy the
community. Only 2% are stand up with neutral.
Hints: - All are strongly agreeing that the proposed project will destroy the community. Who
stand up with neutral they government job.

Page | 72
7.6Work experience of the respondents.
Table 7.6
WORK EXPERIENCE
year No.of respondents percentage
below 5 6 12
5 to 10 21 42
10 to 15 12 24
15 to 20 8 16
above 20 3 6

Figure 7.6

Work Experience
45 42
40
35
30
24
25
20 16
15 12
10 6
5
0
below 5 5 to 10 10 to 15 15 to 20 above 20

Legend: - Y axis = percentage of age group X axis = work experience

Interpretation: -
Chart 7.6 shows that 42% of respondent have 5 to 10 years of experience, 24% have 10 to 15
years of experience and 16% are between 15-20, 12% have only below 5 years of experience.
Only 6% have above 20 years of experience.
Hints: - most of the respondents have 5 to 10 years of experience. Only few number of
respondents have experienced above 20 years.

Page | 73
7.7 Economic benefits through Tourism.
Table 7.7
TOURISM IS ECONOMICALLY BENEFITED
Opinion No.of respondents Percentage
Strongly agree 6 12
Agree 12 24
Neutral 22 44
Disagree 7 14
Strongly Disagree 3 6

Figure 7.7

Economic Benefit of Tourism

50
44
45
40
35
30
24
25
20
14
15 12
10 6
5
0
Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly
Disagree

Legend: - Y axis = percentage of age group X axis = Economic benefit

Interpretation: -
Chart 7.7 shows that 44% respondent are neutral and 24% are agree with the statement, 12% are
strongly agree with it. 14% of respondents are disagree with it and 6% of respondents are
strongly disagreeing with the statement
Hints: - Most of the respondents are neutral with the statement.

Page | 74
7.8 Tourism will destroy your community.
Table 7.8

TOURISM WILL DESTROY YOUR CULTURE

opinion No.of respondents percentage
strongly agree 4 8
agree 6 12
neutral 28 56
disagree 8 16
strongly disagree 4 8

Figure 7.8

Community distruction by tourism

60 56

50

40

30

20 16
12
10
8 8

0
strongly agree agree nuetral disagree strongly
disagree

Legend: - Y axis = percentage of age group X axis = Respondent attitude

Interpretation: -
Chart 7.8 shows that 56% respondent are neutral with the statement, 12% are agree and 8% are
strongly agree with the statement. 16% of respondents are disagreeing and 8% are strongly
disagree with it.
Hints: - most of the respondents are neutral with the statement.
Page | 75
7.9 Tourism causes anti- social Activities
Table 7.9

TOURISM CAUSES ANTI-SOCIAL ACTIVITES

opinion No.of respondents percentage
Strongly agree 11 22
Agree 9 18
Neutral 21 42
Disagree 9 18
Strongly Disagree 0 0

Figure 7.9

Anti-Social Actvities due to tourism

45 42
40
35
30
25 22
20 18 18
15
10
5
0
0
Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagree

Legend: - Y axis = percentage of age group X axis = respondent’s attitude towards anti-social
activities due to tourism
Interpretation: -
Chart 7.9 shows that 42% respondent are neutral with the statement, 22% are strongly agree and
18% are agreeing with it. 18% are disagree with the statement.
Hints: - most of the respondents are neutral with the statement and no one have doubt in tourism
causes anti-social activities.
Page | 76
7.10 Project will create more job opportunities.
Table 7.10
DAM PROJECT WILL CREATE MORE JOB OPPORTUNITIES
Opinion No.of respondents percentage
strongly agree 0 0
Agree 0 0
Neutral 0 0
Disagree 20 40
Strongly Disagree 30 60

Figure 7.10

Job Opportunities through Dam project

70
60
60

50
40
40

30

20

10
0 0 0
0
strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly
Disagree

Legend: - Y axis = percentage of age group X axis = Job opportunities

Interpretation: -
Chart 7.10 shows that 60% respondent are strongly disagree with the statement and 40 are
disagree with it.
Hints: - All the respondents are strongly disagreeing that proposed project will create job
opportunities.

Page | 77
7.11 Tourism improve the standard of living.
Table 7.11

TOURISM IMPROVE STANDARD OF LIVING

Opinion No.of respondents Percentage

strongly agree 25 50

Agree 15 30

Neutral 7 14

Disagree 3 6

strongly disagree 0 0

Figure 7.11

Standard of Living
60

50
50

40

30
30

20
14

10 6
0
0
strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree strongly disagree

Legend: - Y axis = percentage of age group X axis = standard of living

Interpretation: -
Chart 7.11 shows that 50 % respondent are strongly and 30% agree that the tourism improves
their standard of living. 14% are neutral 6% disagree with the statement.
Hints: -most of them are agree with the statement that tourism improves their life style.
Page | 78
7.12 Is tourism creating any employment opportunities for your community.
Table 7.12
TOURISM CREATING ANY EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES FOR
YOUR COMMUNITY
Opinion No.of respondents percentage
Strongly agree 29 58
Agree 13 26
Neutral 8 16
Disagree 0 0
Strongly disagree 0 0

Figure 7.12

Employment Opportunities through tourism

70

58
60

50

40

30 26

20 16

10
0 0
0
Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree

Legend: - Y axis = percentage of age group X axis = job opportunities through tourism
Interpretation: -
Chart 6.12 shows that 58% respondent are strongly agreeing that tourism helps to create job
opportunities, 26% are agree with the statement and 16% of respondents are neutral.
Hints: - All the respondents are strongly and partially agreeing that tourism will creating
employment opportunities.

Page | 79
7.13 Image of Athirappilly waterfalls is diminished.
Table 7.13
IMAGE OF ATHIRAPPILLY WATER FALLS IS DIMINISHED
Opinion No.of respondents percentage
strongly agree 18 36
Agree 26 52
Neutral 4 8
Disagree 2 4
Strongly disagree 0 0

Figure 7.13

Image of Waterfalls is diminished

60
52
50

40 36

30

20
8
10 4
0
0
strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree

Legend: - Y axis = percentage of age group X axis = Respondent attitude towards Image of
waterfalls
Interpretation: -
Chart 7.13 shows that 52% respondent are agreeing with the statement and 36% are strongly
agreeing that the waterfalls image is diminished.8% are neutral with the statement and 4% are
show disagree.
Hints: - majority of the respondents are agree with the statement that the image of waterfalls is
diminished.

Page | 80
7.14 External influences such as demonstration effect or imitation process.
Table 7.14
EFFECT OF EXTERNAL INFLUENCE, DEMONSTRATION /
IMMITATION
Opinion No.of respondents Percentage
Strongly agree 15 30
Agree 24 48
Neutral 11 22
Disagree 0 0
strongly disagree 0 0

Figure 7.14

Demonstration Effect
60

50 48

40
30
30
22
20

10
0 0
0
Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree strongly disagree

Legend: - Y axis = percentage of age group X axis = Demonstration effect

Interpretation: -
Chart 7.14 shows that 48% respondent are agree that external influence effect the communityand
30% strongly agree with the statement. 22% respondent are neutral.
Hints: - All the respondent are strongly and partially agreeing with the statement.

Page | 81
7.15 Support of community based tourism.
Table 7.15
SUPPORT OF COMMUNITY BASED TOURISM
Opinion No.of respondents Percentage
Strongly agree 8 16
Agree 12 24
Neutral 25 50
Disagree 3 6
strongly disagree 2 4

Figure 7.15

Community based tourism

60
50
50

40

30
24

20 16

10 6
4

0
Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree strongly disagree

Legend: - Y axis = percentage of age group X axis = Respondents attitude towards community
based tourism.
Interpretation: -
Chart 7.15 shows that 50% respondent showing neutral, 24% are agree and 16% are strongly
agreeing with the statement. 6% of respondents are disagree and 4% are strongly disagree with
the statement.
Hints: - Majority of respondents are partially agreeing that support community based
tourism.others are agreeing with the statement and few are disagreeing with it.

Page | 82
7.16 support of proposed Hydroelectric Project.
Table 7.16
SUPPORT OF HYDROELECTRIC PROJECT IN THIS AREA

Opinion No.of respondents percentage

Strongly agree 0 0

Agree 0 0

Neutral 2 4

Disagree 0 0

strongly disagree 48 96

Figure 7.16

Support Of Hydroelectric Project

120
96
100

80

60

40

20
0 0 4 0
0
Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree strongly disagree

Legend: - Y axis = percentage of age group X axis = support of hydro-electric project

Interpretation: -
Chart 7.16 shows that 96% respondent are strongly disagree with the statement and 4% of
respondents were neutral.
Hints: - maximum number of respondents are strongly disagree with the statement, they are not
ready to support the hydroelectric project.

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7.17 Proposed project will help the community.
Table 7.17
HYDROELECTRIC PROJECT WILL HELP THE COMMUNITY
Opinion No.of respondents Percentage
Strongly agree 0 0
Agree 0 0
Neutral 5 10
Disagree 12 24
strongly disagree 33 66

Figure 7.17

Project Will Help The Community

70 66

60

50

40

30 24

20
10
10
0 0
0
Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree strongly disagree

Legend: - Y axis = percentage of age group X axis = Respondents attitude

Interpretation: -
Chart 7.17 shows that 66% respondent are strongly disagreeing the statement and 24% are
disagree with it. 10% of respondents are neutral.
Hints: - Most of the respondent are strongly disagreeing with the statement.
Page | 84
7.18 Project cause any disturbance to tribal community.
Table 7.18
PROJECT CAUSE DISTURBANCE TO TRIBAL COMMUNITY

Opinion No.of respondents Percentage

Strongly agree 28 56

Agree 13 26

Neutral 7 14

Disagree 2 4

strongly disagree 0 0

Figure 7.18

Project Cause Disturbance to The Community

60 56

50

40

30 26

20 14

10 4
0
0
Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree strongly disagree

Legend: - Y axis = percentage of age group X axis =Respondent’s attitude towards Project
cause any disturbance to tribal community
Interpretation: -
Chart 7.18 shows that 56% of respondent are strongly agreeing with the statement and 26% are
agreeing with it. 14% are neutral and 4% are disagreeing with it.
Hints: - most of the respondents are strongly agreeing with the statement.

Page | 85
7.19concerned authority will take care of you.
Table 7.19
CONCERENED AUTHORITY WILL TAKE CARE OF THE
COMMUNITY
opinion No.of respondents percentage
Strongly agree 3 6
Agree 9 18
Neutral 20 40
Disagree 11 22
strongly disagree 7 14

Figure 7.19

Concerened Authority Will Take care Of The

community
45
40
40
35
30
25 22
20 18
14
15
10 6
5
0
0
opinion Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree strongly disagree

Legend: - Y axis = percentage of age group X axis = concerned authority will take care of the
community.
Interpretation: -
Chart 7.19 shows that 40% respondent are neutral,18% are agreeing and no one is strongly
agreeing with the statement.22% of respondents are disagree and 14% of respondents were
strongly disagreeing with it.
Hints: - most of the respondents are disagreeing with the statement.

Page | 86
20. Dam’s location upstream from community or workplace.
Table 6.20
DAM LOCATION WILL UPSTREAM THE COMMUNITY/WORKPLACE

Opinion No.of respondents percentage

Strongly agree 34 68
Agree 11 22
Neutral 5 10
Disagree 0 0
strongly disagree 0 0

Figure 6.20

Dam Will Upstream The Community

80
68
70

60

50

40

30
22
20
10
10
0 0
0
Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree strongly disagree

Legend: - Y axis = percentage of age group X axis = Dam’s location upstream from community
or workplace.
Interpretation: -

Chart 7.20 shows that 68% respondent arestrongly agree and 22% are agree that the dam location
will upstream the community. 10% are neutral with the statement.

Hints: - most of the respondents are strongly agreeing with statement.

Page | 87
 FINDINGS OF THE STUDY
 The Kadar tribe in Athirappilly faces different socio economic problems and challenges and the
emergence of the HEP mounts them.
 Vanasamrakshanasamithi (VSS) under Forest Department are providing us daily wage jobs, the
earning is very minimal.
 The Kadar’s are living here for generations in perfect harmony with rare fauna like Asiatic
Elephant, the Great Hornbill and NilgiriLangur
 We have no agricultural land here and our livelihood is at stake due to climate changes affecting
fish wealth in the chalakudy river and minor forest produce in the Athirappilly forests,”
 The project would displace 163 Kadar families in Vazhacahal and 71 families in Pokalappara
settlements.
 The hydroelectric project will effect negatively with the local community and tourism.
 Major challenges faced by the tribes are:

(a) literacy

(b) employment

(c) income and

(d) the general appreciation of the project.

 The house construction and other facilities implemented by government is only partially
completed.
 The submergence of the forest will lead to loss the resources
 Financial Implications, A loss of approximately Rs. 500 crores/year worth benefits by ecological
destruction and this is not considered in the cost of the project.
 Opportunities for leadership and management is developed through tourism. The project will
negatively affect the development.
 Women empowerment. Most of VSS members are women, women are greatly involved in
destination management.
 Educational development in local community.

Page | 88
 The RPF fund also used to educational purpose, they have a LP school, and many younger
generations were doing post-graduation in different places.
 VSS improve relationship among community it leads to the social strength and safety.
 Tribes are protected by strong law from outsider’s involvement.
 VSS members have to meeting once in month. This will improve the knowledge of the
community to how to deal with natural resources.
 Most of the jobs are created for unskilled and semiskilled by tourism by tourism is low paid jobs
such as cleaning, guarding etc.
 Forest department have full control over Athirappilly, and they well protected the forest
cooperation with tribes, and formed a committee VSS.
 The proposed dam will affect 138.6 hector of forestland and livelihood of tribal families depending
on the forest and river.
 income source of people living in Athirappilly mostly depends on the tourism, it can be agitated.
 The reduced water flow will severely affect the tourism industry and the economy based on it.
Hundreds of tribal mostly ‘Kadar tribes’ which is endemic tribes are situated in this river basin. If
their livelihood, which mostly depends on the river and forest, is affected the tribal settlements will
be at risk.

Page | 89
 SUGGESTIONS
 The government should take actions to Stop the Hydroelectric project.
 Assure the tribal protection in the area.
 Take care of Improve in the involvement of local community in tourism.
 Government wants to implement tribal tourism for the community development.
 Gave employment as per education.
 Improve the safety and security at the destination for both host and guest.
 Government want more concentrate about the literacy and education of children’s.
 Need more awareness about their own rights.
 Athirappilly as a tourist destination need more infrastructure and accommodation facilities.
 Implement more eco-tourism policy on the destination.
 Implement basic needs of tribes and Housing Construction.
 Rebuild the Paths of the destination.

Page | 90
 Conclusion
The present study focused on the socio economic problems of the Kadar tribe who are the
potential sufferers of the arrival of the hydroelectric project at AthirappillyPanchayath of
Thrissur district in Kerala. They have shifted their dwellings and sacrificed their natural habitat
due to the emergence of the projects like Parambikulam/Aliyar, Peringalkuthu, Sholayar,
Pothundi, Mangalam and Thunakadavu in Kerala. As per the study the literacy rate of the Kadar
tribe is good to compare other backward communities. Before implementing the project, the
government of Kerala should take sufficient precaution as to rehabilitate them in accordance
with their cultural upbringing and social re-orientation to bring them to the mainstream.

An integrated assessment of livelihood practices, gender role and social capital of

Kadar tribe was the theme of the study. The tribe was migrating in nature and never accumulated
wealth in any form. Participatory forest management and the VSS activities have played
significant role in the positive change in livelihood practices of the tribal colonies of Kadar tribe.
Kadar conveys very good relationship, trust, and solidarity, cooperation among the members.

Kerala are rich in natural resources that include water, timber, minerals, and biodiversity and
equally important is the rich cultural heritage ofthe local community. As the desired destination
of many tourists, migrantsandpilgrims, hills of Kerala offer a place of rest, solitude, adventure,
recreation andscenic beauty. Theimpacts of tourism require some monitoring in order to protect
the well-beingof the community, and to ensure the long term viability of the tourism product.The
community, as hosts to the tourists, is vital in the visitor experience andmay affect tourism
development by its willingness, or otherwise. Tourismimpacts come in many shapes and forms.
These are often discussed in terms ofthe socio-cultural, economic and physical environment of
the destination areas.Socio-cultural relates to the issues of culture, lifestyle and human
interaction;economic aspects concern issues of employment, foreign exchange,improvement in
infrastructure, overall growth of the region. The growth of tourism in the region also resulted in
theestablishment of tourist facilities in the area.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Gadgil Report (2011), - Report of the Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel Submitted to the
Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India.

2. Minutes (2015), of the Kerala state Electricity Board, Held on 23rd January, 2015.

3. Kerala High Court judgment dated 17.10.2001

4. Report (2007), Environment Impact Assessment cell, Government of India.

5. Bulletin (1996), Tropical Botanical Gardens and Research Institute (TBGRI), Government of
Kerala.

6. Report (2007), Kerala State Bio Diversity Department, Submitted to the Government of Kerala.

7. Report (2015), Kerala State Forest Division (unpublished).

8. Chalakudy River Protection Forum, Issues related to the proposed Athirappilly hydroelectric
project, 2007

9. http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2013-07-17/news/40635338_1_ghats-ecology-
expert-panel-western-ghats-kasturirangan-panel

10. Panel report on Athirappilly project biased - K Radhakrishnan, "The Hindu", January, 1, 2012

11. Goeldner, C. R., & Ritchie, J. B. (2007). Tourism Principles, Practices, Philosophies. John Wiley
& Sons.

12. Rollins, R., Dearden, P. and Fennell, D. (2016). "Tourism, ecotourism and protected areas". In
P. Dearden, R. Rollins and M. Needham (eds.), Parks and protected areas in Canada: Planning
and management (4th ed) (pp. 391 - 425). Toronto: Oxford University Press

13. Tyrrell, T. J., & Johnston, R. J. (2006). "The Economic Impacts of Tourism: A Special Issue".
Journal of Travel Research, 45(1), 3-7.

14. Muchapondwa, E., & Stage, J. (2013). "The Economic Impacts of Tourism in Botswana,
Nimibia and South Africa: is poverty subsiding?". Natural Resources Forum. 37 (2): 80–
89. doi:10.1111/1477-8947.12007.
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15. World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) Tourism Highlights, 2016 Edition [internet]. Accessed
28 November 2016

16. You Sustain [internet] available from www.yousustain.com 2016. accessed 26 November 2016

17. Long, V. H. (1999). "Techniques for socially sustainable tourism development: lessons from
Mexico". Department of Geography Publication Series, University of Waterloo, 52, 193-212.

18. Turner, R. (2015). Travel and Tourism: Economic Impact 2015 World (pp. 1-20). London:
WTO.

19. Muchapondwa, E., & Stage, J. (2013). "The economic impacts of tourism in Botswana, Namibia
and South Africa: Is poverty subsiding?", Natural Resources Forum, 37(2), 80-89.

20. Norjanah, Mohd B., JaafarMastura, and Mohamad Diana. (2014) "Perceptions of Local
Communities on the Economic Impacts of Tourism Development in Langkawi, Malaysia". SHS
Web of Conferences, vol. 12, 2014, p. 01100

21. Zhang, J., Madsen, B., & Jensen-Butler, C. (2007). "Regional economic impacts of tourism: The
case of Denmark". Regional Studies, 41(6), 839-854

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Annexure

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Page | 95
Page | 96
 QUESTIONNAIRE

A STUDY ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHALLENGES FACED BY KADAR TRIBES WITH REFRENCE TO

PROPOSED HYDROELECTIC PROJECT IN ATHIRAPPILLY

Age:

Gender: Male Female

Occupation:

1.Age group of respondents?

Below 25
25-35
35-45
45-55
Above 55

2.What is the average income level of your community?

Below 1000
1000- 5000
5000-10000
10000-15000
Above 15000

3.What is employment status?

Collection of honey, fire woods and other forest resources
Local area jobs
Watcher men under VSS
Fishing
Government employment

4.What are educational status in the community?

Illiterate / just read
Lower and Upper primary
High school
High secondary
Degree or above

5.Do you think that the proposed dam project will destroy your community and its surroundings?

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 Strongly agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree.

6. How long have you been working in the tourist area in Athirappilly?
Below 5 years
5 – 10 years
10-15 years
15 – 20 years
Above 20 years

7.Do you economically benefited from tourism?

Strongly agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree.

8.Do you think a tourism destroy culture of your community?

Strongly agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree.

9.Do you think that the tourism causes anti-social activities?

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 Strongly agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree.

10.Do you think that the dam project will create more job opportunities?
Strongly agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree.

11. Does tourism improve the standard of living?

Strongly agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree.

12. Is tourism creating any employment opportunities for your community?

Strongly agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree.

13. Do you think that the image of Athirappilly waterfalls is diminished?

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 Strongly agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree.

14. External influences are effecting the community such as demonstration effect or imitation
process?
Strongly agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree.

15.Do you support community based tourism in your area?

Strongly agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree.

16.Do you support the proposed Hydroelectric Project in this area?

Strongly agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree.

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17.Do you think that the proposed project will help the community?
Strongly agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree

18.Is it cause any disturbance to tribal community?

Strongly agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree

19.Do you think that the concerned authority will take care of you?
Strongly agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree

20. Do you feel threatened by the Dam’s location upstream from your community or workplace?
Strongly agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree

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 SWOT
Strengths

The strength of the Kadar tribe are the good relationship and interaction between the members of
the Kadar community, Good gender relations and good division of labour in the family, the
traditional knowledge and skills in natural resources, and empowerment received through the
VSS activities, diversity of forest products (NWFP), existing and potential fishing area, and
awareness on conservation.

Build the strength: Promote them to use handover the Traditional Knowledge and skills to new
generation. The forest department takes more initiative to strengthen the activities of VSS. Make
Diversification in collection the NWFPs. Protect the fish verities. Provide more training
programs on conservation.

Weaknesses

The weakness includes less relationship and interaction with other community, less women
participation in community level activities, alcoholism, educational backwardness, over
exploitation of forest resources, destructive fishing technique, and lack of good leadership.

Eliminate the weakness: Provide awareness programs on alcoholism. Encourage them for non-
formal education and adult education. Minimum and wise utilization of forest resources. Use
reasonable fishing techniques. Provide intensive programs for leadership from them.

Opportunities

Existence of VanaSamrakshanaSamithi (VSS), Support of Forest Department, Support of Tribal

Department, functions of Hornbill foundation, income generation through the value added
products; possibilities of eco-tourism Heritage adoption, women empowerment programs etc. are
the opportunities of the Kadar tribe.

Exploit the opportunities: Make a better relationship with the forest department with a mutual
understanding. Make use the programs of the Hornbill foundation. Start project for the income
generation programs and Value addition. Conduct studies for the possibilities of the eco-tourism
or community based tourism programs
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Threats

Labour migration to outside the forest, uneven extraction of forest produces, forest laws and
policy, intervention of outsiders, and decision to construct dam in the area also threat to the
Kadar people.

Minimize the Threats: Awareness creation on the sustainable extraction of forest products.
Make them aware the new forest right act (FRA) and practice it in appositive way. Strictly check
the intervention of outsiders in to the colonies and make available community security system.
Use their ‗right to live ‘in a positive way against the decision of construction of dam in the area.

Traditionally Kadar ‘swas mostly forest dependent. The Kadar community uses the natural
resources in a sustainable manner. They have been connected with occasions of child birth,
marriage, and death. This community has a much widened array of livelihood opportunities
before them. The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Scheme (MNREGS) has
brought significant changes in work, saving habit among the Kadar tribe. For Girl child
education is the need of the hour. Extension education and continuing education opportunities for
the women should be care and need to be implemented. Vocational skill training and income
generating activities are to be given more importance. The four case studies reveled that women
have an equal or prominent role in all occupational activities of the Kadar tribe. Providing
women with skills and knowledge would create radical changes in the social development of this
tribe.

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