CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Locomotive and Manipulation

Locomotion includes very different concepts of motion including rolling,
walking, running, jumping, sliding (undulatory locomotion), crawling, climbing,
swimming, and flying. They are drastically different in terms of energy consumption,
kinematics, stability, and capabilities required by the robot that implements them.
The way in which the individual parts of a robot can move with respect to
each other and the environment is called the kinematics of the robot. Kinematics is
only concerned with the position and speed (first derivative of position) of those parts,
but not its dynamics, which include acceleration (second derivative of position) and
jerk (third derivative of position).
The most dominant form of locomotion is rolling. Motors are almost always
used in conjunction with gears to reduce the speed and increase the torque that is the
force that the motor can exert to rotate an axis. In order to be able to measure the
number of revolutions and the axis’ position, motors are also often combined with
rotary encoders.
Motors that combine an electric motor with a gear-box, encoder, and
controller to move toward desired position are known as servo motors, and are
popular among hobbyists. Another popular class of actuator, in particular for legged
robots, is linear actuators that might exist in electric, pneumatic or hydraulic form.
Most industrial manipulators consist of a chain of rotary actuators that are
connected by links. Most industrial robots have six or more independently rotating
axes.
Modern industrial manipulators have the ability to not only control the
position of each of its joints, but precisely control the torque and force at each
individual joint, making the arm arbitrary compliant, which is the inverse of stiffness
in a mechanical sense. For dexterous manipulation a robot does not only need an arm,
but also a gripper or hand [15Amin].
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2.2. Kinematic and Inverse-kinematic Theory

In order to plan a robot's movements, understanding the relationship between
the actuators that can control and the robot's resulting position in the environment. For
static arms, this is rather straightforward: the position/angle of each joint can calculate
the position of its end-effector using trigonometry. This process is known as forward
kinematics. Calculating the position of each joint must need to invert this relationship.
This is known as inverse kinematics. For mobile robots, this process is usually more
involved, as speeds need to be integrated, which refers to as odometry.

β
L2

L1
y

Figure 2.1. Sample Robotic Arm[15Amin]

Consider a robot arm made out of two links and two joints that is mounted to a
table. Let the length of the first link be l1 and the length of the second link is l2. To
specify the position of the link closer to the table by the angle α and the angle of the
second link relative to the first link using the angle β. Suitable conventions and
coordinate systems are shown in Figure 2.1.
To calculate the position of the joint between the first and the second link
using simple trigonometry are used equation (2.1) and (2.2) [15Ran].
𝑥1 = cos 𝛼 𝑙1 (2.1)
𝑦1 = sin 𝛼 𝑙1 (2.2)
Similarly, the position of the end-effector is given by equation (2.3) and (2.4).
𝑥2 = cos(𝛼 + 𝛽)𝑙2 + 𝑥1 (2.3)
𝑦2 = sin(𝛼 + 𝛽) 𝑙2 + 𝑥1 (2.4)

2.3. Degree of Freedom

` The concept of degrees-of-freedom, often abbreviated as DOF, is important
for defining the possible positions and orientations a robot can reach. An object in the
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physical world can have up to six degrees of freedom, namely forward/backward,

sideways, and up/down as well as rotations around those axes. These rotations are
known as pitch, yaw and roll that are shown in Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2. Pitch, Yaw and Roll-around the Principal Axis of an Air-plane[15Shri]

Figure 2.3. Name of Joints (DOFs) and Links

For manipulating arms, degrees of freedom usually refer to the positions and
orientations, i.e., rotations around the primary axis, the end-effector can reach. As a
rule of thumb, each joint usually adds a degree of freedom unless they are redundant,
that is, moving in the same direction.

Figure 2.4. Manipulators with One, Two, Three and Three DOF (From Left to Right)
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The degrees of freedom of the end-effector are limited to moving up and

down, sideways, and rotating around its pivot point. As a plane only has those three
degrees of freedom, adding additional joints cannot increase the degrees of freedom
unless they allow the robot to also move in and out of the plane. The design of the
sample robotic arm is shown in Figure 2.3. The sample operation of the manipulators
is shown in Figure 2.4 [13Shri].

2.4. Pulse Width Modulation

Pulse-width modulation (PWM) is a modulation process or technique used in
most communication systems for encoding the amplitude of a signal right into a pulse
width or duration of another signal, usually a carrier signal, for transmission.
Although PWM is also used in communications, its main purpose is actually to
control the power that is supplied to various types of electrical devices, most
especially to inertial loads such as AC/DC motors.
One of the parameters of any square wave is duty cycle. Most square waves
are 50%, this is the norm when don’t have to be symmetrical. The ON time can be
varied completely between signal being off to being fully on, 0% to 100%, and all
ranges between. Shown below are examples of a 10%, 50%, 90% duty cycle. While
the frequency is the same for each, this is not a requirement.
MOSFET IRF540 transistor uses for motor speed control with PWM. Bomb
disposal robot consist two 12V DC motor, which speed is needed to control.
Controlling PWM of base moving, L298 bright IC uses in receiving part of the BDR.
The operation f the PWM is shown in Figure 2.5.

9V

0V
10% 50% 90%
Figure 2.5. Example of Pulse Width Modulation

2.5. Devices for Bomb Disposal Robot

There are some devices and components which are required to construct bomb
disposal robot (BDR). Some of them are specific applications and some are system
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components. Since the system is mainly construction in hardware and software

development, this chapter focuses on hardware device selection and device overview.
The components of the bomb disposal robot (BDR) are:
 12V Battery (DC supply)
 Resistors
 Arduino UNO and MEGA
 NRF 24L01
 LM323 voltage regulator
 TIP 41 transistor
 L298 DC motor driver IC
 DC motor
 Servo motor

2.5.1. DC Supply (12V Battery)

There are different kinds of battery such as 1.3V, 1.5V, 3V, 6V and so on.
Amon them, 12V battery is used in this thesis. It is for power supply of circuit design
and operation of the Receiving Part of BDR. The purpose of using 12V battery is to
sufficient voltage and current of the actuator and main controller board (Arduino
board).Li-Po battery (12V) is shown in Figure 2.6.

Figure 2.6. 12V Battery

2.5.2. Microcontrollers
A microcontroller is a small computer on a single integrated circuit containing
a processor core, memory, and programmable input/output peripherals. Program
memory in the form of Ferrolelectric RAM, NOR flash or OTP ROM is also often
included on chip, as well as a typically small amount of RAM. Microcontrollers are
 10

designed for embedded applications, in contrast to the microprocessors used in

personal computers or other general purpose applications.
Microcontrollers are used in automatically controlled products and devices,
such as automobile engine control systems, implantable medical devices, remote
controls, office machines, power tools, toys and other embedded systems. By
reducing the size and cost compared to a design that uses a separate microprocessor,
memory, and input/output devices, microcontroller make it economical to digitally
control even more devices and process. Mixed signal microcontrollers are common,
integrating analog components needed to control non-digital electronic systems.
Some microcontrollers may use four-bit words and operate at frequencies as
low as 4kHz, for low power consumption (single-digit-milliwatts or microwatts).
They will generally have the ability to retain functionality while waiting for an event
such as a button press or other interrupt; power consumption while sleeping (CPU
clock and most peripherals off) may be just nanowatts, making many of them well
suited for long lasting battery applications. Other microcontrollers may serve
performance-critical roles, where they may need to act more like a digital signal
processor (DSP), with higher clock speeds and power consumption [14Arian].

2.5.3. Arduino UNO

Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board. It has 14 digital input/output pins (of
which 6 can be used as PWN outputs), 6 analog inputs, a 16MHz quartz crystal, a
USB connection, a power jack, an ICP header and a reset button. It contains
everything needed to support the microcontroller; simply connect it to a computer
with a USB cable or power it with an AC to DC adapter or battery to get started.
The Uno has a resettable poly fuse that protects computer’s USB ports from
shorts and over current. Although most computers provide their own internal
protection, the fuse provides an extra layer of protection. If more than 500mA is
applied to the USB port, the fuse will automatically break the connection until the
short or overload is removed.
The Uno board can be powered via the USB connection or with an external
power supply. The power source is selected automatically. External (non-USB) power
can come either from a AC-to-DC adapter or battery. The adapter can be connected
by plugging a 2.1 mm center- positive plug into the board’s power jack. Leads from a
battery can be inserted in the GND and Vin pin headers of the POWER connector.
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The board can operate on and external supply from 6 to 20 volts. If supplied with less
than 7V, however, the 5V pin may supply less than five volts and the board may
become unstable. If using more than 12v, the voltage regulator may overheat and
damage the board. The recommended range is 7 to 12 volts. Technical specifications
of Arduino UNO board are the following. The design of the Arduino UNO board is
shown in Figure 2.7.
 Operating Voltage 5V
 Input Voltage (recommended) 7-12V
 Input Voltage (limit) 6-20V
 Digital I/O Pins 14 (of which 6 provide PWM output)
 PWM Digital I/O Pins 6
 Analog Input Pins 6
 DC Current per I/O Pin 20mA
 DC Current for 3.3V Pin 50mA
 Flash Memory 32 KB (ATmega328P)of which .5KB
used by bootloader
 SRAM 2KB (Atmega328P)
 EEPROM 1KB (Atmega328P)
 Clock Speed 16 MHz
 Length 68.6 mm
 Width 53.4 mm
 Weight 25 g

Figure 2.7. Arduino UNO Board [14Arian]

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2.5.4. Arduino Mega

The Mega 2560 is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega2560. It has
54 digital input/output pins (of which 15 can be used as PWM outputs), 16 analog
inputs, 4 UARTs (hardware serial ports), a 16 MHz crystal oscillator, a USB
connection, a power jack, an ICSP header, and a reset button. It contains everything
needed to support the microcontroller; simply connect it to a computer with a USB
cable or power it with a AC-to-DC adapter or battery to get started. The Mega 2560
board is compatible with most shields designed for the Uno and the former boards
Duemilanove or Diecimila. The Mega 2560 is an update to the Arduino Mega, which
it replaces ATmega 2560 chip. The input and output design of the Arduino Mega are
show in Figure 2.8. Technical specifications of Arduino Mega (2560) are shown in
Table 2.1.

Table 2.1. Technical specifications of Arduino Mega

Microcontroller ATmega2560

Operating Voltage 5V

Input Voltage (recommended) 7-12V

Input Voltage (limit) 6-20V

Digital I/O Pins 54

(of which 15 provide PWM output)
Analog Input Pins 16

DC Current per I/O Pin 20 mA

DC Current for 3.3V Pin 50 mA

Flash Memory 256 KB of which
8 KB used by bootloader

SRAM 8 KB

EEPROM 4 KB

Clock Speed 16 MHz

LED_BUILTIN 13
Length 101.52 mm

Width 53.3 mm
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Responsible TWI(I2C)
Serial
USB PWM Output Communication
Communication

USB
Connector

Source
7 to 12V
Analog Inputs Rest button
Regulator 3.3 V Power pins

Figure 2.8. Arduino Mega (2560)[14Arian]

2.5.5. NRF24L01 Wireless Transceiver Module

NRF24L01 have eight pins to interface with, and these are Vcc, GND, IRQ,
CE, and the four SPI-related pins (CSN, SCK, MISO, and MOSI). The SPI interface
uses four pins, CSN, SCK, MISO, and MOSI for data transmission and receiving. The
CSN (chip select not) pin is active-low, and is normally kept high. When this pin goes
low, the 24L01 begins listening on its SPI port for data and processes it accordingly.
The remaining three pins should be tied to the user’s hardware SPI interface,
to the same pins as their name suggests (SCK to SCK, MISO to MISO, and MOSI to
MOSI). The remaining two pins are CE and IRQ. CE is used to control data
transmission and receiving when in TX and RX modes, respectively. IRQ is the
interrupt pin, and is active-low. There are three internal interrupts that can cause this
pin to go low when they are active. Each of these bits can be masked out such that
when the bit’s respective interrupt becomes active, the status of the IRQ pin is not
changed.
The SPI interface allows users to read or write registers, transmit data, receive
data, and do all sorts of other things internal to the 24L01. The 24L01’s predecessor
had a one-wire interface that was rather cumbersome to interface. The 24L01 to a true
SPI interface that is very simple to communicate with by almost any microcontroller.
The datasheet is contradictory in terms of the maximum SPI data rate. On the pipe
one, it states that the max is 8 Mbps. However, on pipe nine, a max of 10 Mbps is
stated. SPI read operation is shown in Figure 2.9.
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Figure 2.9. SPI Read Operation[10Venu]

Figure 2.10. SPI Write Operation[10Venu]

SPI write operation is shown in Figure 2.10. There are FIFOs for both TX and
RX modes (as mentioned in the “SPI Instruction Set” section). FIFO means “first in /
first out “. Both of the FIFOs are three levels deep, meaning that they will hold the
three newest packets that have been put into them.
 Worldwide 2.4GHz ISM band operation
 Up to 2Mbps on air data rate
 Ultra low power operation
 11.3mA TX at 0dBm output power and 12.3mA RX at 2Mbps air data rate
 900nA in power down and 22µA in standby-I
 On chip voltage regulator
 1.9 to 3.6V supply range
 Enhanced ShockBurst™
 Automatic packet handling and Auto packet transaction handling
 6 data pipe MultiCeiver™
 Air compatible with nRF2401A, 02, E1 and E2
 Low cost BOM • ±60ppm 16MHz crystal
 5V tolerant inputs
 Compact 20-pin 4x4mm QFN package
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The application of NRF24L01 is wireless PC peripherals, mouse, keyboards

and remotes, 3-in-one desktop bundles, advanced media center remote controls, VoIP
headsets, game controllers, sports watches and sensors, RF remote controls for
consumer electronics, Home and commercial automation, ultra low power sensor
networks, active RFID, asset tracking systems and toys. Figure 2.11 describes the
layout of NRF24LO1 wireless transceiver module;

Figure 2.11. Layout of NRF24L01 Wireless Transceiver Module[12Sam]

The main reason of using NRF 24L01 wireless transceiver module is that it
allows 126 channels (MAX). Our bomb disposal robot needs 8 channels for
transmission and receiving. This thesis uses 8 pipes from NRF24L01 because 1 pipe
operates 1 transmitting and receiving path.

2.5. Motor for Moving Section

There are many dc motors such as brushless, with brush and so on. DC motor
is popular actuator in many robotic systems. Bomb Disposal Robot uses two 12V DC
motor for moving forward and reverse base moving.
DC motors are divided into three classes, as follows: series-wound motor,
shunt-wound motor and compound-wound motor.
The series-wound motor: In this type, the field is in series with the armature.
This type of DC motor is only used for direct coupling and other work where the load
(or part of the load) is permanently coupled to the motor. This will be seen from the
speed torque characteristic, which shows that on no load or light load the speed will
be very high and therefore dangerous. Series-wound motor is shown in Figure 2.12.
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Figure 2.12. Series-wound Motor[08Rish]

The shunt-wound motor: In this case the field is in parallel with the armature,
as shown in Figure 2.13, and the shunt motor is the standard type of dc motor for
ordinary purposes. Its speed is nearly constant, falling off as the load increases due to
resistance drop and armature reaction.

Figure 2.13. Shunt-wound Motor[08Rish]

The compound-wound motor: This is a combination of the above two types.

There is a field winding in series with the armature and a field winding in parallel
with it Figure 2.14. The relative proportions of the shunt and series winding can be
varied in order to make the characteristics nearer those of the series motor or those of
the shunt-wound motor.
The typical speed-torque curve is shown in the diagram. Compound-wound
motors are used for cranes and other heavy duty applications where an overload may
have to be carried and a heavy starting torque is required. Compound-wound motor
operation is shown in Figure 2.14.
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Figure 2.14. Compound-wound Motor[08Rish]

2.6. Motor Driver for Moving Part

The main component of motor driver circuit for moving part is L298 IC. L298
IC is used for isolation with dc motor and controller board (Arduino). L298 IC is
control maximum two motor, that reliable for our circuit. The L298 is an integrated
monolithic circuit in a 15- lead Multi watt and PowerSO20 packages. It is a high
voltage, high current dual full bridge driver designed to accept standard TTL logic
levels and drive inductive loads such as relays, solenoids, DC and stepping motors.
Two enable inputs are provided to enable or disable the device independently of the
input signals. The emitters of the lower transistors of each bridge are connected
together and the corresponding external terminal can be used for the connection of an
external sensing resistor. An additional supply input is provided so that the logic
works at a lower voltage. Pin out of the L298 IC is shown in Figure 2.15. Design of
the L298 N motor driver is shown in Figure 2.16. The internal block diagram of
L298N IC is shown in Figure 2.17.

Figure 2.15. Pin out of L298 IC[15Farz]

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Figure 2.16. L298 Motor Driver

Figure 2.17. Internal Block Diagram of L298 IC[15Farz]

2.7. Motor for Robotic Arm

Servo motor is an upgrade motor for simple dc motor for torque with
additional gear and which has built-in encoder. This thesis use seven servo motors in
our robot which are one MG996 high torque metal gear dual ball bearing servo and
five MG995 high torque metal gear dual ball bearing servos for arm and one MG995
for base steering. MG995 and MG996 servo’s specifications are reliable for this robot.
The outer design of the MG995 and MG996 metal gear dual ball bearing servo is
descried in Figure 2.18 and Figure 2.19.
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Figure 2.18. MG995 High Torque Metal Gear Dual Ball Bearing Servo[15Farz]

Figure 2.19. MG996 High Torque Metal Gear Dual Ball Baring Servo[15Farz]

Pin out design of the servo motor is shown in Figure 2.20. There has three
pins: Pulse Width Modulation pin (PWM), power supply pin (VCC) and ground pin
(GROUND). PWM is assigned as orange color, power pin is red color and ground pin
is brown color.

Figure 2.20. Pin Out Design of Servo Motor[15Farz]

The working process of servo motor is simple. Firstly, controlled signal

transmit to the voltage converter as pulse width. And then, comparator receives pulse
width and error amplifier solves errors from the input pulse width. Error amplifier
provides variable output to the motor. Motor is jointed gear box which can operates
load. Gear box is connected with the position sensor. Position sensor detected position
of the motor from the gear box. Working process of servo motor is shown in Figure
2.21.
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comparator Error amplifier

Pulse Width to Variable
voltage converter output Motor Load

Control signal Position sensor Gear box

Figure 2.21. Working Processes of Servo Motor[15Farz]

2.8. Motor deriver IC for Robotic Arm

The main component of motor driver circuit for robotic arm section is LM323
voltage regulator is used to supply power for servos in receiving part. The LM323 are
monolithic integrated circuits which supply a fixed positive 5.0 V output with a load
driving capability in excess of 3.0 A. These three-terminal regulators employ internal
current limiting, thermal shutdown, and safe-area compensation. The A-suffix is an
improved device with superior electrical characteristics and a 2% output voltage
tolerance. These regulators are offered with a 0° to +125°C temperature range in a
low cost plastic power package. Although designed primarily as a fixed voltage
regulator, these devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable
voltages and currents. These devices can be used with a series pass transistor to
supply up to 15 A at 5.0 V. TIP 41 transistor is used with LM323 voltage regulator.
The purpose of TIP 41 transistor is to boost current for the LM323 output. Pin out
diagram of LM323 voltage regulator is shown in Figure 2.23.

PIN 1= INPUT
PIN 2=
PIN 1= INPUT
GROUND
PIN 2= GROUND
PIN 3= OUTPUT
PIN 3= OUTPUT
1
1
2 32 3

Figure 2.23. LM323 T Voltage Regulator and Pinout[15Farz]

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LM 323
INPUT OUTPUT
Cin Cout
0.33uF 100uF

Figure 2.24. Simple Connection of 5V Regulator LM323[15Farz]

A common ground is required between the input and the output voltages. The
input voltage must remain typically 2.5 V above the output voltage even during the
low point on the input ripple voltage. Simple connection of 5V regulator LM323 is
shown in Figure 2.24.
 Cin is required if regulator is located an appreciable distance from power
supply filter.
 Cout is not needed for stability; however, it does improve transient response.
Robotic arm of bomb disposal robot use LM323 with additional transistor TIP
41 because LM323 output current is not sufficient for servo MG995 and MG996
(Specification of Servos). The internal configuration of LM323 IC is shown in Figure
2.25.

Figure 2.25. Internal Configuration of LM323[15Farz]

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2.9. Summary
This chapter describes devices and components used in bomb disposal robot.
The features and opeation of each device are discussed in detail. Atmega 2560
microcontroller is the heart of the system. Design of the robotic arm is also important
in this work. So, how to design and device is described in detail. The next chapter will
present the design and circuit for bomb disposal robot.