SEEDS IDENTIFICATION

 Kamatis
 Talong
 Pechay
 Pipino
 Ampalaya
 String Beans/ Batong
 Atsal
 Lettuce
 Pakwan
 Corn/Mais
 Monggo beans
 Okra
 Patola/Sikwa
 Upo/Balantiyong
 Kalabasa

FERTILIZER IDENTIFICATION
Name of Fertilizer %Nitrogen(N) %Phosphorus(P) %Potassium(K)

 Urea 46 0 0
 Complete 14 14 14
 Ammosul/Ammonium Sulphate 21 0 0
 Ammophos/Ammonium Phosphate 16 20 0
Muriate of Potash 0 0 60

Source of Nitrogen fertilizer, Urea and Amosul

-pampaGreen sa dahon sa tanom
-iabono sa wala pay bunga ang tanom
Source of Phosphorus- Ammonium Phosphate -
-pampalig-on o pampahimsog sa lawas ug sa gamot sa tanom
Source of Potassium- Muriate of Potash
-pampahimsog ug pampatimgas sa bunga sa tanom, pampatam-is sa bunga.

Kinds of Fertilizer according to composition

1. Inorganic fertilizer- ex. Urea, complete, muriate of potash
 2. Organic fertilizer- substance from animal manure and crop residues
Ex. Compost, vermin cast

Kinds of Fertilizer according to application

1. Basal fertilizer- applied before planting or at the base of the plant
2. Foliar fertilizer- applied/sprayed at the leaves of the plant

MATERIALS OF SIMPLE NURSERY

 Bamboo/Steel/coco lumber
 UV treated / Nipa/clear plastic accetate
 Seed box/Lokong/ Seedling Tray

Tools used in Nursery

Hand Trowel

Sprinkler
Wheel barrow

METHODS OF CONTROLLING WEEDS

1. Physical control method

a. Hand weeding- the oldest, simplest and most direct way of controlling
weeds. It is very effective young weeds. Although it is very laborious
and time consuming.
b. Mechanical method- method using a hand tools such as hones and
weeding knives. It also uses implements such as rotary weeder and
cultivators.
c. Mulching- this is a common practice in vegetable production. Mulching
materials include rice hull, sugar cane baggase, sawdust and rice
straw. Papers and plastic mulches are also use in large scale areas.
Mulching consist of placing the mulch on the seedling bed to suppress
the weeds and conserves soil moistures.
d. Water management- many weed seeds species cannot germinate
under flooded conditions. This is most applicable in controlling grasses
and sedges practically in lowland areas.
2. Cultural control methods
The growing conditions are manipulated to directly suppress the weed
population through a decreased in the weeds competitive ability. The
following are some cultural weed control methods;
a. Land preparation- through land preparations is an example of
controlling weeds.
b. Crop rotation- each crop has its own characteristic weed associated
with it. Continuously planting same crop on the same area, it
repeatedly tends to increase the population of weeds. By varying or
changing the crop and the weed control practices, the weeds are
subjected to various pressures and the possibility of undisturbed
development is reduced.
c. Crop competition- making a crop more competitive against weed is
another control method.
1. Planting method- transplanting is an example done to control
weeds
2. Crop variety to be grown
 3. Population density
4. Fertilizer application
d. Use of certified seeds- clean certified seed should be used to prevent
the introduction and transfer of weed seeds.

3. Biological control methods

Biological control of weeds is the process of suppressing undesirable
plants by the action of one or more organisms accomplished naturally or
by manipulation of weed control method is increasing over the past
several decades.
TYPES OF WEEDS

1. GRASSES- are member of the family GRAMINAE (POACAE) whch range

from small, twisted, erect or creeping annuals or perennials. Stem are called
culms with well-defined nodes and internodes. Leaves arise alternately into
two rows from the nodes. The leaf is composed of three parts; the leaf sheath
which clasp them, the margins overlapping to form a tube and the leaf blade
which is usually thin, narrow, and linear with parallel veination.
Example;
A) Echinochloa crusgali
B) Digitaria sanguinallis
C) Dactyloctenium aegyptium
2. SEDGES- are members of the family CYPERACEAE. They bear a close
resemblance to the grasses and be distinguished by thin triangular stem, the
absence of ligule and the fusion of a leaf sheats forming a tube around the
stem. Perennial sedges have underground tubers and/or rhizomes.

Examples;
a) Cyperus rotundus
b) Cyperus iria
c) Fimbristylis miliacea
3. BROADLEAVES- are the ones belonging to the other families of
MONOCOTYLEDONAE and DICOTYLEDONAE. They are identified by their
fully expanded, broadleaf structure with netted veination.

Examples :
a) Monochoria vaginalis
b) Amaranthus spinosus
c) Sphenochlea zeylanica
 TYPES OF POST-HARVEST OPERATIONS

1. Harvest handling
Skin colour:

This factor is commonly applied to fruits, since skin colour changes as fruit ripens or matures.
Some fruits exhibit no perceptible colour change during maturation, depending on the type of
fruit or vegetable. Assessment of harvest maturity by skin colour depends on the judgment of
the harvester, but colour charts are available for cultivars, such as apples, tomatoes, peaches,
chilli peppers, etc.

Optical methods:

Light transmission properties can be used to measure the degree of maturity of fruits. These
methods are based on the chlorophyll content of the fruit, which is reduced during maturation.
The fruit is exposed to a bright light, which is then switched off so that the fruit is in total
darkness. Next, a sensor measures the amount of light emitted from the fruit, which is
proportional to its chlorophyll content and thus its maturity.

Shape:

The shape of fruit can change during maturation and can be used as a characteristic to
determine harvest maturity. For instance, a banana becomes more rounded in cross-sections
and less angular as it develops on the plant. Mangoes also change shape during maturation. As
the mango matures on the tree the relationship between the shoulders of the fruit and the point
at which the stalk is attached may change. The shoulders of immature mangoes slope away
from the fruit stalk; however, on more mature mangoes the shoulders become level with the
point of attachment, and with even more maturity the shoulders may be raised above this point.

Size:

Changes in the size of a crop while growing are frequently used to determine the time of
harvest. For example, partially mature cobs of Zea mays saccharata are marketed as sweet
corn, while even less mature and thus smaller cobs are marketed as baby corn. For bananas,
the width of individual fingers can be used to determine harvest maturity. Usually a finger is
placed midway along the bunch and its maximum width is measured with callipers; this is
referred to as the calliper grade.

Aroma:
Most fruits synthesize volatile chemicals as they ripen. Such chemicals give fruit its
characteristic odour and can be used to determine whether it is ripe or not. These doors may
only be detectable by humans when a fruit is completely ripe, and therefore has limited use in
commercial situations.

Fruit opening:

Some fruits may develop toxic compounds during ripening, such as ackee tree fruit, which
contains toxic levels of hypoglycine. The fruit splits when it is fully mature, revealing black seeds
on yellow arils. At this stage, it has been shown to contain minimal amounts of hypoglycine or
none at all. This creates a problem in marketing; because the fruit is so mature, it will have a
very short post-harvest life. Analysis of hypoglycine ‘A’ (hyp.) in ackee tree fruit revealed that
the seed contained appreciable hyp. at all stages of maturity, at approximately 1000 ppm, while
levels in the membrane mirrored those in the arils. This analysis supports earlier observations
that unopened or partially opened ackee fruit should not be consumed, whereas fruit that opens
naturally to over 15 mm of lobe separation poses little health hazard, provided the seed and
membrane portions are removed. These observations agree with those of Brown et al. (1992)
who stated that bright red, full sized ackee should never be forced open for human
consumption.

Leaf changes:

Leaf quality often determines when fruits and vegetables should be harvested. In root crops, the
condition of the leaves can likewise indicate the condition of the crop below ground. For
example, if potatoes are to be stored, then the optimum harvest time is soon after the leaves
and stems have died. If harvested earlier, the skins will be less resistant to harvesting and
handling damage and more prone to storage diseases.

Firmness:

A fruit may change in texture during maturation, especially during ripening when it may become
rapidly softer. Excessive loss of moisture may also affect the texture of crops. These textural
changes are detected by touch, and the harvester may simply be able to gently squeeze the
fruit and judge whether the crop can be harvested. Today sophisticated devices have been
developed to measure texture in fruits and vegetables, for example, texture analyzers and
pressure testers; they are currently available for fruits and vegetables in various forms. A force
is applied to the surface of the fruit, allowing the probe of the penetrometer or texturometer to
penetrate the fruit flesh, which then gives a reading on firmness. Hand held pressure testers
could give variable results because the basis on which they are used to measure firmness is
affected by the angle at which the force is applied. Two commonly used pressure testers to
measure the firmness of fruits and vegetables are the Magness-Taylor and UC Fruit Firmness
testers (Figure 2.1). A more elaborate test, but not necessarily more effective, uses instruments
like the Instron Universal Testing Machine. It is necessary to specify the instrument and all
settings used when reporting test pressure values or attempting to set standards.

Harvesting containers must be easy to handle for workers picking fruits and vegetables in the
field. Many crops are harvested into bags. Harvesting bags with shoulder or waist slings can be
used for fruits with firm skins, like citrus fruits and avocados. These containers are made from a
variety of materials such as paper, polyethylene film, sisal, hessian or woven polyethylene and
are relatively cheap but give little protection to the crop against handling and transport damage.
Sacks are commonly used for crops such as potatoes, onions, cassava, and pumpkins. Other
types of field harvest containers include baskets, buckets, carts, and plastic crates (Figure 2.3).
For high risk products, woven baskets and sacks are not recommended because of the risk of
contamination.

Figure 2.3 Agricultural apple baskets, pear and corncob carriers.

Tools for harvesting

Depending on the type of fruit or vegetable, several devices are employed to harvest produce.
Commonly used tools for fruit and vegetable harvesting are secateurs or knives, and hand held
or pole mounted picking shears. When fruits or vegetables are difficult to catch, such as
mangoes or avocados, a cushioning material is placed around the tree to prevent damage to the
fruit when dropping from high trees. Harvesting bags with shoulder or waist slings can be used
for fruits with firm skins, like citrus and avocados. They are easy to carry and leave both hands
free. The contents of the bag are emptied through the bottom into a field container without
tipping the bag. Plastic buckets are suitable containers for harvesting fruits that are easily
crushed, such as tomatoes. These containers should be smooth without any sharp edges that
could damage the produce. Commercial growers use bulk bins with a capacity of 250-500 kg, in
which crops such as apples and cabbages are placed, and sent to large-scale packinghouses
for selection, grading, and packing.

3. Packing in the field and transport to packinghouse

Berries picked for the fresh market (except blueberries and cranberries) are often mechanically
harvested and usually packed into shipping containers. Careful harvesting, handling, and
transporting of fruits and vegetables to packinghouses are necessary to preserve product
quality.

Polyethylene bags:

Clear polyethylene bags are used to pack banana bunches in the field, which are then
transported to the packinghouse by means of mechanical cableways running through the
banana plantation. This technique of packaging and transporting bananas reduces damage to
the fruit caused by improper handling.

Plastic field boxes:

These types of boxes are usually made of polyvinyl chloride, polypropylene, or polyethylene.
They are durable and can last many years. Many are designed in such a way that they can nest
inside each other when empty to facilitate transport, and can stack one on top of the other
without crushing the fruit when full (Figure 2.4).

Figure 2.4 Plastic field boxes with nest/stack design.

Wooden field boxes:

These boxes are made of thin pieces of wood bound together with wire. They come in two
sizes: the bushel box with a volume of 2200 in3 (36052 cm3) and the half-bushel box. They are
advantageous because they can be packed flat and are inexpensive, and thus could be non-
returnable. They have the disadvantage of providing little protection from mechanical damage to
the produce during transport. Rigid wooden boxes of different capacities are commonly used to
transport produce to the packinghouse or to market. (Figure 2.5).

Figure 2.5 Typical wooden crate holding fresh tomatoes.

4. Post-harvest handling

4.1 Curing of roots, tubers, and bulb crops

When roots and tubers are to be stored for long periods, curing is necessary to extend the shelf
life. The curing process involves the application of high temperatures and high relative humidity
to the roots and tubers for long periods, in order to heal the skins wounded during harvesting.
With this process a new protected layer of cells is formed. Initially the curing process is
expensive, but in the long run, it is worthwhile. The conditions for curing roots and tubers are
presented in Table 2.6.

Table 2.6. Conditions for curing roots and tubers.

Commodity Temperature (°C) Relative Humidity (%) Storage time (days)

Potato 15-20 90-95 5-10
Sweet potato 30-32 85-90 4-7
Yams 32-40 90-100 1-4
Cassava 30-40 90-95 2-5

Source: FAO (1995a)

Curing can be accomplished in the field or in curing structures conditioned for that purpose.
Commodities such as yams can be cured in the field by piling them in a partially shaded area.
Cut grass or straw can serve as insulating material while covering the pile with canvas, burlap,
or woven grass matting. This covering will provide sufficient heat to reach high temperatures
and high relative humidity. The stack can be left in this state for up to four days.

Onions and garlic can be cured in the field in windrows or after being packed into large fibre or
net sacks. Modern curing systems have been implemented in housing conditioned with fans and
heaters to produce the heat necessary for high temperatures and high relative humidity, as
illustrated below:
The fans are used to redistribute the heat to the lower part of the room where the produce is
stored. Bulk bins are stacked with a gap of 10 to 15 cm between rows to allow adequate air
passage. The system shown in Figure 2.6 can be used for curing onions; an exhaust opening
near the ceiling must be provided for air recirculation. Care should be taken to prevent over-
dryness of the onion bulbs.

When extreme conditions in the field exist, such as heavy rain or flooded terrain, and curing
facilities are not available, a temporary tent must be constructed from large tarpaulins or plastic
sheets to cure the onions and avoid heavy loss. Heated air is forced into a hollow area at the
centre of the produce-filled bins. Several fans are used to recirculate the warm air through the
onions while curing.

Figure 2.6 Typical curing houses for roots and tubers.

5. Operations prior to packaging

Fruits and vegetables are subjected to preliminary treatments designed to improve appearance
and maintain quality. These preparatory treatments include cleaning, disinfection, waxing, and
adding of colour (some includes brand name stamping on individual fruits).

5.1 Cleaning:

Most produce receives various chemical treatments such as spraying of insecticides and
pesticides in the field. Most of these chemicals are poisonous to humans, even in small
concentrations. Therefore, all traces of chemicals must be removed from produce before
packing. As illustrated in Figure 2.7, the fruit or vegetable passes over rotary brushes where it is
rotated and transported to the washing machine and exposed to the cleaning process from all
sides:

Figure 2.7 Typical produce washing machine.

From the washing machine, the fruit passes onto a set of rotary sponge rollers (similar to the
rotary brushes). The rotary sponges remove most of the water on the fruit as it is rotated and
transported through the sponger.

5.2 Disinfection:

After washing fruits and vegetables, disinfectant agents are added to the soaking tank to avoid
propagation of diseases among consecutive batches of produce. In a soaking tank, a typical
solution for citrus fruit includes a mixture of various chemicals at specific concentration, pH, and
temperature, as well as detergents and water softeners. Sodium-ortho-phenyl-phenate (SOPP)
is an effective citrus disinfectant, but requires precise control of conditions in the tank.
Concentrations must be kept between 0.05 and 0.15%, with pH at 11.8 and temperature in the
range of 43-48°C. Recommended soaking time is 3-5 minutes. Deviation from these
recommendations may have disastrous effects on the produce, since the solution will be
ineffective if the temperature or concentration is too low (Peleg, 1985). Low concentrations of
chlorine solution are also used as disinfectant for many vegetables. The advantage of this
solution is that it does not leave a chemical residue on the product.

5.3 Artificial waxing:

Artificial wax is applied to produce to replace the natural wax lost during washing of fruits or
vegetables. This adds a bright sheen to the product. The function of artificial waxing of produce
is summarized below:

 Provides a protective coating over entire surface.

 Seals small cracks and dents in the rind or skin.
 Seals off stem scars or base of petiole.
 Reduces moisture loss.
 Permits natural respiration.
 Extends shelf life.
 Enhances sales appeal.

5.4 Brand name application:

Some distributors use ink or stickers to stamp a brand name or logo on each individual fruit. Ink
is not permissible in some countries (e.g., Japan), but stickers are acceptable. Automatic
machines for dispensing and applying pressure sensitive paper stickers are readily available.
The advantage of stickers is that they can be easily peeled off.

1. Packaging

According to Wills et al. (1989), modern packaging must comply with the following requirements:
a) The package must have sufficient mechanical strength to protect the contents during
handling, transport, and stacking.
b) The packaging material must be free of chemical substances that could transfer to the
produce and become toxic to man.
c) The package must meet handling and marketing requirements in terms of weight, size, and
shape.
d) The package should allow rapid cooling of the contents. Furthermore, the permeability of
plastic films to respiratory gases could also be important.
e) Mechanical strength of the package should be largely unaffected by moisture content (when
wet) or high humidity conditions.
f) The security of the package or ease of opening and closing might be important in some
marketing situations.
g) The package must either exclude light or be transparent.
h) The package should be appropriate for retail presentations.
i) The package should be designed for ease of disposal, re-use, or recycling.
j) Cost of the package in relation to value and the extent of contents protection required should
be as low as possible.

Classification of packaging
Packages can be classified as follows:

 Flexible sacks; made of plastic jute, such as bags (small sacks) and nets (made of open
mesh)
 Wooden crates
 Cartons (fibreboard boxes)
 Plastic crates
 Pallet boxes and shipping containers
 Baskets made of woven strips of leaves, bamboo, plastic, etc.

Uses for above packages:

Nets are only suitable for hard produce such as coconuts and root crops (potatoes, onions,
yams).

6.1 Wooden crates are typically wire bound crates used for citrus fruits and potatoes, or
wooden field crates used for softer produce like tomatoes. Wooden crates are resistant to
weather and more efficient for large fruits, such as watermelons and other melons, and
generally have good ventilation. Disadvantages are that rough surfaces and splinters can cause
damage to the produce, they can retain undesirable odours when painted, and raw wood can
easily become contaminated with moulds.

6.2 Fibreboard boxes are used for tomato, cucumber, and ginger transport. They are easy to
handle, light weight, come in different sizes, and come in a variety of colours that can make
produce more attractive to consumers. They have some disadvantages, such as the effect of
high humidity, which can weaken the box; neither are they waterproof, so wet products would
need to be dried before packaging. These boxes are often of lower strength compared to
wooden or plastic crates, although multiple thickness trays are very widely used. They can
come flat packed with ventilation holes and grab handles, making a cheap attractive alternative
that is very popular. Care should be taken that holes on the surface (top and sides) of the box
allow adequate ventilation for the produce and prevent heat generation, which can cause rapid
product deterioration.

6.3 Plastic crates are expensive but last longer than wooden or carton crates.

They are easy to clean due to their smooth surface and are hard in strength, giving protection to
products. Plastic crates (Figure 2.8) can be used many times, reducing the cost of transport.
They are available in different sizes and colours and are resistant to adverse weather
conditions. However, plastic crates can damage some soft produce due to their hard surfaces,
thus liners are recommended when using such crates.

6.4 Pallet boxes are very efficient for transporting produce from the field to the packinghouse or
for handling produce in the packinghouse. Pallet boxes have a standard floor size (1200 × 1000
mm) and depending on the commodity have standard heights. Advantages of the pallet box are
that it reduces the labour and cost of loading, filling, and unloading; reduces space for storage;
and increases speed of mechanical harvest. The major disadvantage is that the return volume
of most pallet boxes is the same as the full load. Higher investment is also required for the
forklift truck, trailer, and handling systems to empty the boxes. They are not affordable to small
producers because of high, initial capital investment.

Figure 2.8 Typical plastic crate holding fresh oranges.

1. Cooling methods and temperatures

Several methods of cooling are applied to produce after harvesting to extend shelf life and
maintain a fresh-like quality. Some of the low temperature treatments are unsuitable for simple
rural or village treatment but are included for consideration as follows:
7.1. Precooling
Fruit is precooled when its temperature is reduced from 3 to 6°C (5 to 10°F) and is cool enough
for safe transport. Precooling may be done with cold air, cold water (hydrocooling), direct
contact with ice, or by evaporation of water from the product under a partial vacuum (vacuum
cooling). A combination of cooled air and water in the form of a mist called hyraircooling is an
innovation in cooling of vegetables.
7.2. Air precooling
Precooling of fruits with cold air is the most common practice. It can be done in refrigerator cars,
storage rooms, tunnels, or forced air-coolers (air is forced to pass through the container via
baffles and pressure differences).

7.3. Icing
Ice is commonly added to boxes of produce by placing a layer of crushed ice directly on the top
of the crop. An ice slurry can be applied in the following proportion: 60% finely crushed ice, 40%
water, and 0.1% sodium chloride to lower the melting point. The water to ice ratio may vary from
1:1 to 1:4.
7.4. Room cooling
This method involves placing the crop in cold storage. The type of room used may vary, but
generally consists of a refrigeration unit in which cold air is passed through a fan. The circulation
may be such that air is blown across the top of the room and falls through the crop by
convection. The main advantage is cost because no specific facility is required.
7.5. Forced air-cooling
The principle behind this type of precooling is to place the crop into a room where cold air is
directed through the crop after flowing over various refrigerated metal coils or pipes. Forced air-
cooling systems blow air at a high velocity leading to desiccation of the crop. To minimize this
effect, various methods of humidifying the cooling air have been designed such as blowing the
air through cold water sprays.
7.6. Hydrocooling
The transmission of heat from a solid to a liquid is faster than the transmission of heat from a
solid to a gas. Therefore, cooling of crops with cooled water can occur quickly and results in
zero loss of weight. To achieve high performance, the crop is submerged in cold water, which is
constantly circulated through a heat exchanger. When crops are transported around the
packhouse in water, the transport can incorporate a hydrocooler. This system has the
advantage wherein the speed of the conveyer can be adjusted to the time required to cool the
produce. Hydrocooling has a further advantage over other precooling methods in that it can help
clean the produce. Chlorinated water can be used to avoid spoilage of the crop. Hydrocooling is
commonly used for vegetables, such as asparagus, celery, sweet corn, radishes, and carrots,
but it is seldom used for fruits.
7.7. Vacuum cooling
Cooling in this case is achieved with the latent heat of vaporization rather than conduction. At
normal air pressure (760 mmHg) water will boil at 100°C. As air pressure is reduced so is the
boiling point of water, and at 4.6 mmHg water boils at 0°C. For every 5 or 6°C reduction in
temperature, under these conditions, the crop loses about 1% of its weight (Barger, 1961). This
weight loss may be minimized by spraying the produce with water either before enclosing it in
the vacuum chamber or towards the end of the vacuum cooling operation (hydrovacuum
cooling). The speed and effectiveness of cooling is related to the ratio between the mass of the
crop and its surface area. This method is particularly suitable for leaf crops such as lettuce.
Crops like tomatoes having a relatively thick wax cuticle are not suitable for vacuum cooling.

7.8. Recommended minimum temperature to increase storage time

There is no ideal storage for all fruits and vegetables, because their response to reduced
temperatures varies widely. The importance of factors such as mould growth and chilling injuries
must be taken into account, as well as the required length of storage (Wills et al., 1989).
Storage temperature for fruits and vegetables can range from -1 to 13°C, depending on their
perishability. Extremely perishable fruits such as apricots, berries, cherries, figs, watermelons
can be stored at -1 to 4°C for 1-5 weeks; less perishable fruits such as mandarin, nectarine, ripe
or green pineapple can be stored at 5-9°C for 2-5 weeks; bananas at 10°C for 1-2 weeks and
green bananas at 13°C for 1-2 weeks. Highly perishable vegetables can be stored up to 4
weeks such as asparagus, beans, broccoli, and Brussels sprouts at -1-4°C for 1-4 weeks;
cauliflower at 5-9°C for 2-4 weeks. Green tomato is less perishable and can be stored at 10°C
for 3-6 weeks and non-perishable vegetables such as carrots, onions, potatoes and parsnips
can be stored at 5-9°C for 12-28 weeks. Similarly, sweet potatoes can be stored at 10°C for 16-
24 weeks. The storage life of produce is highly variable and related to the respiration rate; there
is an inverse relation between respiration rate and storage life in that produce with low
respiration generally keeps longer.
For example, the respiration rate of a very perishable fruit like ripe banana is 200 mL CO2.kg-1h-
1
at 15°C, compared to a non-perishable fruit such as apple, which has a respiration rate of 25
mL CO2.kg-1 h-1 at 15°C.
7.9.High temperatures
Exposure of fruits and vegetables to high temperatures during post-harvest reduces their
storage or marketable life. This is because as living material, their metabolic rate is normally
higher with higher temperatures. High temperature treatments are beneficial in curing root
crops, drying bulb crops, and controlling diseases and pests in some fruits. Many fruits are
exposed to high temperatures in combination with ethylene (or another suitable gas) to initiate
or improve ripening or skin colour.
8.Storage
The marketable life of most fresh vegetables can be extended by prompt storage in an
environment that maintains product quality. The desired environment can be obtained in
facilities where temperature, air circulation, relative humidity, and sometimes atmosphere
composition can be controlled. Storage rooms can be grouped accordingly as those requiring
refrigeration and those that do not. Storage rooms and methods not requiring refrigeration
include: in situ, sand, coir, pits, clamps, windbreaks, cellars, barns, evaporative cooling, and
night ventilation:
8.1 In situ. This method of storing fruits and vegetables involves delaying the harvest until the
crop is required. It can be used in some cases with root crops, such as cassava, but means that
the land on which the crop was grown will remain occupied and a new crop cannot be planted.
In colder climates, the crop may be exposed to freezing and chilling injury.
8.2 Sand or coir: This storage technique is used in countries like India to store potatoes for
longer periods of time, which involves covering the commodity under ground with sand.
8.3 Pits or trenches are dug at the edges of the field where the crop has been grown. Usually
pits are placed at the highest point in the field, especially in regions of high rainfall. The pit or
trench is lined with straw or other organic material and filled with the crop being stored, then
covered with a layer of organic material followed by a layer of soil. Holes are created with straw
at the top to allow for air ventilation, as lack of ventilation may cause problems with rotting of the
crop.
8.4 Clamps. This has been a traditional method for storing potatoes in some parts of the world,
such as Great Britain. A common design uses an area of land at the side of the field. The width
of the clamp is about 1 to 2.5 m. The dimensions are marked out and the potatoes piled on the
ground in an elongated conical heap. Sometimes straw is laid on the soil before the potatoes.
The central height of the heap depends on its angle of repose, which is about one third the
width of the clump. At the top, straw is bent over the ridge so that rain will tend to run off the
structure. Straw thickness should be from 15-25 cm when compressed. After two weeks, the
clamp is covered with soil to a depth of 15-20 cm, but this may vary depending on the climate.
8.5 Windbreaks are constructed by driving wooden stakes into the ground in two parallel rows
about 1 m apart. A wooden platform is built between the stakes about 30 cm from the ground,
often made from wooden boxes. Chicken wire is affixed between the stakes and across both
ends of the windbreak. This method is used in Britain to store onions (Thompson, 1996).
8.6 Cellars. These underground or partly underground rooms are often beneath a house. This
location has good insulation, providing cooling in warm ambient conditions and protection from
excessively low temperatures in cold climates. Cellars have traditionally been used at domestic
scale in Britain to store apples, cabbages, onions, and potatoes during winter.
8.7 Barns. A barn is a farm building for sheltering, processing, and storing agricultural products,
animals, and implements. Although there is no precise scale or measure for the type or size of
the building, the term barn is usually reserved for the largest or most important structure on any
particular farm. Smaller or minor agricultural buildings are often labelled sheds or outbuildings
and are normally used to house smaller implements or activities.
8.8 Evaporative cooling. When water evaporates from the liquid phase into the vapour phase
energy is required. This principle can be used to cool stores by first passing the air introduced
into the storage room through a pad of water. The degree of cooling depends on the original
humidity of the air and the efficiency of the evaporating surface. If the ambient air has low
humidity and is humidified to around 100% RH, then a large reduction in temperature will be
achieved. This can provide cool moist conditions during storage.
8.9 Night ventilation. In hot climates, the variation between day and night temperatures can be
used to keep stores cool. The storage room should be well insulated when the crop is placed
inside. A fan is built into the store room, which is switched on when the outside temperature at
night becomes lower than the temperature within. The fan switches off when the temperatures
equalize. The fan is controlled by a differential thermostat, which constantly compares the
outside air temperature with the internal storage temperature. This method is used to store bulk
onions.
8.10 Controlled atmospheres are made of gastight chambers with insulated walls, ceiling, and
floor. They are increasingly common for fruit storage at larger scale. Depending on the species
and variety, various blends of O2, CO2, and N2 are required. Low content O2 atmospheres (0.8
to 1.5%), called ULO (Ultra -Low Oxygen) atmospheres, are used for fruits with long storage
lives (e.g., apples).

MACHINERY, TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT FOR POST HARVEST

1. Harvesting and trimming tools – used in harvesting and trimming activities

Pruning shears
2. Washing and sorting equipment – used in cleaning and classifying produce

(tomato)

3. Harvesting containers and tools – used in handling harvested fruits

4. Harvesting carts – used for transporting and field packing

5. Weighing scale – used in determining the weight of harvested produce

6. Packing materials – used in handling produce, to protect it from damage/injury.

7. Post-harvest equipment for Rice

Threshing Machine Milling/Polishing Machine Rice Grain Drying Machi

8. Post-harvest Equipment for Corn

 Corn shelling Machine Automatic Shelling Machine Corn Shelling/stripping

Grading of Fruits and Vegetables

Grading of fruits and vegetables after harvesting is an essential step in post-harvest
management. Grading of fruits and vegetables on the basis of physical characteristics like
weight, size, colour, shape, specific gravity, and freedom from diseases depending upon
agrocliamatic conditions. The known methods of grading of fruits and vegetables are manual
grading , size grading.

Grading of fruits and vegetables in the fresh form for quality is essential, as the people are
becoming quality conscious day by day. Further, upon arrival of fruits and vegetables at the
processing centres, they should be graded strictly for quality. The immature properly mature and
over mature fruits and vegetable should be sorted out for the best attributes.

Definition of Grading:

Grading is sorting of vegetables and fruits into different grades according to the size, shape,
colour, and volume to fetch high price in market.

For International market three general grades are considered as:

1. Extra class 2. Class 1st 3. Class 2nd.

1. Extra Class:

The extra class is of superior quality posses the shapes and colour of the variety and without
internal defect likely to affect the inherent texture and flavour. A 5% tolerance is allowed for
errors. It must be carefully presented taking into accounts the uniformity of the produces in size
colour, condition arrangement of the produce in the package quality and appearances of the
packing or pre-packing material.

2. Class I:
Almost having a same quality is like the Extra Class except that a 10% tolerance is allowed.
Individual fruit is allowed a slight defect in shape, colour and miner skin defect which do not
affect the general appearance for keeping qualities. In packing the size range may be wider and
product need not always be arranged in the package.

3. Class II:

This class product may exhibit some external or internal defects provided they are fit for
consumption while fresh. This class is best fitted for local or short distance market. This
category will satisfy the needs of customers who are not too demanding and for whom price is
more important than quality.

Advantages of Grading:

1. Losses the selling price due to presence of substandard products or specimen can be easily
avoided.
2. It increased marketing efficiency by facilitating buying and selling a produce without personal
selection.
3. Grading enhanced to set good price for graded products.
4. Heavy marketing cost in packing and transportation can be avoided by grading.
5. In grading diseased and defected specimen are not damaged due to contact of diseased
specimens and thus gets high price in market.
6. By grading there is fairness to both Buyers and Sellers.
7. Properly graded vegetables and fruits are purchased by the consumer easily without
inspection.

Grading of Fruits:

Generally, the fruits are graded on the basis of size, weight , sp. gravity, colour, variety, etc.
Size grading is predominantly followed in almost all types of fruits on the basis of size. The fruits
are graded as a small, medium, large and extra large. On the basis of maturity, the fruits are
graded as immature , properly mature and over mature. Grading on the basis of maturity
decides both quality and shelf life. The Alphonsoad and Pairi mango fruits are graded on the
basis of weight as less than 200 g , 200-249 g, 250-299 g, 300-349 g and more than 350 g. out
of these grades the weight grade 250-299 g account for about 30% of the fruits. The mango
fruits are also graded on the basis of Sp. gravity ( 3 grades on the basis of sp. Gravity as less
than 1.0 sp.gr, 1.0-1.02 and more than 1.02. The sp.gr Grade 1.0-1.02 accounts for about 50%
of the Alphonso and Pairi mango fruits.

Grading of Vegetables:

The fruit vegetables such as bitter gourd, okra, bell pepper, brinjal, green chill, etc. also graded
on the basis of size into three grades as small medium and large. The vegetables like tomato
are graded on the basis of colour.

Planting Plan
Objectives: At the end of this session the trainees must be able to understand the
importance of planting plan

PLANTING PLAN – is of great importance, forming the heart of every area space. Just
as the concept plans show the structured design to the area, the planting plan shows
details of the planting, a full planting plan would include quantities, species and sizes of
plants and on going maintenance program if required.

Before you start to workout a planting plan on paper, you need to decide what kind of
look you would like the planting in your area to have.

You need also to decide how you want the area to look in each season of the year. You
may find it useful to make a list of the factors that will affect the choice of plants in
different areas, and keep it as a handy reference.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN MAKING A PLANTING PLAN:

a. Climate
 Exposed or sheltered
 Direction of prevailing wind
 Average amount of rainfall
 Rain shadows
 Microclimates that exist or that could be created
b. Type of Soil
 Wet
 Dry
 Heavy
 Light
 Acid
 Alkaline

Types, Uses and Selection of Tools and Equipment for Site Cultivation

This is a long handles tool with 3 angled

prongs used to break down large clods of
Cultivator earth when preparing
garden beds If you have
a large plot it may be worth investing in a
mechanical cultivator.
 This is a long handled tool used for
weeding using a chopping action and for
Draw Hoe drawing up soil around plants “earthing up”.
You can get also double hoes which
incorporate a draw hoe and cultivator in
one.
Also called a “push” hoe
this long handled tool has a flat blade and is
Shovel used with a to and fro action for weeding,
slicing off weeds at ground level. In order
to
work efficiently, it needs
to be kept sharpened.
A long handles tool used create a fine tilth
for a seed bed, to level it out and to gather
Rake up surface stones. Do not confuse with a
spring tine rake which has little use when
growing crops

Mouldboard ploughs are used on

Mouldboard cleaned-tilled cropland with high
Plough amount of residue. Some model
have reset mechanisms which
allow each bottom to rise oven an
obstructio

Small rotavator are common use

Small Rotavator in backyard farming for preparing
a land.
 Hand tractor may use in lowland
Hand Tractor areas to cultivate soil.

Tractor machine are commonly

use in large scale areas to
Tractor prepare and cultivate a land by
the attachments of different
implements parts

An animal drawn implement with

Carabao Drawn a blade used to in cut, lift and
Plow turn over soil.
(mouldboard
plow)

Spike tooth harrow use as

Spike Tooth secondary tillage to remove
Harrow weeds

A cultivating implement set with

Comb Tooth spikes spring teeth or disks and
Harrow used
Primarily for pulverizing the soil
 A harrow is a cultivating or tillage
tool used in agriculture consisting
of a wooden or metal frame with
Rotavator spike-like or spring action teeth,
discs or sharp projecting teeth
called tines used to pulverize and
smooth surface soils. Harrowing
typically occurs after a field is
plowed to break large lumps or
clods of soil, provide a finer finish
or good tilth, ideal for the
reception of seeding.

An agricultural implement with

sharp blades, attached to an
animal, tractor, etc., for cutting or
Disk Plow turning over the earth.

AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY FOR SITE CULTIVATION:

Agricultural Machinery- is machinery used in the operation of an agricultural

area.

Field Equipment
Having the right equipment will help you to keep your fields up together with
eases.

1. Tractor – do the majority of work on a modern farm. They are used to pull
implements –machines that till the ground, plant seed, and perform other tasks. It
is a vehicle specifically designed to deliver a high tractive effort or (torque) at slow
speeds, for the purpose of hauling a trailer on machinery used in agriculture or
construction. Most, commonly the term is used to describe the distinctive farm
vehicle; agricultural implements may be towed behind or mounted on the tractor,
and the tractor may also provide a source of power if the implement is
mechanized. Another common use of term, “tractor unit”, describes the power unit
of a semi-trailer truck. The word tractor was taken from Latin, being the agent
noun of trahere “to pull”.

Speed:

 Anything from one to twenty five miles per hour.

Safety:

 All tractors are now fitted with roll over protection structure and seatbelt, to
help prevent injury and death from occurring if the tractor overturns.

Types:

Modern Tractor – can be either two wheel

drive or four wheel drive and can use their
engines to lower equipment that is being
towed.

Engineering Tractor – are fitted with

engineering equipment such as loaders and
buckets.
Compact Utility Tractors – are a smaller
version of the large agricultural tractors
and used for small scale farming / gardener.

Garden Tractors – are even smaller than the

compact utility tractors and have even less
power.

Uses:

 Towing farm machinery such as the broadcast seeder, harrow, trailer and
roller.
2. Harrow – a harrow is a piece of agricultural equipment used for cultivating the top
surface of the soil. Harrows were originally pulled by animals but now are more
commonly used behind a tractor.
Types:

Disc harrow –are used after the field has been

ploughed to help level out and break up the
uneven soil surface.
 Chain harrow – are used for leveling off the top
Soil in preparation to and somes after seeding.
1.

Spiked harrow – is used for deeper aeration of

the soil and to level the surface.

Uses:

 Used to break up and level off the surface of the top soil which is
particularly useful for fields that has particularly churned up by the animal.
 To prepare the soil structure ready for re-seeding.
 To pull up dead grasses and weeds.
 To aerate the soil and help to stimulate new grass growth to take place.
 Spread droppings around the field, helping to reduce the worm count.
 To spread fertilizer around the field.

Roller – a roller is a piece of agricultural equipment

that is used to compress the soil and level off any
uneven surfaces or lumps of earth from around the
field.
Types:

1. Smooth surface roller – is used for flattening the soil. Smooth surface
rollers can leave a raised bank when turning around a corner.
2. Textural roller- has ridge along its surface and will more easily break up any
large clumps of soil as well as flatten the ground.
3. One piece roller – is simply one complete unit that is pulled behind a tow
bar.
4. Segmented roller – has several mini rollers working independently from
each other allowing the roller to turn corners with greater ease and without
causing a raised bank to occur when turning.

Uses:

 Smooth out the top surface of the soil.

 By rolling the field directly after re-seeding will help to compress the soil
and therefore in-bed the seed into the ground and help prevent the seeds
from being lost.
 Breaking-up any clumps of soil left after harrowing.

Broadcast Seeder –(broadcast spreader) is a

piece of agricultural equipment that assists in
evenly distributing seed and fertilizer around
the field.
 Types:
There are 3 main types of broadcast seeder, which vary in size from small,
medium and large and also vary in the way they can distribute the seed.

1. Smallest seeder – it can be push by hand and is useful for doing one or
two small fields, they are either operated by hand or have a small motor.
2. The next size up can be pulled by small all terrain vehicles. The seeder
after has spinning discs which throw the seed out of the hopper and away
from the machine.
3. The largest seeder is pulled by a tractor and has a pendulum spreading
mechanism, which throws the seed or fertilizer out of the chopper over
much greater use.
Uses:

 For efficient spreading of seed around the field.

 For efficient spreading of fertilizer around the field.
3. Tools- are essential for day to day repair and management.
 Hammer and nails are very useful tools for repairing any wooden post and
rail fences.
 Skip and fork, for manual tidying up of droppings around the field wheel
borrow can be used for manual collection of droppings and weeds.


Paddock Vacuum- is used to pick-up

Animal droppings, from around the field.
The vacuum is pulled behind a tractor or
small vehicle for large vacuums or pulled
by hand for small units. The paddock
vacuum works by having a suction tube
with picks up the droppings from
around the field.

Rotary tiller is a motorized cultivator with

tines or blades that rotate through the soil
pulverizing it and breaking up clumps into a
finer texture. It can be walk-behind, where
you literally walk behind it as it pushes
through the soil, or ride on –such as those
found on the attachment to a lawn or
 compact tractor.

MACHINE/ANIMAL PLOW CULTIVATION ADDRESSES ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES:

 Plow cultivation provide aeration which promotes gas exchange needed by
plant roots and soil microorganisms.

MAINTAINING VEHICLES/EQUIPMENTS
 Vehicles/equipments can be maintained by following the manufacturer’s guide.
 By regular servicing.
 By regular replacement of worn parts.

CLEARING TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT:

The use of a machete or slashing bolo

knife is a popular tool to control
cover crops in the field.

Knife roller is a popular tool on small to

medium farms.
A mechanical hand mower to
control the vegetation

The knapsack sprayer is probably

the most common sprayer.

Weed wiper

Bolo for cutting standing

crops /plants in the field

Grasshook for cuttinggrasses

 STAGES OF LAND PREPARATION FOR FARMING

Land prepation is a key aspect of farming. As it promotes the rapid emergence of crop seedling
and provides ventilation, water and nutrients for crop growth. Preparation stages vary according
to the soil type and crops being planted. Improper land preparation can result in soil erosion,
crusting weed overgrowth or water-logging.

PREPARARING FARMLAND
 Preparing farmland before planting places seeds in closer contact with soil moisture,
allowing for more effective germination germination. Tillage overturns soil to prevent
crusting and allows air and water to penetrate . it also removes weeds. Which complete
with crops for light and nutrients. Irrigation provides soil with water crop growth.
Fertilizers and pesticides are added to soil to provide essential crop nutrients and limit
crop damage by pest infestation.

TILLAGE
 Tillage involves overturning of topsoil. Depending on he scale of farming, farmers till
using simple tools, such as a hoe or shovel, or complex equipment such as tractors.
Tillage is divided into three categories: conventional, reduced and conservation tillage.
 Conventional tillage is uncommon as it contributes extensively to soil erosion.
 Reduce tillage leaves between 15 to 30% crop residues on the soil.
 Conservation tillage leaves more than 30% residue, and sometimes includes no tillage at
all.

IRRIGATION
 Irrigtion system are designed according to water availability,quantity, quality and the
distance between the water source and farmland. A system consist of a pumping station
and conveyance, distribution, field application and drainage systems. The pumping
station channels water from a source such as river into the irrigation system. The
conveyance and distribution systems ensure water reaches from the pumping station to
the farmland. The field application system transports water throughout the farmland, and
the drainage system eliminates excess water.

FERTILIZERS
 Fertilizers are either organic, such as manure and crop residue, or chemical. Fertilizing
soil provides important nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, calcium,
magnesium and sulphur. Regardless of the type, fertilizers add ammonium to soil, which
 increases its acidity. Lime is added to soil to combat this effect, a reaction which
produces water and carbon dioxide.

NUTRIENT ANALYSIS (N-P-K)

Complete- 14-14-14

UREA- 46-0-0

Amosul- 21-0-0

Amophos- 16-20-0

Muriate of Potash – 0-0-60

Cleaning and Maintenance of Tools and Equipment

Objectives: At the end of this session a trainees must be able to know and keep on
cleaning and maintaining of tools and equipment after use.

Once the chores have been completed, some Attention Should be given properly
preparing your tools for storage. By properly cleaning them and making necessary
repairs before you put them away, they will be ready to use when you need them by the
next activity.

Any soil that clings to the metal surface of your tools should be removed. You will be
probably find it easier to wash off the larger tools, Either a file or carborundum wheel
may be used to sharpen smaller sized implements, including towels and hand rakes.

After you have finished cleaning your tools and have sharpen the cutting edges, wiped
the metal parts with an only rags to help protects the surfaces from dust and rust. Thin,
penetrating oil is best for this job. Then use a little heavier oil to on the surface of the
tools/equipment.

It is good idea to check the handle of your tools before you put them away. Rough spot
can be sanded out, to avoid silvers. Weak or broken handles should be replaced. Your
local hardware or garden supply store usually stocks a supply of the types of handles.
They can usually special – order the type you need,
if they do not have them in stock. Finally, paint all handles with a good grade of raw
linseed oil.
By painting a band or the bright – colored identification mark on all tool handles, you will
make them more readily visible when they are misplaced in the nursery. Should one of
your neighbors borrow a tool, you will have no trouble identifying it, when it returned.

Check all nuts, bolts and screw to be sure they are tight and in top working order.
Replace worn or rusty ones. If you have machine, check all the spare parts. Properly
clean and adjust it or replace with a new one. As a final step, oil any moving parts and
completely wipe off the machine with an oily rag.

Maintenance of Farm Machinery

During the repair of any machinery, appropriate protective clothing should be
worn. This includes helmets, goggles, gloves, hearing protection and safety shoes. Do
not wear baggy clothing. Loose fitting clothing easily becomes caught in rotating
machinery parts. All machinery should be maintained regularly. Any worn or broken
parts should be replaced immediately, not fixed in a temporary manner. When repairs
are done, the machine should be fixed according to manufacturers specifications.

When repairs are made, any guard removed during repair must be replaced before the
equipment is used.

Tire inflation needs to be checked periodically to prevent flats and blowouts.

Whenever preparing to work on a parts of equipment, wheels need to be blocked in

order to prevent movement any jacks use should be stable and in good conditions.

Brakes, hitches, safety chains, springs, and shackles, should be inspected regularly for
wear, broken or missing parts and cracks in the welds.

Hydraulic lines should be inspected for wear and cracks. Any indication of damage to
hydraulic lines should be immediate grounds for replacement of the line. Caution should
be taken when working on hydraulic systems. Makes sure all pressure in the system is
relieved and that the fluid is cool before loosening any fittings or removing lines. Wear
leather or rubber gloves.

Give special attention to the lawn mower. If it needs sharpening or repair, don’t wait until
the next use. If you have everything done when the mower is not in use, there is plenty
of time to be sure of a good, unhurried job.

LEAF CUTTINGS:
A number of plants will readily produce new plants from leaf cuttings. Although there is no
dependable way to distinguish these plants from others, most plants that root successfully
from leaf cuttings have thick, fleshy leaves which often grow in rosettes. These include
many of the common houseplants such as gloxinia, African violet, begonia, and peperomia.
(Refer to Figure 1.)
Procedure-
the best time to start leaf cuttings is when the plants are in a strong growth phase, usually
from early summer to early fall;
select a pot or flat of the appropriate size for the number of leaf cuttings that you will be
rooting;

prepare the rooting medium (either a soil-less potting mix or peat moss and coarse sand);
this should be moist but not wet; fill the pots with the medium;
select and cut healthy leaves with petioles from the source plant using a sharp, clean knife;
trim the base of the petiole but leave enough to insert into the rooting medium without the
leaf touching the surface;
dip or lightly dust the cut surface with rooting hormone (this is optional, depending on the
plant); in order to avoid contaminating the hormone, put a small quantity in a cup rather than
sticking the cutting into the original container;
make a few planting holes in the rooting medium with a small, clean stick;
gently insert each leaf cutting into a hole so that the leaf is just above the rooting medium;
carefully firm the medium around each cutting with your fingers but avoid injury to the
petioles;
place a wire frame over the pot or flat; put the container into a clear plastic bag making
certain that the frame is supporting the plastic bag so the plant material is not touching the
bag; this creates a “mini-moist chamber” to keep moisture around the leaves as they root;
place the chamber in a warm location out of direct sunlight! a propagation mat as a
source of bottom-heat is helpful but not necessary;
occasionally inspect the pot for condensation and add water as necessary to keep the
potting medium moist but not wet;
after 3-5 weeks (depending upon the plant being propagated), roots should have started to
form;
when plants have developed a sufficient root system, gradually “harden-off” the

Basic Techniques for Propagating Plants S. M. Douglas The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station
(www.ct.gov/caes) 2
new plants by opening the bag and increasing light levels;
• place the newly rooted plants into individual pots using care to avoid injury to the new
roots.

Figure 1. Steps in taking leaf cuttings.

STEM CUTTINGS:
This technique is probably the most versatile of all methods used for vegetative
propagation. It can be used for both herbaceous and woody material. Herbaceous stem
cuttings can be made from houseplants, annual flowers and bedding plants, ground
covers, and some perennials. Stem cuttings from woody ornamentals can be taken at
different stages of development and are categorized as softwood, semi-hardwood, and
hardwood cuttings. Softwood stem cuttings are taken in late spring or early summer and
consist of tender shoots of current season growth. Semi-hardwood stem cuttings are
taken from mid- to late-summer and consist of current season growth that is firm and has
begun to form woody tissues. Hardwood stem cuttings are taken in late fall or winter and
consist of woody stems that have just completed their first season of growth. For deciduous
plants, these are taken after the plants have dropped their leaves.
 Figure 2. Steps in propagating by stem cuttings.

Herbaceous and Softwood Stem Cuttings

These types of cuttings are appropriate for many popular houseplants such as
philodendron, Christmas and Thanksgiving cactus, jade, and coleus, many annual or
bedding plants such as impatiens and geranium, popular ground covers such as
pachysandra and English ivy, and woody ornamentals such as magnolia and maple.
Procedure-
these cuttings can be taken at the time appropriate for the particular plant to be propagated
(e.g., for houseplants or bedding plants this is when new shoots appear in spring; for woody
plants it is when the new shoots have expanded and are still tender in late spring or
summer);
select a pot or flat of the appropriate size for the number of cuttings that you will be rooting;
prepare the rooting medium (either a soil-less potting mix or peat moss and coarse sand);
this should be moist but not wet; fill the pots with the medium;
select and cut terminal shoots (preferably not in flower) from the source plant using a sharp,
clean knife or pruning shear; the length of the cutting is determined by the source plant
(cuttings usually vary from 2-8 inches in length);
remove the leaves near the cut end making certain that some leaves (3-8) remain on the
cutting; if the cutting is in flower, carefully pinch off the flowers and flower buds;
• use a clean, razor blade or scalpel to remove a thin slice of tissue about ½ - 1 inch long on
two opposite sides of the cut end or base of the cutting; this provides a surface for root
development;
• lightly dust the cut sides of the cutting with rooting hormone, as necessary; in order to
avoid contaminating the hormone, put a small quantity in a cup rather than sticking the
cutting into the original container;
• stick the cuttings into the pots or flats of prepared rooting medium about one-third to one-
half of the total length of the cutting; carefully firm the medium around each cutting with your
fingers but avoid injury to the stem;
• place a wire frame over the pot or flat; put the container into a clear plastic bag making
certain that the plastic bag is supported by the frame so the plant material is not touching
the bag; this creates a “mini-moist chamber” to keep moisture around the leaves as the
cuttings root;
• place the chamber in a warm location out of direct sunlight! a propagation mat as a
source of bottom heat is helpful but not necessary;
• occasionally inspect the pot for condensation and add water as necessary to keep the
potting medium moist but not wet;
• after 5-8 weeks (depending upon the plant being propagated), roots should have started to
form;
• when the cuttings have developed a sufficient root system, gradually “harden-off” the new
plants by opening
the bag and exposing the cuttings to increasing light levels;
• place the newly rooted plants into individual pots using care to avoid injury to the new
roots;
• new cuttings will require extra care during the establishment phase.

Semi-hardwood Cuttings
Follow the same techniques for herbaceous or softwood cuttings but select cuttings at the
appropriate stage of growth (e.g., mid- to late-summer). These types of cuttings are
appropriate for woody ornamentals such as azalea, rhododendron, butterfly bush, rose, and
euonymus.
Hardwood Cuttings
Follow the same techniques for herbaceous or softwood cuttings but select cuttings at the
appropriate stage of growth (e.g., late fall or winter). These types of cuttings are appropriate
for woody plants such as blueberry, juniper, arborvitae, holly, and yew.
SIMPLE LAYERING:
This technique can be used for some houseplants as well as a number of woody plants.
Simple layering is particularly useful for plants that are difficult to root from stem cuttings
or leaves. Unlike stem cuttings which are taken from the source before rooting has
occurred, this technique allows roots to develop on a stem while it is still attached to the
source or “mother” plant. The basic assumption is that roots will develop when a position
on the stem is forced into close contact with a rooting medium. (Refer to Figure 3.)
 Figure 3. Steps in simple layering.

Houseplants
This technique works best on plants that have a naturally trailing growth habit such as ivies
and philodendrons.
Procedure-
the best time to start these is when the plants are in a strong growth phase, usually from
early summer to early fall;
select a pot of the appropriate size for the stem that you will be rooting;
prepare the rooting medium (a soil-less potting mix is preferred); this should be moist but
not wet; fill the pots with the medium;
select a stem (or stems since more than one plant can be layered from a mother plant at a
time) long enough for layering; remove any leaves from the area of the stem where roots
will develop; this is usually several inches from the growing tip of the stem;
carefully pin the section of the stem for rooting down into the pot with rooting medium with a
U-shaped piece of wire (old-fashioned hair pins work well); sometimes a slight nick in the
stem with a razor blade or scalpel will help; (another option is a light touch from a paint
brush with rooting hormone);
make certain that the stem is slightly buried in the mix;
water as necessary;

new growth at the tip is usually an indication that rooting has occurred;
carefully cut the young plant free of the mother plant with a clean, sharp knife;
repot the plant as necessary; new cuttings will require extra care as they become
established.
Shrubs and Woody Plants
This technique works best on plants that have a naturally trailing growth habit such as
rambling or climbing rose, raspberry, wisteria, and clematis but can also be used for low-
growing shoots of upright shrubs such as lilac and butterflybush. Deciduous plants are best
layered in fall or winter whereas evergreens are best layered in fall or spring.
Procedure-
select a healthy, flexible, vigorous shoot that has grown in the current year;
gradually and carefully bend it down until a point of the shoot about 9-12 inches from the
growing tip reaches the ground;
dig a hole about 3-4 inches deep at the point where the shoot touches the ground; partly
refill the hole;
strip the leaves (if present) from the part of the branch that will be rooted;
cut a shallow slit in the underside of the branch with a clean, sharp knife, razor blade or
scalpel and gently give the branch a slight twist; (optional: you can dust the cut surface with
a rooting hormone using a paint brush)
place the prepared stem section into the hole and carefully bend the tip of the shoot
upward;
secure the stem into the hole with a U-shaped wire around 6-8 inches long (this process is
called “pegging”); bend the tip of the shoot upright and support it with a sturdy stake; fill the
hole with the remaining soil and cover the pegged area of the stem;
• thoroughly water the area and water as necessary during the rooting process;
• plants usually root within 12 months; you can check for rooting by gently pulling the soil
away from the plant;
• once roots are visible and well-developed, sever the new plant from the parent plant using
a clean, sharp knife or pruning shear; leave the newly rooted plant in the site for a 2-3 week
period of adjustment;
• dig and gently lift out the rootball and replant;
• newly rooted plants will require extra care during the establishment phase.

AIR LAYERING:
This technique is used for plants that are difficult to root and it is especially helpful for
houseplants that have become tall and “leggy” such as an aging rubber plant, codiaeum or
dracaena. Air layering can also be used to propagate woody plants with stiff, upright limbs
that can’t be propagated by simple layering such as some types of holly. As the name
suggests, the objective is to stimulate root growth at some point on a stem without lowering
the stem to the surface of rooting medium or soil. Old houseplants are usually good
candidates for air layering whereas one year-old stems of woody ornamentals are best for
air layering. Older stems can be used but the rooting process is substantially slower. (Refer
to Figure 4.)
 Figure 4. Steps in air layering.

Procedure-
select the portion of the stem where you want the roots to develop;
if leaves are present in that area, carefully remove them;
use a clean sharp knife or scalpel to make a 1-1½ inch upward-slanting cut, starting below a
leaf node, if possible;
carefully prop the cut surface open (a wooden match works well) and dust the surface with
a paint brush containing a rooting hormone; remove the match so the cut will close;
wrap a piece of clear plastic wrap or a piece cut from a clear plastic bag around the stem
under the cut section;
secure the plastic around the stem with tape;
pack the cut portion of the stem with moist, but not wet, sphagnum moss; make certain to
press the moss to the base of the stem so no air pockets are left;
twist, seal, and secure the top of the plastic wrap tightly around the stem with tape;
if air layering a houseplant, place the plant in indirect sunlight;
if air layering a woody plant outdoors, routinely check the air layer packet for buildup of
water and insert drain holes if necessary; for houseplants, new white roots should be visible
through the plastic within 8-10 weeks; for woody ornamentals, rooting usually takes one full
year;
remove the plastic and cut the stem right below the newly developed roots with a clean,
sharp pruning shear or knife;
put the new houseplant into a new pot or transplant the woody shoot into a protected site for
several months;
newly rooted plants will require extra care during the establishment phase.
 INFORMATION SHEET 1.2-2

Tools and equipment for propagation activities

BUDDING KNIFE
Features
The budding knife is an important hand tool of a gardener, which consists of a folding blade
and a handle. The blade has two edges. One of the edges is sharpened all along its length;
---where as the blunt or the other edge is sharpened
on the tip and is slightly curved. This sharpened
curved portion is used to create a 'T' opening or
slot on the bark of the mother branch or twig for
the insertion of the bud. The edge sharpened all
along its length is used for cutting of scion stick or defoliation of leaves from the scion and
slashing of bud from the stick: Some budding knives have a short and round plastic blade at
the end of handle called budder, which is used for raising of the bark of the slot for insertion
of the bud. The blade when not in use is folded into the handle. The blade is made from high
carbon steel, tool steel or alloy steel and hardened to 460-510 HB. The outer part of the
hqaunadlitley wiso omda adned tfhroem in ttehren ahlf oitrtnin, gpsl afrsotimc borra sfisno er
aluminium alloy and a spring steel strip is
provided to lock the blade in operating position. /~~:r:\ ...
For operation the sharp edge of the blade is held
against the scion stick and force is applied at an angle, which causes cutting of the stick

Uses
The budding knife is used for the budding operation, cutting of scion stick, defoliation of
leaves and removing or cutting of unwanted thin twigs of the plants

GRAFTING KNIFE
The ~rafting knife is another imoortant plant propagation hand tool, which resembles a
household knife. The principal parts of the knife
are blade and the handle. The cutting edge of the
blade is sharpened all along its length and the other
edge is blunt. The blade of the knife can be folded
Into the nanule Wilen not in use. A nail mark is provided in the blade to pull the blade from
366 the handle.
Uses
For cutting and defoliation of scion stick, making of chisel point and 'V' grooves for grafting
and slashing of thin twigs and for general-purpose cutting.

PRUNING AND SLASHING KNIVES

Uses
For cutting and slashing of thin branches and twigs of plantation crops and orchards.

PRUNING SECATEURS

Uses
For cutting of the unwanted branches or twigs of the orchard tree, vines, scion sticks,
defoliation etc.
 Insect and Mite Identification & Management

Major Insect and Mite Pests of Vegetables

1. Tomato fruitworm
Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Noctuidae
Scientific name: Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner)
Other common names: corn earworm, tobacco budworm, cotton bollworm

Description
Early instar larvae are creamy to yellowish green with few markings; later instars are
either green, reddish or brown with pale stripes and scattered black spots; larvae burrow
into the fruit/flower of host plant; moths are medium-sized, pale tan to medium brown.

Adult (Source: agroatlas:ru) Larva on fruit

Damage
Larvae bore into fruits and flower buds resulting to reduction of marketable fruits.

Damaged fruit with larva Damaged fruits

transferring to the undamaged one
Management options of tomato fruitworm
HPR
Cultural: Sanitation, picking of affected fruits and proper disposal, crop rotation
Biological: Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)eg. Aztron
Mechanical: light trapping for adults
Botanical insecticides: Bionem, Back off, OHN, etc
Need-based use of synthetic insecticides: Prevathon, voliam Flexi,Fenos, Lannate,
Succes
2. Whitefly
Order: Homoptera
Family: Aleyrodidae
Scientific name: Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius)

Description
Adults minute with yellowish bodies and white wings; found on underside of leaves; fly
readily when plants are disturbed; eggs elongate, newly hatched crawlers are yellow,
nymphs and “pupae” are sedentary

Adults Colony on underside of leaf

(Source: jnkvv.nic.in)
Damage
Whiteflies are sap suckers; severe feeding may result to yellowing and dropping of
leaves, some plants may become stunted and unproductive; excreta (honeydew) favors
the growth of sooty mold on leaves which adversely affects photosynthesis; effect on
plant becomes more serious as vectors of plant viruses.
Management options of whitefly

Cultural: Sanitation, remove weeds, use of tolerant varieties and crop rotation
Biological: Naturally occurring predators, parasites and entomopathogens
Mechanical: Trapping (yellow-sticky traps), pressurized water sprays
Botanical extracts: (OHN, garlic, other indigenous plant extracts)
Need-based use of synthetic insecticides: Actara, Cartap,

3. Thrips
Order: Thysanoptera
Family: Thripidae
Scientific Name: Thrips tabaci (Lindeman)

Description:
Pale yellow to dark brown and has a rounded, narrow abdomen; larvae are yellow

Adults (Source: NC State University)

 Damage:
Plants are distorted and have a silvery appearance; an important vector of spotted wilt
viruses

Damage (Source: naturescontrol.com)

Management options of thrips

Cultural: Sanitation, thorough land preparation to kill the “pupa” and overhead or surface
irrigation
Biological: (Naturally occurring)
Mechanical: Trapping (blue-sticky traps), pressurized water sprays
Botanical extracts: (OHN, garlic, other indigenous plant extracts)
Need-based use of synthetic insecticides: Cartap,

4. Leafminer

Order: Diptera
Family: Gelechiidae
Scientific name: Liriomyza sp.

Description
Larvae are yellow maggots that feed inside leaf forming serpentine miners; full grown
larvae fall off and pupate in the soil or on the leaf surface; adults are tiny flies which are
black and yellow in color.

Larva Pupa Adult

Damage
Feeding of the maggots results to whitish mines or tunnels
between the lower and upper leaf epidermis; leaves which are
full of tunnels due to severe infestation become whitish which
are incapable of photosynthesis.

Damaged leaves
 Management Options
Cultural: sanitationand remove affected leaves and burn/bury
Botanical extracts: OHN, any available indigenous plant extracts
Mechanical: use of yellow sticky traps
Biological: Use of parasitic wasp of maggots
Chemical: Need-based use of synthetic insecticides: Pegasus

5. Common cutworm
Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Noctuidae
Scientific name: Spodoptera litura (Fabr.)

Description
Moths are gray to reddish – brown with complex pattern of creamy streaks and paler lines
along veins, hindwing grayish – white with grayish brown margins; larvae have bright yellow
stripes along back and sides, color varies from pale to dark green and finally brown with
thin yellow longitudinal lines dorsal and lateral, a row of dark triangles decorate each side of
middle, dorsal line.

Adults (Source: bulletin.ipm.illinois.edu) Larva

Damage
Larvae feed on leaves making holes which may look like skeleton at severe feeding, may
also feed on seedlings by cutting the stems, may feed also on fruits (also on tomatoes) by
making large holes.
 Larva on damaged leaf

Management Options of cutworm

Hand picking of the larvae preferably in the evening
Use of mulching to prevent pupation in the soil
Flooding the field
Elimination of weeds
Biological: parasitoids, Bt
Trap crop
Botanical extracts
Need-based use of synthetic insecticides: Lannate, Prevathon, Fenos

6. Eggplant fruit and shoot borer (EFSB)

Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Noctiudae
Scientific Name: Leuconoides orbonalis (Guene’e)

Description
Creamy-white eggs laid singly or in groups on underside of leaves, stems, flower buds or
base of fruits; larvae are dull white and turns pink as they mature, stay inside fruit or
shoot until full-grown but pupate in the soil; adults are white with a pink or bluish tinge
and brownish on its wings.

Larva Adult
Damage:
Infestation starts early flowering, wilting of shoots, tiny black holes in fruits; fruits
completely destroyed at high infestation

Damaged fruit Damaged shoot

Management options of fruit and shoot borer

Cultural: thorough land preparation to control pupae (sanitation), removal and collecting
affected plant parts and burn/bury/seal in plastic bags, use of resistant/tolerant
varieties(EG 056,AVRDC)
Mechanical: use of yellow sticky traps, light trapping, use of nylon net 2m ht. from
ground level (AVRDC), pheromone trap
Botanical extracts
Biological: Use of Trichogramma chilonis
Need-based use of insecticides: Volian Flexi, Success, Fenos
7. 12-/28-spotted beetle
Order: Coleoptera
Family: Coccinellidae
Scientific Name: Epilachna sp.

Description
Eggs laid in mass on underside of leaves, yellow in color; both larvae and adults feed on
leaves; adults orange-brown with numerous black spots; larvae are somewhat flat with
spines.

Larva Pupa Adult

Larva Adult

Damage:
Adults and larvae feed on leaves by scrapping upper leaf epidermis until leaves are
“skeletonized”, dry and later defoliated
 Damaged leaf

Management options of 12/28-spotted beetles

Cultural: Sanitation, collection (handpicking) of beetles early in the morning
Botanical extracts
Need-based use of synthetic insecticides: Lannate, Sevin, Prevathon

8. Flea beetle
Order: Coleoptera
Family: Chrysomelidae
Scientific name: Epitrex fuscula Crotch

Description:
Eggs ovate, white when freshly laid, turns yellowish gray; larva white with brown head
and three pairs of brown legs near head; pupa white, found in soil; adult small, about
2mm in size, elongated oval shaped, with enlarged black hind legs for jumping.

Adult
Damage
Flea beetles feed on leaves, leaving numerous small holes or pits. Larvae are root
feeders trimming root hairs and make circular pits in tap roots thus affecting growth of
plants.

Infested leaf

Management options of flea beetle

 Cultural: Removing alternate weed hosts, deep flowing of crop residues, sanitation, crop
rotation
Botanical extracts
Need-based use of insecticides either soil-applied at planting or as foliar spray: Actara

9. Squash beetle
Order: Coleoptera
Family:Chrysomelidae
Scientific Name: Aulacophora similis (Olivier)

Description:
Bright orange beetle, larvae stay in the soil where they pupate

Adults

Damage:
Feeds on the leaves by making circular holes and sometimes including flowers; severe
infestation may result to defoliation

Damaged leaf
Management options of squash beetle
Cultural and mechanical: thorough land preparation to control larvae and
pupae,sanitation, collection (handpicking) of beetles early in the morning or using nets
Botanical extracts
Need-based use of synthetic insecticides

10. Cucumber moth/ leaf-folder

Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Crambidae
Scientific Name: Diaphania indica (Saunders)
 Description
Moth has white translucent wings with broad dark brown borders; with tuft of brown to
yellow hairs on tip of abdomen which is bushier in female than in male; larvae are light
green with white line running dorsally along middle line of body.

Adult Larva
Damage:
Leaves are folded with larvae inside, larvae are voracious leaf feeders which results to
defoliation at high population, also feed on outside fruit surfaces

Damaged leaf Larva damaging the fruit

Management options of leaf folder

Cultural and Mechanical: use of resistant/tolerant varieties, collect larvae and folded
leaves with the larvae inside and destroy, light trapping
Botanical extracts
Biological: Naturally occurring parasitoids like Apanteles sp. or spray Bt
(Dipel/Agree/Thuricide)
Need-based use of synthetic insecticides
11. Aphids
Order: Homoptera
Family: Aphididae
Scientific Names:
a) Aphis craccivora Koch-Bean Aphid
b) Aphis gossypii Glover-Melon Aphid
c) Myzus persicaeS ulzer-Peach/Tobacco Aphid

Description:
Soft-bodied; winged or wingless; feed in colonies
 (a) (b) (c)

Damage:
Causes deformation/curling of leaves; excrete honeydew on which sooty mold grows;
common vector of viruses

Aphid colony on underside of leaf Damaged ampalaya shoots

showing alate forms

Management options of aphids

Cultural: sanitation, remove alternate hosts and remove affected leaves and bury, use of
tolerant varieties
Mechanical: Trapping (blue-sticky traps), pressurized water sprays
Botanical: Hot pepper-soap spray, neem, kakawate, ginger and garlic extracts
Biological: naturally occurring ladybird beetles, syrphid maggots
Need-based use of synthetic insecticides

12. Fruitfly
Order:Diptera
Family: Tephritidae
Scientific Name: Bactrocera cucurbitae (Coq.)

Description:
Fly with transparent wings having characteristics markings, eggs laid on female flowers
and fruits; maggots are legless, enter the growing fruits and feed inside
 Adult Maggots inside fruit

Damage:
Damaged fruits become deformed, later turn yellowish with rotten flesh and watery due
to the feeding activities of the maggots

Damaged fruits

Management options of fruit fly

Cultural: sanitation and refrain from planting vegetables near fruit tree areas, collecting
damaged fruits and sealing it in plastic bags
Mechanical: Use of attractants (trapper) e.g. pheromones (Methyl eugenol) and
wrapping of fruits
Botanical extracts (any available indigenous plant extract applied at closer intervals)
Need-based use of synthetic insecticides
13. Diamondback moth (DBM)
Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Plutellidae
Scientific Name: Plutella xylostella (L.)

Description:
Small insects – adult moth is brown, narrow body, larvae green and narrow, usually
gregarious

Larvae feeding on leaf Adult

Damage:
Larvae first feed by scrapping upper surface of leaves, then progressively making holes
which may result to “skeletonized” leaves at high population; most serious due to its
resistance to most insecticides

Heavily damaged cauliflower

Management options of diamondback moth

Cultural : companion planting (cabbage + tomato + garlic) and sanitation
 Biological: spray Bt (Dipel/ Thuricide/Aztron),larval/pupal
parasitoids(Diadegma,Diadromus)
Mechanical: light trapping for adults
Botanical: use neem tree leaf extract
Need-based use of synthetic insecticides

14. Cabbage moth or cabbage web worm

Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Steinernematidae
Scientific name: Croccidolomia binotalis

Description
Egg masses are light green in color; larvae are gregarious on the underside of the
leaves; male are usually slightly larger and longer than females; males in general,
display great delineation and can be recognized by a dark tuft of hairs on the anterior
margin of each forewing which the females lack.

Larvae Adult

Damage:
Larvae gregarious feed on leaves with preference on the growing point or bud, may form
thin webs and bore into the forming heads

Management options of cabbage moth

Cultural : companion planting (cabbage + tomato + garlic) and sanitation
Biological: spray Bt (Dipel / Thuricide/Aztron)
Botanical: use neem tree leaf extract
Mechanical :light trapping for adults
Need-based use of synthetic insecticides

15. Mites

Order: Acarina

a) Broad mite (Polyphagotarsonemus latus Bank)

b) Spider mite (Tetranychus sp.)
 Description
Broad mite- body translucent stays on underside of leaves, minute, sap-feeding
arachnid, adults with 4 pairs of legs.

Broad
mitesmites and
Spider mite- adults are reddish brown, minute, sap-feeding arachnid, stays on underside
damage
of leaves preferably along main leaf veins, forming fine silken webs.

Red spider mites and damage

Damage
Broad mite- leaf curling/cupping and deformation, reduction in size of leaves, shoots and
fruits and become brittle, may result to increased flower drop, bronzing and
deformation of fruits.

Spider mite- yellowish to yellow speckling of leaves, later results to defoliation and
premature flower/fruit drop.

Broad mite damage

Management Options
Cultural: Removal of affected leaves and burn/bury
Biological: Naturally occurring predators
Mechanical: Pressurized water sprays
Botanical: Hot pepper-soap spray, neem, kakawate, ginger and garlic extracts, vermitea
Chemical: Need-based use of synthetic insecticides with acaricidal properties: Agrimek,
Agriguard, Abamec, Dicarzol