Earth Science

 ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE

I.STRUCTURE,COMPOSITION AND AGE

 Hydrogen, helium, and lithium are the three most abundant elements.
 Stars-the building block of the galaxies born out of clouds of gas and dust in galaxies.
 It is made of 4.6% baryonic matter(“ordinary” matter consisting of protons, electrons,
and neutrons: atoms, planets, stars, galaxies, nebulae, and other bodies), 24% cold dark
matter(matter that has gravity but does not emit light), and 71.4% dark energy(a source of
antigravity)
 Dark matter can explain what may be holding galaxies together for the reason that the
low total mass is insufficient for gravity alone to do so while dark energy can explain the
observed accelerating expansion of the universe.

II.EXPANDING UNIVERSE

 In 1929, Edwin Hubble announced his significant discovery of the “REDSHIFT” and
interpretation that galaxies are moving away from each other, hence as evidence for an
expanding universe
 He observed that spectral lines of starlight made to pass through a prism are shifted
toward the red part of the electromagnetic spectrum, toward the band of lower frequency;
thus, the inference that the star or galaxy must be moving away from us.

III.HYPOTHESES/THEORIES

Non-scientific

 Ancient Egyptians believed in many gods and myths which narrate that the world arose
from an infinite sea at the first rising of the sun.
 The Kuba people of Central Africa tell the story of a creator God Mbombo(or
Bumba)who, alone in a dark and water-covered earth, felt an intense stomach pain and
then vomited the stars, sun, and moon.
 In India, there is the narrative the Gods sacrificed Purusha, the primal man whose head,
feet, eyes, and the mind became the sky, earth, sun, and moon respectively.
 The monotheistic religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam claim that a supreme being
created the universe, including man and other living organism.

Steady State Model

  Steady state model of the universe was proposed in 1948 by Bondi and Gould and Hoyle.
It maintains that new matter is created as the universe expands thereby maintaining its
density.

Big Bang Theory

 Big Bang Theory postulates that 13.8 billion years ago, the universe expanded from a
tiny, dense and hot mass to its present size and much cooler state.

IV. Evolution of the Universe according to the Big Bang Theory

 From time zero (13.8 billion years ago) until 10-43 second later, all matter and energy in
the universe existed as a hot, dense, tiny state. It then underwent extremely rapid,
exponential inflation until 10-32 second later after which and until 10 seconds from time
zero, conditions allowed the existence of only quarks, hadrons, and leptons.
 Then, Big Bang nuclei synthesis took place and produced protons, neutrons, atomic
nuclei, and then hydrogen, helium, and lithium until 20 minutes after time zero when
sufficient cooling did not allow further nucleosynthesis
 From then until 380,000 years, the cooling universe entered a matter-dominated period
when photons decoupled from matter and light could travel freely as still observed today
in the from of cosmic microwave background radiation.
 As the universe continued to cool down, matter collected into clouds giving rise to only
stars after 380,000 years and eventually galaxies would form after 100 million years from
time zero during which, through nucleosynthesis in stars, carbon and elements heavier
than carbon were produced.
 From 9.8 billion years until the present, the universe became dark-energy dominated and
underwent accelerating expansion. At about 9.8 billion years after the big bang, the solar
system was formed

 ORIGIN OF SOLAR SYSTEM

-The solar system is located in the Milky Way galaxy a huge disc- and spiral-shaped aggregation
of about 100 billion stars and other bodies;

-its spiral arms rotate around a globular cluster or bulge of many, many stars, at the center of
which lies a supermassive black hole;

-this galaxy is about 100 million light years across(1 light year=9.4607 x 1012 km)

-the solar system revolves around the galactic center once in about 240million years ago

-the milky way is part of the so-called local group of galaxies, which in turn is part of the Virgo,
super cluster of galaxies;

-based on the assumption that they are remnants of the materials from which they were formed,
radioactive dating of meteorites, suggests that the earth and solar system are 4.6 billion years old

-the periods of revolution of the planets increase with increasing distance from the Su; the
innermost planet moves fastest, the outermost, the slowest

-Inner terrestrial planets are made of materials with high melting points such as silicates, iron,
and nickel. They rotate slower, have thin or no atmosphere, higher densities, and lower contents
of volatiles- hydrogen, helium, and noble gases.

-the outer four planets- Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, And Neptune are called “gas giant/Jovian”
because of the dominance of gases and their larger size. They rotate faster , have thick
atmosphere, lower densities, and fluid interiors rich in hydrogen, helium, and ices(water,
ammonia, methane)

 Encounter hypothesis
 The sun encountered a rogue star
 Gas was removed from both stars due to gravitational interact
 Hot gas then formed into planets
 Protoplanet hypothesis
 5 billion years ago, a cloud of dust and gas rotated slowly in space
 Shrank smaller and smaller and rotated faster, gathering materials towards center,
heating it up hydrogen fusion new star 10% of materials form a disk around the
star creating protoplanets
 Radioactivity heats up the protoplanet melt parts of the protoplanet as it grow
into a planet

 Condensation theory
 Extension of the nebular theory that corporates interstellar dust as key ingredient
  Thin gas of hydrogen and helium scattered with dust particles that serve as the
building clocks of planets
 These grains act as condensation nuclei, collision of matter occurs
 These stick together and grow into moon-sized planets, making protoplanets
 H+He=seeds/grains, attracts more seeds to collide with them, making them larger
 Star is stable= new solar system
 Nebular theory
 Nebula- swirling cloud of dust and gas
 Nebula collapses- rotates- centrifugal force- disk- flatters- widens= A STAR IS
BORN
 Planets start to form from the gravity pulling chunks of rock, ice and gas together

 SPHERES OF THE EARTH

Atmosphere-a blanket of air that surrounds the earth, it reaches over 560 kilometers (348
miles) from the surface of the earth. It absorbs the energy from the Sun and also protects us
from the high- energy radiation and the frigid vacuum of space.

LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE

 Thermosphere- highest
 Mesosphere
 Stratosphere(contains ozone)
 Troposphere- layer were we live in

Biosphere- the term “biosphere” was coined by Russian scientist Vladimir Vernadsky in the
1929. The biosphere is the life zone of the Earth and includes all living organisms.

Biotic vs. Abiotic

 Bio=means life
 Biotic- living parts or components
 Abiotic- nonliving parts of components ( air, water, temperature)

Hydrosphere- includes all water on Earth- is a misnomer in that 71% of the earth is covered
by water and only 29% is terra firma. The range of surface temperatures and pressures of our
planet permit water to exist in all three states: solid(ice),liquid(water), and gas(water vapor)

Lithosphere- is the solid outermost shell of a rocky planet. On the Earth, the lithosphere
includes the crust and the uppermost layer of the mantle(the upper mantle or lower
lithosphere)which is joined to the crust. The lithosphere is broken up into different plates.
The thickness of lithosphere varies from 1.6km(1mi) at the mid-ocean ridges to
 approximately 130 km(80mi)beneath older continental crus. The thickness of the continental
lithosphere plates is probably around 150 kilometers(90mi)

Antrosphere- refers to the part of the environment that is made or modified by humans and
is used for human activity.

 MINERALS

-play an important role in forming rocks and shaping Earth’s surface.

Minerals and their uses:

Talc is use in powders and make-up

Gypsum is used in drywall or sheetrock

Fluorite is used in toothpaste

Quartz (found in sand) used in making glass

Topaz is a gemstone (rubies and sapphires)

Diamonds are used in cutting

Copper is used on electrical wiring

Halite is used to deice roads, and to seasoning or preserving foods

Calcite used in turns to help acid indigestions and in cement

Ore-is a mineral that is mined and the useful substances in it are removed and then sold for a
profit; natural occurrence of rock and sediments that contain sufficient mineral

Galena: an ore of lead

Graphite: ore of pencil “lead” and also a dry lubricant

Magnetite: iron ore

Pyrite: ore of iron is also known as “fools gold”

Sulfur is also an ore: match heads; fireworks, medicine, gun powder and fertilizer
Sulfur is used to vulcanize rubber

Minerals and their specials properties:

Calcite: has double refraction and fizzes with HCI

Halite: taste salty

Sulfur: has a rotten egg odor

Magnetite & Hematite: are magnetic

Calcite & Fluorite: fluorescence

Talc & Graphite: feels greasy

Metallic minerals like gold, silver &copper: are easily shaped

Kyranite is a silicate that is blue and is used in the production of ceramics, cookware and jewelry

The oldest and largest kyranite mines are located in VA

 MINING

-the extraction of rock and sediments or the geological materials from the Earth
How ores are found?

A. Geochemical Method

 It involves analyzing soil, rocks, water, vegetation and vapor, for trace amount of metals
or other elements that way indicate the presence of a buried ore deposit

B. Geophysical Method

 Use of fluorescence scanning and portable X-Ray

Types of Mining

 Surface Mining: scoop ore off the surface of Earth

o Cheap
o Safe for miners
o Large environment destruction
 Underground Mining: use of audits and shafts to reach deeply buried ores
o Expensive
o Hazardous for miners
o Usually less environmental damage

Surface Mining: two types

 Open pit mining

-funnel shape hole in ground
 Strip mining
-scoop up rock

A. Surface mining
A. Site preparation- removing the vegetation, top soil and rock(called overburden
materials)
B. Overburden drilling & blasting
C. Loading and hauling overburden
D. Drilling, hauling & blasting the deposit
E. Loading and hauling the ore
F. Reclaiming the affected land for post mining land use
B. Underground Mining
Miners blast and tunnels into the rock to gain access into the ore. It is approached
either from above sideways, or below depends on the placement of the ore body;
its depth it cone of ore and the strength of the surrounding rock.
How ore are processed

A. Loading the ore in the pit

B. Crushing
C. Grinding
D. Floatation
E. Dewatering and Impoundment
Smelting-removes the metal form ore mineral by heating
Heap Leaching- by reaction with a solution

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

 Flooding
 Erosion
 Subsidence
 Water and air pollution
 Damage to wildlife and habitat

IMPACTS PREVENTIVE MEASURE

 Topsoil replacement using uncontaminated soil

 Reintroducing of flora and fauna
 Neutralizing acidic water
 Backfiring and sealing of abandoned underground mines
 Stabilizing the slope to reduce erosion

LAWS

 RA 7942- The Philippine Mining Act

 EO 79- People’s Small Scale Mining Areas

ROLES OF GOVERNEMNT

 Mines and Geoscience Bureau(MGB)

 Environmental Management Bureau (EMB)
 NONRENEWABLE AND RENEWABLE RESOURCES

NONRENEWABLE RESOURCE

-is a natural resource that cannot be re-made or re-grown at a scale comparable to its
consumption.

 Nuclear Energy
-nuclear fission uses uranium to create energy.
-nuclear energy is a nonrenewable resource because once the uranium is used, it is gone
  COAL, PETROLEUM, AND GAS
-are considered nonrenewable because they cannot be replenished in a short period of
time. These are called fossil fuels

HOW IS COAL MADE

o Before the dinosaurs, many giant plants died in swamps

o Over millions of years, the plants were buried under water and dirt.
o Hot and pressure turned the dead plants into coal

HOW ARE OIL AND GAS MADE

o Tiny sea plants and animals died and were buried on the ocean floor. Over time, they
were covered by layers of silt and sand
o Over millions of years, the remains were buried deeper and deeper. The enormous heat
and pressure turned them into oil and gas.
o Today, we drill down through layers of sand, silt, and rock to reach the rock formation
that contain oil and gas deposits.

RENEWABLE RESOURCES

-are the natural resources that can be replenished in a short period of time

o Solar- energy from the sun

o Wind- energy from the wind
o Water- energy from the flow of water
o Geothermal- energy from the Earth’s heat
o Biomass- energy from burning organic or living matter

FOSSIL FUELS

 Are the energy rich substances formed from the remains of once-living organisms
 The three major fossil fuels are coal, oil, and natural gas
 Are made of hydrocarbons, they contain carbon and hydrogens
 A fuel is a substance that provides a form of energy
 Such as heat, light, electricity , or motion
 As a result of a chemical change
 COAL

-is a solid fossil duel from plant remains

-known deposits of coal (and other fossil fuels) can be obtained using current technology are
called reserves

-coal is the most plentiful fossil fuels in the US

 1. Its easy to transport
2. It provides lots of energy when burned

 OIL
 -is a thick, liquid fossil fuel, it is formed from remains of small animals, algae and
protists

-petroleum is another name for oil

-the United States consumes about one third of all the oil produced in the world

-only 3% of the world’s supply is located in this country

 Refining oil

-when oil is first pumped out of the ground, it is called crude oil

-a factory where crude oil is separated into fuels and other refinery

 NATURAL GAS

-the third major fossil fuel is natural gas

-it is a mixture of methane and other gases

Advantages:

1. Provides lots of energy

2. Lower levels of air pollutants than coal and oil
3. Its easy to transport

Disadvantages

1. Highly flammable

Fuel Supply and Demand

-fossil fuels takes hundreds of millions of years to form

-fossil fuels therefore are considered a nonrenewable resource

-new resources of energy are needed to replace the decreasing fossil fuel reserves
  GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

-is the heat that lies within the Earth. The heat energy is obtained from hot rocks present inside
the Earth

-renewable source constantly producing heat, thus, making it inexcusable to man kind

-almost 4000 miles beneath the Earth’s surface. This phenomenon known as geothermal energy
gets generated, deep inside the Earth’s core

-The Earth crust broken into several pieces called tectonic plate. Magma close comes to the earth
surface near the edges of this plates

-In the place volcano occurs. The lava that erupts form volcanoes is partly magma

-deep underground the rocks and water absorbed the heat from the magma the temperature of
rocks increasing around the depth

 Geothermal resources

-naturally occurring large areas of hydrothermal resources are called geothermal reservoirs

-geothermal reservoirs are deep underground which no visible clue showing above the ground

-the only way to be sure there is a reservoirs is to drill a well and test the temperature deep
underground

-sometimes find its way to the surface in the form of volcanoes and fumaroles(it’s a hole where
volcano gases are release)

 HOW GEOTHERMAL ENERGY IS CAPTURED

-the most common current way of capturing the energy from geothermal sources is to tap into
naturally occurring “hydrothermal convection” system

-where cooler water get down into Earth’ crust, is heated up, and then rises to the surface

-when heated water is forced to the surface, it is a relatively simple to capture that steam and use
to drive electric generators

-geothermal power plants drill their own holes into the rock to more effectively capture the steam

 Direct uses of geothermal energy

-geothermal springs can also be used directly for heating purposes

-hot spring water is used to heat greenhouses, to dry out fish and de-ice roads, for improving oil
recovery, and to heat fish farms and spas

 Direct use of geothermal energy is appropriate for sources below 150C

-air conditioning
-industrial processes
-greenhouses
-aquaculture
-hot water
-resorts and pools
-melting snow

 HYDROELECTRIC

ADVANTAGES

-renewable energy

-clean energy source

-domestic energy source

-generally available as needed

-provides recreational opportunities

-water supply and flood control

POSSIBLE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

-fish population

-quality and flow of water

-ecosystems of rivers and streams

DISADVANTAGES

-drought

-impact on local environment and land use

Preservation concerns
HYDROPOWER

-hydropowers refers to energy, mostly electric, which is derived from the water in motion. This
power is harnessed and used to drive mechanical devices.. Hydopower plants are actually based
on the a rather simple concept- water flowing through a dam turns a turbine, which turns a
generator

 WATER

97% we cannot access

THE FOUR MAJOR OCEANS

 PACIFIC
 ALTANTIC
 INIDIAN
 ARCTIC

WATER RESOURCES

Ground-sub-surface, is fresh water located in the pore space of soil and rocks.

Surface- is water in river, lake or fresh water wetland. Naturally replenished by precipitation and
naturally lost through discharge to the oceans, evaporation.

Reclamation- is the process by which a damaged land area is returned to nearly the condition it
was in before people used it

CLASSIFICATION OF WATER RESOURCES:

 SURACE WATER –water that is on the surface of the Earth

 GLACIERS AND ICE CAPS- storehouse of fresh water
 GROUNDWATER- as water that is found beneath the surface of the earth.

WATER DISTIBUTIUON ON EARTH (in detail)

1. Ocean water 97.2%

2. Glaciers and other ice 2.15%
3. Ground water 0.61%
4. Fresh water lakes 0.009%
5. Inland seas 0.008%
6. Soil moisture 0.005%
7. Atmosphere 0.001%
 8. Rivers 0.0001%

 WASTE

Liquid- waste in liquid form

Solid- waste in solid form, domestic, commercial, and industrial waste

Classification

Bio-degrable- toxic

Non-biodegrable- anything that will decay

 Hazardous-unsafe
 Non0hazardous-safe to use commercially, industrially, agriculturally, or economically,
and do not have any of those properties mentioned above

Impacts

 Affect our health

 Climate
 Socio economic condition

Types

 Municipal waste
 Biomedical waste
 Industrial waste
 Agricultural waste
 Fishery waste
 Radioactive waste
 E-waste

Source of Human Exposures through

 Indigestion of contaminated water or food

 Contact with disease vectors
 Inhalation
 Dermal