CP Final

Exercise
1. Draw a flowchart to find the area of a triangle when its three sides are given
Algorithm
Step1:Read a,b,c
step2:calculate s=(a+b+c)/2
Step3:Calculate Area=[s*(s-a)*(s-b)*(s-c)]^0.5
Step4:print Area
Flowchart
Program
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
void main()
{
int s, a, b, c, area;
printf("Enter the values of a, b and c \n");
scanf("%d %d %d", &a, &b, &c);
/* compute s */
s = (a + b + c) / 2;
area = sqrt(s * (s - a) * (s - b) * (s - c));
printf("Area of a triangle = %d \n", area);
}
2. Draw an algorithm and flowchart to reverse a given integer number

Algorithm
Step1:Read N,s=0
Step2:Repeat Step 3 Until the condition(N>0) is true if the condition is false then goto step4
Step3:calculate s=s*10+N%10
N=N/10
Step4:Output s
Flowchart
Program
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int n, reversedNumber = 0, remainder;
printf("Enter an integer: ");

scanf("%d", &n);
while(n != 0)
{
remainder = n%10;
reversedNumber = reversedNumber*10 + remainder;
n /= 10;
}
printf("Reversed Number = %d", reversedNumber);
return 0;
}
3.Write an algorithm and flowchart to find the gcd of two numbers

Algorithm:
Step1:Read n1,n2,i=1
Step2:Check the condition (i<=n1 and i<=n2). If the condition is true then goto step 3 else goto
step4
Step3: if i is factor of both integers(n1mod i=0 and n2 mod i==0) then gcd=i and i values increased
by 1.Then goto setp2
if i is not the factor of both integers then increase the value by one and goto step2
step4: output gcd
Program
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int n1, n2, i, gcd;
printf("Enter two integers: ");

scanf("%d %d", &n1, &n2);
for(i=1; i <= n1 && i <= n2; ++i)

{
// Checks if i is factor of both integers
if(n1%i==0 && n2%i==0)
gcd = i;
}
printf("G.C.D of %d and %d is %d", n1, n2, gcd);
return 0;
}
4. write an algorithm and flowchart to generate all numbers which are divisible by 3 but not by 7
Algorithm:
Step1:Read n,i=1
Step2 check the condition i%3=0 and i%7!=0.If the condition is true then goto step3,if the condition
is false then goto step4.Repeat this step until the i value is less than or equal to n.
Step3:Print i and increse the i value by 1
step4:increase the i value by 1
5. write an algorithm and flowchart to find the sum of even and odd numbers between 1 to 100
Algorithm
Step1:Read num
Step2:odd=0,even=0,i=1
Step3:Repeat step three until i<=num
if(i%2)=0 then add i value to even sum and increase the i value by 1
else add i value to odd sum and increase the i value by 1
Step4:Print even,odd
Program
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
int i, num, odd_sum = 0, even_sum = 0;
printf("Enter the value of num\n");
scanf("%d", &num);
for (i = 1; i <= num; i++)
{
if (i % 2 == 0)
even_sum = even_sum + i;
else
odd_sum = odd_sum + i;
}
printf("Sum of all odd numbers = %d\n", odd_sum);
printf("Sum of all even numbers = %d\n", even_sum);
}
6. write an algorith and flowchart to find the prime numbers between two numbers
Program
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int low, high, i, flag;
printf("Enter two numbers(intervals): ");
scanf("%d %d", &low, &high);
printf("Prime numbers between %d and %d are: ", low, high);
while (low < high)

{
flag = 0;
for(i = 2; i <= low/2; ++i)

{
if(low % i == 0)
{
flag = 1;
break;
}
}
if (flag == 0)
printf("%d ", low);
++low;
}
return 0;
}
7. write an algorithm and flowchart to interchange two numbers without using third number
Algorithm
Step1:Start
Step2: Input a,b
Step3: Calculate a=a+b,b=a-b,a=a-b
ster4: print a,b
step5:End
Flowchart:
8.write an algorithm and flowchart to find the given number is palindrome or not(121,212,313 etc..
are the palindrome numbers)
step1:Read n
Step2:new=0, a=n
Step3: Repeat Step 3 until n>0
r=n%10
new=new*10+r
n=n/10
step 4 : if(a==new)
print 'it is a palindrome'
else
print 'it is not a palindrome'
Program
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int n, reversedInteger = 0, remainder, originalInteger;

scanf("%d", &n);
originalInteger = n;
// reversed integer is stored in variable

while( n!=0 )
{
remainder = n%10;
reversedInteger = reversedInteger*10 + remainder;
n /= 10;
}
// palindrome if orignalInteger and reversedInteger are equal

if (originalInteger == reversedInteger)
printf("%d is a palindrome.", originalInteger);
else
printf("%d is not a palindrome.", originalInteger);
return 0;
}
9.Write an algorithm and flowchat to find the largest number of 3 numbers
Algorithm
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Declare variables a,b and c.
Step 3: Read variables a,b and c.
Step 4: If a>b
If a>c
Display a is the largest number.
Else
Display c is the largest number.
Else
If b>c
Display b is the largest number.
Else
Display c is the greatest number.
Step 5: Stop
Flowchart
10.Write an algorithm and flowchart to compute the factorial of a given number

Algorithm
step 1. Start
step 2. Read the number n
step 3. [Initialize]
i=1, fact=1
step 4. Repeat step 4,5,6 until i<=n
step 5. fact=fact*i
step 6. i=i+1
step 7. Print fact
step 8. Stop
Flowchart
11.Write an algorithm and flowchart to convert fahrenheit temperature into celsius
Algorithm
1. Start
2. Input Temperature in Fahrenheit in F variable.
3. Calculate Centigrade C = (F-32) x 5 / 9
4. Show temperature in centigrade
5. Stop
Flowchart
12. Write an algorithm and flowchar to generate first 50 numbers in fibonacci sequence.The
fibonacci series is 0,1,1,2,3,5,8.....
Algorithm:
Step 1: Start
Step 2:Declare variables i, n,a,b , show
Step 3:Initialize the variables, a=0, b=1, and show =0
Step4:Enter the number of terms of Fibonacci series to be printed
Step5:Print First two terms of series
Step6:Repeat step 6 until i<=n
-> show=a+b
-> a=b
-> b=show
-> increase value of i each time by 1
-> print the value of show
Step7:End
Flowchart:
Program
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int i, n, t1 = 0, t2 = 1, nextTerm;
printf("Enter the number of terms: ");

scanf("%d", &n);
printf("Fibonacci Series: ");
for (i = 1; i <= n; ++i)

{
printf("%d, ", t1);
nextTerm = t1 + t2;
t1 = t2;
t2 = nextTerm;
}
return 0;
}
C Programming Language
Introduction to C: -
C is a high level language. It is both a general purpose(to develop applications programs) and a specific
purpose(to develop System programs ) programming language. C is the most popular and common
programming language for every application developer. It was developed at the Bell Telephone
Laboratory, USA (Now AT & T), in 1972. It was developed by Dennis Ritchie .
C is derived from two early programming languages such as BCPL (Basic Combined
Programming Language) and B language. These two languages also developed at Bell laboratory.
Dennis Ritchie developed a new version of B and named it as C. He selected the name C for his new
language because C comes after B in alphabetical order which indicates advancement to B.
Characteristics of C:-
1. C is a General Purpose Programming Language This means C can be used to write a variety of
applications. It is often referred to as a “system programming language.”
2. C is a structured programming language, which means as a programmer, you are required to
divide a problem into a several different modules or functions.
3. C is renowned for its simplicity and is easy to use because of its structured approach. It has a vast
collection of keywords, operators, built-in functions and data types which make it efficient and
powerful.
4. C is portable, which means a C program runs in different environments. C compilers are
available for all operating systems and hardware platforms. Additionally, you can easily write
code on one system and port it to another.
5. C is modular, which means C programs can be divided into small modules, which are much
easier to understand.
6. C is easily available. The C software is easy to access and can be easily installed on your
computer. The installation of C hardly takes a few minutes.
7. C is easy to debug. The C compiler detects syntax errors quickly and easily and displays the
errors along with the line numbers of the code and the error message.
Applications of C:-
Because of its portability and efficiency, C is used to develop the system as well as application software.
Some of the system and application software listed below are:
1. Operating Systems(System software)
2. Interpreters and Compilers(System software)
3. Editors(System software)
4. DBMS(Application software)
5. Spread sheets(Application software)
6. Graphics packages(Application software)
7. Word Processors(Application software)
C Tokens:-
The basic and the smallest units of a C program are called C tokens.
1. Keywords
1 Developed by: Thilak Reddy
2. Identifiers
3. Constants
4. Strings
5. Operators
Keywords and Identifiers:-
Every word in a C program is either a keyword or identifier. All keywords are basically the sequences of
characters that have one or more fixed meanings and these meanings in any circumstances can’t be
changed. All C keywords must be written in lower letters.
Keywords supported by ANSI(American National Standards institute) C are:
auto break case char const continue default do double else enum
extern float for goto if int long register return short signed
sizeof static struct switch typedef union unsigned
viod volatile while
Identifiers:-
Identifiers are the names given to the program elements such as variables, arrays and functions.
Basically, identifiers are the sequences of alphabets and digits. The rules that govern the formation of
identifier names are:
1. The first character must be an alphabet or an underscore.
2. All succeeding characters must be either letters or digits
3. Uppercase and lowercase identifiers are different
4. No special character or punctuation symbols are allowed except the underscore.
5. No two successive underscores are allowed.
6. Keywords should not be used as identifiers.
Constants
The quantity which does not change during the execution of a program is known as constant. There are
two types of constants.
C constants
Numeric constants
Non-numeric Constants
Integer constants Floating Constants Character Constants String Constants

1. An integer constant is a whole number
2. It is a sequence of digits without a decimal point. It is prefixed with plus or minus sign.
3. A floating constant is a number with decimal point. It is defined as a sequence of digits preceded
and followed by a decimal point. It is prefixed with plus or minus sign.
4. A character constant is a single character enclosed within a pair of single quote.
5. A string constant is a sequence of characters enclosed within a pair of double quotes.
Variables:-
The quantity that changes during the execution of a program is called a variable. The variables
are the name given to identify the specific program elements. Therefore,variables are also called as
identifiers. Variables are nothing but reserved memory locations to store values. This means when you
create a variable, you reserve some space in memory. They are used to denote constants, functions,
arrays, fields of structures, name of files etc..
Rules for forming variable names:-
1. The first character must be an alphabet or an underscore.
2. All succeeding characters must be either letters or digits
3. Uppercase and lowercase variables are different
4. No special character or punctuation symbols are allowed except the underscore.
5. No two successive underscores are allowed.
6. Keywords should not be used as variables.
Declaration of Variables:-
All variables must be declared before they are used in C program. The purpose of declaring variables is
to reserve the amount of memory required for these variables.
Syntax for declaration:-
Data_type variable_name semicolon
Example: int length;
Assigning values to variables:
When the data is stored that the variables represent some memory location. Each variable is associated
with one or more values. The process of giving values to variables is called the assignment of the values.
The assignment operator ‘=’ is used to assign a value to a variable.
Syntax:
Variable_name = value;
Example: int x = 1;
Multiple Assignment Statement
The process of giving initial values to variable is known as initialization. We can initialize more than
one variable in a a single statement. This is called multiple assignment statement.
Example: int x=y=z=10;

Delimiters or Separators
They limit the boundary between the basic elements of a program. They separate constants,variables,
statements. Comma,semicolon,single and double quotes,blank spaces are the most commonly used
delimiters.
Data types:-
Data types indicate the type of data that a variable can hold. The data may be numeric or non-numeric.
Those are categorized into:
1. Built in data types-int,float,double,char
2. Derived data types-pointers,arrays,structures and union
3. void data types-Void is an empty data type that has no value. This can be used in functions and
pointers.
1.Built in Data types:- They are basic data types and designate a single value. There are four
fundamental built in data types in C language. They are:
1. Integer
2. Floating point number
3. Double real number
4. Characters
In C, there is one and only one non-specific data type called void. It does not specify anything.
Types Keyword Storage Size (in

bytes)
Integer Int 2
Floating point Float 4
Double precision Double 8
Character Char 1
Non-specific Void __
Int:-
Int is a keyword used to indicated integer number. Any integer number is a sequence of digits
without decimal point.
Float:-
Float is a keyword used to indicate a floating point number. The floating point numbers are the
same as real numbers. They are called floating point numbers because the decimal point is shifted either
to left or to the right of some digits during manipulation.
Char:-
Char is a keyword used to indicate the character type data. The data may be a character constant
or a string constant. A character constant can be defined as any single character enclosed in a pair of
single quotes.

Each character constant has an integer value. This value is given by the ASCII(American
standard code for information interchange) character set. Some of the character constants and their
ASCII values.
Character Constant ASCII Values

‘A’ 65
‘B’ 66
‘Z’ 91
‘a’ 97
‘z’ 122
‘0’ 48
‘9’ 57
‘&’ 38
‘=’ 61
‘{‘ 123
Double:-
Double is a keyword used to indicate a double precision floating point number. The precision
associated with the accuracy of the data. It is used to whenever more accuracy is required in representing
the floating point numbers. A double is normal float value, but the number of significant digits that are
stored after the decimal point is double that of the float.
The float usually stores a maximum of 6 digits after the decimal point but double stores 16 significant
digits after the decimal point.
Modifiers in C language:
 The amount of memory space to be allocated for a variable is derived by modifiers.
 Modifiers are prefixed with basic data types to modify (either increase or decrease) the amount
of storage space allocated to a variable.
 There are 4 modifiers available in C language. They are,
1. short
2. long
3. signed
4. unsigned
1. Short
In general int data type occupies different memory spaces for a different operating system; to
allocate fixed memory space short keyword can be used. short int occupies 2 bytes of memory
space in every operating system.
2. Long

This can be used to increased size of the current data type to 2 more bytes, which can be applied
on int or double data types. For example int occupy 2 byte of memory if we use long with integer
variable then it occupy 4 byte of memory.
3. Signed
This keyword accepts both negative or positive value and this is default properties or data type
modifiers for every data type. in real time no need to write signed keyword explicitly for any data
type.
Example
int a=10; // right
int a=-10; // right
signed int a=10; // right
signed int a=-10; // right
4. Unsigned
This keyword can be used to make the accepting values of a data type is positive data type.
Example
unsigned int a =100; // right
unsigned int a=-100; // wrong
Below table gives the detail about the storage size of each C basic data type in 16 bit processor. Please
keep in mind that storage size and range for int and float datatype will vary depend on the CPU
processor (8,16, 32 and 64 bit)
Type conversion
It is used to modify a variable from one date type to another data type. New data type should be
mentioned before the variable name or value in brackets which to be typecast.
Example
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
double x = 1.2;
// Explicit conversion from double to int
int sum = (int)x + 1;
printf("sum = %d", sum);
}
Format Specifiers in C
In C programming we need lots of format specifier to work with various data types. Format specifiers
defines the type of data to be printed on standard output. Whether to print formatted output or to take
formatted input we need format specifiers. Format specifiers are also called as format string.
List of format specifiers
%c char single character

%d (%i) int signed integer
%e (%E) float or double exponential format
%f float or double signed decimal
%g (%G) float or double use %f or %e as required
%o int unsigned octal value
%p pointer address stored in pointer
%s array of char sequence of characters
%u int unsigned decimal
%x (%X) int unsigned hex value
Backslash Constants or Escape Sequence
A backslash constant is a combination of two characters in which the first character is always the back
slash(\) and the second character can be any one of the characters b,n,t,v. The backslash constants are
used in the output statements.
Backlash Constant Meaning

\b Back space
\n New line
\t Horizontal tab
\v Vertical tab
\’ Single quote
\” Double quote
\\ Backslash character itself
Input and Output Functions:-

Every computer program takes some data as input and prints the processed data. The data can be
provided in two ways.
 The first one is known as non-interactive method in which we assign values to the
variables.
 The second method known as an interactive input method where the data is
supplied by the user through the standard input device (keyboard).
C is a functional programming language. So, it has no exclusive built-in functions to perform the basic
input-output operations. To perform these input-output operations C provides a library functions. This
library is called a standard input-output library. It is denoted by stdio. The header file containing such
library functions called stdio.h.
There are two types of input-output functions. They are:
1. Formatted I/O functions:Formatted I/O functions enables the user to specify the type of data and the
way in which it should be read in or written out.
2. Unformatted I/O functions: unformatted I/O functions do not specify the types of data and the way
it should be read or written.
Type Input function Output function

formatted scanf() printf()
unformatted getchar() putchar()
gets() puts()
Formatted Input:
C provides a function called scanf() to read the numeric,character,and string type of data. It is included
in the header file <stdio.h>.
scanf() syntax:
scanf(“control string”,address_list);
control string
It is a sequence of one or more character groups. Each character group is a combination of the % symbol
and one of the conversion character. control string specifies the type of the values which are to be
supplied to the variables.
address_list:
It specifies the address of memory locations where the values of input variables should be stores.
Integer Input:
%d character group is used to input integer data through the standard input device.
Example1:
scanf(“%d”,&number);
input for the above statement is 38 ,then 38 is stored in the memory location represented by number.
Example2:
scanf(“%3d”,&number);
this is the specific way for accepting data through the field specification. The field specification means
the number of columns reserved for the number to be input(or output).Above example reads 3 digit
number or less than 3 digit number (3 is the field,d is the type conversion character).data should not
exceed the field width. If the input data number is 2345 and filed width is 3 only. Then 234 only stored
in the memory location remaining numbers will truncate.
Floating point input:
Floating -point numbers can be input using %f specification.
Example1: scanf(“%f %f”,&num1,&num2);
If the values to be supplied to num1,num2 are 356.90 and 669 respectively. Then, 356.90 and 669.0 are
stored respectively.
Example2: scanf(“%5f”,&num);
If the number to be entered is 2.34.This number contains only 4 characters including the decimal point.
But the specified field width is 5. so leading space replaced by a blank space. If the input is 23.456 then
23.45 is stored in the memory. Because number contains 6 characters.
Character input
In accepting a character constant, using scanf() function the character group %c is used.
Example1: scanf(“%c”,&symbol);
If the input character is A, then the value 65 is stored in the memory. Because the ASCII value of A=65.
Example2: scanf(“%10c”,name); or scanf(“%s”,name);
if the input is sequence of characters then you have to specify the number of characters present in the
name in the control string. Or you can use %s for character group. But in this case you have to declare
the variable as one dimensional array(char name[10]).
Mixed Mode Input:

In some situations it may be necessary to accept more than one type of data. In such situation, the
programmer should take care of the number of input variables,data types and their order
Example: scanf(“%d %f %s”,&num,&amount,name);
Formatted output:
C provides the printf() function to display the data on the standard output device.
Types of outputs:
Integer Output
The integer output can be displayed on the monitor by using %d character group.
Example: int var=10;
printf(“%d”,var);
The field width can also be specified for the proper format of displaying on the screen. For example
printf(%5d”,var);
floating- point output
floating point number can be displayed either in a decimal form. The %f group is used for formatting of
a floating values.
Example
printf(“%f”,x);
If x contains the value 24, then it will appear on the standard output device as,24.000000
we can restrict the number of digits after the decimal point by using an appropriate field width
specification
Example: printf(“%6.2f”,x);
This statement specifies to print the number having a maximum of 6 characters including a decimal
point and there must be two digits after the decimal point. If x contains the value 543.671, then it will
appear on the standard output device as,543.67.
Unformatted input/output functions
Unformatted input functions are primarily concerned with reading the character type data from the
keyboard. The getchar() and gets function are used for this purpose. Unformatted output functions are
mainly concerned with displaying or printing the character type data on the monitor. The putchar() and
puts() functions are used for this purpose
The getchar() and putchar() function
getchar() function reads a single character from the standard input device. putchat() function print a
single character on the screen.
getchat() syntax:ch_var=getchar();
putchar() syntax: putchar(ch_var);
Example:
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
char letter;
letter=getchar();
putchar(letter);
}
gets() and puts() functions
gets() function reads in everything you enter from the keyboard until the enter key is pressed. Puts()
function prints a string of characters on the screen, The newline character that signal the end of the string
will not be displayed.
gets() syntax:gets(string);
puts() syntax():puts(string);
Example:
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
char name[25];
printf(“enter your name”);
gets(name);
puts(name);
}
The complete structure of a C program:
preprocessor statements
global declarations
main()
{
declarations;
statements;
}
User defined functions
Preprocessor statements:-
These statements begin with # symbol and also called as preprocessor directives. These
statements direct the C preprocessor to include header files and also symbolic constants into a C
program.
Examples:-
#include<stdio.h> - For the standard input / output functions
#include “Test.h” - for the inclusion of header file Test.
#define NULL 0 - for defining symbolic constant, NULL=0
Global declarations:-
Variables or functions whose existence is known in the main() function and other user defined
functions, are called the global variables or functions and their declarations are called global
declarations.
This declarations should be made before main().
The main() function:-

As the name itself indicates, this is the main function of every C program. Execution of C
program starts with main(). No C program is executed without the main() function. The function main()
should be written in lowercase letters and should not be terminated by a semicolon. There must be one
and only one main() function in every C program.
Braces:-
Every C program uses a pair of curly braces ({, }). The left brace indicates the beginning of the
main() function. The right brace indicates the end of the main() function. The braces can also be used to
indicate the beginning and end of use-defined functions.
Declarations:-
The declaration is a part of the C program where all the variables, arrays, functions etc.. used in
the C program are declared and may be initialized with their basic data types.
Statements:-
These are instructions to the computer to perform some specific operations. They may be I/O
statements, arithmetic statements, control statements and other statements. They also include comments.
The comments are explanatory notes on some instructions. The comment statements are not compiled
and executed.
User defined functions:-

These are subprograms. A subprogram is a function. The user-defined functions contain a set of
statements to perform a specific task. These are written by the user. They may be written before or after
the main() function.
Example:

write a c program to display “hello computer” on the screen
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
printf("hello computer\n");
}
Compiling and Executing a C program:-

Compiling a C program means translating it into machine language. C compilers are used for this
purpose. The C program to be compiled must be typed in using an editor. An editor is a program which
allows the programmer to write the program and edit it. C compilers are available with and without
editors.
There are basically five steps in the successful execution of a program.

1. Creating a source file(program file)
2. Saving the program(with .c as extension)
3. Compilation
4. Linking system library functions
5. Running(executing) the program
Exercise
1. write a c program to display your name, address and city in different lines
2. write a c program to exchange the values of two variables
3. Write a c program to accept 3 numbers and compute their sum and average
4. Write a c program to accept the temperature in Fahrenheit and convert into celsius
5. Write a c program to accept the principle amount, rate of interest and number of year and compute the
simple interest
6. write a c program to find the value of y in the following equation y=x2+3x+1

Operators
C programming has various operators to perform tasks including arithmetic,

conditional and bitwise operations.
An operator is a symbol which operates on a value or a variable. For example:+ is an

operator to perform addition on operands.
C programming has wide range of operators to perform various operations.
Operators in C programming:-
1. Arithmetic Operators
2. Increment and Decrement Operators
3. Assignment Operators
4. Relational Operators
5. Logical Operators
6. Conditional Operators
7. Bitwise Operators
8. Special Operators
a. Shift Operators
b. Comma Operator
c. Sizeof Operator
d. Ternary Operator
1. Arithmetic Operators:-
An arithmetic operator performs mathematical operations such as addition,
subtraction and multiplication on numerical values (constants and variables).
Operator Meaning of Operator
+ addition or unary plus
- subtraction or unary minus
* multiplication
/ division
% remainder after division( modulo division)
Example #1: Arithmetic Operators
// C Program to demonstrate the working of arithmetic operators
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
1|P a g e C Operators Developed by :Thilak Reddy
{
int a = 9,b = 4, c;
c = a+b;
printf("a+b = %d \n", c);
c = a-b;
printf("a-b = %d \n", c);
c = a*b;
printf("a*b = %d \n", c);
c=a/b;
printf("a/b = %d \n", c);
c=a%b;
printf("Remainder when a divided by b = %d \n", c);
return 0;
Output:-
a+b = 13
a-b = 5
a*b = 36
a/b = 2
Remainder when a divided by b=1
The operators +, - and * computes addition, subtraction and multiplication

respectively as you might have expected.
In normal calculation, 9/4 = 2.25. However, the output is 2 in the program. It is

because both variables a and b are integers. Hence, the output is also an integer. The
compiler neglects the term after decimal point and shows answer 2 instead of 2.25.
The modulo operator % computes the remainder. When a = 9 is divided by b = 4,

the remainder is 1. The % operator can only be used with integers.
2. Increment and decrement operators:-
C programming has two operators increment ++ and decrement -- to change the

value of an operand (constant or variable) by 1.

Increment ++ increases the value by 1 whereas decrement -- decreases the value by
1. These two operators are unary operators, meaning they only operate on a single
operand.
Example #2: Increment and Decrement Operators
// C Program to demonstrate the working of increment and decrement operators
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
int a = 10, b = 100;
float c = 10.5, d = 100.5;
printf("++a = %d \n", ++a);
printf("--b = %d \n", --b);
printf("++c = %f \n", ++c);
printf("--d = %f \n", --d);
return 0;
Output
++a = 11
--b = 99
++c = 11.500000
++d = 99.500000
Here, the operators ++ and -- are used as prefix. These two operators can
also be used as postfix like a++ and a--.
++ and -- operator as prefix and postfix:-

Suppose you use ++ operator as prefix like: ++var. The value of var is incremented
by 1 then, it returns the value.
Suppose you use ++ operator as postfix like: var++. The original value of var is
returned first then, var is incremented by 1.
Example:- C program to demonstrate post increment and pre increment.
#include <stdio.h>
int main()

{
int var=5;
// 5 is displayed then, var is increased to 6.
printf("%d\n",var++);
// Initially, var = 6. It is increased to 7 then, it is displayed.
printf("%d",++var);
return 0;
}
Output
5
7
3. C Assignment Operators:-
An assignment operator is used for assigning a value to a variable. The most

common assignment operator is =
Operator Example Same as
= a=b a=b
+= a += b a = a+b
-= a -= b a = a-b
*= a *= b a = a*b
/= a /= b a = a/b
%= a %= b a = a%b
Example #3: Assignment Operators
// C Program to demonstrate the working of assignment operators
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
int a = 5, c;

c = a;
printf("c = %d \n", c);
c += a; // c = c+a
c -= a; // c = c-a
c *= a; // c = c*a
c /= a; // c = c/a
c %= a; // c = c%a
return 0;
Output
c=5
c = 10
c=5
c = 25
c=5
c=0
4. C Relational Operators:-
A relational operator checks the relationship between two operands. If the relation is
true, it returns 1; if the relation is false, it returns value 0.
Relational operators are used in decision making and loops.
Operator Meaning of Operator Example
== Equal to 5 == 3 returns 0
> Greater than 5 > 3 returns 1
< Less than 5 < 3 returns 0
!= Not equal to 5 != 3 returns 1

>= Greater than or equal to 5 >= 3 returns 1
<= Less than or equal to 5 <= 3 return 0
Example #4: Relational Operators
// C Program to demonstrate the working of arithmetic operators
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
int a = 5, b = 5, c = 10;
printf("%d == %d = %d \n", a, b, a == b); // true
printf("%d == %d = %d \n", a, c, a == c); // false
printf("%d > %d = %d \n", a, b, a > b); //false
printf("%d > %d = %d \n", a, c, a > c); //false
printf("%d < %d = %d \n", a, b, a < b); //false
printf("%d < %d = %d \n", a, c, a < c); //true
printf("%d != %d = %d \n", a, b, a != b); //false
printf("%d != %d = %d \n", a, c, a != c); //true
printf("%d >= %d = %d \n", a, b, a >= b); //true
printf("%d >= %d = %d \n", a, c, a >= c); //false
printf("%d <= %d = %d \n", a, b, a <= b); //true
printf("%d <= %d = %d \n", a, c, a <= c); //true
return 0;
Output
5 == 5 = 1
5 == 10 = 0
5>5=0
5 > 10 = 0
5<5=0

5 < 10 = 1
5 != 5 = 0
5 != 10 = 1
5 >= 5 = 1
5 >= 10 = 0
5 <= 5 = 1
5 <= 10 = 1
5. C Logical Operators:-
An expression containing logical operator returns either 0 or 1 depending upon

whether expression results true or false. Logical operators are commonly used in
decision making in C programming.
Operator Meaning of Operator Example
Logical AND If c=5 and d=2 then,

&& True only if all operands are true (c==5) && (d>5) equals to 0.
Logical OR If c=5 and d=2 then,

|| True only if either one operand is true (c==5) || (d>5) equals to 1.
Logical NOT If c = 5 then, expression ! (c

! True only if the operand is 0 == 5) equals to 0.
Example #5: Logical Operators
// C Program to demonstrate the working of logical operators
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
int a = 5, b = 5, c = 10, result;
result = (a = b) && (c > b);
printf("(a = b) && (c > b) equals to %d \n", result);
result = (a = b) && (c < b);
printf("(a = b) && (c < b) equals to %d \n", result);

result = (a = b) || (c < b);
printf("(a = b) || (c < b) equals to %d \n", result);
result = (a != b) || (c < b);
printf("(a != b) || (c < b) equals to %d \n", result);
result = !(a != b);
printf("!(a == b) equals to %d \n", result);
result = !(a == b);
printf("!(a == b) equals to %d \n", result);
return 0;
Output
(a = b) && (c > b) equals to 1
(a = b) && (c < b) equals to 0
(a = b) || (c < b) equals to 1
(a != b) || (c < b) equals to 0
!(a != b) equals to 1
!(a == b) equals to 0
Explanation of logical operator program
1. (a = b) && (c > 5) evaluates to 1 because both operands (a = b) and (c > b) is

1 (true).
2. (a = b) && (c < b) evaluates to 0 because operand (c < b) is 0 (false).
3. (a = b) || (c < b) evaluates to 1 because (a = b) is 1 (true).
4. (a != b) || (c < b) evaluates to 0 because both operand (a != b) and (c < b)
are 0 (false).
5. !(a != b) evaluates to 1 because operand (a != b) is 0 (false). Hence, !(a != b)
is 1 (true).
6. !(a == b) evaluates to 0 because (a == b) is 1 (true). Hence, !(a == b)is 0
(false).
6. Bitwise Operators
In processor, mathematical operations like: addition, subtraction, addition and

division are done in bit-level which makes processing faster and saves power.
Bitwise operators are used in C programming to perform bit-level operations.
Operators Meaning of operators
& Bitwise AND
| Bitwise OR
^ Bitwise exclusive OR
~ Bitwise complement
<< Shift left
>> Shift right
Bitwise AND operator &
The output of bitwise AND is 1 if the corresponding bits of all operands is 1. If either
bit of an operand is 0, the result of corresponding bit is evaluated to 0.
Let us suppose the bitwise AND operation of two integers 12 and 25.
12 = 00001100 (In Binary)
25 = 00011001 (In Binary)
Bit Operation of 12 and 25
00001100
& 00011001
________
00001000 = 8 (In decimal)
Example #1: Bitwise AND
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
int a = 12, b = 25;
printf("Output = %d", a&b);
return 0;
Output
Output = 8
Bitwise OR operator |
The output of bitwise OR is 1 if at least one corresponding bit of two operands is 1. In

C Programming, bitwise OR operator is denoted by |.
12 = 00001100 (In Binary)
25 = 00011001 (In Binary)
Bitwise OR Operation of 12 and 25
00001100
| 00011001
________
00011101 = 29 (In decimal)
Example #2: Bitwise OR
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
int a = 12, b = 25;
printf("Output = %d", a|b);
return 0;
Output
Output = 29
Bitwise XOR (exclusive OR) operator ^
The result of bitwise XOR operator is 1 if the corresponding bits of two operands are
opposite. It is denoted by ^.
12 = 00001100 (In Binary)
25 = 00011001 (In Binary)
Bitwise XOR Operation of 12 and 25
00001100
| 00011001
________
10 | P a g e C Operators Developed by :Thilak Reddy

00010101 = 21 (In decimal)
Example #3: Bitwise XOR
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
int a = 12, b = 25;
printf("Output = %d", a^b);
return 0;
Output
Output = 21
Bitwise complement operator ~
Bitwise compliment operator is an unary operator (works on one operand only). It

changes the 1 to 0 and 0 to 1. It is denoted by ~.
35=00100011 (In Binary)
Bitwise complement Operation of 35
~ 00100011
________
11011100 = 220 (In decimal)
For any integer n, bitwise complement of n will be -(n+1). To understand this, you
should have the knowledge of 2's complement.
2's Complement
Two's complement is an operation on binary numbers. The 2's complement of a

number is equal to the complement of that number plus 1.
For example:
Decimal Binary 2's complement
0 00000000 -(11111111+1) = -00000000 = -0(decimal)
1 00000001 -(11111110+1) = -11111111 = -256(decimal)
12 00001100 -(11110011+1) = -11110100 = -244(decimal)

220 11011100 -(00100011+1) = -00100100 = -36(decimal)
Bitwise complement of any number N is -(N+1).
Example #4: Bitwise complement
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
printf("complement=%d\n",~35);
printf("complement=%d\n",~-12);
return 0;
Output
complement=-36
complement=11
Shift Operators in C programming
There are two shift operators in C programming:
1. Right shift operator

2. Left shift operator.
Right Shift Operator
Right shift operator shifts all bits towards right by certain number of specified bits. It
is denoted by >>.
212 = 11010100 (In binary)
212>>2 = 00110101 (In binary) [Right shift by two bits]
212>>7 = 00000001 (In binary)
212>>8 = 00000000
212>>0 = 11010100 (No Shift)
Left Shift Operator
Left shift operator shifts all bits towards left by certain number of specified bits. It is
denoted by <<.
212 = 11010100 (In binary)

212<<1 = 110101000 (In binary) [Left shift by one bit]
212<<0 =11010100 (Shift by 0)
212<<4 = 110101000000 (In binary) =3392(In decimal)
Example #5: Shift Operators
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
int num=212, i;
for (i=0; i<=2; ++i){
printf("Right shift by %d: %d\n", i, num>>i);
printf("\n");
for (i=0; i<=2; ++i) {
printf("Left shift by %d: %d\n", i, num<<i);
return 0;
Output:
Right Shift by 0: 212
Left Shift by 0: 212
Comma Operator
Comma operators are used to link related expressions together. For example:

int a, c = 5, d;
The sizeof operator
The sizeof is an unary operator which returns the size of data (constant, variables,
array, structure etc).
Example #6: sizeof Operator implementation in C
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
int a, e[10];
float b;
double c;
char d;
printf("Size of int=%lu bytes\n",sizeof(a));
printf("Size of float=%lu bytes\n",sizeof(b));
printf("Size of double=%lu bytes\n",sizeof(c));
printf("Size of char=%lu byte\n",sizeof(d));
printf("Size of integer type array having 10 elements = %lu bytes\n",

sizeof(e));
return 0;
Output
Size of int = 4 bytes
Size of float = 4 bytes
Size of double = 8 bytes
Size of char = 1 byte
Size of integer type array having 10 elements = 40 bytes
C Ternary Operator (?:)
A conditional operator is a ternary operator, that is, it works on 3 operands.
Conditional Operator Syntax

conditionalExpression ? expression1 : expression2
The conditional operator works as follows:
1. The first expression conditionalExpression is evaluated at first. This expression

evaluates to 1 if it's and evaluates to 0 if it's false.
2. If conditionalExpression is true, expression1 is evaluated.
3. If conditionalExpression is false, expression2 is evaluated.
Example #6: C conditional Operator
#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
char February;
int days;
printf("If this year is leap year, enter 1. If not enter any integer: ");
scanf("%c",&February);
// If test condition (February == 'l') is true, days equal to 29.
// If test condition (February =='l') is false, days equal to 28.
days = (February == '1') ? 29 : 28;
printf("Number of days in February = %d",days);
return 0;
Output
If this year is leap year, enter 1. If not enter any integer: 1
Number of days in February = 29
End of operators’ topic.

Looping controls Structures:
Loops are used in programming to repeat a specific block until some end condition is met. There
are three loops in C programming:
1. for loop
2. while loop
3. do...while loop
for Loop
The “for loop” loops from one number to another number and increases by a specified value
each time.
Syntax:
for (initializationStatement; testExpression; updateStatement)
{
// codes
}
 The initialization statement is executed only once.
 Then, the test expression is evaluated. If the test expression is false (0), for loop is
terminated. But if the test expression is true (nonzero), codes inside the body of for loop
is executed and the update expression is updated. This process repeats until the test
expression is false.
 The for loop is commonly used when the number of iterations is known.
for loop Flowchart
1|Page Developed by: Thilak Reddy

Example: for loop
Write a Program to calculate the sum of first n natural numbers and Positive integers 1,2,3...n are
known as natural numbers?
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
int n, count, sum = 0;
printf("Enter a positive integer: ");
scanf("%d", &n);
for(count = 1; count <= n; ++count) // for loop terminates when n is less than count
{
sum += count;
}
printf("Sum = %d", sum);
}
Output
Enter a positive integer: 10
Sum = 55
Explanation:
The value entered by the user is stored in variable n. Suppose the user entered 10.
The count is initialized to 1 and the test expression is evaluated. Since, the test expression
count <= n (1 less than or equal to 10) is true, the body of for loop is executed and the value of
sum will be equal to 1.
Then, the update statement ++count is executed and count will be equal to 2. Again, the test
expression is evaluated. The test expression is evaluated to true and the body of for loop is
executed and the sum will be equal to 3. And, this process goes on.
Eventually, the count is increased to 11. When the count is 11, the test expression is evaluated to
0 (false) and the loop terminates.

While loop:-
The while loop can be used if you don’t know how many times a loop must run.
Syntax:
while (testExpression)
{
//codes
}
 The while loop evaluates the test expression. If the test expression is true (nonzero), codes
inside the body of while loop is evaluated. Then, again the test expression is evaluated.
The process goes on until the test expression is false.
 When the test expression is false, the while loop is terminated.
Flowchart of while loop
Example #1: while loop

Write a program to find factorial of a number ?
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
int number;
long long factorial;
scanf("%d",&number);
factorial = 1;
// loop terminates when number is less than or equal to 0
while (number > 0)
{
factorial *= number; // factorial = factorial*number;
--number;
}
printf("Factorial= %lld", factorial);
}
Output
Enter an integer: 5
Factorial = 120
do...while loop
The do..while loop is similar to the while loop with one important difference. The body
of do...while loop is executed once, before checking the test expression. Hence, the do...while
loop is executed at least once.
do...while loop Syntax
do
{
// codes
}
while (testExpression);
 The code block (loop body) inside the braces is executed once. Then, the test expression is
evaluated. If the test expression is true, the loop body is executed again. This process goes
on until the test expression is evaluated to 0 (false).
 When the test expression is false (nonzero), the do...while loop is terminated.

Example #2: do...while loop
// Program to add numbers until user enters zero
#include <stdio.h>
Void main()
{
double number, sum = 0;
// loop body is executed at least once
do
{
printf("Enter a number: ");
scanf("%lf", &number);
sum += number;
}
while(number != 0.0);
printf("Sum = %.2lf",sum);
}
Output
Enter a number: 1.5
Enter a number: 2.4
Enter a number: -3.4
Enter a number: 4.2
Enter a number: 0
Sum = 4.70
Exercises:-
1. Write a program to print the first 5 numbers with their squares and cubes using for loop?
2. Write a program to print five entered numbers in Ascending Order using for loop?
3. Write a program to calculate factorial of a given number using while loop?
4. Write a program to compute the factorial of a given number using do-while loop?
5. Write a program to print the ASCII equivalent of each character of an input string using
while?

Break and continue:
It is sometimes desirable to skip some statements inside the loop or terminate the loop
immediately without checking the test expression. In such cases, break and continue statements
are used.
break Statement
The break statement terminates the loop immediately when it is encountered. The break
statement is used with decision making statement such as if...else.
Syntax of break statement

break;
Flowchart of break statement
Working of Break statement:

Example #1: break statement
// Program to calculate the sum of maximum of 10 numbers
# include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int i;
double number, sum = 0.0;
for(i=1; i <= 10; ++i)

{
printf("Enter a n%d: ",i);
scanf("%lf",&number);
if(number < 0.0) // If user enters negative number, loop is terminated

{
break;
}
sum += number;
}
printf("Sum = %.2f",sum);
}
Output
Enter a n1: 2.4
Enter a n2: 4.5
Enter a n3: 3.4
Enter a n4: -3
Sum = 10.30
Explanation: This program calculates the sum of maximum of 10 numbers. It's because, when
the user enters negative number, the break statement is executed and loop is terminated.
Continue Statement
The continue statement skips some statements inside the loop. The continue statement is used
with decision making statement such as if...else.
Syntax of continue Statement

continue;

Flowchart of continue Statement
Continue statement working:
Example #2: continue statement

// Program to calculate sum of maximum of 10 numbers and Negative numbers are skipped from
calculation
# include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
int i;
double number, sum = 0.0;
for(i=1; i <= 10; ++i)
{
printf("Enter a n%d: ",i);
// If user enters negative number, loop is terminated

if(number < 0.0)
{
continue;
}
sum += number;
}
printf("Sum = %.2lf",sum);
}
Output
Enter a n1: 1.1
Enter a n2: 2.2
Enter a n3: 5.5
Enter a n4: 4.4
Enter a n5: -3.4
Enter a n6: -45.5
Enter a n7: 34.5
Enter a n8: -4.2
Enter a n9: -1000
Enter a n10: 12
Sum = 59.70
In the program, when the user enters positive number, the sum is calculated using sum +=
number; statement.
When the user enters negative number, the continue statement is executed and skips the
negative number from calculation.

if else:
The if statement in C language is used to perform operation on the basis of condition. By
using if-else statement, you can perform operation either condition is true or false.
There are many ways to use if statement in C language:
o If statement
o If-else statement
o If else-if ladder
If Statement
The single if statement in C language is used to execute the code if condition is true.
The syntax of if statement is given below:
if(expression){
//code to be executed
}
Flowchart of if statement in C
Example:-
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int number=0;
clrscr();
printf("enter a number:");
if(number%2==0){
printf("%d is even number",number);
}
getch();
}
Output
enter a number:4
4 is even number
If-else Statement
The if-else statement in C language is used to execute the code if condition is true or
false. The syntax of if-else statement is given below:
if(expression){
//code to be executed if condition is true
}
else{
//code to be executed if condition is false
}
Flowchart of if-else statement in C
Let's see the simple example of even and odd number using if-else statement in C language.
Example:-
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main(){
int number=0;
clrscr();
if(number%2==0){
printf("%d is even number",number);
}
else{
printf("%d is odd number",number);
}
getch();
}
Output
Enter a number: 4
4 is even number
Enter a number: 5
5 is odd number
If else-if ladder Statement
The if else-if statement is used to execute one code from multiple conditions. The syntax of
if else-if statement is given below:
if(condition1){
//code to be executed if condition1 is true
}
else if(condition2){
}
else if(condition3){
}
...
Else{
//code to be executed if all the conditions are false
}
Flowchart of else-if ladder statement in C
The example of if-else-if statement in C language is given below.

Example:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main(){
int number=0;
clrscr();
if(number==10){
printf("number is equals to 10");
}
else if(number==50){
printf("number is equal to 50");
}
else if(number==100){
}
else{
printf("number is not equal to 10, 50 or 100");
}
getch();
}
Output
enter a number:4
number is not equal to 10, 50 or 100
enter a number:50
number is equal to 50
C Switch Statement
The switch statement in C language is used to execute the code from multiple
conditions. It is like if else-if ladder statement.
The syntax of switch statement in c language is given below:
switch(expression){
case value1:
//code to be executed;
break; //optional
case value2:
//code to be executed;
break; //optional
......
default:
code to be executed if all cases are not matched;
}
Rules for switch statement in C language
 The switch expression must be of integer or character type.
 The case value must be integer or character constant.
 The case value can be used only inside the switch statement.

 The break statement in switch case is not must. It is optional. If there is no break
statement found in switch case, all the cases will be executed after matching the case
value. It is known as fall through state of C switch statement.
Flowchart of switch statement in C
Example:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int number=0;
clrscr();
switch(number)
{
case 10:
printf("number is equals to 10");
break;
case 50:
break;
case 100:
break;
default:
}
getch();
}
Output
enter a number:4
enter a number:50
C Switch statement is fall-through

In C language, switch statement is fall through, it means if you don't use break statement in
switch case, all the case after matching case will be executed.
Let's try to understand the fall through state of switch statement by the example given
below.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int number=0;
clrscr();
switch(number)
{
case 10:
printf("number is equals to 10\n");
case 50:
printf("number is equal to 50\n");
case 100:
printf("number is equal to 100\n");
default:
}
getch();
}
Output
enter a number:10

number is equals to 10
enter a number:50
Goto statement:
The goto statement is used to alter the normal sequence of a C program.
Syntax:
Goto label;
…. ….. ……..
………………
Label;
Statement;
The label is an identifier. When goto statement is encountered, control of the program
jumps to label: and starts executing the code.
Goto label;
…. ….. ……..
………………
Label;
…. ….. ……..
………………
Example:
// Program to calculate the sum and average of maximum of 5 numbers
// If user enters negative number, the sum and average of previously entered // positive
number is displayed
# include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
const int maxInput = 5;
int i;
double number, average, sum=0.0;
for(i=1; i<=maxInput; ++i)
{
printf("%d. Enter a number: ", i);

// If user enters negative number, flow of program moves to label jump
if(number < 0.0)
goto jump;
sum += number; // sum = sum+number;

}
jump:
average=sum/(i-1);
printf("Sum = %.2f\n", sum);
printf("Average = %.2f", average);
return 0;
}
Output
1. Enter a number: 3
2. Enter a number: 4.3
3. Enter a number: 9.3
4. Enter a number: -2.9
Sum = 16.60

Array Definition
An array can be defined as ordered list of same type of data elements. These
elements may be data type int, float, char or double. All these elements are stored in
consecutive memory location.
An array is described by a single name or identifier. And each element in an array
is referenced by subscript (an index) enclosed in a pair of square brackets. This
subscript indicates the position of an individual data item in an array. The index must be
positive integer.
Characteristic features of an array

1. Array is a data structure storing a group of elements, all of which are of the same
data type.
2. All the elements of an array share the same name, and they are distinguished from
one another with the help of an index.
3. Random access to every element using a numeric index of an array.
Classification of array
Array are classified into two types:
1. One dimensional arrays
2. Multi dimensional array
Declaration of an array
An array must be declared before it appears in a c program. This is done using an
appropriate data type. At the same time the size of an array must be specified .This allow
the compiler to decide on how much memory has to be reserved for the given array.
Syntax of an array
data_type arrayname[size];
data type : any basic data type or a user defined data type
array name: is the name of an array
size: number of elements of type data_type. And the size must be an integer constant
specified within a pair of square brackets.
1. One dimensional array:

This is a linear list of a fixed number of data items of the same type. All these data
items are accessed using the same name and a single subscript. It is similar to row or a
column matrix. It is also called a single dimensional array or a one subscripted variable.
Example
int list[10];
char name[20];
float xyz[5];
double p[100];
Rules for subscripts

1. Each subscript must be an unsigned positive integer constant or an expression
2. Subscript of subscript is not allowed
3. The maximum subscript appearing in a program for a subscripted variable should
not exceed the declared one.
4. The subscript values ranges from 0 to one less than maximum size. If the size of
an array is 10, the first subscript is 0, the second subscript is 1 and so on the last
subscript is 9.
1|Page Developed By: Thilak Reddy

Total size of array:-
The total amount of memory that can be allocated to a one-dimensional array is
computed as, size*[sizeof(data_type)].
Syntax for calculating total size of array:
Total_size=size*[sizeof (data_type)];
size is a number of elements of a one dimensional array

sizeof() is an unary operator to find the size in bytes
data_type basic data type or a user-defined data type
Example:-
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
int number[10];
printf("The total size of array is : %d\n",sizeof(number));
}
The total size of a one-dimensional array of 10 integers is 40 bytes. Because the size of
an integer data is 4 bytes.
Initializing a one-dimensional array:-
We can initialize an array in two ways.
1. Static array initialization
static constant variable that allows you to define a constant value inside a class
body.
Example
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int age[5]={2,4,34,3,4};
printf("age %d",age[3]);
}
Arrays can be initialized at declaration time in this source code as:
int age[5]={2,4,34,3,4};
It is not necessary to define the size of arrays during initialization.
int age[]={2,4,34,3,4};
In this case, the compiler determines the size of array by calculating the number of
elements of an array.

2. Dynamic array initialization
A dynamic array lets you keep the number of elements in the array
unspecified at the declaration time. You can define the number of elements it holds
during run time. Moreover, once declared, the number of elements can be altered
at a later point of time too.
Example
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int marks[10],i,n,sum=0;
printf("Enter number of students: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=0;i<n;++i)
{
printf("Enter marks of student%d: ",i+1);
scanf("%d",&marks[i]);
}
for(i=0;i<n;++i){
printf("%d\n",marks[i]);
Examples of one dimensional array:-

1. C program to find the sum marks of n students using arrays
#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
int i,n,sum=0;
scanf("%d",&n);
int marks[n];
for(i=0;i<n;++i){
printf("Enter marks of student%d: ",i+1);
scanf("%d",&marks[i]);
sum+=marks[i];
}
printf("Sum= %d",sum);
return 0;
}
Output
Enter number of students: 3

Enter marks of student1: 12
sum=45
2. Source Code to Display Largest Element of an array
#include <stdio.h>
int main(){

int i,n;
printf("Enter size of an array ");
scanf("%d",&n);
int arr[n];
for(i=0;i<n;++i) /* Stores number entered by user. */

{
printf("Enter Number %d: ",i+1);
scanf("%d",&arr[i]);
}
for(i=1;i<n;++i) /* Loop to store largest number to arr[0] */
{
if(arr[0]<arr[i]) /* Change < to > if you want to find smallest
element*/
arr[0]=arr[i];
}
printf("Largest element = %d",arr[0]);
return 0;
}
3. C Program to Sort the Array in an Ascending Order
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
int i, j, a, n, number[30];
printf("Enter the value of N \n");
scanf("%d", &n);
printf("Enter the numbers \n");
for (i = 0; i < n; ++i)
scanf("%d", &number[i]);
for (i = 0; i < n; ++i)
{
for (j = i + 1; j < n; ++j)
{
if (number[i] > number[j])
{
a = number[i];
number[i] = number[j];
number[j] = a;
}
}
}
printf("The numbers arranged in ascending order are given below \n");
for (i = 0; i < n; ++i)
printf("%d\n", number[i]);
}
4. Write a C program to accept two integer arays and find the sum of the
corresponding elements of these two arrays.
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int i , n;

printf(" Enter the size of Array A and B\n");
scanf("%d" , &n);
int a[n];
int b[n];
int sum[n];
printf(" Enter the elements of Array A\n");
for(i=0 ; i<n ; i++)
{
scanf("%d" , &a[i]);
}
printf(" Enter the elements of Array B\n");

for(i=0 ; i<n ; i++)
{
scanf("%d" , &b[i]);
}
for(i=0 ; i<n ; i++)

{
sum[i] = a[i] + b[i];
}
printf(" Sum of elements of A and B\n");

for(i=0 ; i<n ; i++)
{
printf("%d\n" , sum[i] );
}
}
5. This Program computes the Sum of Even and Odd Numbers stored in an Array
of N
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int i , even , odd , n;
printf("Enter the size of Array\n");
scanf("%d" , &n);
int num[n];
even = 0;
odd = 0;
printf(" Enter Array elements\n");
for(i=0 ; i<n ; i++)
{
scanf("%d" , &num[i]);
}
for(i=0 ; i<n ; i++)

{
if((num[i] %2) ==0)
{
even = even+num[i];
}
else
{
odd =odd+num[i];
}

}
printf(" Sum of even Numbers = %d\n" , even);
printf(" Sum of odd Numbers = %d\n" , odd);
}
2. Multidimensional Arrays:-
This multi dimensional arrays are classified into two dimensional, three dimensional
and so on n-dimensional array. The dimensionality of an array is determined by the
number of subscript present in the given array. If there is one subscript, then it is called a
one dimensional array. If there are two subscript, it is called a two-dimensional array and
so on. The dimensionality is determined by the number of pairs of square brackets placed
after the array name
Example
1. array1[] (one dimensional array)
2. array2[][] ( Two dimensional array)
3. array3[][][] (Three dimensional array)
Two dimensional array
It is an ordered table of homogeneous elements. It is generally, referred to as a matrix of

some rows and some columns. It is also called two subscripted variable.
Syntax
Datatype arrayname [rows][columns];
Example
int marks[5][3];
This first example specifies that the marks is two dimensional array of 5 rows and 3
columns. Row may represent students and the columns represent tests.
Student Tests Test 1 Test 2 Test 3

[0] [1] [2]
[0] 20 21 22
[1] 18 16 20
[2] 23 24 24
[3] 10 12 17
[4] 08 18 21

The subscript value ranges from 0 to (size-1). Therefore, the subscript value for student
varies from 0 to 4(5 students). Similarly, the subscript value for test varies from 0 to 2.
marks[0][0]=20 marks[0][1]=21 marks[0][2]=22
This indicates that for each row (Students number) element, the colums elements(tests)
are rapidly processed. This type of arrangement is known as row majoring or row major
order. And the column major order is one where for each column, the row elements are
rapidly processed.
Initialization of two dimensional array
Like initialization to a one dimensional array elements, the two dimensional array
elements can also be initialized at the time of declaration.
Syntax
Datatype arrayname[size1][size2]={e1,e2,e3,..en};
Example
Int matrix[3][3]={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9};
matrix[0][0]=1; matrix[0][1]=2; matrix[0][2]=3;
If the number of elements to be assigned are less than the total number of elements that
a two dimensional array has contained, then all the remaining elements of an array are
assigned to zeros
Points while initializing two dimensional array
1. The number of sets of initial value must be equal to the number of rows in the
arrayname.
2. One to one mapping is preserved. That is the first set of initial values is assigned to the
first row element and the second set of initial value is assigned to the second row
elements and so on
3.If the number of initial values in each initializing set is less than the number of the
corresponding row elements, then all the elements of that row are automatically assigned
to zeros.
4. If the number of initial value in each initializing set exceeds the number of the
corresponding row elements then there will be a compilation error.
Examples of Multidimensional Array In C

1. Write a C program to find sum of two matrix of order 2*2 using
multidimensional arrays where, elements of matrix are entered by user.
#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
float a[2][2], b[2][2], c[2][2];
int i,j;
printf("Enter the elements of 1st matrix\n");
/* Reading two dimensional Array with the help of two for loop. If there was
an array of 'n' dimension, 'n' numbers of loops are needed for inserting data
to array.*/
for(i=0;i<2;++i)
for(j=0;j<2;++j){
printf("Enter a%d%d: ",i+1,j+1);
scanf("%f",&a[i][j]);
}
printf("Enter the elements of 2nd matrix\n");
for(i=0;i<2;++i)
for(j=0;j<2;++j){
printf("Enter b%d%d: ",i+1,j+1);
scanf("%f",&b[i][j]);
}
for(i=0;i<2;++i)
for(j=0;j<2;++j){
/* Writing the elements of multidimensional array using loop. */
c[i][j]=a[i][j]+b[i][j]; /* Sum of corresponding elements of two arrays.
*/
}
printf("\nSum Of Matrix:");
for(i=0;i<2;++i)
for(j=0;j<2;++j){
printf("%.1f\t",c[i][j]);
if(j==1) /* To display matrix sum in order. */
printf("\n");
}
return 0;
}
Ouput
Enter the elements of 1st matrix

Enter a11: 2;
Enter a12: 0.5;
Enter a21: -1.1;
Enter a22: 2;
Enter the elements of 2nd matrix
Enter b11: 0.2;
Enter b12: 0;
Enter b21: 0.23;
Enter b22: 23;
Sum Of Matrix:
2.2 0.5
-0.9 25.0
2. C Program to Add Two Matrix in C programming

#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
int r,c,a[100][100],b[100][100],sum[100][100],i,j;
printf("Enter number of rows (between 1 and 100): ");
scanf("%d",&r);
printf("Enter number of columns (between 1 and 100): ");
scanf("%d",&c);
printf("\nEnter elements of 1st matrix:\n");
/* Storing elements of first matrix entered by user. */
for(i=0;i<r;++i)
for(j=0;j<c;++j)
{
printf("Enter element a%d%d: ",i+1,j+1);
scanf("%d",&a[i][j]);
}
/* Storing elements of second matrix entered by user. */
printf("Enter elements of 2nd matrix:\n");

for(i=0;i<r;++i)
for(j=0;j<c;++j)
{
printf("Enter element a%d%d: ",i+1,j+1);
scanf("%d",&b[i][j]);
}
/*Adding Two matrices */
for(i=0;i<r;++i)
for(j=0;j<c;++j)
sum[i][j]=a[i][j]+b[i][j];
/* Displaying the resultant sum matrix. */

printf("\nSum of two matrix is: \n\n");
for(i=0;i<r;++i)
for(j=0;j<c;++j)
{
printf("%d ",sum[i][j]);
if(j==c-1)
printf("\n\n");
}
return 0;
}
Output:
Enter element a12: -4

Enter element a21: 8
Enter elements of 2nd matrix:
Enter element a12: -7

Sum of two matrix is:
8 -11
17 6
5 5
3. C Program to multiply to matrix in C programming

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a[10][10], b[10][10], mult[10][10], r1, c1, r2, c2, i, j, k;
printf("Enter rows and column for first matrix: ");
scanf("%d%d", &r1, &c1);
printf("Enter rows and column for second matrix: ");
scanf("%d%d",&r2, &c2);
/* If colum of first matrix in not equal to row of second matrix, asking user
to enter the size of matrix again. */
while (c1!=r2)
{
printf("Error! column of first matrix not equal to row of second.\n\n");
printf("Enter rows and column for first matrix: ");
scanf("%d%d", &r1, &c1);
printf("Enter rows and column for second matrix: ");
scanf("%d%d",&r2, &c2);
}
/* Storing elements of first matrix. */

printf("\nEnter elements of matrix 1:\n");
for(i=0; i<r1; ++i)
for(j=0; j<c1; ++j)
{
printf("Enter elements a%d%d: ",i+1,j+1);
scanf("%d",&a[i][j]);
}
/* Storing elements of second matrix. */

printf("\nEnter elements of matrix 2:\n");
for(i=0; i<r2; ++i)
for(j=0; j<c2; ++j)
{
printf("Enter elements b%d%d: ",i+1,j+1);
scanf("%d",&b[i][j]);
}
/* Initializing elements of matrix mult to 0.*/

for(i=0; i<r1; ++i)
for(j=0; j<c2; ++j)
{
mult[i][j]=0;
}
10 | P a g e Developed By: Thilak Reddy

/* Multiplying matrix a and b and storing in array mult. */
for(i=0; i<r1; ++i)
for(j=0; j<c2; ++j)
for(k=0; k<c1; ++k)
{
mult[i][j]+=a[i][k]*b[k][j];
}
/* Displaying the multiplication of two matrix. */

printf("\nOutput Matrix:\n");
for(i=0; i<r1; ++i)
for(j=0; j<c2; ++j)
{
printf("%d ",mult[i][j]);
if(j==c2-1)
printf("\n\n");
}
return 0;
}
Output
Enter rows and column for first matrix: 3

2
Enter rows and column for second matrix: 3
2
Error! column of first matrix not equal to row of second.
Enter rows and column for first matrix: 2

3
Enter rows and column for second matrix: 3
2
Enter elements of matrix 1:

Enter elements a11: 3
Enter elements a12: -2
Enter elements of matrix 2:

Enter elements b11: 2
Enter elements b21: -9
Output Matrix:
24 29
6 25
Sorting techniques

• Sorting is a process that organizes a collection of data into either ascending or
descending order.
• An internal sort requires that the collection of data fit entirely in the computer’s
main memory.
• We can use an external sort when the collection of data cannot fit in the
computer’s main memory all at once but must reside in secondary storage such as
on a disk.
• We will analyze only internal sorting algorithms.
• Any significant amount of computer output is generally arranged in some sorted
order so that it can be interpreted.
• Sorting also has indirect uses. An initial sort of the data can significantly enhance
the performance of an algorithm.
• Majority of programming projects use a sort somewhere, and in many cases, the
sorting cost determines the running time.
• A comparison-based sorting algorithm makes ordering decisions only on the basis
of comparisons.
There are 3 sorting types are there
1. Selection sort
2. Bubble sort
3. Insertion sort
Selection Sort Algorithm In Programming

Selection sort algorithm starts by comparing first two elements of an array and swapping
if necessary, i.e., if you want to sort the elements of array in ascending order and if the
first element is greater than second then, you need to swap the elements but, if the first
element is smaller than second, leave the elements as it is. Then, again first element and
third element are compared and swapped if necessary. This process goes on until first
and last element of an array is compared. This completes the first step of selection sort.
If there are n elements to be sorted then, the process mentioned above should be
repeated n-1times to get required result. But, for better performance, in second step,
comparison starts from second element because after first step, the required number is
automatically placed at the first (i.e, In case of sorting in ascending order, smallest
element will be at first and in case of sorting in descending order, largest element will be
at first.). Similarly, in third step, comparison starts from third element and so on.

C Program to Sort Elements Using Selection Sort Algorithm
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int i,n,j,temp;
printf("Enter the number of elements to be sorted: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
int data[n];
for(i=0;i<n;++i)
{
printf("%d. Enter element: ",i+1);
scanf("%d",&data[i]);
}
for(i=0;i<n-1;i++)
for(j=i+1;j<n;j++)
{
if(data[i]>data[j])
/* To sort in descending order, change > to <. */
{
temp=data[i];
data[i]=data[j];
data[j]=temp;
}
}
printf("In ascending order: ");
for(i=0;i<n;++i)
printf("%d ",data[i]);
return 0;
}
Output
Enter the number of elements to be sorted: 5

1. Enter element: 12
2. Enter element: 1
4. Enter element: 2
5. Enter element: 0
In ascending order: 0 1 2 12 23
Selection sort algorithm is easy to use but, there are other sorting algorithm which
perform better than selection sort. Specially, selection sort shouldn't be used to sort
large number of elements if the performance matters in that program.

Bubble Sort Algorithm in Programming
Bubble sort algorithm starts by comparing the first two elements of an array and
swapping if necessary, i.e., if you want to sort the elements of array in ascending order
and if the first element is greater than second then, you need to swap the elements but,
if the first element is smaller than second, you mustn't swap the element. Then, again
second and third elements are compared and swapped if it is necessary and this process
go on until last and second last element is compared and swapped. This completes the
first step of bubble sort.
If there are n elements to be sorted then, the process mentioned above should be
repeated n-1times to get required result.
/*C Program To Sort data in ascending order using bubble sort.*/

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int data[100],i,n,j,temp;
printf("Enter the number of elements to be sorted: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=0;i<n;++i)
{
printf("Enter element: ");
}
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {

for (j = 0; j < n - 1; j++) {
if (iarr[j] > iarr[j + 1]) {
temp = iarr[j];
iarr[j] = iarr[j + 1];
iarr[j + 1] = temp;
}
}
}

for(i=0;i<n;++i)
return 0;
}
Output
Enter the number of elements to be sorted: 6

2. Enter element: 3
3. Enter element: 0
4. Enter element: -3
5. Enter element: 1
6. Enter element: -9
In ascending order: -9 -3 0 1 3 13
Insertion Sort:-
Insertion sort is a simple sorting algorithm that builds the final sorted array (or list)
one item at a time. It is much less efficient on large lists than more advanced algorithms
such as quicksort, heapsort, or merge sort. However, insertion sort provides several
advantages:
 Simple implementation: Bentley shows a three-line C version, and a five-line

optimized version[1]:116
 Efficient for (quite) small data sets, much like other quadratic sorting algorithms
 More efficient in practice than most other simple quadratic (i.e., O(n2)) algorithms
such as selection sort or bubble sort
 Adaptive, i.e., efficient for data sets that are already substantially sorted: the time
complexity is O(nk) when each element in the input is no more than k places away
from its sorted position
 Stable; i.e., does not change the relative order of elements with equal keys
 In-place; i.e., only requires a constant amount O(1) of additional memory space
 Online; i.e., can sort a list as it receives it
Insertion sort working:-

Explanation
Suppose, you want to sort elements in ascending as in above figure. Then,
1. Step 1: The second element of an array is compared with the elements that appears
before it (only first element in this case). If the second element is smaller than first
element, second element is inserted in the position of first element. After first step, first
two elements of an array will be sorted.
2. Step 2: The third element of an array is compared with the elements that appears
before it (first and second element). If third element is smaller than first element, it is
inserted in the position of first element. If third element is larger than first element but,
smaller than second element, it is inserted in the position of second element. If third
element is larger than both the elements, it is kept in the position as it is. After second
step, first three elements of an array will be sorted.
3. Step 3: Similary, the fourth element of an array is compared with the elements that
appears before it (first, second and third element) and the same procedure is applied and
that element is inserted in the proper position. After third step, first four elements of an
array will be sorted.
If there are n elements to be sorted. Then, this procedure is repeated n-1 times to get
sorted list of array.
C Program Sort Elements Using Insertion Sort Algorithm
/*Sorting Elements of an array in ascending order using insertion sort algorithm*/

#include<stdio.h>
int main()

{
int data[100],n,temp,i,j;
printf("Enter number of terms(should be less than 100): ");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("Enter elements: ");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
}
for(i=1;i<n;i++)
{
temp = data[i];
j=i-1;
while(temp<data[j] && j>=0)
/*To sort elements in descending order, change temp<data[j] to
temp>data[j] in above line.*/
{
data[j+1] = data[j];
--j;
}
data[j+1]=temp;
}
for(i=0; i<n; i++)
printf("%d\t",data[i]);
return 0;
}
Note: Though this program is in C, insertion sort algorithm can be similarly used in other
programming language as well.
Output
Enter number of terms(should be less than 100): 5
Enter elements: 12
1
2
5
3
In ascending order: 1 2 3 5 12
Here is another source code that uses the same insertion sort algorithm
technique to sort elements of an array.
/*This source code is also the implemention of insertion sort algorithm to sort elements
of array.*/
/*This program is little complex because it contains multiple loops.*/
/*Program to Sort array in descending order*/
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int data[100],n,i,j,hold,k;

printf("Enter number of terms(should be less than 100): ");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("Enter elements: ");
for(i=0;i<=n-1;++i)
{
}
for(i=1;i<=n-1;++i)
{
for(j=0;j<i;++j)
if(data[j]<data[i])
/*To sort elements in ascending order change < to > in above line.*/
{
hold=data[i];
k=i;
while(k!=j)
{
data[k]=data[k-1];
--k;
}
data[j]=hold;
}
}
printf("In descending Order: ");
for(i=0;i<=n-1;++i)
{
}
return 0;
}
Searching in C
Linear Search:-
In Linear Search the list is searched sequentially and the position is returned if the
key element to be searched is available in the list, otherwise -1 is returned. The search in
Linear Search starts at the beginning of an array and move to the end, testing for a
match at each item.
All the elements preceding the search element are traversed before the search
element is traversed. i.e. if the element to be searched is in position 10, all elements
form 1-9 are checked before 10.
Algorithm : Linear search implementation
Linear Search ( Array A, Value x)
Step 1: Set i to 1

Step 2: if i > n then go to step 7
Step 3: if A[i] = x then go to step 6
Step 4: Set i to i + 1
Step 5: Go to Step 2
Step 6: Print Element x Found at index i and go to step 8
Step 7: Print element not found
Step 8: Exit
Example:-
/* C Program to search any element or number in an array */

#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main(){
int inputArray[100], elementCount, counter, num;
printf("Enter Number of Elements in Array\n");
scanf("%d", &elementCount);
printf("Enter %d numbers \n", elementCount);
/* Read array elements */
for(counter = 0; counter < elementCount; counter++){
scanf("%d", &inputArray[counter]);
}
printf("Enter a number to serach in Array\n");
scanf("%d", &num);
/* search num in inputArray from index 0 to elementCount-1 */
for(counter = 0; counter < elementCount; counter++){
if(inputArray[counter] == num){
printf("Number %d found at index %d\n", num, counter);
break;
}
}
if(counter == elementCount){
printf("Number %d Not Present in Input Array\n", num);
}
getch();
return 0;
}

Example:-
Assume the element 45 is searched from a sequence of sorted elements 12, 18,
25, 36, 45, 48, 50. The Linear search starts from the first element 12, since the value to
be searched is not 12 (value 45), the next element 18 is compared and is also not 45, by
this way all the elements before 45 are compared and when the index is 5, the element
45 is compared with the search value and is equal, hence the element is found and the
element position is 5.
Binary Search:-
Binary search is a fast search algorithm with run-time complexity of Ο(log n). This
search algorithm works on the principle of divide and conquer. For this algorithm to work
properly the data collection should be in sorted form.
Binary search search a particular item by comparing the middle most item of the
collection. If match occurs then index of item is returned. If middle item is greater than
item then item is searched in sub-array to the right of the middle item otherwise item is
search in sub-array to the left of the middle item. This process continues on sub-array as
well until the size of sub array reduces to zero.
Working Binary Search:-

For a binary search to work, it is mandatory for the target array to be sorted. We shall
learn the process of binary search with an pictorial example. The below given is our
sorted array and assume that we need to search location of value 31 using binary
search.
First, we shall determine the half of the array by using this formula −
mid = low + (high - low) / 2

Here it is, 0 + (9 - 0 ) / 2 = 4 (integer value of 4.5). So 4 is the mid of array.
Now we compare the value stored at location 4, with the value being searched i.e. 31.
We find that value at location 4 is 27, which is not a match. Because value is greater
than 27 and we have a sorted array so we also know that target value must be in upper
portion of the array.
We change our low to mid + 1 and find the new mid value again.
low = mid + 1
mid = low + (high - low) / 2
Our new mid is 7 now. We compare the value stored at location 7 with our target value
31.
The value stored at location 7 is not a match, rather it is less that what we are looking
for. So the value must be in lower part from this location.
So we calculate the mid again. This time it is 5.
We compare the value stored ad location 5 with our target value. We find that it is a
match.

We conclude that the target value 31 is stored at location 5.
Binary search halves the searchable items and thus reduces the count of comparisons to
be made to very less numbers.
Binary Search Code:-

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int c, first, last, middle, n, search, array[100];
printf("Enter number of elements\n");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("Enter %d integers\n", n);
for (c = 0; c < n; c++)

scanf("%d",&array[c]);
printf("Enter value to find\n");

scanf("%d", &search);
first = 0;
last = n - 1;
middle = (first+last)/2;
while (first <= last) {

if (array[middle] < search)
first = middle + 1;
else if (array[middle] == search) {
printf("%d found at location %d.\n", search, middle+1);
break;
}
else
last = middle - 1;
middle = (first + last)/2;

}
if (first > last)
printf("Not found! %d is not present in the list.\n", search);
return 0;
}

Designing structured programming
If the length of a program is too big, it is very difficult for the programmer to
handle it. Normally, large programs are more prone to error and it would be a tedious
job to locate and correct the error. Therefore, such programs should be broken down
into a number of smaller logical components, each of which serves a specific task.
The process of splitting the lengthy and complex programs into a number of
smaller units is called modularization. Programming with such an approach is called
modular programming.
Function Definition
A function is a block of code that performs a specific task. Suppose you are
defining a function which computes the square of a given number. Then we have to
write a set of instructions to do this job.
Types of functions in C programming

Depending on whether a function is defined by the user or already included in C
compilers, there are two types of functions in C programming
There are two types of functions in C programming:
 Standard library functions

 User defined functions
Standard library functions

The standard library functions are in-built functions in C programming to handle
tasks such as mathematical computations, I/O processing, string handling etc.
These functions are defined in the header file. When you include the header file, these
functions are available for use. For example:
The printf() is a standard library function to send formatted output to the screen
(display output on the screen). This function is defined in "stdio.h" header file.
There are other numerous library functions defined under "stdio.h", such as scanf(),
printf(), getchar() etc. Once you include "stdio.h" in your program, all these functions
are available for use.
User-defined functions
As mentioned earlier, C language allows programmer to define functions. Such
functions created by the user are called user-defined functions.
Depending upon the complexity and requirement of the program, you can create as
many user-defined functions as you want.
Advantages of user-defined function

1. The program will be easier to understand, maintain and debug.
2. Reusable codes that can be used in other programs
3. A large program can be divided into smaller modules. Hence, a large project can
be divided among many programmers.
How user-defined function works?

The execution of a C program begins from the main() function. When the compiler
encounters functionName(); inside the main function, control of the program jumps to
void functionName() And, the compiler starts executing the codes inside the user-
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defined function. The control of the program jumps to statement next to
functionName(); once all the codes inside the function definition are executed.
Remember, function name is an identifier and should be unique.
Example
Calculating Factorial
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int n, f;
int fact(int x); /* Function Prototype declaration */
printf("Enter value of n\n");

scanf("%d",&n);
f=fact(n);/* calling with single arg here n is actual arg */
printf("Factorial value = %d\n",f);
}
/* Function Definition (called function) */
int fact(int x)
{
int i,r=1;
for(i=1;i<=x;i++)
r=r*i;
return(r); // return statement
Function prototype
A function prototype is simply the declaration of a function that specifies function's
name, parameters and return type. It doesn't contain function body.
A function prototype gives information to the compiler that the function may later be
used in the program.
Syntax of function prototype

returnType functionName(type1 argument1, type2 argument2,...);
In the above example, int addNumbers(int a, int b); is the function prototype which
provides following information to the compiler:
1. name of the function is add()

2. return type of the function is int
3. two arguments of type int are passed to the function
The function prototype is not needed if the user-defined function is defined before the
main() function.
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Calling a function
Control of the program is transferred to the user-defined function by calling it.
Syntax of function call

functionName(argument1, argument2, ...);
In the above example, function call is made using fact(n);statement from inside the
main().
Function definition
Function definition contains the block of code to perform a specific task.
Syntax of function definition

returnType functionName(type1 argument1, type2 argument2, ...)
{
//body of the function
}
When a function is called, the control of the program is transferred to the function
definition. And, the compiler starts executing the codes inside the body of a function.
Passing arguments to a function
Arguments and parameters are the variable used in a program and a function. Variable
used in the function cal are called arguments. These are written within the
parentheses followed by the name of the function. Variables used in the function
definition are called parameters.
In programming, argument refers to the variable passed to the function. In the above
example, one variable n is passed during function call.
The parameter x accepts the passed arguments in the function definition. These
argument is called formal parameters of the function.
The type of arguments passed to a function and the formal parameters must match,
otherwise the compiler throws error.
If n is of char type, x also should be of char type. If n is of float type, variable b also
should be of float type.
Return statement
The return statement terminates the execution of a function and returns a value to the
calling function. The program control is transferred to the calling function after return
statement.
In the above example, the value of variable r is returned to the variable f in the
main() function.
Syntax of return statement

return (expression);
user-defined functions can be categorized as:
 Function with no arguments and no return value
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 Function with no arguments and a return value
 Function with arguments and no return value
 Function with arguments and a return value.
Example #1: No arguments passed and no return Value

#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
fact();/* No arguments */
}
int fact()
{
int i,r=1,x;
printf("Enter a number");
scanf("%d",&x);
for(i=1;i<=x;i++)
{
r=r*i;
}
printf("Factorial of a given number is %d",r); // No return statement
}
The empty parentheses in fact(); statement inside the main() function indicates that
no argument is passed to the function
The return type of the function is void. Hence, no value is returned from the function.
The fact() function takes input from the user, Calculating the factorial of a given
number and displays it on the screen.
Example #2: No arguments passed but a return value
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int f;
f=fact();/* No arguments */
printf("Factorial of a given number is %d",f);
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}
int fact()
{
int i,r=1,x;
scanf("%d",&x);
for(i=1;i<=x;i++)
{
r=r*i;
}
}
The empty parentheses in f = fact(); statement indicates that no argument is passed
to the function. And, the value returned from the function is assigned to f.
Example #3: Argument passed but no return value
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int f,n;
scanf("%d",&n);
f=fact(n);//Passing arguments
}
fact(int x)
{
int i,r=1;
for(i=1;i<=x;i++)
{
r=r*i;
}
printf("Factorial of a given number is %d",r)//No retrun statemet;
+
+++}
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The integer value entered by the user is passed to fact() function.
Here, the fact() function calculate the factorial of a given number and displays the
appropriate message.
Example #4: Argument passed and a return value

#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int n, f;
int fact(int x); /* Function Prototype declaration */
printf("Enter value of n\n");

scanf("%d",&n);
f=fact(n);/* calling with single arg here n is actual arg */
printf("Factorial value = %d\n",f);
}
/* Function Definition (called function) */
int fact(int x)
{
int i,r=1;
for(i=1;i<=x;i++)
r=r*i;
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The input from the user is passed to fact() function.
The fact() function calculate the factorial of a given number.The return value is
assigned to variable f.
Then, the appropriate message is displayed from the main() function.

Inter function communication
In the above programs arguments are passed to the functions and their values are
copied in the corresponding function. This is sort of information interchange between a
calling function and a called function. This process of transmitting the values from one
function to other is known as parameter passing. There are two methods of
parameters passing.
1. Call by value
2. Call by reference
1. Call by value
When the values of the arguments are passed from a calling function to a called
function, the values are copied into the called function. If any changes are made to the
values in the called function, there will not be any change in the original values within
the calling function.
Example
#include<stdio.h>
void interchange(int number1,int number2)
{
int temp;
temp = number1;
number1 = number2;
number2 = temp;
}
int main() {
int num1=50,num2=70;
interchange(num1,num2);
printf("\nNumber 1 : %d",num1);
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return(0);
}
Output :
Number 1 : 50
Number 2 : 70
Explanation
1. While Passing Parameters using call by value , xerox copy of original parameter is
created and passed to the called function.
2. Any update made inside method will not affect the original value of variable in calling
function.
3. In the above example num1 and num2 are the original values and xerox copy of these values
is passed to the function and these values are copied into number1,number2 variable of sum
function respectively.
4. As their scope is limited to only function so they cannot alter the values inside main
function.
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2. Call by reference
In this method, the actual values are not passed, instead their addresses are passed to
a calling function. Here, no values are copied as the memory locations themselves are
referenced. If any modification is made to the values in the called function, then the
original values will get changed within the calling function.
Example
#include<stdio.h>
void interchange(int *num1,int *num2)
int temp;
temp = *num1;
*num1 = *num2;
*num2 = temp;
int main() {
int num1=50,num2=70;
interchange(&num1,&num2);
return(0);
Output :
Number 1 : 70
Number 2 : 50
Explanation
1. While passing parameter using call by address scheme , we are passing the actual address
of the variable to the called function.
2. Any updates made inside the called function will modify the original copy since we are
directly modifying the content of the exact memory location.
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C Standard Library Functions
C Standard library functions or simply C Library functions are inbuilt functions in C
programming. Function prototype and data definitions of these functions are written in
their respective header file. For example: If you want to use printf() function, the
header file <stdio.h> should be included.
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
/* If you write printf() statement without including header file, this program will show
error. */
printf("Catch me if you can.");
}
There is at least one function in any C program, i.e., the main() function (which is also
a library function). This program is called at program starts.
There are many library functions available in C programming to help the programmer
to write a good efficient program.
Suppose, you want to find the square root of a number. You can write your own piece
of code to find square root but, this process is time consuming and the code you have
written may not be the most efficient process to find square root. But, in C
programming you can find the square root by just using sqrt() function which is
defined under header file "math.h"
Use Of Library Function To Find Square root
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main(){
float num,root;
printf("Enter a number to find square root.");
scanf("%f",&num);
root=sqrt(num); /* Computes the square root of num and stores in root. */
printf("Square root of %.2f=%.2f",num,root);
return 0;
}
List of Standard Library Functions Under Different Header Files in C
Programming
1. stdio.h: I/O functions:
a. getchar()returns the next character typed on the keyboard.
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b. putchar()outputs a single character to the screen.
c. printf()to print the statement
d. scanf()to read the value from key board
2. string.h: String functions
a. strcat()concatenates a copy of str2 to str1
b. strcmp()compares two strings
c. strcpy()copys contents of str2 to str1
2 ctype.h: Character functions
a. isdigit()returns non-0 if arg is digit 0 to 9
b. isalpha()returns non-0 if arg is a letter of the alphabet
c. isalnum()returns non-0 if arg is a letter or digit
d. islower()returns non-0 if arg is lowercase letter
e. isupper()returns non-0 if arg is uppercase letter
2 math.h: Mathematics functions
a. acos()returns arc cosine of arg
b. asin()returns arc sine of arg
c. atan()returns arc tangent of arg
d. cos()returns cosine of arg
e. exp()returns natural logarithim e
f. fabs()returns absolute value of num
g. sqrt()returns square root of num
2 time.h: Time and Date functions
a. time()returns current calender time of system
b. difftime()returns difference in secs between two times
c. clock()returns number of system clock cycles since program execution
2 stdlib.h:Miscellaneous functions
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a. malloc()provides dynamic memory allocation, covered in future sections
b. rand()as already described previously
c. srand()used to set the starting point for rand()
Scope Rules
A scope in any programming is a region of the program where a defined variable can
have its existence and beyond that variable it cannot be accessed. There are three
places where variables can be declared in C programming language −
 Inside a function or a block which is called local variables.
 Outside of all functions which is called global variables.
 In the definition of function parameters which are called formalparameters.
Storage Classes
There are four storage classes in c. These storage classes are used to define the scope
and the life-time of the variable and/or functions.
1. automatic or local variables

2. external or global variables
3. static Variables
4. register Variables
Automatic or Local Variable

All variables declared are of type Auto by default. The local variables exist only inside the
function in which it is declared. When the function exits, the local variables are
destroyed.In order to Explicit declaration of variable use ‘auto’ keyword.
Example
#include<stdio.h>
int i=10; //Global declaration
void main()
{
int j;
auto k=50;//local variable
printf ("i=%d",i);
j=value(k);
printf("j=%d",j);
}
//function to compute values
int value(int a)
{
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int k;
k=a+10;
return(k);
//End of the function
}
Output
i=10
j=60
External or Global Variable

Variables that are declared outside of all functions are known as external variables.
External or global variables are accessible to any function. Generally , External variables
are declared again in the function using keyword extern
Example1:
#include<stdio.h>
int num = 75 ;
void display();
void main()
{
//extern int num ;
printf("nNum : %d",num);
display();
}
void display()
{
//extern int num ;
printf("nNum : %d",num);
}
1. Declaration within the function indicates that the function uses external
variable
2. Functions belonging to same source code , does not require declaration
(no need to write extern)
3. If variable is defined outside the source code , then declaration using
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extern keyword is required
Example 2:
#include<stdio.h>
int i=10; //Global declaration
void main()
int j;
printf ("i=%d",i);
j=value();
printf("j=%d",j);
//function to compute values
int value()
int k;
k=i+10;//i is not declared in the function because it is a global variable
return(k);
//End of the function
Output
i=10
j=20
Register Variable
1. register keyword is used to define local variable.
2. Local variable are stored in register instead of RAM.
3. As variable is stored in register, the Maximum size of variable = Maximum Size of
Register
4. unary operator [&] is not associated with it because Value is not stored in RAM instead it is
stored in Register.
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5. This is generally used for faster access.
6. Common use is “Counter“
7. It is not applicable for arrays, structures or pointers.
Syntax
{
register int count;
}
Example
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int num1,num2;
register int sum;
printf("\nEnter the Number 1 : ");

scanf("%d",&num1);
printf("\nEnter the Number 2 : ");

scanf("%d",&num2);
sum = num1 + num2;
printf("\nSum of Numbers : %d",sum);
return(0);
}
Explanation of program
1. In the above program we have declared two variables num1,num2. These two variables are
stored in RAM.
2. Another variable is declared which is stored in register variable.Register variables are stored
in the register of the microprocessor.Thus memory access will be faster than other variables.
3. If we try to declare more register variables then it can treat variables as Auto storage
variables as memory of microprocessor is fixed and limited.
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Static Variable
Static variables have a property of preserving their value even after they are out of their scope!
Hence, static variables preserve their previous value in their previous scope and are not initialized
again in the new scope .A static int variable remains in memory while the program is running. A
normal or auto variable is destroyed when a function call where the variable was declared is over.
Syntax:
static data_type var_name = var_value;
Example 1:Noramal Variable
#include<stdio.h>
int fun()
{
int count = 0;
count++;
return count;
}
int main()
{
printf("%d ", fun());
printf("%d ", fun());
return 0;
//A normal or auto variable is destroyed when a function call where the variable was declared is
over.
}
Output
11
Example 2: Static Variable

#include <stdio.h>
void display();
int main()
{
display();
display();
}
void display()
{
static int c = 0;
printf("%d ",c);
c += 5;
//A static int variable remains in memory while the program is running.
}
Output
0 5
During the first function call, the value of c is equal to 0. Then, it's value is
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increased by 5.
During the second function call, variable c is not initialized to 0 again. It's
because c is a static variable. So, 5 is displayed on the screen.
Type Qualifiers
The keywords which are used to modify the properties of a variable are called type
qualifiers.There are two types of qualifiers available in C language. They are,
1. constant Keyword
2. volatile Keyword
1. CONST KEYWORD:
Constants are also like normal variables. But, only difference is, their values can’t be
modified by the program once they are defined.
They refer to fixed values. They are also called as literals.
They may be belonging to any of the data type.
Syntax:
const data_type variable_name; (or) const data_type *variable_name;
Please refer C – Constants topic in this tutorial for more details on const keyword.
2. VOLATILE KEYWORD:
When a variable is defined as volatile, the program may not change the value of the
variable explicitly.
But, these variable values might keep on changing without any explicit assignment by
the program. These types of qualifiers are called volatile.
For example, if global variable’s address is passed to clock routine of the operating
system to store the system time, the value in this address keep on changing without
any assignment by the program. These variables are named as volatile variable.
Syntax:
volatile data_type variable_name; (or) volatile data_type *variable_name;
C Programming Recursion
A function that calls itself is known as recursive function. And, this technique is known
as recursion. That is a function which perform a particular task is repeatedly calling
itself. There must be an exclusive stopping statement(terminating condition) in a
recursive function .Otherwise, the function will not be terminated. It enters into an
infinite loop.
Example
#include <stdio.h>
long int multiplyNumbers(int n);
int main()
{
int n;
printf("Enter a positive integer: ");
scanf("%d", &n);
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printf("Factorial of %d = %ld", n, multiplyNumbers(n));
return 0;
}
long int multiplyNumbers(int n)
{
if (n >= 1)
return n*multiplyNumbers(n-1);// multiplyNumbers function calls itself
else
return 1;
}
Advantages and Disadvantages of Recursion
Recursion makes program elegant and cleaner. All algorithms can be defined
recursively which makes it easier to visualize and prove.
If the speed of the program is vital then, you should avoid using recursion. Recursions
use more memory and are generally slow.
C – Preprocessors
The C Preprocessor is not a part of the compiler, but is a separate step in the
compilation process. In simple terms, a C Preprocessor is just a text substitution tool
and it instructs the compiler to do required pre-processing before the actual
compilation. We'll refer to the C Preprocessor as CPP.
All preprocessor commands begin with a hash symbol (#). It must be the first
nonblank character, and for readability, a preprocessor directive should begin in the
first column. The following section lists down all the important preprocessor directives
−
Directive Description
#define Substitutes a preprocessor macro.
#include Inserts a particular header from another file.
#undef Undefines a preprocessor macro.
#ifdef Returns true if this macro is defined.
#ifndef Returns true if this macro is not defined.
#if Tests if a compile time condition is true.
#else The alternative for #if.
#elif #else and #if in one statement.
#endif Ends preprocessor conditional.
Predefined Macros
ANSI C defines a number of macros. Although each one is available for use in
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programming, the predefined macros should not be directly modified.
Example
#include <stdio.h>
main() {
printf("File :%s\n", __FILE__ );
printf("Date :%s\n", __DATE__ );
printf("Time :%s\n", __TIME__ );
printf("Line :%d\n", __LINE__ );
printf("ANSI :%d\n", __STDC__ );
Macro Description
__DATE__ The current date as a character literal in "MMM DD YYYY" format.
__TIME__ The current time as a character literal in "HH:MM:SS" format.
__FILE__ This contains the current filename as a string literal.
__LINE__ This contains the current line number as a decimal constant.
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Strings
Definition
 C Strings are nothing but array of characters ended with null character (‘\0’).
 This null character indicates the end of the string.
 Strings are always enclosed by double quotes. Whereas, character is enclosed by single
quotes in C.
Declaration of strings
Before we actually work with strings, we need to declare them first. Strings are declared in a similar
manner as arrays. Only difference is that, strings are of char type.
Example
char s[5];
Initialization of strings
In C, string can be initialized in a number of different ways. For convenience and ease, both
initialization and declaration are done in the same step.
Example
char c[] = "abcd";

OR,
char c[50] = "abcd";
OR,
char c[] = {'a', 'b', 'c', 'd', '\0'};
OR,
char c[5] = {'a', 'b', 'c', 'd', '\0'};
Reading Strings from user
You can use the scanf() function to read a string like any other data types. But we don't use the
address of operator(&) while passing an array of character(strings) to a scanf() function because the
array name itself returns the starting address of the entire array.
However, the scanf() function only takes the first entered word. The function terminates when it
encounters a white space (or just space).
Example
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
char name[20];
printf("Enter name: ");
scanf("%s", name);
printf("Your name is %s.", name);
return 0;
}
Output
Enter name: Dennis Ritchie
Your name is Dennis.
Reading a line of text

An approach to reading a full line of text is to read and store each character one by one.
Using getchar() to read a line of text
using the function getchar(), ch gets a single character from the user each time. This process is
repeated until the user enters return (enter key). Finally, the null character is inserted at the end to
make it a string.
Example
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
char name[30], ch;
int i = 0;
while(ch != '\n') // terminates if user hit enter
{
ch = getchar();
name[i] = ch;
i++;
}
name[i] = '\0'; // inserting null character at end
printf("Name: %s", name);
return 0;
}
Using standard library function to read a line of text
There are predefined functions gets() and puts in C language to read and display string respectively.
Example
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
char name[30];
gets(name); //Function to read string from user.
printf("Name: ");
puts(name); //Function to display string.
return 0;
}
Output
Enter name: RGUKT IIIT
Name: RGUKT IIIT
Note: This gets() function is dangerous because there is no way for the method to know how much
place has been allocated to that char * in ever situation. Instead of gets() function you can use
fgets() function, which allows you to limit the number of characters read, so the buffer does not
overflow.
Example
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
char name[5];
fgets(name,5,stdin); //Function to read string from user.
printf("Name: ");
puts(name); //Function to display string.
return 0;
Passing Strings to Functions
Strings are just char arrays. So, they can be passed to a function in a similar manner as arrays.
Example
#include <stdio.h>
void displayString(char str[]);
int main()
{
char str[50];
printf("Enter string: ");
gets(str);
displayString(str); // Passing string c to function.
return 0;
void displayString(char str[]){
printf("String Output: ");
puts(str);
Example 1
Reverse of a given String
#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>
int main() {
char str[100], temp;
int i, j = 0;
printf("\nEnter the string :");

gets(str);
i = 0;
j = strlen(str) - 1;
while (i < j) {
temp = str[i];
str[i] = str[j];
str[j] = temp;
i++;
j--;
}
printf("\nReverse string is :%s", str);

return (0);
}
Example 2
Write a program to take a sentence as input and reverse every word of the sentence.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
void main()
int i, j = 0, k = 0, x, len;
char str[100], str1[10][20], temp;
printf("enter the string :");
scanf("%[^\n]s", str);
/* reads into 2d character array */
for (i = 0;str[i] != '\0'; i++)
if (str[i] == ' ')
str1[k][j]='\0';
k++;
j=0;
else
str1[k][j]=str[i];
j++;
str1[k][j] = '\0';
/* reverses each word of a given string */

for (i = 0;i <= k;i++)
len = strlen(str1[i]);
for (j = 0, x = len - 1;j < x;j++,x--)
temp = str1[i][j];
str1[i][j] = str1[i][x];
str1[i][x] = temp;
for (i = 0;i <= k;i++)
printf("%s ", str1[i]);
Example3
Program to count vowels, consonants etc.

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
char line[150];
int i, vowels, consonants, digits, spaces;
vowels = consonants = digits = spaces = 0;
printf("Enter a line of string: ");

scanf("%[^\n]", line);
for(i=0; line[i]!='\0'; ++i)

{
if(line[i]=='a' || line[i]=='e' || line[i]=='i' ||
line[i]=='o' || line[i]=='u' || line[i]=='A' ||
line[i]=='E' || line[i]=='I' || line[i]=='O' ||
line[i]=='U')
{
++vowels;
}
else if((line[i]>='a'&& line[i]<='z') || (line[i]>='A'&& line[i]<='Z'))
{
++consonants;
}
else if(line[i]>='0' && line[i]<='9')
{
++digits;
}
else if (line[i]==' ')
{
++spaces;
}
}
printf("Vowels: %d",vowels);
printf("\nConsonants: %d",consonants);
printf("\nDigits: %d",digits);
printf("\nWhite spaces: %d", spaces);
return 0;
}
Output
Enter a line of string: adfslkj34 34lkj343 34lk
Vowels: 1
Consonants: 11
Digits: 9
White spaces: 2
Example4
Remove Characters in String Except Alphabets
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
char line[150];
int i, j;
printf("Enter a string: ");
gets(line);
for(i = 0; line[i] != '\0'; ++i)

{
while (!( (line[i] >= 'a' && line[i] <= 'z') || (line[i] >= 'A' && line[i] <= 'Z') || line[i] == '\0') )
{
for(j = i; line[j] != '\0'; ++j)
{
line[j] = line[j+1];
}
line[j] = '\0';
}
}
printf("Output String: ");
puts(line);
return 0;
}
Output
Enter a string: google@google.com
Output String: googlegooglecom
Example 5
Find the Frequency of Characters
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
char str[1000], ch;
int i, frequency = 0;
printf("Enter a string: ");
gets(str);
printf("Enter a character to find the frequency: ");
scanf("%c",&ch);
for(i = 0; str[i] != '\0'; ++i)
{
if(ch == str[i])
++frequency;
}
printf("Frequency of %c = %d", ch, frequency);
return 0;
}
Output
Enter a string: This website is awesome.
Enter a character to find the frequency: e
Frequency of e = 4
C String functions:
String.h header file supports all the string functions in C language. All the string functions are given
below.
Strcat ( )
strcat( ) function in C language concatenates two given strings. It concatenates source string at the
end of destination string. Syntax for strcat( ) function is given below.
Example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main( )
{
char source[ ] = " Hello RGUKT" ;
char target[ ]= " Students" ;
printf ( "\nSource string = %s", source ) ;

printf ( "\nTarget string = %s", target ) ;
strcat ( target, source ) ;
printf ( "\nTarget string after strcat( ) = %s", target ) ;

}
Output
Target string after strcat( ) = Students Hello RGUKT
C – strncat()
strncat( ) function in C language concatenates (appends) portion of one string at the end of another
string.
Example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main( )
{
char source[ ] = " Hello RGUKT" ;
char target[ ]= " Students" ;
printf ( "\nSource string = %s", source ) ;

printf ( "\nTarget string = %s", target ) ;
strncat ( target, source,9) ;
printf ( "\nTarget string after strcat( ) = %s", target ) ;

}
Output
Target string after strcat( ) = Students Hello R

C – strcpy() function
strcpy( ) function copies contents of one string into another string. Syntax for strcpy function is
given below.
char * strcpy ( char * destination, const char * source );
 Example:
strcpy ( str1, str2) – It copies contents of str2 into str1.
strcpy ( str2, str1) – It copies contents of str1 into str2.
 If destination string length is less than source string, entire source string value won’t be
copied into destination string.
 For example, consider destination string length is 20 and source string length is 30. Then,
only 20 characters from source string will be copied into destination string and remaining 10
characters won’t be copied and will be truncated.
Example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main( )
{
char source[ ] = "Hello students" ;
char target[]= "" ;
printf ( "\nsource string = %s", source ) ;
printf ( "\ntarget string = %s", target ) ;
strcpy ( target, source ) ;
printf ( "\ntarget string after strcpy( ) = %s", target ) ;
return 0;
}
Output
source string = Hello students
target string =
target string after strcpy( ) = Hello students
C – strncpy() function
strncpy( ) function copies portion of contents of one string into another string.
Example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main( )
char source[ ] = "Hello Students" ;
char target[20]= "" ;
printf ( "\nsource string = %s", source ) ;
printf ( "\ntarget string = %s", target ) ;
strncpy ( target, source, 5 ) ;
printf ( "\ntarget string after strcpy( ) = %s", target ) ;
return 0;
Output
source string = Hello Students
target string =
target string after strcpy( ) = Hello
C – strlen() function
strlen( ) function in C gives the length of the given string.
 strlen( ) function counts the number of characters in a given string and returns the integer
value.
 It stops counting the character when null character is found. Because, null character
indicates the end of the string in C.
Example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main( )
int len;
char array[20]="RGUKT" ;
len = strlen(array) ;
printf ( "string length = %d \n" , len ) ;
return 0;
Output
string length = 5
C – strchr() function
strchr( ) function returns pointer to the first occurrence of the character in a given string.
Example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main ()
char string[55] ="This is a string for testing";
char *p;
p = strchr (string,'i');
printf ("Character i is found at position %d\n",p-string+1);
printf ("First occurrence of character \"i\" in \"%s\" is" \
" \"%s\"",string, p);
return 0;
}
Output
Character i is found at position 3
First occurrence of character “i” in “This is a string for testing” is “is is a string for testing”
C – strrchr() function
strrchr( ) function in C returns pointer to the last occurrence of the character in a given string.
Example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main ()
{
char string[55] ="This is a string for testing";
char *p;
p = strrchr (string,'i');
printf ("Character i is found at position %d\n",p-string+1);

printf ("Last occurrence of character \"i\" in \"%s\" is" \
" \"%s\"",string, p);
return 0;
}
Output
Character i is found at position 26

Last occurrence of character “i” in “This is a string for testing” is “ing”
C – strstr() function
strstr( ) function returns pointer to the first occurrence of the string in a given string.
Example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main ()
char string[55] ="This is a test string for testing";
char *p;
p = strstr (string,"test");
if(p)
printf("string found\n" );
printf ("First occurrence of string \"test\" in \"%s\" is"\
" \"%s\"",string, p);
else printf("string not found\n" );
return 0;
Output
string found
First occurrence of string “test” in “This is a test string for testing” is “test string for testing”
C – strrstr() function
strrstr( ) function returns pointer to the last occurrence of the string in a given string.
Example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main ()
{
char string[55] ="This is a test string for testing";
char *p;
p = strrstr (string,"test");
if(p)
printf("string found\n" );
printf ("Last occurrence of string \"test\" in \"%s\" is"\
" \"%s\"",string, p);
else printf("string not found\n" );
return 0;
}
Output
string found
Last occurrence of string “test” in “This is a test string for testing” is “testing”
C – strlwr() function
strlwr( ) function converts a given string into lowercase.
Example
#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>
int main()
{
char str[ ] = "MODIFY This String To LOwer";
printf("%s\n",strlwr (str));
return 0;
}
Output
modify this string to lower
C – strupr() function
strupr( ) function converts a given string into uppercase.
Example
#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>
int main()
{
char str[ ] = "Modify This String To Upper";
printf("%s\n",strupr(str));
return 0;
}
Output:
MODIFY THIS STRING TO UPPER

C – strtok() function
strtok( ) function in C tokenizes/parses the given string using delimiter
Example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main ()
char string[50] ="Test,string1,Test,string2:Test:string3";
char *p;
printf ("String \"%s\" is split into tokens:\n",string);
p = strtok (string,",:");
while (p!= NULL)
printf ("%s\n",p);
p = strtok (NULL, ",:");
return 0;
Output
String “Test,string1,Test,string2:Test:string3” is split into tokens:

Test
string1
Test
string2
Test
string3
C – strset() function
strset( ) function sets all the characters in a string to given character.
Example
#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>
int main()
char str[20] = "Test String";
printf("Original string is : %s", str);
printf("Test string after strset() : %s",strset(str,'#'));
printf("After string set: %s",str);
return 0;
Output
Original string is : Test String
Test string after strset() : ###########
C – strnset() function
strnset( ) function sets portion of characters in a string to given character
Example
#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>
int main()
char str[20] = "Test String";
printf("Original string is : %s", str);
printf("Test string after string n set" \
" : %s", strnset(str,'#',4));
printf("After string n set : %s", str);
return 0;
Output
Original string is : Test String
Test string after string set : #### String
C – strrev() function
strrev( ) function reverses a given string in C language.
Example
#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>
int main()
{
char name[30] = "Hello";
printf("String before strrev( ) : %s\n",name);
printf("String after strrev( ) : %s",strrev(name));
return 0;
}
Output
String before strrev( ) : Hello
String after strrev( ) : olleH

POINTERS
Introduction to Pointers
Pointers are variables that hold address of another variable of same data type. Pointers are
one of the most distinct and exciting features of C language. It provides power and flexibility to
the language.
Benefit of using pointers

 Pointers provide direct access to memory
 Pointers provide a way to return more than one value to the functions
 Reduces the storage space and complexity of the program
 Reduces the execution time of the program
 Provides an alternate way to access array elements
 Pointers can be used to pass information back and forth between the calling function and
called function.
 Pointers allow us to perform dynamic memory allocation and deallocation.
 Pointers helps us to build complex data structures like linked list, stack, queues, trees,
graphs etc.
 Pointers allows us to resize the dynamically allocated memory block.
 Addresses of objects can be extracted using pointers
Concept of Pointer
Whenever a variable is declared, system will allocate a location to that variable in the
memory, to hold value. This location will have its own address number.
Let us assume that system has allocated memory location 80F for a variable a.
Example:- int a = 10 ;
We can access the value 10 by either using the variable name a or the address 80F. Since the
memory addresses are simply numbers they can be assigned to some other variable. The variable
that holds memory address are called pointer variables. A pointer variable is therefore nothing
but a variable that contains an address, which is a location of another variable. Value of pointer
variable will be stored in another memory location.
Developed by: Thilak Reddy
Pointer variables
In C, there is a special variable that stores just the address of another variable. It is called
Pointer variable or, simply, a pointer.
Declaration of Pointer
Syntax:- data_type* pointer_variable_name;
Example:- int* p;
Key points to remember about pointers in C:

 Normal variable stores the value whereas pointer variable stores the address of the
variable.
 The content of the C pointer always be a whole number i.e. address.
 Always C pointer is initialized to null, i.e. int *p = null.
 The value of null pointer is 0.
 & symbol is used to get the address of the variable.
 * symbol is used to get the value of the variable that the pointer is pointing to.
 If pointer is assigned to NULL, it means it is pointing to nothing.
 Two pointers can be subtracted to know how many elements are available between these
two pointers.
 But, Pointer addition, multiplication, division are not allowed.
 The size of any pointer is 4 byte (for 32 bit compiler).

Reference operator (&) and Dereference operator (*)
The & is called reference operator. It gives you the address of a variable. Likewise, there is
another operator that gets you the value from the address, it is called a dereference operator (*).
Example
/* Source code to demonstrate, handling of pointers in C program */
#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
int* pc;
int c;
c=22;
printf("Address of c:%u\n",&c);
printf("Value of c:%d\n\n",c);
pc=&c;
printf("Address of pointer pc:%u\n",pc);
printf("Content of pointer pc:%d\n\n",*pc);
c=11;
printf("Address of pointer pc:%u\n",pc);
printf("Content of pointer pc:%d\n\n",*pc);
*pc=2;
printf("Address of c:%u\n",&c);
printf("Value of c:%d\n\n",c);
return 0;
}
Output
Address of c: 2686784
Value of c: 22
Address of pointer pc: 2686784

Content of pointer pc: 22
Address of pointer pc: 2686784

Content of pointer pc: 11
Address of c: 2686784
Value of c: 2
Pointers to Pointers
A pointer to a pointer is a form of multiple indirection, or a chain of pointers. Normally, a
pointer contains the address of a variable. When we define a pointer to a pointer, the first pointer
contains the address of the second pointer, which points to the location that contains the actual
value as shown below.
A variable that is a pointer to a pointer must be declared as such. This is done by placing
an additional asterisk in front of its name.
Declaration of pointer to pointer

Example:- int **var;
When a target value is indirectly pointed to by a pointer to a pointer, accessing that value
requires that the asterisk operator be applied twice
Example
#include <stdio.h>
int main () {
int var;
int *ptr;
int **pptr;
var = 3000;
/* take the address of var */
ptr = &var;
/* take the address of ptr using address of operator & */
pptr = &ptr;
/* take the value using pptr */
printf("Value of var = %d\n", var );
printf("Value available at *ptr = %d\n", *ptr );
printf("Value available at **pptr = %d\n", **pptr);
return 0;
}
Output
Value of var = 3000
Value available at *ptr = 3000
Value available at **pptr = 3000
Compatibility
The rules for assigning one pointer to another are tighter than the rules for numeric types.
For example, you can assign an int value to a double variable without using a type conversion,
but you can‟t do the same for pointers to these two types
Example
/*
* ptr_compatibility.c -- program illustrates concept of pointer
* compatibility
*/
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void)
{
int n = 5;

long double x;
int *pi = &n;

long double *pld = &x;
x = n; /* implicit type conversion */

pld = pi; /* compile-time error: assigning pointer-to-int to */
/* pointer-to-long-double */
return 0;
}
Void Pointers
 Suppose we have to declare integer pointer,character pointer and float pointer then we
need to declare 3 pointer variables.
 Instead of declaring different types of pointer variable it is feasible to declare single
pointer variable which can act as integer pointer,character pointer.
 Advantage of void pointers is this allows these functions to be used to allocate memory
of any data type.
 Disadvantage of void pointers is void pointers cannot be dereferenced
Example
int main()
{
int a = 10;
void *ptr = &a; // void pointer holds address of int 'a'
printf("%d", *ptr);
return 0;
}
Arrays and Pointers

Arrays are closely related to pointers in C programming but the important difference
between them is that, a pointer variable takes different addresses as value whereas, in case of
array it is fixed. There may be a situation when we want to maintain an array, which can store
pointers to an int or char or any other data type available.
Example
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
char charArr[4];
int i;
for(i = 0; i < 4; ++i)

{
printf("Address of charArr[%d] = %u\n", i, &charArr[i]);
}
return 0;
}
Output
Address of charArr[0] = 28ff44
Relation between Arrays and Pointers

int arr[4];
The name of the array always points to address of the first element of an array. In the above
example, arr and &arr[0] points to the address of the first element.
&arr[0] is equivalent to arr
Since, the addresses of both are the same, the values of arr and &arr[0] are also the same.
arr[0] is equivalent to *arr (value of an address of the pointer)
Similarly,
&arr[1] is equivalent to (arr + 1) AND, arr[1] is equivalent to *(arr + 1).
.
.
&arr[i] is equivalent to (arr + i) AND, arr[i] is equivalent to *(arr + i).
In C, you can declare an array and can use pointer to alter the data of an array.
Example
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int i, classes[6],sum = 0;
printf("Enter 6 numbers:\n");
for(i = 0; i < 6; ++i)
{
// (classes + i) is equivalent to &classes[i]
scanf("%d",(classes + i));
// *(classes + i) is equivalent to classes[i]
sum += *(classes + i);
}
return 0;
}
Output
Enter 6 numbers:
2
3
4
5
3
4
Sum = 21
Constant Pointers
A constant pointer is a pointer that cannot change the address its holding. In other words,
we can say that once a constant pointer points to a variable then it cannot point to any other
variable.
Syntax:- <type of pointer> * const <name of pointer>
Example:- int * const ptr;
Example:-
#include<stdio.h>
int main(void)
{
int var1 = 0, var2 = 0;
int *const ptr = &var1;
ptr = &var2;
printf("%d\n", *ptr);
return 0;
}
In the above example :
 We declared two variables var1 and var2
 A constant pointer „ptr‟ was declared and made to point var1
 Next, ptr is made to point var2.
 Finally, we try to print the value ptr is pointing to.
So, in a nutshell, we assigned an address to a constant pointer and then tried to change the
address by assigning the address of some other variable to the same constant pointer.

Pointers and Strings
A pointer which pointing to an array which content is string, is known as pointer to array of
strings.
Syntax:- char *p;
Initialization of strings Using pointers
char *c = "abcd";
Examples
1 : Printing Address of the Character Array
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int i;
char *arr[4] = {"C","C++","Java","VBA"};
char *(*ptr)[4] = &arr;
for(i=0;i<4;i++)
printf("Address of String %d : %u\n",i+1,(*ptr)[i]);
return 0;
}
Output :
Address of String 1 = 178
2. Printing Contents of character array

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int i;
char *arr[4] = {"C","C++","Java","VBA"};
char *(*ptr)[4] = &arr;
for(i=0;i<4;i++)
printf("String %d : %s\n",i+1,(*ptr)[i]);
return 0;
}
Output :
String 1 = C
String 2 = C++

String 3 = Java
String 4 = VBA
Pointers to Functions
When a pointer is passed as an argument to a function, address of the memory location is
passed instead of the value. This is because, pointer stores the location of the memory, and not
the value.
Example
/* C Program to swap two numbers using pointers and function. */
#include <stdio.h>
void swap(int *n1, int *n2);
int main()
{
int num1 = 5, num2 = 10;
// address of num1 and num2 is passed to the swap function
swap( &num1, &num2);
printf("Number1 = %d\n", num1);
printf("Number2 = %d", num2);
return 0;
}
void swap(int * n1, int * n2)
{
// pointer n1 and n2 points to the address of num1 and num2 respectively
int temp;
temp = *n1;
*n1 = *n2;
*n2 = temp;
}
Output
Number1 = 10
Number2 = 5
Pointer Arithmetic
A pointer in c is an address, which is a numeric value. Therefore, you can perform
arithmetic operations on a pointer just as you can on a numeric value. There are four arithmetic
operators that can be used on pointers: ++, --, +, and –
Incrementing a Pointer
We prefer using a pointer in our program instead of an array because the variable pointer
can be incremented, unlike the array name which cannot be incremented because it is a constant
pointer. The following program increments the variable pointer to access each succeeding
element of the array −
#include <stdio.h>

const int MAX = 3;
int main () {
int var[] = {10, 100, 200};
int i, *ptr;
/* let us have array address in pointer */
ptr = var;
for ( i = 0; i < MAX; i++) {
printf("Address of var[%d] = %x\n", i, ptr );
printf("Value of var[%d] = %d\n", i, *ptr );
/* move to the next location */
ptr++;
}
return 0;
}
Output
Address of var[0] = bf882b30
Value of var[0] = 10
Decrementing a Pointer
The same considerations apply to decrementing a pointer, which decreases its value by
the number of bytes of its data type as shown below −
#include <stdio.h>
const int MAX = 3;
int main () {
int var[] = {10, 100, 200};
int i, *ptr;
/* let us have array address in pointer */
ptr = &var[MAX-1];
for ( i = MAX; i > 0; i--) {
printf("Address of var[%d] = %x\n", i-1, ptr );
printf("Value of var[%d] = %d\n", i-1, *ptr );
/* move to the previous location */
ptr--;
}
return 0;
}
Output
Address of var[2] = bfedbcd8

Dynamic Memory Allocation: Memory Allocation Functions

Dynamic memory allocation allows your program to obtain more memory space while
running, or to release it if it's not required.
In simple terms, Dynamic memory allocation allows you to manually handle memory space for
your program.
Although, C language inherently does not have any technique to allocate memory dynamically,
there are 4 library functions under "stdlib.h" for dynamic memory allocation.
C malloc()
The name malloc stands for "memory allocation".
The function malloc() reserves a block of memory of specified size and return a pointer of type
void which can be casted into pointer of any form.
Syntax of malloc()
ptr = (cast-type*) malloc(byte-size)
Here, ptr is pointer of cast-type. The malloc() function returns a pointer to an area of
memory with size of byte size. If the space is insufficient, allocation fails and returns NULL
pointer.
ptr = (int*) malloc(100 * sizeof(int));
This statement will allocate either 200 or 400 according to size of int 2 or 4 bytes respectively and
the pointer points to the address of first byte of memory.
C calloc()
The name calloc stands for "contiguous allocation".
The only difference between malloc() and calloc() is that, malloc() allocates single block of
memory whereas calloc() allocates multiple blocks of memory each of same size and sets all bytes
to zero.
Syntax of calloc()
ptr = (cast-type*)calloc(n, element-size);
This statement will allocate contiguous space in memory for an array of n elements. For example:
ptr = (float*) calloc(25, sizeof(float));
This statement allocates contiguous space in memory for an array of 25 elements each of size of
float, i.e, 4 bytes.
C free()
Dynamically allocated memory created with either calloc() or malloc() doesn't get freed on its
own. You must explicitly use free() to release the space.

syntax of free()
free(ptr);
This statement frees the space allocated in the memory pointed by ptr.
Example #1: Using C malloc() and free()
Write a C program to find sum of n elements entered by user. To perform this program,
allocate memory dynamically using malloc() function.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main()
{
int num, i, *ptr, sum = 0;
printf("Enter number of elements: ");
scanf("%d", &num);
ptr = (int*) malloc(num * sizeof(int)); //memory allocated using malloc
if(ptr == NULL)
{
printf("Error! memory not allocated.");
exit(0);
}
printf("Enter elements of array: ");
for(i = 0; i < num; ++i)
{
scanf("%d", ptr + i);
sum += *(ptr + i);
}
free(ptr);
return 0;
}
C realloc()
If the previously allocated memory is insufficient or more than required, you can change
the previously allocated memory size using realloc().
Syntax of realloc()
ptr = realloc(ptr, newsize);
Here, ptr is reallocated with size of newsize.
Example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main()
{

int *ptr, i , n1, n2;
printf("Enter size of array: ");
scanf("%d", &n1);
ptr = (int*) malloc(n1 * sizeof(int));
printf("Address of previously allocated memory: ");
for(i = 0; i < n1; ++i)
printf("%u\t",ptr + i);
printf("\nEnter new size of array: ");
scanf("%d", &n2);
ptr = realloc(ptr, n2);
for(i = 0; i < n2; ++i)
printf("%u\t", ptr + i);
return 0;
}
Programming Applications
Pointer is used for different purposes. Pointer is low level construct in programming which is
used to perform high level task. Some of the pointer applications are listed below
A. Passing Parameter by Reference
First pointer application is to pass the variables to function using pass by reference scheme.
void interchange(int *num1,int *num2)
{
int temp;
temp = *num1;
*num1 = *num2;
*num2 = *num1;
}
Pointer can be used to simulate passing parameter by reference. Pointer is used to pass
parameter to function. In this scheme we are able to modify value at direct memory location.
Re-commanded Article : Ways of function calling
B. Accessing Array element

int main()
{
int a[5] = {1,2,3,4,5};
int *ptr;
ptr = a;
for(i=0;i<5;i++) {
printf("%d",*(ptr+i));
}
return(0);

}
We can access array using pointer. We can store base address of array in pointer.
ptr = a;
Now we can access each and individual location using pointer.
for(i=0;i<5;i++) {
printf("%d",*(ptr+i));
}
C. Dynamic Memory Allocation :
Another pointer application is to allocate memory dynamically.

We can use pointer to allocate memory dynamically. Malloc and calloc function is used to
allocate memory dynamically.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main()
{
char *str;
str = (char *) malloc(15);
strcpy(str, "mahesh");
printf("String = %s, Address = %u\n", str, str);
free(str);
return(0);
}
consider above example where we have used malloc() function to allocate memory dynamically.
D. Reducing size of parameter
struct student {
char name[10];
int rollno;
};
Suppose we want to pass the above structure to the function then we can pass structure to the
function using pointer in order to save memory.
Suppose we pass actual structure then we need to allocate (10 + 4 = 14 Bytes(*)) of memory. If
we pass pointer then we will require 4 bytes(*) of memory.
E. Command-line Arguments.
main() function of a C program accepts arguments from command line or from other shell scripts
by following commands. They are,

 argc
 argv[]
where,
argc – Number of arguments in the command line including program name
argv[] – This is carrying all the arguments
 In real time application, it will happen to pass arguments to the main program itself.
These arguments are passed to the main () function while executing binary file from
command line.
 For example, when we compile a program (test.c), we get executable file in the name
“test”.
 Now, we run the executable “test” along with 4 arguments in command line like below.
Example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main(int argc, char *argv[]) // command line arguments
{
if(argc!=5)
{
printf("Arguments passed through command line " \
"not equal to 5");
return 1;
}
printf("\n Program name : %s \n", argv[0]);
printf("1st arg : %s \n", argv[1]);
printf("2nd arg : %s \n", argv[2]);
printf("3rd arg : %s \n", argv[3]);
printf("4th arg : %s \n", argv[4]);
printf("5th arg : %s \n", argv[5]);
return 0;
}
Output:
Program name : test
1st arg : this
2nd arg : is
3rd arg : a
4th arg : program
5th arg : (null)

STRUCTURES
Structure is commonly referred to as a user-defined data type. C‟s structures allow you to store
multiple variables of any type in one place (the structure). A structure can contain any of C‟s
data types, including arrays and other structures. Each variable within a structure is called a
member of the structure. They can hold any number of variables, and you can make arrays of
structures. This flexibility makes structures ideally useful for creating databases in C.
DECLARATION OF STRUCTURES
To declare a structure you must start with the keyword struct followed by the structure
name or structure tag and within the braces the list of the structure‟s member variables. Note
that the structure declaration does not actually create any variables. Syntax:-
struct structure-tag {
datatype variable1;
datatype variable2;
dataype variable 3;
...
};
Example:-
Consider the student database in which each student has a roll number, name and course and
the marks obtained. Hence to group this data with a structure-tag as student, we can have the
declaration of structure as:
struct student {
int roll_no;
char name[20];
char course[20];
int marks_obtained ;
};
struct student stud1, stud2 ;
The second method is as follows:
Struct student {
int roll_no;
char name[20];
char course[20];
} stud1, stud2 ;
ACCESSING THE MEMBERS OF A STRUCTURE
Individual structure members can be used like other variables of the same type.
Structure members are accessed using the structure member operator (.), also called the
dot operator, between the structure name and the member name.
Syntax:-
structurevariable. member-name;
Example:-
struct coordinate{
int x;
int y;
}first,second;
Thus, to have the structure named first refer to a screen location that has coordinates x=50,
y=100, you could write as,
first.x = 50;
first.y = 100;
To display the screen locations stored in the structure second, you could write,
printf ("%d,%d", second.x, second.y);
The individual members of the structure behave like ordinary date elements and can be
accessed accordingly.
Example:-
/*Program to store and retrieve the values from the student structure*/
#include<stdio.h>
struct student {
int roll_no;
char name[20];
char course[20];
};
main()
{
student s1 ;
printf (“Enter the student roll number:”);
scanf (“%d”,&s1.roll_no);
printf (“\nEnter the student name: “);
scanf (“%s”,s1.name);
printf (“\nEnter the student course”);
scanf (“%s”,s1.course);
printf (“Enter the student percentage\n”);
scanf (“%d”,&s1.marks_obtained);
printf (“\nData entry is complete”);
printf ( “\nThe data entered is as follows:\n”);
printf (“\nThe student roll no is %d”,s1.roll_no);
printf (“\nThe student name is %s”,s1.name);
printf (“\nThe student course is %s”,s1.course);
printf (“\nThe student percentage is %d”,s1.marks_obtained);
}
OUTPUT
Enter the student roll number: 1234
Enter the student name: ARUN
Enter the student course: MCA
Enter the student percentage: 84
Data entry is complete
The data entered is as follows:
The student roll no is 1234
The student name is ARUN
The student course is MCA
The student percentage is 84
INITIALIZING STRUCTURES
Like other C variable types, structures can be initialized when they‟re declared. This procedure is
similar to that for initializing arrays. The structure declaration is followed by an equal sign and a
list of initialization values is separated by commas and enclosed in braces. For example, look at
the following statements for initializing the values of the members of the mysale structure
variable.
Example 9.2
struct sale {
char customer[20];
char item[20];
float amt;
} mysale = { "XYZ Industries", “toolskit", 600.00 };
In a structure that contains structures as members, list the initialization values in order. They are
placed in the structure members in the order in which the members are listed in the structure
definition. Here‟s an example that expands on the previous one:
Example
struct customer {
char firm[20];
char contact[25];
}
struct sale {
struct customer buyer1;
char item [20];
float amt;
} mysale = { { "XYZ Industries", "Tyran Adams"}, "toolskit",600.00};
These statements perform the following initializations:

• the structure member mysale.buyer1.firm is initialized to the string “XYZ Industries”.
• the structure member mysale.buyer1.contact is initialized to the string “Tyran Adams”.
• the structure member mysale.item is initialized to the string "toolskit".
• the structure member mysale.amount is initialized to the amount 600.00.

For example let us consider the following program where the data members are initialized to
some value.
Example
Write a program to access the values of the structure initialized with some initial values.
/* Program to illustrate to access the values of the structure initialized with some initial values*/
#include<stdio.h>
struct telephone{
int tele_no;
int cust_code;
char cust_name[20];
char cust_address[40];
int bill_amt;
};
main()
{
struct telephone tele = {2314345, 5463, "Ram", "New Delhi", 2435 };
printf("The values are initialized in this program.");
printf("\nThe telephone number is %d",tele.tele_no);
printf("\nThe customer code is %d",tele.cust_code);
printf("\nThe customer name is %s",tele.cust_name);
printf("\nThe customer address is %s",tele.cust_address);
printf("\nThe bill amount is %d",tele.bill_amt);
}
OUTPUT
The values are initialized in this program.
The telephone number is 2314345
The customer code is 5463
The customer name is Ram
The customer Address is New Delhi
The bill amount is 2435
STRUCTURES AS FUNCTION ARGUMENTS
C is a structured programming language and the basic concept in it is the modularity of the
programs. This concept is supported by the functions in C language. This can be achieved in
primarily two ways: Firstly, to pass them as simple parameter values by passing the structure
name and secondly, through pointers.
Example
Write a program to demonstrate passing a structure to a function.

/*Program to demonstrate passing a structure to a function.*/
#include <stdio.h>
/*Declare and define a structure to hold the data.*/
struct data{
float amt;
char fname [30];
char lname [30];
} person;
main()
{
void print_person (struct data x); //function prototype
printf(“Enter the donor‟s first and last names separated by a space:”);
scanf (“%s %s”, person.fname, person.lname);
printf (“\nEnter the amount donated in rupees:”);
scanf (“%f”, &person.amt);
print_person (person);
return 0;
}
void print_person(struct data x)

{
printf ("\n %s %s gave donation of amount Rs.%.2f.\n", x.fname, x.lname,
x.amt);
}
OUTPUT
Enter the donor‟s first and last names separated by a space: RGUKT
Enter the amount donated in rupees: 1000.00
RGUKT gave donation of the amount Rs. 1000.00.
Example
Write a program to accept the data from the user and calculate the salary of the person using
concept of functions.
/* Program to accept the data from the user and calculate the salary of the person*/
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
struct sal {
char name[30];
int no_days_worked;
int daily_wage;
};
struct sal salary;
struct sal get_dat(struct); /* function prototype*/
float wages(struct); /*function prototype*/
float amount_payable; /* variable declaration*/
salary = get_data(salary);
printf(“The name of employee is %s”,salary.name);
printf(“Number of days worked is %d”,salary.no_daya_worked);
printf(“The daily wage of the employees is %d”,salary.daily_wage);
amount_payable = wages(salary);
printf(“The amount payable to %s is %f”,salary.name,amount_payable);
}
struct sal get_data(struct sal income)
{
printf(“Please enter the employee name:\n”);
scanf(“%s”,income.name);
printf(“Please enter the number of days worked:\n”);
scanf(“%d”,&income.no_days_worked);
printf(„Please enter the employee daily wages:\n”);
scanf(“%d”,&income.daily_wages);
return(income);
}
float wages(struct)
{
struct sal amt;
int total_salary ;
total_salary = amt.no_days_worked * amt.daily_wages;
return(total_salary);
}
STRUCTURES AND ARRAYS
Structure is used to store the information of One particular object but if we need to store
such 100 objects then Array of Structure is used.
Let‟s consider the example of students and their marks. In this case, to avoid declaring
various data variables, we grouped together all the data concerning the student‟s marks as one
unit and call it student. The problem that arises now is that the data related to students is not
going to be of a single student only. We will be required to store data for a number of students.
To solve this situation one way is to declare a structure and then create sufficient number of
variables of that structure type. But it gets very burden to manage such a large number of data
variables, so a better option is to declare an array.
So, revising the array for a few moments we would refresh the fact that an array is simply a
collection of homogeneous data types. Hence, if we make a declaration as:
int temp[20];
It simply means that temp is an array of twenty elements where each element is of type integer,
indicating homogenous data type.
struct student stud[20] ;

It means that stud is an array of twenty elements where each element is of the type struct
student (which is a user-defined data type we had defined earlier). The various members of the
stud array can be accessed in the similar manner as that of any other ordinary array.
Example:-
struct student stud[20], we can access the roll_no of this array as
stud[0].roll_no;
stud[1].roll_no;
stud[2].roll_no;
stud[3].roll_no; …
…
…
stud[19].roll_no;
Example:-
Write a program to read and display data for 20 students.
/*Program to read and print the data for 20 students*/
#include <stdio.h>
struct student {
int roll_no;
char name[20];
char course[20];
};
main( )
{
struct student stud [20];
int i;
printf (“Enter the student data one by one\n”);
for(i=0; i<=19; i++)
{
printf (“Enter the roll number of %d student”,i+1);
scanf (“%d”,&stud[i].roll_no);
printf (“Enter the name of %d student”,i+1);
scanf (“%s”,stud[i].name);
printf (“Enter the course of %d student”,i+1);
scanf (“%d”,stud[i].course);
printf (“Enter the marks obtained of %d student”,i+1);
scanf (“%d”,&stud[i].marks_obtained);
}
printf (“the data entered is as follows\n”);
for (i=0;i<=19;i++)
{
printf (“The roll number of %d student is %d\n”,i+1,stud[i].roll_no);
printf (“The name of %d student is %s\n”,i+1,stud[i].name);
printf (“The course of %d student is %s\n”,i+1,stud[i].course);
printf (“The marks of %d student is %d\n”,i+1,stud[i].marks_obtained);
}
}
Example
/*Program to read and print data related to five students having marks of three subjects each
using the concept of arrays */
#include<stdio.h>
struct student {
int roll_no;
char name [20];
char course [20];
int subject [3] ;
};
main( )
{
struct student stud[5];
int i,j;
printf (“Enter the data for all the students:\n”);
for (i=0;i<=4;i++)
{
printf (“Enter the roll number of %d student”,i+1);
scanf (“%d”,&stud[i].roll_no);
printf(“Enter the name of %d student”,i+1);
scanf (“%s”,stud[i].name);
printf (“Enter the course of %d student”,i+1);
scanf (“%s”,stud[i].course);
for (j=0;j<=2;j++)
{
printf (“Enter the marks of the %d subject of the student
%d:\n”,j+1,i+1);
scanf (“%d”,&stud[i].subject[j]);
}
}
printf (“The data you have entered is as follows:\n”);
for (i=0;i<=4;i++)
{
printf (“The %d th student's roll number is %d\n”,i+1,stud[i].roll_no);
printf (“The %d the student's name is %s\n”,i+1,stud[i].name);
printf (“The %d the student's course is %s\n”,i+1,stud[i].course);
for (j=0;j<=2;j++)
{
printf (“The %d the student's marks of %d I subject are %d\n”,i+1, j+1,
stud[i].subject[j]);
}
}
printf (“End of the program\n”);
}
UNIONS
C Union is also like structure, i.e. collection of different data types which are grouped together.
Each element in a union is called member.
 Union and structure in C are same in concepts, except allocating memory for their
members.
 Structure allocates storage space for all its members separately.
 Whereas, Union allocates one common storage space for all its members
 We can access only one member of union at a time. We can‟t access all member values
at the same time in union. But, structure can access all member values at the same time.
This is because, Union allocates one common storage space for all its members.
Whereas Structure allocates storage space for all its members separately.
 Many union variables can be created in a program and memory will be allocated for each
union variable separately.
 Below table will help you how to form a C union, declare a union, initializing and
accessing the members of the union.
Syntax:-
union union-tag {
datatype variable1;
datatype variable2;
...
};
For example,
union temp{
int x;
char y;
float z;
};
In this case a float is the member which requires the largest space to store its value hence the
space required for float (8 bytes) is allocated to the union. All members share the same space.
Let us see how to access the members of the union.
Example
Write a program to illustrate the concept of union.

/* Declare a union template called tag */
union tag {
int nbr;
char character;
}
/* Use the union template */
union tag mixed_variable;
/* Declare a union and instance together */
union generic_type_tag {
char c;
int i;
float f;
double d;
} generic;
INITIALIZING AN UNION
Let us see, how to initialize a Union with the help of the following example:
Example
union date_tag {
char complete_date [9];
struct part_date_tag {
char month[2];
char break_value1;
char day[2];
char break_value2;
char year[2];
} parrt_date;
}date = {“01/01/05”};
ACCESSING THE MEMBERS OF AN UNION
Individual union members can be used in the same way as the structure members, by using the
member operator or dot operator (.). However, there is an important difference in accessing the
union members. Only one union member should be accessed at a time. Because a union stores
its members on top of each other, it‟s important to access only one member at a time. Trying to
access the previously stored values will result in erroneous output.
Example:-
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
union student
{
char name[20];
char subject[20];
float percentage;
};
int main()
{
union student record1;
union student record2;
// assigning values to record1 union variable

strcpy(record1.name, "Raju");
strcpy(record1.subject, "Maths");
record1.percentage = 86.50;
printf("Union record1 values example\n");

printf(" Name : %s \n", record1.name);
printf(" Subject : %s \n", record1.subject);
printf(" Percentage : %f \n\n", record1.percentage);
// assigning values to record2 union variable

printf("Union record2 values example\n");
strcpy(record2.name, "Mani");
printf(" Name : %s \n", record2.name);
strcpy(record2.subject, "Physics");
printf(" Subject : %s \n", record2.subject);
record2.percentage = 99.50;
printf(" Percentage : %f \n", record2.percentage);
return 0;
}

FILE HANDLING IN C PROGRAMING
In C programming, file is a place on your physical disk where information is stored.

Uses of the files:
 When a program is terminated, the entire data is lost. Storing in a file will preserve your
data even if the program terminates.
 If you have to enter a large number of data, it will take a lot of time to enter them all.
However, if you have a file containing all the data, you can easily access the contents of
the file using few commands in C.
 You can easily move your data from one computer to another without any changes.
Types of Files
When dealing with files, there are two types of files you should know about:
1. Text files
2. Binary files
1. Text files
Text files are the normal .txt files that you can easily create using Notepad or any simple text
editors. When you open those files, you'll see all the contents within the file as plain text. You
can easily edit or delete the contents. They take minimum effort to maintain, are easily readable,
and provide least security and takes bigger storage space.
2. Binary files
Binary files are mostly the .bin files in your computer. Instead of storing data in plain text, they
store it in the binary form (0's and 1's). They can hold higher amount of data, are not readable
easily and provides a better security than text files.
File Operations
In C, you can perform four major operations on the file, either text or binary:
1. Creating a new file
2. Opening an existing file
3. Closing a file
4. Reading from and writing information to a file
Working with files
When working with files, you need to declare a pointer of type file. This declaration is needed
for communication between the file and program.
FILE *fptr;
Opening a file - for creation and edit
Opening a file is performed using the library function in the "stdio.h" header file: fopen().
1|Page Developed By: THILAK REDDY
The syntax for opening a file in standard I/O is:
ptr = fopen("fileopen","mode")
For Example:
fopen("E:\\cprogram\\newprogram.txt","w");
fopen("E:\\cprogram\\oldprogram.bin","rb");
 Let's suppose the file newprogram.txt doesn't exist in the location E:\cprogram. The first
function creates a new file named newprogram.txt and opens it for writing as per the
mode 'w'. The writing mode allows you to create and edit (overwrite) the contents of the
file.
 Now let's suppose the second binary file oldprogram.bin exists in the location
E:\cprogram. The second function opens the existing file for reading in binary mode 'rb'.
The reading mode only allows you to read the file, you cannot write into the file.
Opening Modes in Standard I/O
File
Meaning of Mode During Inexistence of file
Mode
r Open for reading. If the file does not exist, fopen() returns NULL.
rb Open for reading in binary mode. If the file does not exist, fopen() returns NULL.
If the file exists, its contents are overwritten. If

w Open for writing.
the file does not exist, it will be created.

wb Open for writing in binary mode.
Open for append. i.e, Data is added to

a If the file does not exists, it will be created.
end of file.
Open for append in binary mode. i.e,

ab If the file does not exists, it will be created.
Data is added to end of file.
r+ Open for both reading and writing. If the file does not exist, fopen() returns NULL.
Open for both reading and writing in

rb+ If the file does not exist, fopen() returns NULL.
binary mode.

w+ Open for both reading and writing.
Open for both reading and writing in If the file exists, its contents are overwritten. If
wb+
binary mode. the file does not exist, it will be created.

Opening Modes in Standard I/O
File
Meaning of Mode During Inexistence of file
Mode
Open for both reading and

a+ If the file does not exists, it will be created.
appending.
Open for both reading and

ab+ If the file does not exists, it will be created.
appending in binary mode.
Closing a File
The file (both text and binary) should be closed after reading/writing. Closing a file is performed
using library function fclose().
fclose(fptr); //fptr is the file pointer associated with file to be closed.
Reading and writing to a text file
For reading and writing to a text file, we use the functions fprintf() and fscanf(). They are just the
file versions of printf() and scanf(). The only difference is that, fprint and fscanf expects a pointer
to the structure FILE.
Example 1: Write to a text file using fprintf()
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int num;
FILE *fptr;
fptr = fopen("C:\\program.txt","w");
if(fptr == NULL)
{
printf("Error!");
exit(1);
}
printf("Enter num: ");
scanf("%d",&num);
fprintf(fptr,"%d",num);
fclose(fptr);
return 0;
}
This program takes a number from user and stores in the file program.txt. After you compile and
run this program, you can see a text file program.txt created in C drive of your computer. When
you open the file, you can see the integer you entered.
Example 2: Read from a text file using fscanf()

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int num;
FILE *fptr;
if ((fptr = fopen("C:\\program.txt","r")) == NULL){
printf("Error! opening file");
// Program exits if the file pointer returns NULL.
exit(1);
}
fscanf(fptr,"%d",&num);
printf("Value of n=%d",num);
fclose(fptr);
return 0;
}
This program reads the integer present in the program.txt file and prints it onto the screen.
If you succesfully created the file from Example 1, running this program will get you the integer
you entered. Other functions like fgetchar(), fputc() etc. can be used in similar way.
Reading and writing to a binary file

Functions fread() and fwrite() are used for reading from and writing to a file on the disk
respectively in case of binary files.
Writing to a binary file
To write into a binary file, you need to use the function fwrite(). The functions takes four
arguments: Address of data to be written in disk, Size of data to be written in disk, number of
such type of data and pointer to the file where you want to write.
fwrite(address_data, size_data, numbers_data, pointer_to_file);
Example 3: Writing to a binary file using fwrite()
#include <stdio.h>
struct threeNum
{
int n1, n2, n3;
};
int main()
{
int n;
struct threeNum num;
FILE *fptr;
if ((fptr = fopen("C:\\program.bin","wb")) == NULL){

exit(1);
}
for(n = 1; n < 5; ++n)
{
num.n1 = n;
num.n2 = 5n;
num.n3 = 5n + 1;
fwrite(&num, sizeof(struct threeNum), 1, *fptr);
}
fclose(fptr);
return 0;
}
In this program, you create a new file program.bin in the C drive. We declare a structure
threeNum with three numbers - n1, n2 and n3, and define it in the main function as num.
Now, inside the for loop, we store the value into the file using fwrite. The first parameter takes
the address of num and the second parameter takes the size of the structure threeNum.
Since, we're only inserting one instance of num, the third parameter is 1. And, the last parameter
*fptr points to the file we're storing the data. Finally, we close the file.
Reading from a binary file

Function fread() also take 4 arguments similar to fwrite() function as above.
fread(address_data, size_data, numbers_data, pointer_to_file);
Example 4: Reading from a binary file using fread()
#include <stdio.h>
struct threeNum
{
int n1, n2, n3;
};
int main()
{
int n;
struct threeNum num;
FILE *fptr;
if ((fptr = fopen("C:\\program.bin","rb")) == NULL){
exit(1);
}
for(n = 1; n < 5; ++n)
{
fread(&num, sizeof(struct threeNum), 1, *fptr);
printf("n1: %d\tn2: %d\tn3: %d", num.n1, num.n2, num.n3);
}
fclose(fptr);
return 0;
}
In this program, you read the same file program.bin and loop through the records one by one.
In simple terms, you read one threeNum record of threeNum size from the file pointed by *fptr
into the structure num.
Example 4:- Write a C program to Write a Sentence to a File
This program stores a sentence entered by user in a file.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h> /* For exit() function */
int main()
{
char sentence[1000];
FILE *fptr;
fptr = fopen("program.txt", "w");
if(fptr == NULL)
{
printf("Error!");
exit(1);
}
printf("Enter a sentence:\n");
gets(sentence);
fprintf(fptr,"%s", sentence);
fclose(fptr);
return 0;
}
Output
Enter sentence:
I am awesome and so are files.
After termination of this program, you can see a text file program.txt created in the same
location where this program is located.
If you open and see the content, you can see the sentence: I am awesome and so are files.
In this program, a file is opened using opening mode "w". In this mode, if the file exists, its
contents are overwritten and if the file does not exist, it will be created. Then, user is asked to
enter a sentence. This sentence will be stored in file program.txt using fprintf() function.
Example 5: Write a C program to read text from a file

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h> // For exit() function
int main()
{
char c[1000];
FILE *fptr;
if ((fptr = fopen("program.txt", "r")) == NULL)
{
// Program exits if file pointer returns NULL.
exit(1);
}
// reads text until newline
fscanf(fptr,"%[^\n]", c);
printf("Data from the file:\n%s", c);
fclose(fptr);
return 0;
}
If the file program.txt is not found, this program prints error message. If the file is found, the
program saves the content of the file to a string c until '\n' newline is encountered.
Suppose, the program.txt file contains following text.
C programming is awesome.
I love C programming.
How are you doing?
The output of the program will be:
Data from the file: C programming is awesome.
Example 6: Write a C program to read name and marks of n number of students from user
and store them in a file.
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
char name[50];
int marks, i, num;
scanf("%d", &num);
FILE *fptr;
fptr = (fopen("C:\\student.txt", "w"));
if(fptr == NULL)
{
printf("Error!");
exit(1);
}
for(i = 0; i < num; ++i)
{
printf("For student%d\nEnter name: ", i+1);
scanf("%s", name);
printf("Enter marks: ");
scanf("%d", &marks);
fprintf(fptr,"\nName: %s \nMarks=%d \n", name, marks);
}
fclose(fptr);
return 0;
}
Example 7:- Write a C program to read name and marks of n number of students from
user and store them in a file. If the file previously exits, add the information of n
students.
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
char name[50];
int marks, i, num;
scanf("%d", &num);
FILE *fptr;
fptr = (fopen("C:\\student.txt", "a"));
if(fptr == NULL)
{
printf("Error!");
exit(1);
}
for(i = 0; i < num; ++i)
{
printf("For student%d\nEnter name: ", i+1);
scanf("%s", name);
printf("Enter marks: ");

scanf("%d", &marks);
fprintf(fptr,"\nName: %s \nMarks=%d \n", name, marks);
}
fclose(fptr);
return 0;
}

Example 8: Write a C program to write all the members of an array of strcures to a file
using fwrite(). Read the array from the file and display on the screen.
#include <stdio.h>
struct student
{
char name[50];
int height;
};
int main(){
struct student stud1[5], stud2[5];
FILE *fptr;
int i;
fptr = fopen("file.txt","wb");
for(i = 0; i < 5; ++i)
{
fflush(stdin);
gets(stud1[i].name);
printf("Enter height: ");
scanf("%d", &stud1[i].height);
}
fwrite(stud1, sizeof(stud1), 1, fptr);
fclose(fptr);
fptr = fopen("file.txt", "rb");
fread(stud2, sizeof(stud2), 1, fptr);
for(i = 0; i < 5; ++i)
{
printf("Name: %s\nHeight: %d", stud2[i].name, stud2[i].height);
}
fclose(fptr);
}

RGUKT – IIIT B
C PROGRAMING LANGUAGE VIVA-VOICE QUESTIONS
1. What is C language?
C is a programming language developed at AT & T‟s Bell Laboratories of USA in 1972. The C
programming language is a standardized programming language developed in the early 1970s by
Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie for use on the UNIX operating system. It has since spread to
many other operating systems, and is one of the most widely used programming languages.
2. What is an algorithm?
An algorithm is a step-by-step method of performing any task.
3. What is a flow chart?
A flowchart is a type of diagram that represents an algorithm or process, showing the steps as
boxes of various kinds, and their order by connecting these with arrows.
4. What is a C Preprocessor?
C Preprocessor is a program that processes our source program before it is passed to the compiler.
5. What is the use of header files as used in C programming?
Header files are used to have declarations. It is simple to include a single header file than writing all
the needed functions prototypes.
6. What is the Structure of a C Program?
Documentation Section, Linking Section, Definition Section, Global declaration Section, main
function, subprogram section.
7. Explain some Header Files?
Developed by: THILAK REDDY

8. What is the use of main() function?
main() is the starting point of program execution.
9. What are the types of constants in c?
C constants can ba divided into two categories:
a. Primary constants (Numerical)
b. Secondary constants (Character)
10. What is a Compiler?
A compiler is a computer program (or set of programs) that transforms source code written in a
programming language (the source language) into another computer language (the target
language, often having a binary form known as object code).
11. What is a Translator?
A translator is a computer program that translates a program written in a given programming
language into a functionally equivalent program in a different language.
12. What is a Interpreter?
An Interpreter is a computer program that directly executes, i.e. performs, instructions written in a
programming or scripting language, without previously batchcompiling them into machine
language.
13. What is a Token in C?
A Token is the basic building block of a C. (or) the basic element recognized by the compiler is the
"token."
C Tokens are:
Key Words, Identifier, Constants, String – literal, Operator, Punctuators
14. What are Printf() and scanf() Functions :
printf() and scanf() functions are inbuilt library functions in C which are available in which are
available in “ stdio.h” header file.
 printf() function is used to print the “character, string, float, integer, octal and hexadecimal values”
onto the output screen.
 scanf() function is used to read character, string, numeric data from keyboard
15. What is a Data Type and List the different Data types?
C data types are defined as the data storage format that a variable can store a data to perform a
specific operation.
List of Data Types:
a. Basic Data Types: Int, Float, Char, Double, long int
b. Enumeration Data Type: enum
c. Derived Data Type: Pointer, array, structure, union
d. Void Data Type: void
16. What is Integer Data Type?
17. What is enum Data Type?

 Enumeration data type consists of named integer constants as a list.
 It start with 0 (zero) by default and value is incremented by 1 for the sequential identifiers in the list.
Syntax:
enum identifier { enumerator-list };
18. What is a Void Data Type?
Void is an empty data type that has no value.
19. What is a comment in C?
Comments are like helping text in your C program and they are ignored by the compiler. We can
write in between /* and */ or // (Line Comments)
20. What is an Identifier in C? AC
identifier is a name used to identify a variable, function, or any other userdefined item. An identifier

starts with a letter A to Z or a to z or an underscore _ followed by zero or more letters, underscores,
and digits (0 to 9). C does not allow punctuation characters such as @, $, and % within identifiers. C
is a case sensitive programming language.
21. What is a Key word in C?
Keywords are reserved words in C and Keywords are may not be used as constant or variable or any
other identifier names.
22. How many Keywords are there in C and List out the Keywords?
There are 33 reserved keywords are there in C. They are:
23. Define a Variable?

A variable is nothing but a name given to a storage area that our programs can manipulate. Each
variable in C has a specific type, which determines the size and layout of the variable's memory.
Syntax for variable Declaration:
DataType VariableList;
int i,j;
cahr c, ch;
24. What are the steps to develop a C Program?
o Specifying the problem statement
o Designing an algorithm
o Coding
o Debugging
o Testing and Validating
o Documentation and Maintenance.
25. What is the process of debugging or compilation for C Programs?
To check the errors in a program is called debugging or compilation. This process done by 4 stage:
Checking Syntactic Errors: These errors occur due to the usage of wrong syntax for the
statements.
Checking Run time Errors/ Linkage Errors: These Errors are determined at the execution time of
the program (EX: Divide a number by Zero, finding logarithm of negative number, finding square
root of negative number ,etc.)
Checking Linker Errors: These errors are occurred due to the linking of header file to the current
program
Checking Logical Errors: These Errors occur due to incorrect usage of the instruction in the
program. Logical Errors are determined by analyzing the outputs for different possible inputs that
can be applied to the program.
26. List some Syntactic Errors or Syntax Errors?
1) Missing semicolon(Statement Missing ;)
2) Undeclared a variable name or Undefined symbol (Then check variable declaration syntax and
check for header file for some keywords)
3) ‟)‟ expected (Then check the no of parenthesis opened and closed)
4) Illegal string constant ( check for the last double quote in a string)
5) printf and scanf arguments should be placed in ( )
6) Compound statement missing (Check for the no of { and } are opened and closed)
7) Proto type missing error (Check for Function declaration statement)
8) Forgetting to put &,”, and comma operator in specific places.
9) Comparing strings with == operator
27. List some Warnings?
1) Miss use of = and ==
2) Loop has no body ( remove the semicolon at last of the for loop or while loop)
3) Uninitialized a variable
28. What is an Operator and list different types of operators in C?
The symbols which are used to perform logical and mathematical operations in a C program are
called C operators. The different operators in C are: Arithmetic operators, Relational operators,
Logical operators, Assignment operators, Increment and Decrement operators, Conditional
operators, Bitwise operators, Special operators
29. What are Arithmetic Operators?
Arithmetic operators are used to perform mathematical calculations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division and modulus in C programs. (Like +,-,*,/,%)
30. What are Assignment Operators?
Values for the variables are assigned using assignment operators. There are two types assignment
operators are there:
1) Simple Assignment( = )
2) Compound Assignment (+= , -=, *=, %=)
31. What are Relational Operators?
Relational operators are used to find the relation between two variables. i.e. to compare the values
of two variables in a C program.. (Like >, <, >=, <=, !=, ==)
32. What are Logical Operators?
These operators are used to perform logical operations on the given expressions. (Like &&, ||, !)
33. What are Bitwise Operators?
These operators are used to perform bit operations. Decimal values are converted into binary values
which are the sequence of bits and bit wise operators work on these bits. (Like &, |, ~, ^, <<(Left
Shift), >> (Right Shift))
34. What are Conditional (Ternary) Operators?
Conditional operators return one value if condition is true and returns another value is condition is
false. (Like: ? and : )
35. What are Increment / Decrement Operators?
Increment operators are used to increase the value of the variable by one and decrement operators
are used to decrease the value of the variable by one in C programs. (Like ++, --)
36. What are Special Operators?
&(Address Operator), * (Pointer Operator), and Sizeof()
37. What is sizeof operator?
It returns the number of bytes the operand occupies.
38. What is pre-increment or post-increment?
++n (pre increment) increments n before its value is used in an assignment operation or any
expression containing it.
n++ (post increment) does increment after the value of n is used.
39. What is type casting?
Converting a variable of one type to another type.
40. What are the Format Specifiers or Type Specifiers or Conversion Specifiers?
%d (Integer), %f (Float), %c (Character), %l (Long Integer), %s (Strings), %u (Address with decimal
value), %p (Address with Hexa Decimal Value in Small Letters), %x ((Address with Hexa Decimal
Value in Capital Letters)
41. What is a Statement in C?
A statement is a block of code that does something.
42. Different Types of Statements?
Null Statement, Expression Statement, Compound Statement, Return Statement, Conditional
Statements, Iterative or Looping Statements, Unconditional Statements
43. Define Null Statement?
A "null statement" is a statement containing only a semicolon;
44. Define Expression Statement?
When an expression statement is executed, the expression is evaluated according to the rules
outlined in Expressions and Assignments.
45. Define Compound Statement?
A compound statement (also called a "block") typically appears as the body of another statement
which is in between { and }
46. Define Return Statement?
The return statement terminates the execution of a function and returns control to the calling
function. A return statement can also return a value to the calling function.
47. Define Conditional Statements and give the list of them?
Conditional Statements which allows to perform actions depending upon some conditions provided
by the programmer. The Different types of conditional statements are:
1) If Statement
2) If else statement
3) Nested- if else statement
4) Switch Statement
48. Write the Syntax for IF Statement?
if ( <expression> )
<statement>
49. Write the Syntax for IF- ELSE Statement?
if ( <expression> )
<statement 1>
else
<statement 2>
50. Write the Syntax for NESTED- IF - ELSE Statement?
if ( <expression1> )
{
if(<expression2>)
{
<Statements>
}
else
{
<Statements>
}
}
else
<statement>
51. Write the Syntax for Switch Case Statement?
switch ( <expression> )
( <case list> }
where
<case list>
is a sequence of
case <value>: <statement list>
break;
and optionally one
default: <statement list>
break;
52. What are Iterative or Looping Statements?
Iterative or Looping statement which executes the statements with in the compound statement by
checking the condition, and performs same set of statements as a iterative process or as a loop until
the condition false.
The Iterative or Looping Statements are: While, do-while, for
53. What is the difference between for loop and while loop?
For Loop is used to execute a set of statements in fixed number of times. We use While loop when
the number of iterations to be performed is not known in advance we use while loop.
54. What are Unconditional Statements?
goto and labeled statements, break Statement continue Statement.
55. Define goto and labeled Statement, Write syntax for goto and labeled statements?
The goto statement transfers control to a label. The given label must reside in the same function
and can appear before only one statement in the same function.
Syntax:
goto <label>;
<label>: <Statement>;
56. Define Break Statement, Write syntax for Break statement?
The break statement terminates the execution of the nearest enclosing do, for, switch, or while
statement in which it appears. Control passes to the statement that follows the terminated
statement.
Syntax:
break;
57. Define Continue Statement, Write syntax for Continue statement?
The continue statement passes control to the next iteration of the nearest enclosing do, for, or
while statement in which it appears
Syntax:
continue;
58. Define Type Qualifiers, and list them?
The keywords which are used to modify the properties of a variable are called type qualifiers. There
are two types of qualifiers available in C language. They are,1) const 2) volatile
59. Define const Keyword with Syntax?
Constants are also like normal variables. They refer to fixed values. They are also called as literals.
Syntax:
const data_type variable_name; (or) const data_type *variable_name;
60. Define volatile Keyword with Syntax?
When a variable is defined as volatile, the program may not change the value of the variable
explicitly.
Syntax:
volatile data_type variable_name; (or) volatile data_type *variable_name;
61. What is a Macro?
Macros are the identifiers that represent statements or expressions. To associate meaningful
identifiers with constants, keywords, and statements or expressions.
62. What is the difference between #include< > and #include “ ”?
_ #include‹ ›
Specifically used for built in header files.
_ #include “ ”
Specifically used for used for user defined/created n header file.
63. Define Storage class with Syntax?
Storage class specifiers in C language tells the compiler where to store a variable, how to store the
variable, what is the initial value of the variable and life time of the variable.
Syntax: storage_specifier data_type variable _name
64. What are Different Storage Classes, Explain in brief?
There are 4 storage class specifiers available in C language. They are,
1) Auto
2) Extern
3) Static
4) Register
65. Define Array?
C Array is a collection of variables belongings to the same data type.
OR
An Array is a collection of Homogeneous or similar data type elements having unique values, and
stored at a different locations. You can store group of data of same data type in an array.
66. Types of an Array?
There are 2 types of C arrays. They are,
1) One dimensional array
2) Multi dimensional array
i) Two dimensional array
ii) Three dimensional array, four dimensional array etc…
67. What are the Characteristics of Arrays?
o An array holds elements that have the same data type.
o Array elements are stored in subsequent memory locations
o Two-dimensional array elements are stored row by row in subsequent memory locations.
o Array name represents the address of the starting element
68. How we can read or print the array elements?
To read or print the array elements we need to use FOR Statement
69. Define a String?
C Strings are nothing but array of characters ended with null character („\0‟).
Strings are always enclosed by double quotes. Whereas, character is enclosed by single quotes in C.
Example:

char string[20] = { „H‟ , „e‟ , „l‟ , „l‟ , „o‟ , „\0‟}; (or)
char string[20] = “Hello”; (or)
char string [] = “Hello”;
70. Header used for String Functions?
#include<string.h>
71. List String Handling Functions or String Manipulation Functions?
72. What is the difference between strings and arrays?

String is a sequence of characters ending with NULL .it can be treated as a one dimensional array of
characters terminated by a NULL character.
73. Define Pointer with Syntax and example?
C Pointer is a variable that stores/points the address of another variable. C Pointer is used to
allocate memory dynamically i.e. at run time.
Syntax: data_type *var_name;
Example : int *p; char *p;
74. What are the uses of Pointers?
Pointer is used in the following cases
_It is used to access array elements.
_ It is used for dynamic memory allocation.
_ It is used in Call by reference.
_ It is used in data structures like trees, graph, linked list etc.
75. What is the invalid pointer Arithmetic?
_ adding ,multiplying and dividing two pointers.
_ Shifting or masking pointer.
_ Addition of float or double to pointer
_ Assignment of a pointer of one type to a pointer of another type
76. What is a pointer value and address?
A pointer value is a data object that refers to a memory location. Each memory location is
numbered in the memory. The number attached to a memory location is called the address of the
location.
77. How are Pointer Variables initialized?
Pointer variable are initialized in two ways:
_ Static memory allocation
_ Dynamic memory allocation
78. What is a pointer to pointer?
If a pointer variable points another pointer value. Such a situation is known as a pointer to a
pointer.
Example :
int *p1, **p2,
v=10;
P1=&v;
p2=&p1;
Here p2 is a pointer to a pointer.
79. What are the advantages of using array of pointers to string instead of an array of strings?
Efficient use of memory. Easier to exchange the strings by moving their pointers while sorting.
80. What are the pointer declarations used in C?
_ Array of pointers, e.g , int *a[10]; Array of pointers to integer
_ Pointers to an array,e.g , int (*a)[10]; Pointer to an array of into
_ Function returning a pointer,e.g, float *f( ) ; Function returning a pointer to float
_ Pointer to a pointer ,e.g, int **x; Pointer to apointer to int
_ pointer to a data type ,e.g, char *p; pointer to char
81. What are the Advantages of Functions?
_ It reduces the Complexity in a program by reducing the code.
_ Function are easily understanding and reliability and execution is faster.
_ It also reduces the Time to run a program.In other way, Its directly proportional to Complexity.
_ Its easy to find-out the errors due to the blocks made as function definition outside the main
function.
82. What is Recursion?
A recursion function is one which calls itself either directly or indirectly it must halt at a definite
point to avoid infinite recursion.
83. What is the difference between malloc( ) and calloc( ) Functions?
 Malloc is used for memory allocation and initialize garbage values.malloc () for allocating the single
block of memory.
Syntax: *ptr-variable=(type-casting*)malloc(n*sizeof(DataType))
Example: *ptr=(int*)malloc(5*sizeof(int));
 Calloc is same as malloc but it initialize 0 value.calloc () for allocating multiple blocks of memory.
Syntax: *ptr-variable=(type-casting*)calloc(n,sizeof(DataType))
Example: *ptr=(int*)calloc(5,sizeof(int));
84. What is the purpose of realloc?
It increases or decreases the size of dynamically allocated array. The function realloc (ptr,n) uses two
arguments. The first argument ptr is a pointer to a block of memory for which the size is to be
altered. The second argument specifies the new size. The size may be increased or decreased. If
sufficient space is not available to the old region the function may create a new region.
85. What is an Argument?
An argument is an entity used to pass data from the calling to a called function.
86. What are Built-in-Functions/ Pre Defined Functions / Library Functions?
The functions that are predefined and supplied along with the compiler are known as built in
functions. They are also known as library functions.
87. What are the uses of Functions?
o C functions are used to avoid rewriting same logic/code again and again in a program.
o There is no limit in calling C functions to make use of same functionality wherever required
o We can call functions any number of times in a program and from any place in a program.
o A large C program can easily be tracked when it is divided into functions.
o The core concept of C functions are, re-usability, dividing a big task into small pieces to
achieve the functionality and to improve understandability of very large C programs.
88. Define Function Declaration, Function Call and Function Definition with Syntaxes:
 Function declaration or prototype - This informs compiler about the function name, function
parameters and return value‟s data type.
 Function call – This calls the actual function
 Function definition – This contains all the statements to be executed.
89. Define Call by Value?
In call by value method, the value of the variable is passed to the function as parameter. The value
of the actual parameter can not be modified by formal parameter. Different Memory is allocated for
both actual and formal parameters.
 Actual parameter – This is the argument which is used in function call.
 Formal parameter – This is the argument which is used in function definition
90. Define Call by Reference?
In call by reference method, the address of the variable is passed to the function as parameter. The
value of the actual parameter can be modified by formal parameter. Same memory is used for both
actual and formal parameters since only address is used by both parameters.
***** I WISH YOU A VERY ALL THE BEST*****

---THILAK REDDY

CP Final

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Exercise

2. Draw an algorithm and flowchart to reverse a given integer number

printf("Enter an integer: ");

printf("Reversed Number = %d", reversedNumber);

3.Write an algorithm and flowchart to find the gcd of two numbers

printf("Enter two integers: ");

for(i=1; i <= n1 && i <= n2; ++i)

printf("G.C.D of %d and %d is %d", n1, n2, gcd);

printf("Prime numbers between %d and %d are: ", low, high);

while (low < high)

for(i = 2; i <= low/2; ++i)

printf("Enter an integer: ");

// reversed integer is stored in variable

// palindrome if orignalInteger and reversedInteger are equal

10.Write an algorithm and flowchart to compute the factorial of a given number

printf("Enter the number of terms: ");

for (i = 1; i <= n; ++i)

Integer constants Floating Constants Character Constants String Constants

2 Developed by: Thilak Reddy

3 Developed by: Thilak Reddy

Types Keyword Storage Size (in

4 Developed by: Thilak Reddy

Character Constant ASCII Values

5 Developed by: Thilak Reddy

List of format specifiers

%c char single character

Backlash Constant Meaning

Input and Output Functions:-

Type Input function Output function

9 Developed by: Thilak Reddy

The main() function:-

User defined functions:-

12 Developed by: Thilak Reddy

Compiling and Executing a C program:-

There are basically five steps in the successful execution of a program.

13 Developed by: Thilak Reddy

C programming has various operators to perform tasks including arithmetic,

An operator is a symbol which operates on a value or a variable. For example:+ is an

Operator Meaning of Operator

+ addition or unary plus

- subtraction or unary minus

% remainder after division( modulo division)

Example #1: Arithmetic Operators

// C Program to demonstrate the working of arithmetic operators

printf("a+b = %d \n", c);

printf("a-b = %d \n", c);

printf("a*b = %d \n", c);

printf("a/b = %d \n", c);

printf("Remainder when a divided by b = %d \n", c);

Remainder when a divided by b=1

The operators +, - and * computes addition, subtraction and multiplication

In normal calculation, 9/4 = 2.25. However, the output is 2 in the program. It is

The modulo operator % computes the remainder. When a = 9 is divided by b = 4,

2. Increment and decrement operators:-

C programming has two operators increment ++ and decrement -- to change the

2|P a g e C Operators Developed by :Thilak Reddy

Example #2: Increment and Decrement Operators

// C Program to demonstrate the working of increment and decrement operators

int a = 10, b = 100;

float c = 10.5, d = 100.5;

printf("++a = %d \n", ++a);

printf("--b = %d \n", --b);