Stress and Strain

Instructor Dr.
Ishtiaq Jadoon
Stress & Strain
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Structural Geology & Tectonics: ERS 253 CIIT, Abbottabad
Instructor Dr. Ishtiaq Jadoon
Stress & Strain

This relates to deformation.
• Much of this refers to laboratory studies to understand the stress
applied over the rocks and their response (strain) to deformation
i.e. to study the mechanical characteristics (Rheology, strength,
friction) of rocks .
Rheology: Response if rocks to stress.
Strength: The maximum stress that a rock can sustain before
deformation.
Friction: Resistance to sliding
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Stress
Stress
Stress = Force / Area (F/A) where F = ma
“Force per unit area that tend to deform a body”
Expressed as pounds or tons/ square inch (English system), or dynes or kilogram / square cm (C.G.S system)
A dyne is a force that will give an acceleration of 1 cm per second per second to a mass of 1 gram
A poundal is a force that will give an acceleration of 1 foot per second per second to a mass of one pound
σ1
1 Pascal = 1kg/m 2 σ3
1 Bar = 105 Pascal
1 Mpa (Mega-Pascal) = 106 Pascals (10 bars)
It may be similar or variable resulting in similar or variable deformation. σ3
Lithostatic/Hydrostatic Stress or Confining Pressure

The equal, all sided pressure exerted by a column of rock at depth
or on a small body immersed in water.
• This leads to change in volume i.e dilation

dewatering & reduction in porosity
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Stress
System of equal stresses (Lithostatic Pressure) may be manipulated to a
system of unequal principal stresses such that, vertical stress (σ1) is the
axial stress > confining pressure (σ2=σ3)
• This vertical axial stress will leads to a change in shape (compaction,
folding)
σ1
σ3 σ1
σ3
σ3 σ3
• The change in shape is due to differential stress, the one that will produced
deformation which is axial stress – confining pressure
∆σ (differential stress) = σ1-σ3
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Stress
∆σ (differential stress) may be :
1) Tensile (tension or extension): pull apart (Normal faulting)
2) Compressive (compression)
3) Shear (Couple)
Two equal but opposite forces along a plane. They tend to rotate a body
4) Shear (Torsion)
Two equal but opposite forces along an axis. They tend to twist a body
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Role of Pore Pressure

Rocks have pore spaces, sometimes filled by water.
The pressure of the fluids in pore spaces is called as pore pressure.
The pore pressure in rocks is exerted opposite to the lithostatic pressure,
• Therefore it reduces the differential stress.
So *σ1 (effective axial stress) = σ1 – Pp where Pp = pore Pressure ∆σ

& *σ3 (effective confining pressure) = σ3 – Pp
Pp
Thus ∆σ (differential stress) = *σ1 - *σ3
Think, how it may help in deformation
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Strain
Strain is the deformation caused by stress
It may be dilation (change in volume), distortion (change in shape) or both.
3 Stages of Deformation
A body under stress may go through 3 stages of deformation.
1) Elastic strain: the body returns to its original shape & size if the stress is withdrawn.
• There is a limit to elastic strain (Elastic Limit), after which, the body either fails by fractures
(brittle deformation) or undergoes through further deformation without returning to its original
shape (ductile deformation).
• Brittle deformation occurs at shallow depths.
• Thus, below the elastic strain, stress (σ ) ∞ to strain (ε ), which is Hooke’s Law: where
strain is represented by a straight line on stress – strain diagram
2) Plastic strain: after elastic limit, the strain is Plastic that is ‘the body doesn’t fully returns to its original
shape & size even if the stress is withdrawn.
• Leads to ductile deformation which is partially recoverable of non-recoverable.
• Occurs at depth with higher P & T conditions.
3) Rupture: a stage where specimen fails with rupture (fracture) with increasing stress.
Ultimate strength
.
Differential Stress
st i c t i o n
Yield Pl a o rm a Yield strength: the value of stress that marks the onset
strength def
Brittle fracture plastic deformation
Fracture strength: the value of stress at which a rock
fails by brittle fracture
Elastic deformation
Ultimate Strength: the maximum stress the rock
Strain sustains during deformation
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Strain
Tensile or Compressive Stress & Strain
Stress that causes stretching (normal-fault system) or shortening of a body (thrust-
fault system). The related ‘longitudinal’ strain brings about a fractional change in
length and is represented as:
ε = lf – lo / lo = ∆l/ lo
where ε = strain, lo original length, and lf = final length, ∆l = change in length
The value is unitless, either a + number (extension) or a – number (compression)
lo lf
“The ratio of tensile or compressive stress to strain” is Young’s modulus or

modulus of elasticity that is a measure of resistance (stress) offered to deformation
(strain).
E=σ/ε
We know,
σ = F/A and ε = lf – lo / lo
Ratio of transverse to axial strain is Poisson’s ratio

ν = ∆h/ho / ∆l/ lo where h is height and l is the length 8
Strain
Bulk Stress & Strain
Stress that causes a volume change (dilation). The related ‘bulk’ strain is
represented as:
Bulk Strain (β) = Vf – Vo / Vo = ∆V/ Vo

where β= bulk strain, Vo original volume, and Vf = final volume, ∆V = change in
volume
Vo Vf
“The ratio of bulk stress (∆P=fractional change in pressure) to bulk strain is Bulk
Modulus (B).
Thus, B = bulk stress / bulk strain

∆P / ∆V/ Vo = ∆PVo/ ∆V
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Strain
Shear Stress & Strain
Stress that induces rotation and/or tortion. The related shear strain is represented
as:
Shear Strain (γ) = AB / AC or Tan γ = P/B
A B
“The ratio of shear stress (т) to shear strain (γ) is Rigidity Modulus (G) which is
resistance to change in shape
Thus, G = т / γ
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Stress Strain Diagram
Stress
C
B
A D
Strain
Curve A: shows brittle deformation, yield point, and failure by a rupture.
Curve B: Ideal plastic deformation.
Curve C: Rock hardening represented by a positive curve of plastic (ductile) deformation

after yielding and ultimate strength which is the maximum strength that rocks
sustain during deformation.
Curve D: Strain softening represented by a negative curve of plastic (ductile) deformation

that may follow strain hardening.
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Analysis of Ductile Deformation

3 important factors that control deformation are :
1. Temperature (T)
2. Confining Pressure (CP), and
3. Strain Rate (SR) which is the ratio of strain (ε) divided by time (T)
Thus, SR = ε / T
Assume 50 km shortening of a fold belt in 9 Ma & calculate the strain rate?
a) Variable CP, Constant T & SR: Increasing CP is ∞ to the ultimate strength (M-10.10a)
b) Variable T, constant CP & SR: Increasing T is 1/∞ to the ultimate strength

Suggests plastic deformation at depth(M-10.10c)
.
c) Variable SR, constant CP & T: SR ∞ ultimate strength.
Higher the SR, the higher the differential stress to attain a given strain. Recall
Young’s modulus, the curve before yielding is steeper in case of higher strain rate,
that is it requires more stress for higher SR(M-10.10d)
Suggests elastic deformation near the surface of the earth.
During brittle deformation only a small elastic strain (< 3%) is achieved. During ductile deformation,
fractures may not occur even after large strain is achieved (>25%). Rocks that fail by brittle
fracture when the strain is between 3-25% is said to have brittle-ductile behavior. Ductile
deformation is common in nature.
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Brittle and Ductile
• Brittle behavior: response of a solid material to stress during which rock loses
continuity (cohesion). Brittle behavior reflects the occurrence of fracture mechanisms.
It occurs only when stresses exceed a critical value, after body has already
undergone some elastic and/or plastic behavior.
• Ductile behavior: response of a solid material to stress such that the rock appears to
flow mesoscopically like a viscous fluid. In a material that has deformed ductilely,
strain is distributed, i.e., strain develops without formation of mesoscopic
discontinuities. Ductile behavior can involve brittle (cataclastic flow) or plastic
deformation mechanisms.
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Temperature
• Suppresses fracturing
• Promotes ductility
• Reduces strength
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Pressure
• Suppresses fracturing
• Promoted ductility
• Increases strength
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Strain rate
• eo = 10-6/sec is 30% change in 4 days

• eo = 10-14/sec is 30% change in 1 million years
• Small eo reduces strength

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Strength Curve
• Strength is stress that

material can support before
failure.
• Competency is relative
term that compares
resistance of rocks to flow.
• Rock competency scale:
• rock salt > shale >
limestone > greywacke >
sandstone > dolomite
• schist > marble > quartzite
> gneiss > granite > basalt
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Strain Measurements
2 general types
1) Pure Shear
Irrotational, straight lines remain straight, change in length of lines occur due to
tension (pull-apart forces) or compression (pressed together). The result is
elongation or shortening in lines that are perpendicular to each other.
lo lf
ε (Longitudinal strain) = lf – lo / lo = ∆l/ lo
2) Simple Shear
Rotational, straight lines no longer remains straight. It may be due to couple
(circular clockwise or anticlockwise rotation) or torsion (if two ends of a cylinder are
twisted in opposite direction.
Y
A P B
(γ) = AB / AC or Tan γ = P/B or P = Tan γ x B

B
γ
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C
Structural Geology & Tectonics: ERS 253 X CIIT, Abbottabad
Stress Representation on Mohr Circle

y From M & M, 1988
Stress on an inclined plane can be resolved into:
A normal stress component (σn) & B P
σs
A shear stress component (γ) θ σn
σ1
For a given stress, there are 3 principal planes on
which the magnitude of shear stress is ZERO and θ x
stress vector across these mutually perpendicular O A
planes are called as principal stresses (σ1=maximum, σ3
σ2= intermediate, σ3= minimum). The general orientation of principal
stresses, σ1 and σ3, and the stress vector,
P, resolved into σn and σs.
The angle θ is between normal to the plane
Principal stresses of a stress ellipsoid (geometrical AB and the σ1 (in x) direction
Representation of stress) have no shear component
Known the value of principal stresses at a point, the

Value of stress vector acting across any plane passing
Through that point may be calculated mathematically
Or graphically by Mohr Circle or Mohr Diagram.
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Mohr Circle
Mohr Circle is one plotted on Cartesian axes,
The x-axis represents normal stress (σn), & y
The y-axis represents shear stress (γ) B P
σs
The coordinates of each point on the circle represent the values θ σn
of normal & shear stress components, of a plane specified, by an
angle θ, measured between pole to that plane and the σ1. σ1
To plot a circle, points representing σ1 and σ3 can be plotted
along the x-axis (remember maximum stresses do not have a θ x
shear component). Now by placing the anchor needle of a compass O A
on a point midway between σ1 & σ3 and the pencil on one of these
points a circle (Mohr) can be drawn. σ3
The general orientation of principal
stresses, σ1 and σ3, and the stress vector,
Length of the diameter of the circle is Differential Stress P, resolved into σn and σs.
(σ1 - σ3); Whereas, the X-coordinate of the center of the circle The angle θ is between normal to the plane
is Mean Stress (σ1 + σ3/2). The values of σn and γ represent AB and the σ1 (in x) direction
the normal & shear component of the stress vector on a plane
oriented at a certain angle of 2θ measured clockwise from σ1.
+σs (MPa)
Sign conventions
+ & - along x-axis represent compressive & tensile stresses 20
+ & - along y-axis represent left-lateral & right-lateral shear,
σs O
respectively.
σn(MPa)
On Mohr circle visualization of stress component becomes σ3 σn N σ1
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easy, similar to as shown on the figure of the circle.
Structural Geology & Tectonics: ERS 253 -σs CIIT, Abbottabad
Mohr Circle
Problem:
The mean stress at a point in a rock is 40 MPa, and the differential stress is 20
MPa. A) What are the values of σ1 and σ3 in the rocks.
B) What are the magnitude of shear (σs) and normal (σn) stress acting on a
plane that is inclined at 30º to σ1?
+σs (MPa)
20
O
σs
σn(MPa)
σ3 σn N σ1
60
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Normal & Shear Stress

The normal stress, σn:
σn= (σ1+σ2)/2 + (σ1-σ2)/2 cos2θ (1)
Where
• c = (σ1+σ2)/2 is the center, which lies on the
normal stress axis (x axis)
• r = (σ1-σ2)/2 is the radius
The shear stress

σs = (σ1-σ2)/2 sin2θ (2)
σs > 0 represents left-lateral shear

σs < 0 represents right-lateral shear
σs = 0 at θ = 0ο or 90ο or 180ο (a min)
σs = (σ1−σ2)/2 at θ = + 45ο (maximum shear
stress)
• The maximum σs is 1/2 the differential
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stress
Example - Deviatoric & Mean

stress
Given: σ1 = 8 Mpa, σ2 = 5 Mpa, and σ3 = 2 Mpa
Find the mean and the diviatoric stresses
The mean stress (σm):

σm = (8 + 5 + 2) / 3 = 5 MPa
The deviatoric stresses (σn′ ):

σ1′ = 8-5 = 3 Mpa (compressive)
σ2 ′ = 5-5 = 0 Mpa
σ3 ′ = 2-5 = -3 Mpa (tensile)
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Instructor Dr.

Stress & Strain

Stress & Strain

It may be similar or variable resulting in similar or variable deformation. σ3

Lithostatic/Hydrostatic Stress or Confining Pressure

• This leads to change in volume i.e dilation

1) Tensile (tension or extension): pull apart (Normal faulting)

Role of Pore Pressure

So *σ1 (effective axial stress) = σ1 – Pp where Pp = pore Pressure ∆σ

Think, how it may help in deformation

The value is unitless, either a + number (extension) or a – number (compression)

“The ratio of tensile or compressive stress to strain” is Young’s modulus or

Ratio of transverse to axial strain is Poisson’s ratio

Bulk Strain (β) = Vf – Vo / Vo = ∆V/ Vo

Thus, B = bulk stress / bulk strain

Shear Strain (γ) = AB / AC or Tan γ = P/B

Stress Strain Diagram

Curve A: shows brittle deformation, yield point, and failure by a rupture.

Curve B: Ideal plastic deformation.

Curve C: Rock hardening represented by a positive curve of plastic (ductile) deformation

Curve D: Strain softening represented by a negative curve of plastic (ductile) deformation

Analysis of Ductile Deformation

b) Variable T, constant CP & SR: Increasing T is 1/∞ to the ultimate strength

Brittle and Ductile

• eo = 10-6/sec is 30% change in 4 days

• Small eo reduces strength

• Strength is stress that

ε (Longitudinal strain) = lf – lo / lo = ∆l/ lo

(γ) = AB / AC or Tan γ = P/B or P = Tan γ x B

Stress Representation on Mohr Circle

Representation of stress) have no shear component

Known the value of principal stresses at a point, the

Normal & Shear Stress

The shear stress

σs > 0 represents left-lateral shear

Example - Deviatoric & Mean

The mean stress (σm):

The deviatoric stresses (σn′ ):

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