MILDADANYT


INTRODUCTIONTO THE ANALYSIS

OF CRIME FICTION
AUSERFRIENDLYGUIDE

























VYTAUTASMAGNUSUNIVERSITY
KAUNAS2011
 






RecenzentKristinaAurylait(VDU)





Svarstyta VDU Humanitarini moksl fakulteto Angl filologijos katedros posdyje 20100605
(protokoloNr.5)irVDUHumanitarinimokslfakultetoTarybosposdyje20100605(protokoloNr.3).






































ISBN9789955126980 ©M.Danyt,2011
 ©VytautoDidžiojouniversitetas,2011

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 PREFACEFORTHOSEUSINGTHISLEARNINGAID

Welcometoaverypleasantexperienceinreadingandthinkingaboutoneofthemost
popularliterarygenres–crimefiction–whoserootsgobackfarinhumanculture,but
whichhasacquiredaparticularkindofformsincethelate19thcentury.Crimefiction,
whetheritisanintellectualpuzzleorathrillingactionpackednarrativeinbookor
cinematicform,isgreatfuntoread.Still,althoughpopulargenreslikethiswerelong
dismissedas‘lightreading’,‘escapistreading’andeven‘trash’,crimefiction,alongwith
otherpopularculturalphenomena,ismorecomplexthanitmayappear.

Thepurposeofthislearningaidistoprovidethekindofbasicinformationthathelpsyou
analyseaparticularworkofcrimefiction.Oftenstudentsbecomeconfusedbythevariety
ofdefinitionstheyfindincriticalsources.Inthisshorttext,themostgenerallyaccepted
featuresofcrimefictioningeneralaregiveninthefirstsection,whilelaterdifferentsub
genresarepresented:theirgeneralcharacteristicsandhistory,alongwithexamplesof
majorwriters,followedbyalistofspecificfeatures.Foreachgenre,thelistfollowsthe
sameorderwiththesamekeyideassothatitiseasytocompareonevarietyofcrime
fictiontoanother.

Furthermore,exercisesthatencouragecreativethinkingareprovidedthroughoutthe
learningaid.Youcandotheseonyourownorwithothers.Sincecrimefictionissucha
popularform,almosteveryoneofushasreadbooksorseenfilmsthatbelongtothe
genre.Allthisfamiliaritywiththegenreisusefulindecidingwhatkindofsubgenreyour
textorfilmbelongsto.Youwillfinditinterestingtoseethatmanyofthelistsof
characteristicsIofferarealreadyfamiliartoyou,thoughyoumayneverhavethought
aboutthetextsandfilmsinthisway.

Attheendofthelearningaid,therearesomeexamplesofcrimefiction:youcansee
whetherornotyoucanassignthemtoaparticulargenre.Theannotatedlistofreferences
isnotintendedtobecomplete.Asidefrompointingoutveryusefulbooksinouruniversity
library,itisintendedtohelpyoufindcriticalmaterialontheinternet.

Goodluckwithyourwork!Ienjoyedpreparingthislearningaid,andtaketheopportunity
tothankmanystudentsinthepastwhohavemademethinkmoreseriouslyaboutcrime
fictionbychoosingtowritetheircoursepapersorthesesonthissubject.

Dr.MildaDanyt
June29,2010

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 TABLEOFCONTENTS 

ANALYSINGCRIMEFICTIONASANARRATIVEGENRE 5
1. WHATISCRIMEFICTION? 5
2. ARESUSPENSETHRILLERSALSOPARTOFCRIMEFICTION? 5

YOURINPUT:1
3. THEPREHISTORYOFMODERNCRIMEFICTIONINENGLISH 6
4. ARTHURCONANDOYLE’SSHERLOCKHOLMESSTORIES:THEBEGINNINGSOFDETECTIVE
CRIMEFICTIONINENGLISH 8

YOURINPUT:2
5. GOLDENAGECRIMEFICTION:ITSHISTORYANDCHARACTERISTICS 11

YOURINPUT:3
6 WHATARETHEMAJORCHARACTERISTICSOFGOLDENAGECRIMEFICTION? 17
7. HARDBOILEDORNOIRCRIMEFICTION:ITSHISTORYANDCHARACTERISTICS 19

YOURINPUT:4
8. RAYMONDCHANDLER’STHEBIGSLEEPASANEXAMPLEOFTHEHARDBOILEDDETECTIVENOVEL 22
9. WHATARETHEMAJORCHARACTERISTICSOFHARDBOILEDCRIMEFICTION? 24
10. WOMENINHARDBOILEDCRIMEFICTION:FATALWOMENANDWOMENDETECTIVES 26
11. THEPOLICEPROCEDURALASANOTHERKINDOFCRIMEFICTION:ITSHISTORY
ANDCHARACTERISTICS 29

YOURINPUT:5
12. WHATARETHEMAJORCHARACTERISTICSOFPOLICEPROCEDURALS? 31
13. SUSPENSETHRILLERS:HOWDOTHEYDIFFERFROMDETECTIVEFICTION? 33
14. WHATARETHEMAJORCHARACTERISTICSOFTHRILLERS? 37
15. NEWERTRENDSINCRIMEFICTION:ANEXPLOSIONOFSUBGENRESANDCROSSOVERGENRES 38
16. THEPOLICEOFFICERASDETECTIVEINCONTEMPORARYCRIMEFICTIONSERIES:
SUPERDETECTIVES,FATHERLYFIGURES,ANDMAVERICKS 40
17. P.D.JAMES’CHIEFINSPECTORDALGLIESHSERIES:THESUPERDETECTIVE 40
18. RUTHRENDELL’SCHIEFINSPECTORWEXFORDSERIES:THEFATHERLYPOLICEDETECTIVE 43
19. IANRANKIN’SINSPECTORREBUSSERIES:THEMAVERICKPOLICEMAN 45
20. KATHYREICHS’DRTEMPERANCEBRENNANSERIES:THEFEMALEPROFESSIONAL
INTHEPOLICETEAM 48

WORKSCITED 51
EXERCISES 53
ANSWERSTOTHEEXERCISES 55
PRACTICALADVICETOCARRYINGOUTRESEARCHONCRIMEFICTION 56


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 ANALYSINGCRIMEFICTIONASANARRATIVEGENRE

1. WHATISCRIMEFICTION?

“Crimefiction”isoneofseveralnamesgiventooneofthemostpopularofnarrative
genrestoday.Thistermisverybroad,asitincludesanystorythathasacrimeandits
solutionasacentralfeatureofitsplot.Theoretically,WilliamShakespeare’splayMacbeth,
whichdepictsthemurderofakingandtheeventualrevelationthatthiswasdoneby
Macbethandhiswife,couldbecalledcrimefiction.However,literaryspecialistsreserve
thetermcrimefictionforamorerecentgenrethatdevelopedinthelate19thcentury,in
whichthereismoremysteryaboutthecrimethathastakenplace.Inthesenarratives,a
gooddealofthetextisconcernedwiththeefforttosolvethemysteryofthecrime.In
Macbeth,althoughMacbethtriestothrowtheguiltonothermen,thosearoundhim
almostimmediatelyrealizethatheistherealmurdererandstarttocollectanarmyagainst
him.

Therefore,thenecessaryelementsofcrimefictioninthepastonehundredyearshave
includedthefollowing.

x Acrime,mostoftenmurder,iscommittedearlyinthenarrative.
x Thereareavarietyofsuspectswithdifferentmotives.
x Acentralcharacterformallyorinformallyactsasthedetective.
x Thedetectivecollectsevidenceaboutthecrimeanditsvictim.
x Usuallythedetectiveinterviewsthesuspects,aswellaswitnesses.
x Thedetectivesolvesthemysteryandindicatestherealcriminal.
x Usuallythiscriminalisnowarrestedorotherwisepunished.

Sincetheelementofmysteryissoimportant,andthecrimeorcrimesaremostoften
murder,thesenarrativesarealsoknownas“murdermysteries.”Theroleofdetectiveis
alsoconsideredessential;therefore,anotherterm,“detectivefiction”,isalsocommon.

2. ARESUSPENSETHRILLERSALSOPARTOFCRIMEFICTION?

Suspensethrillersarecloselyrelatedtocrimefiction.Onecanfindliteraryspecialistswho
arguethattheyformaseparategenrewithitsowncharacteristics.Certainly,crimesdo
takeplaceinasuspensethriller,andthecentralcharacterorcharactersoftenfunctionas
detectivestryingtosolvethesecrimes.Still,theprimaryinterestinthrillers,asthename
suggests,isveryrapidactioninwhichthemaincharactersareoftenindangerofbeing
killedthemselves.Traditionalcrimefiction,beginningwithArthurConanDoyle’sSherlock
Holmesstories,includessomeexcitingevents,butismoreconcernedwiththeintellectual
gameoftryingtopuzzleoutthecrime.AsuspensethrillerlikeDanBrown’sTheDaVinci
CodeorthenovelsofwriterslikeJohnLeCarreandJohnGrishammovesrapidlyfrom
placetoplace,oftenoverdifferentcitiesandcountries.Thecrimes,too,aremorelikelyto
beonescommittedbysomeinternationalorganizationofcriminalsliketheMafia,people
withingovernmentorganizations,directorsofbigbusinessandthelike,whilethemain
charactersareoftenpursuedorattackedbythecriminals.Theheroofasuspensethriller

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needsagooddealofluckaswellasphysicalstrengthandcourage,whilethedetectiveina
crimenovelneedsmostlyintelligenceandkeenobservation.

Nevertheless,mostspecialistsoncrimefictionarenowinclinedtoincludethethrillerinto
thegeneralgenre.ThiscanbeseeninareputableoverviewofthegenrelikeThe
CambridgeCompaniontoCrimeFiction(2003),editedbyMartinPriestman,whichhasan
articleonthethrilleralongwithmoretraditionalformslikeGoldenAgecrimefiction.
Furthermore,astimepasses,therearemoreandmoreexamplesofnovelsandfilmsthat
canbecalledcrossovers,combiningfeaturesofbothcrimefictionandsuspensethrillers.
Still,mostwritersworkinonesubgenreortheother,asreadersoftenprefer,aswith
mostpopularormassliterature,tobesurethattheywillgetthekindofnarrativethey
want.

YOURINPUT:1

THINKABOUTNOVELSYOUHAVEREADORFILMSORTVSERIALSYOUHAVEWATCHED.
AREANYOFTHEM“CRIMEFICTION”OR“SUSPENSETHRILLERS”?
WHYDOYOUDECIDETOPLACETHEBOOKORFILMINONEGENREORANOTHER?

3. THEPREHISTORYINENGLISHOFMODERNCRIMEFICTION

ThefirsttextsinEnglishthatfocusoncrimeandcriminalsappearinthe16thcentury.
WriterslikeJohnAwdeleyandThomasHarmancollectedinformationaboutthecriminal
underworldinEngland,itsstructure,professionsandlanguage,andpublishedthisina
formthatwasbetweenwhatcouldbecalledsociologicalinformationandnarrative.
Awdeley’sFraternityofVagabonds(1565),Harman’sACaveatorWarning(1567)and
someothersoflessimportancewerelaterusedbyRenaissancewriterslikeThomas
Dekker(15701632)andRobertGreene(15561592),workinginthetimeofShakespeare,
whoexpandedthenarrativeelements,creatingdialoguesbetweendifferentkindsof
professionalcriminalsornarrativesabouthowtheyworked.Fromaliterarypointofview,
thefinestoftheseworksweretwoplaysbythemajorRenaissancewriter,BenJonson
(15721637),TheAlchemist(1610)andBartholomewFair(1614),inwhichsomeofthe
centralcharactersareprofessionalcriminalsandtheplotcirclesaroundtheircriminalacts.

However,theseliteraryworksareverydifferentfromcrimefictionasreadersthinkofit
today.Therearenodetectives,andthecrimeisnevermurder.Theinterestforthereaders
intheseRenaissancetextsishowprostitutes,pickpockets,thievesandconmenof
differentkindsmanagetomakemoneyfromfoolishandgullibleEnglishcitizens.The
writerscreateapictureofanunderworldwithitsownclasssystem–forsomekindsof
crimeareconsideredtohavehigherstatusthanothers–anditsownlanguage,whatmay
becalledasociolect,wordsandexpressionsusedbythesepeopletorefertodifferent
kindsofcrimes,criminalsandvictims,aswellassomeordinaryitemsfromeverydaylife.
Besides,althoughEnglishRenaissancewritersformallycondemnedcriminalsassinful,
immoralandwickedpeople,intruththesenarrativesareverysympathetictothieves,
prostitutesandconmen.Onesignofthisisthatthevictimsareoftenfooledbecausethey
aregreedyaswellasstupid,andsoarerightfullypunishedbybeingtrickedoutoftheir
money.Another,evenmoreimportant,isthatthecriminalsalmostneverrepentor

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changeandarenotpunishedfortheircrimes.Norarethereanydetectives,though
occasionallymenrepresentingthelaw,likemagistrates,mayappear.Thecriminals,then,
aretreatedasheroesofakind,whichiseasiertodoforthewritersasthenarrativesare
oftenhumourousandthecrimesarenotmajorones(Danys,RenaissanceCrimeFiction).

Thiskindofliteraturewaspopularuptothemidseventeenthcentury.Meanwhile,atthe
sametimeasitflourished,asimplerkindofliterarygenreaboutcriminalsalsoexistedand
continuedforovertwocenturies.Thiswasthebroadsidesheet,(sometimescalled
“broadsideballads”iftheywerewritteninrhymedverse),whichwerepartofpopular
writingfortheworkingclass.Abroadsidesheetisalargepieceofpaper:withthe
inventionofprinting,stories,songsandothertexts,oftenaccompaniedbyacrude
woodcutpicture,weresoldcheaplyinthestreet.Theonesaboutcriminalsclaimedtobe
factualbiographiesofmenandwomenwhohadbeenarrestedandhung,orthiscriminal’s
confessionbeforeheorshewashung.ThepunishmentofcriminalsintheRenaissanceand
uptothemiddleofthe19thcenturywasmostoftenpublic,withhangingsdrawing
enormouscrowdsofmen,womenandchildren.Cleverprinterssawthattherewasa
markethereandhadmenmovethroughthecrowdssellingtheirbroadsidesheetsabout
thepersonwhowasbeinghung.Broadsidesheetswerealsosoldinshopsnearmarkets,
hunguptoattractbuyers.Althoughthesetextshavenoliteraryvalue(oftenthesame
storyorconfession,aswellasillustration,wasattachedtoanewname),theydemonstrate
thatEnglishreaderswereinterestedincriminallife.

ThenextmajorphaseincrimeliteratureinEnglishtookplaceintheearly18thcentury,
whenmajorwritersusedthenewnovelformtowritestoriesabouthighwaymen,thieves,
prostitutesandcriminalrings.ThefirstimportantfigurewasDanielDefoe(16601731),a
journalistwhoseMollFlanders(1722)takesasitsheroaworkingclasswomanwho
survivesbyprostitutionandstealing.Again,aswiththeearlierRenaissancetexts,readers
aremadetofeelsympathetictoMollandhopeforherescapefrompunishment.Defoe
wroteothernovelswhosecentralfiguresarecriminals,andwasfollowedbymajorwriters
likeHenryFielding(17071754)–TheLifeofJonathanWildtheGreat(1743)andJohnGay
(16851732)–TheBeggars’Opera(1728).Alloftheseworksmakecriminalsthecentral
figuresoftheirstories.Indeed,MollFlandersandJonathanWildarethefirstperson
narratorsoftheirnovels,whichmakesiteasyforreaderstoidentifywiththem.

Nonetheless,theseworks,thoughmuchmorecomplexthanthosewrittenearlier,arestill
notcrimefictioninthecurrentsense.Therearenomysteriesaboutthecrimesthatare
beingcommittedandnodetectiveswhosolvethem.Ineffect,theyaresophisticated
literaryversionsofapopularseriescalledtheNewgateCalendar,whichclaimedtogive
factsaboutthemoresensationalcrimesthatreallytookplaceinEnglandinthe18thand
early19thcenturies.Theseledinturntofictionaltextsaboutcriminalsthatwerepublished
inthe1830s:someofthesecontinuedthetraditionofdepictingthecriminalasa
sympatheticfigure,whileothers,likeCharlesDickens’novelOliverTwist(18371838),
weremorerealisticintheirversionsoftheEnglishunderworld.Heretoothesetextsarefar
fromcurrentcrimefiction,asreadersseethecrimesbeingcommittedandknowwhodid
them:thereisnomysteryandnodetective.

AlloftheseworksfromtheearlyEnglishRenaissanceonwardsdemonstratethatwriters
andreaderswereinterestedincrime.Still,theparticularelementsthatformcrimefiction
asitisnowknown,cametogetheronlylaterinthe19thcentury.

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4. ARTHURCONANDOYLE’SSHERLOCKHOLMESSTORIESANDTHEBEGINNINGS
OFDETECTIVECRIMEFICTIONINENGLISH

ThefirststoriesinEnglishthataretrulydetectivecrimefictionarethreepublishedbythe
AmericanwriterEdgarAllanPoe(18091849),ofwhichthefirst,“MurdersintheRue
Morgue”(1841),isthemostfamous.Itincludesanumberoftheelementsthathavebeen
mentionedascharacteristicofmoderncrimefiction:acrimeiscommitted,adetective
collectsinformationandeventuallyrevealswhotherealcriminalis.However,foratime
PoewasmoreinfluentialforFrenchthanEnglishwriters,andcrimefictionstoriesand
novelsappearedinFrenchbeforetheybegantoappearinEnglish.Itwasonlywiththe
publicationoftheSherlockHolmesstoriesbyArthurConanDoylefrom1887to1927that
crimefictionasthegenrethatisnowrecognizedreallyappeared.

ArthurConanDoyle(18591930),thesonofapoorlyoffScottisharchitect,becamea
doctor,butwasnotverysuccessfulatthisprofession.Whilewaitingforpatients,hebegan
towritestories.ThefirstSherlockHolmesworkswerenovels,butitwastheseriesofshort
storiesthatappearedintheStrandMagazinefrom1891andwerethenrepublishedas
collectionsofstoriesthatmadehisdetectiveSherlockHolmesnotonlyfamousbutacult
figurewhosepopularityhascontinuedthoughreprintsandversionsincinemaand
televisionfilmsuptothepresentday.

BecausemostofConanDoyle’scrimefictiontakestheformoftheshortstory,features
thatarenowconsideredtypicalofthisgenrearenotsosignificant.Sinceashortstoryhas
alimitednumberofpagesinwhichtodevelopitsplot,itisnotpossiblewithinitsconfines
topresentalargernumberofsuspectswhocanbeinvestigatedbythedetective.Infact,
mostdetectivecrimefictionappearsasnovels,notshortstories.However,ConanDoyle
managedtoestablishwhat,ineffect,wasanewgenreandtogivehisdetectiveheroa
distinctivestampofindividualitythathasbeenimitatedbycountlesswritersinthecentury
afterwards.

Itwastheideaofhavingaseriesofmysterystoriesunitedbythesamedetective,Sherlock
Holmes,thatprovedtobethefoundationofthenewgenre.ThisalsohelpedConanDoyle
overcomethephysicallimitsoftheshortstorygenreindevelopinghishero,forreaders
graduallylearnedmoreaboutSherlockHolmesfromonestorytothenext.Althoughthere
aremanycrimefictionnovelsthatdonothaveadetectivewhoappearsagaininanother
book,theonesthatdocontinuefromonenoveltoanotherhaveprovedtobethebest
sellingofthegenre.Thisisbecausecrimefiction,likeapopularliterature,attractsreaders
whowantmoreofthesame–adifferentstory,butwiththeassurancethatthedetective
whomtheyfindappealingorinterestingwillbethereagain.AgathaChristie,forexample,
usesavarietyofdetectivesinherworks,butthemostpopularofhernovelshavebeen
thosethatfeaturethearrogantprofessionalBelgiandetectiveHerculePoirotandthe
apparentlyinnocentbutveryshrewdelderlyspinsterMissJaneMarple.

Inaddition,ConanDoyleoffersasolutiontothetechnicalproblemthatconfrontsall
writersofdetectivecrimefiction.Thesestoriesinvolveacrime,andpartofwhatkeeps
thereadersturningthepagesisthedesiretofindoutwhocommittedthecrime.Sherlock
Holmes,likeAgathaChristie’sdetectives,isexceptionallybrilliantandveryquicklynotices
cluesandmakesinterpretationsthatreaders,iftheyknewthem,wouldleadthemtoofast
tothecorrectsolution.Therefore,itisimportantthatthestorynotbetoldbythese

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detectivesasfirstpersonnarrators,becausethenreaderswouldknowwhattheyare
thinking.However,thenarratorhastoremainveryclosetothedetective,orguessingata
solutiontothemysterybecomestoodifficult.Therefore,ConanDoylegaveSherlock
Holmesafriendandassistant,Dr.Watson.Thetwoyoungmenshareacomfortable
apartmentinBakerStreetinLondon.Oftenthestoriesbeginwithaclientcominghereto
seekHolmes’help.Forexample,aftersomeintroductoryremarks,twostoriesstartinthis
way:

’Holmes,’saidI,asIstoodonemorninginourbowwindowlooking
downthestreet,‘hereisamadmancomingalong.’[…]‘Whatonearth
canbethematterwithhim?’Iasked.‘Heislookingupatthenumbers
ofthehouses.’
‘Ibelievethatheiscominghere,’saidHolmes,rubbinghis
hands.”(Doyle,“TheAdventureoftheBerylCoronet’282).
Itwasawild,tempestuousnighttowardsthecloseofNovember.
HolmesandIsattogetherinsilencealltheevening,heengagedwitha
powerfullensdecipheringtheremainsoftheoriginalinscriptionupon
apalimpsest,Ideepinarecenttreatiseuponsurgery.Outsidethewind
howleddownBakerStreet,whiletherainbeatfiercelyagainstthe
windows.[…]AsinglecabwassplashingitswayfromtheOxfordStreet
end.[…]ThecabwhichIhadseenhadpulledupatourdoor.
“Whatcanhewant?”Iejaculated,asamansteppedoutofit.
“Want!Hewantsus.”(Doyle,“TheAdventureoftheGolden
Pincenez”351)

Then,whenHolmesheadsouttoinvestigatethecrimeormystery,DrWatsonalmost
alwaysgoeswithhim.Watsonisthefirstpersonnarratorofthestorysothathecan
providethereaderwithanaccountoftheclient’sandothercharacters’conversationswith
SherlockHolmes,descriptionsofthecrimesceneandcluesfoundatit,aswellaswhatever
Holmestellshimashereflectsonthemystery.

DrWatsonisnotastupidman,butheseemsonlyaverageinintelligence.Oftenhejumps
tohastyconclusionsormisinterpretstheevidence.SometimesHolmescorrectshim,but
othertimeshesimplymakesmysteriousremarksthatneitherWatsonnorthereaderscan
interpret.Ineffect,DrWatsonstandsinforthereaders,whoenterthestorybutarestill
puzzledtofindasolution–andsokeepturningthepagesuntilthegreatdetectiveexplains
itall.

Havinganassistantclosetohimisalsousefulforpresentingthepersonalityofthe
detectivehimself.Thedetectiveistheheroofmostcrimefictionand,likeheroesin
literatureingeneral,hastobeaninteresting,notadullcharacter.Inadditiontohis
extraordinaryintelligence,ConanDoylemadehisSherlockHolmesaneccentricperson
withmanyvividfeatures.StephenKnight,inFormandIdeologyinCrimeFiction,describes
Holmesasa“romanticartisticpersona[…]themodelofasuperiorbeing,asuperman[…]”
(1980:79).Holmesisnotmarriedandonlyonceshowsapassinginterestinawoman.His
interestsarenarrowbutverydeep:heisanexpertinthenewscienceofidentifying
fingerprints,andcanalsodistinguishdifferentkindsoftobaccoaswell.Heoftenpublishes
anarticleonsomeveryspecializedtopic.HehasalaboratoryinBakerStreetandactsasa
kindofscientist,thoughthescienceintheHolmesstoriesisnotveryprofound.Atthe

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sametime,Holmesissubjecttodeepfitsofdepressionanddreaminess,inwhichheplays
theviolinforhours,smokesonepipeafteranotherandsometimesusesnarcoticdrugs.
Notrich,hehasjustenoughmoneyfrominvestments(fourhundredpoundsayear)tobe
abletolivewithoutworkingsothathecanaffordtotakeuponlythosecasesthatinterest
him.

Inaclasssense,Holmesbelongstotheuppermiddleclass;heisperfectlycomfortable
dealingwiththehighestranksofEnglishsociety,butalsoseemsateasewithshopkeepers,
servantsandworkingclasspeople.Indeed,heemploysanetworkofstreetboysandother
agentswhocollectinformationforhim.Hisclientscomefromallclasses,thoughtheyare
mostlyfromupperclassones.

Morally,itisimportantthatSherlockHolmesisalwaysonthesideofthegood.Inthisway
thenewgenreofcrimefictionhasmovedfarfromtheearliercenturiesoffictionthatwas
fascinatedbyandoftensympathetictocriminals.Asadetective,Holmesfunctionsasthe
guardianofmiddleclassorder,thevaluesthatdominatedtheEnglandofhistime.For
example,in“TheAdventureofCharlesAugustusMilverton”(1899),Holmescallsthe
criminalMilverton“theworstmaninLondon”,explainingtoWatsonthatthemanis“the
kingofalltheblackmailers”and“ascunningastheEvilOne”(Doyle558559)Crimesof
anykind–andtheyarebynomeansalwaysmurderintheSherlockHolmesstories–
disruptandthreatensocialorder.Bysolvingthecrime,Holmesrestoresordertosociety.
Veryoccasionally,whenthevictimofthemurderturnsouttobefarmoreevilthanthe
murderer,Holmesletsthemurdererescapepunishment.Thisisthecasein“The
AdventureofCharlesAugustusMilverton”,whereHolmesandWatsonenterthevillain’s
houseasburglars,andwindupwitnessingtheman’smurderbyabeautifulupperclass
woman.ApproachedbythepolicetotrytosolveMilverton’smurder,Holmesforonce
refuses:“Ithinktherearecertaincrimeswhichthelawcannottouch,andwhichtherefore,
tosomeextent,justifyprivaterevenge.”(Doyle570).Normally,however,heisrelentless
inmakingsurethatcrimeispunished.

Inthisway,themurderorcrimepuzzleallowsthereadersthepleasureofwitnessing
criminalacts,whilethedetective’sskillatsolvingthemysteryandindicatingtheguilty
personsatisfiesthereaders’needfororder,forrationalsolutionsandforthevictoryof
goodoverevilandinnocenceoverguilt.Generallyspeaking,thecriminalintheSherlock
Holmesstoriesisneververyattractiveasahumanbeing.Laterwriterschangethisformula
tosomeextent,butforalongtime,andeventoday,crimefictionfollowsConanDoylein
beingonthesideofgood.

Althoughbrilliantintelligence,acuteperceptivenessandanexcellentmemoryarethe
dominantfeaturesthatmakeHolmesasuccessfuldetective,heisalsoanactivemanwho
visitsthescenesofcrimesandcarefullysearchesthemforclues.In“TheAdventureofthe
Devil’sFoot”(1897),forinstance,afterheandWatsonentertheroomwherethedead
manis,Holmesburstsintoaction:

Hewasoutonthelawn,inthroughthewindow,roundtheroom,and
upintothebedroom,foralltheworldlikeadashingfoxhounddrawing
acover[…]Hecarefullyscrutinizedwithhislensthetalcshieldwhich
coveredthetopofthechimneyandscrapedoffsomeasheswhich
adheredtoitsuppersurface,puttingsomeofthemintoanenvelope,
whichheplacedinhispocketbook.(Doyle518)

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Sometimesheevendisguiseshimselfinordertoapproachsuspects.Inhisattemptsto
stoptheblackmailerin“TheAdventureofCharlesAugustusMilverton”,hedisguises
himselfasaworkmanandcourtsMilverton’shousemaidtogetthenecessarydetailsabout
thelayoutofthehouse.Laterheusuallyspendsdayssmokingpipesandthinkingover
whathehasseenandlearned.Still,heisdescribedasayoungmanwhocanbestrongand
athleticwhenhewantsto,thoughheisrarelyengagedinphysicalviolenceorcarriesa
weapon.

ConanDoyle’smodelsofthenarrativeandcharactersincrimefictionhavehadamajor
impactonwritersinthegenre.Indeed,itmaybeassertedthattheintellectualsideofhis
creationledtoGoldenAgecrimefiction,whiletheimageofHolmesasayoung,vigorous
manphysicallycollectingevidenceaffectedtheAmericanhardboileddetectivegenre.

YOURINPUT:2

ASKYOURFRIENDSORFAMILY
1. HAVETHEYEVERHEARDOFSHERLOCKHOLMES?IFSO,WHATISHELIKE?
2. HAVETHEYEVERREADANYSHERLOCKHOLMES’STORIESINENGLISHORANYOTHER
LANGUAGE?
3. HAVETHEYEVERSEENASHERLOCKHOLMESSTORYONTVORINTHECINEMA?

5.GOLDENAGECRIMEFICTION:ITSHISTORYANDCHARACTERISTICS

Theterm“GoldenAgecrimefiction”wasfirstusedtosuggestthatthedetectivecrime
novelswrittenbetweenthetwoworldwarsandshortlyafterwardsmarkedahighpointin
thehistoryof20thcenturycrimefictionwriting.Criticsnolongeragreewiththis
evaluation,asagreatdealofexcellentcrimefictionhasbeenwrittensincethen.However,
thetermisstillusedbyliteraryhistoriansandcriticstoconvenientlyrefertoaparticular
subgenreofcrimefiction.Analternativetermisthe‘cluepuzzle”novel,whichindicates
oneofthecentralcharacteristicsofthiskindofwriting.

GoldenAgecrimefictiontakesanumberofitsfeaturesfromtheSherlockHolmesstories,
butitfavoursthenovelformsothattheplotsaremorecomplex,ofteninvolvingmore
thanonecrime(nowalmostalwaysmurder),alargenumberofcharacters,manyofwhom
aresuspects,andamoredetaileddescriptionofthesocialstructureandgeographyofthe
placewherethecrimesoccur.Still,therearemanysimilaritiestotheformulathatConan
Doyledeveloped.Fromanarrativepointofview,themostimportantisthattheseare
usuallystoriestoldnotfromthepointofviewofthedetective,butofthedetective’s
friendorassistant.

Forexample,themostfamousoftheGoldenAgewriters,AgathaChristie(18901976)
gaveherdetectiveHerculePoirotinherfirstnovel,TheMysteriousAffairatStyles(1920),
afaithfulfriend,CaptainHastings,who,likeDrWatson,isnotveryintelligentbutwho
accompaniesPoirotduringtheinvestigation:heisthefirstpersonnarratorinthenovelsin
whichheappears.LikeSherlockHolmes,Poirotisalsoaneccentriccharacter,scornfulof
thepolice.However,hedoesnotthinkmuchofdetectiveslikeHolmeswhorunabout
investigatingacrimesceneordisguisethemselvestogetinformation.Instead,heinsists

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ontheimportanceofquietlylettinghis‘littlegreycells’work.Heisalsopedanticallytidy,
andstrikestheEnglishascomicbecauseofthesizeofhismoustachesandhisaccented
language.Still,heisbrilliantlyintelligentandalwayssolvesallthemysteries.Intermsof
plot,thesamebasicstructureusedbyConanDoyleisfollowedbyChristie:amysterious
crimeiscommitted,thedetectiveinvestigatesit,certainpeopleappearassuspects,and
finallythedetectiveexplainseverythingandindicatesthecriminal,whoisthenarrested.
However,sinceChristieprimarilywroteamuchlongerform,thenovel,herworksusually
includeasecondcrimeorevenseveralmurders,introducingamoodofsuspense,asthe
detectivestrugglestosolvethecasebeforethemurdererstrikesagain.

Crimefictionbecameextremelypopularduringtheinterwarperiodandhasneverlostits
popularitysince.Thereisanenormousvarietyofeccentricdetectivesproducedinthis
period,fromthearistocraticLordPeterWimseycreatedbyDorothySayers(18931957),
whosingsbeautifully,isalwaysquotingliteratureandcollectsoldbooks,yetisalsoan
extremelyfinecricketplayer,toNeroWolfe,theveryfatdetectivewhoalmostnever
leaveshisexpensiveNewYorkapartmentwherehegrowsrareflowers,butsendsouthis
handsomeandathleticassistantArchietocollectinformationandbringsuspectstohis
office.NeroWolfewascreatedbyRexStout(18861975),butmostGoldenAgecrime
fictionintheinterwarperiodwasproducedbyBritishwriters.Intheinterwarperiod,the
detectiveisalmostneveramemberofthepoliceforceand,indeed,thepoliceareoften
treatedasunimaginativemenwhocometosimpleandhastyconclusionsaboutwhothe
murdereris.TheGoldenAgedetectivesshowthemselvestobesuperiortotheofficial
forcesthataresupposedtodealwithcrime.

ThemajornameinthisperiodisthatofAgathaChristie,who,likemanyofthesewriters,
continuedtoproduceherdetectivenovelsafterWorldWarIIwithgreatsuccess.Indeed,
althoughotherGoldenAgewritersarestillreadtoday,Christieistheonlyonewhohas
becomeahouseholdnamelikeConanDoyle,withherworkstranslatedintomostworld
languagesandstillsellingverywell.Althoughsomecriticsofcrimefictiondonottreat
Christiewithgreatrespect,thefactremainsthatshewasnotonlyaverycleverproducer
ofcluepuzzlenovels,butalsoawriterwhohadabroadinterestinEnglishsocietyandthe
changesthattookplaceinitfromthe1920stothe1960s.Moreover,thoughChristiewas
definitelyaproductofhersocialclassandtimes,shewasmoretolerantofsocialchange
thanmanyofherfellowGoldenAgewriters.Almostallofthemwerewelleducated
middleclasspeoplewhotended,likeDorothySayersorMargeryAllingham,tocreate
detectivesbelongingtothearistocracywhohavedistinctclassprejudicesandrather
irritatinglyspendagooddealoftimeshowingofftheirknowledgeoffinewinesandart,
makingreferencestoworksofliteraturenotlikelytobeknownbythemasses,and
classifyingpeoplebytheiraccentsandclassorigins.Thismaterialhasdatedbadly,limiting
theirappealtolatergenerations.

AgathaChristie’smoretolerantviewsmayseemsurprisingconsideringthather
backgroundisinmanywaystypicalofwomenwhobecamesuccessfulwritersinthe
popularandliterarygenresinthefirsthalfofthe20thcentury.Bythistimewomenhad
longdistinguishedthemselvesbothaswritersinpopulargenres(Gothic,romance,
sensationalnovels,literatureforchildrenandthelike)andasauthorsofpoemsandnovels
thatweretakenseriouslyashighliterature.However,themajorityofwomenwritersstill
tendedtoworkinthepopulargenres,inpartbecausethesewerefreerofthemale
controlledvaluesassociatedwithcanonicalliterature,butmorebecausethesegenres

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requiredlessformaleducationthanotherkindsofliterature.Forseveralcenturiesin
Britain,itwasmainlyonlyupperandmiddleclassboyswhoweregiventhetraditional
educationinLatinandGreekwhichallowedthemtoproducethekindofliteraturethat
wasbuiltontheselanguagetraditions.Women,ontheotherhand,wereeithereducated
athomeormightevenbelargelyselfeducated,readingbooksinEnglishthatwere
available.Iftheydidhavelessonsinlanguages,theseweremodernlanguageslikeItalian,
FrenchandGerman.Iftheydidattendschoolsforgirls,thesewereverymuchconcerned
withproducingyoungladieswithpropermannerswhocoulddance,singandplaya
musicalinstrumentalittle,andknowafewbasicgeographicalandhistoricalfacts.

Still,thelimitationsputonwomengavethemfreedomfromthestereotypedclassical
genresthatmenoftheirclasswereeducatedin.Among19thcenturywomenwriters,ones
likeMaryWollstonecraftShelley(17971851)andCharlotteandEmilyBronteproduced
newgenretraditionswiththeirnovelsFrankenstein(1818)andJaneEyre(1847)and
WutheringHeights(1847).,whilethebestsellingsensationalnovelgenrewas,a
predecessortodetectivefiction,wasalmostentirelyinthehandsofwomenwriterslike
MaryElizabethBraddon(18351915).

AgathaChristie(18901976)wasbornandgrewupinanuppermiddleclassfamilythat
sawnoreasontosendagirltoschool,butexpectedhertopickupsomecultural
knowledgebyreading.Herfuturelifewasexpectedtobethatofanyyounglady–tobe
marriedtoamanofherownclass,tobesupportedbyhimincomfortfinancially,tohave
childrenandrunahouseholdwithseveralservants,toattendandholdpartiesforfriends
andrelatives.Itshouldhavebeenapleasantlifeinlargecountryhouseswithfrequent
visitstoLondonandParisandholidaysintheRivieraortheNearEast(biographicaldetails
fromWagoner,111).

AsachildChristietooknaturallytostorytelling,livingoftenwithoutanyotherchildren
aroundandsoamusingherselfbyinventingcharactersandstories.Herfather’sdeath
whileshewasonlyelevenleftthefamilyinamuchtightereconomiccondition,butstill
whenshewenttoParistowhatwasknownasafinishingschool,onewheregirlsimproved
theirmanners,dancing,Frenchandothersubjectstomakethemattractivemarriage
partners.Inthosedaysayoungladyformallyindicatedthatshewasavailableformarriage
bybeingadebutanteandattendingmanyfancyballsandpartiesinLondon.Thiswastoo
expensiveforherfamily,soinsteadChristiewassenttoCairo,thenaBritishcolony,fora
seasonofexcursionsandpartiesthere.BackinEngland,shewentformonthlongstaysat
thecountryhousesofwealthyrelativesandfriendsofthefamily,allthisdesignedto
introducehertoasmanysuitableyoungmenaspossible.

FromthissocializingChristiepickedupagooddealofinformationaboutcertainclassesin
England:thelandedgentry,countryhousepeople,manyofthemrichandsocially
prominent,andthemorehumblelowermiddleclassincountryvillages.Inallhercrime
fictionclassandmoneyareextremelyimportant,andChristie’scharactersaresharply
definedbytheiruseoflanguage,choiceofclothesandsocialmannerisms.Moreover,she
begantounderstandhowstatusworkedandhowpowerwasobtainedandmaintainedby
certainpeoplewithinasmallcommunitylikeanEnglishvillage.

AtfirstitseemedthatAgathaChristie’slifewouldgoaccordingtotheprogramsetforher
bygenderandclass.Shehadstartedwritingandpublishingasateenager,butthiswas
simplypoemsandstories.WhenWorldWarIbrokeout,likemanyyoungwomen,shetook

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avolunteerjobasanurse.Shealsomarriedveryquickly,aswastypicalduringthewar,a
youngpilot.Shewroteherfirstnovel,TheMysteriousAffairatStyles,usingherexperience
asanurse,inpartbecauseofabetshemadewithhersisterthatshecouldwriteaclue
puzzlenovel.ThenovelintroducedthedetectiveHerculePoirot.Itwassuccessful,butthe
publisherspaidChristieonly25pounds,aridiculouslysmallsumevenatthetime.
However,shewentonwritingdetectivestoriesandsoonhadamajorreputationandwas
makingagooddealofmoney.Thiswassoonnecessarysinceherhusbanddidnotturnout
tobeverypractical.In1926,whenthereadingpublicwasbuyingherbestseller,The
MurderofRogerAckroyd,anespeciallytrickyexampleofthecluepuzzlenovelinwhich
thenarrator,thedetective’shelper,turnsouttobethemurderer,Christie’sownlifetook
averybadturn.Herhusbandsuddenlyannouncedthathewantedadivorcetomarry
anotherwoman.Shewaslefttoraiseherdaughterandmanageherownlife,whichshe
didverysuccessfully.Ifanything,theemotionalpainshefeltmadethecrimefictionofher
middleandlateryearspsychologicallydeeper.Herpersonalstoryhadahappyending,as
someyearsafterherdivorce,shemarriedayoungarchaeologist,MaxMallowen,with
whomsheenjoyedanexcellentrelationshipandwhowasverysupportiveofhercareer.

Christie,despiteherenormoussuccessandpublicfame,remainedamodestpersonallher
life.Shetookverycalmlyalltheawardsshereceived,includingtitlesfromthequeenso
thatshebecameDameAgathaChristie.Inthepublicmedia,shewasthe“QueenofCrime”
againstwhommanylaterwriterswouldbemeasured.Yet,asEarlF.Bargainniernotesin
oneofthebetterbooklengthstudiesofherworkshealwaysinsistedthatshewas
“lowbrow”(asynonymforwhatisnowcalledpopularculture)andevenmadedisparaging
remarksaboutherwriting,suchascallingherselfa“tradesman”anda“sausagemachine”.
Whenshewasaskedwhatshehopedfutureliteraryculturalhistorianswouldsayabout
her,heranswerwastypicallymodest:“Well,IwouldlikeittobesaidthatIwasagood
writerofdetectiveandthrillerstories”(allcitedfromBargainnier200).Thewaysheputs
thisremindsusthatnotallhernovelswereGoldenAgecluepuzzles:shewrote
throughouthercareersomedetectivefictionthatismoresuspensethriller,somewith
strongromanceelements,andevensomewithsupernaturalfeatures.However,itisasthe
creatorofclassicalGoldenAgedetectivefictionthatsheremainsbestknown.

Asidefromhergeneralbrillianceasawriter,AgathaChristiedidtakeamajorstepin
makingagenderchangeintheformulaoftheclassicalGoldenAgedetectivenovel.There
hadbeenwomendetectivesbeforehernovels,butnonehadbeenespeciallypopular.
WhenwomendoappearintheSherlockHolmesstories,theyplayveryminorroles,most
oftenasvictimsorclientsseekingaid;veryoccasionallytheymaybecriminals.Onthe
whole,thegenrewaswidelyconsideredtobeaman’sgenre,especiallyintheformthat
stressedcarefulreasoningonthepartofreaderstosolvethemystery.In1893,when
BernardShawwantedtogiveayoungwomaninhisplayMrs.Warren’sProfession
characteristicsthatweregenerallyassociatedwithstereotypicalmasculinity,hehadVivie
tellashockedgentleman:“Ilikeworkingandbeingpaidforit.WhenI’mtiredofworking,
Ilikeacomfortablechair,acigar,alittlewhisky,andanovelwithagooddetectivestoryin
it”(Shaw1765).EventhoughsomanyGoldenAgewriterswerewomen,theystillchoseto
createmaledetectivesandamancentredworld.

Itwasin1930thatChristieintroducedwhatwastobehermostfamousfemaledetective,
MissJaneMarple,inTheMurderattheVicarage.MissMarpleappearsasoneofthe
elderlyspinstersinthecharmingEnglishvillageofStMaryMeadwhere,very

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unexpectedly,murdertakesplace.AlthoughmostpeoplefindMissMarpleanirritatingly
observantgossip,andsomemakefunofherasawomanwhohasneverhadmuch
experienceofthewiderworldoutsideofSt.MaryMead,sheherselfhasquiteadifferent
opinion,believing,rightly,asitturnsout,thatherlifelongexperienceofstudyingpeople’s
behaviorandsolvingthemysteriesofasmallcommunityprovidesthebasisforbeingan
excellentdetective.WithMissMarple,AgathaChristiedoesmuchtoredeemtheimageof
theelderlyunmarriedladyassilly,weakandlackinganytalentsthattheworldneeds.She
hasexplainedthatshefindsMissMarpleveryenjoyabletowriteaboutandthatthe
characterherselfisbasedonfeaturesofhergrandmotherandotherelderlywomen
relatives,whowereveryastuteobserversofhumanbehavior;thoughpersonallywell
behavedanddecorous,theytendedtoexpecttheworstofthosearoundthem–andso
werenotshockedbyanymisbehavior,evenmurder.

Itisinterestingtonotethat,unlikeherfellowGoldenAgecrimewriters,whomadetheir
detectivesmenofstatusandwealthwithsolidpositionswithintheirsocieties,Christie’s
twomostimportantdetectives,HerculePoirotandMissJaneMarple,arebothmarginalto
Britishsociety,bothmiddleclass,tobesure,butoftentreatedwithdisrespectbythose
whofirstmeetthem.Poirotseemsacomicfigurewithhispolishedmoustachesand
imperfectEnglish,andisalsoashortmanwhocouldcertainlynotprotecthimselfagainst
violence.MissMarpleisneitherrichnorbeautifulnorwealthynormarriedtoamanof
highposition,sothatintheEnglandofherday,sheistreatedbymanyasafigureoffun,
oratleastsomeonewhocansafelybedisregarded.Bothseemintendedtoplaytheroleof
victims,notofdetectiveheroes.Inthisway,withoutbeingaradicalfeminist,Agatha
Christiecreatesfigureswhoembodymanyofthestereotypicalqualitiesassociatedwith
femininity,andthenshowsthattheyaresuperiorinintellecttothosewhomakefunof
them.

Inmorerecentyears,aspopularcultureingeneralisbeingtakenmoreseriouslyby
academiccritics,workonAgathaChristie’snovelsandothersoftheirkindarebeing
analysedbeyondsurfacequalitiesofcharacterization,plotandsetting.Onesuchcriticis
HetaPyrhonen,whoinMayhemandMurder:NarrativeandMoralProblemsinthe
DetectiveStory(l999),examinesboththeideologyofcrimefictionandthecomplex
relationshipofdetectiveandreader.Shewritesthat“muchofthecomplexityinmoral
evaluationindetectivestoriesarisesfromthedifferencebetweentwosetsofcriteria:the
judicialandthemoralcodes[…]becausecriminalinvestigationshowsguilttobeamore
universalphenomenonthancrime”(Pyrhonem18).Goodcrimefictionrevealsthatmany
peoplehavesecretlivesandbearguiltforearlieractions,althoughonlyaverysmall
numberofthemactuallycommitcrimes.Therefore,thoughreligiousnotionsofsinrarely
arementionedincrimefiction,theyexistbetweenthelines,asitwere.

Inaddition,moralevaluationbecomesmoreimportantinGoldenAgethaninearlierkinds
ofcrimefictioninpartbecauseofagreaterinterestinhumanpsychologythatbecame
commonintheearly20thcenturywiththeinfluenceofpsychologistslikeSigmundFreud.
AlthoughAgathaChristieandmostlaterdetectivenovelistsrelyonaverypopularized
formofpsychology,inthiswaybeingsimilartocrimecinemaofthesameperiodinthe
handsofmasterslikeAlfredHitchcock,stillmotivationbecomesoneofthemajorcluesin
solvingacrime.InaChristienarrative,eachcharacterispresentednotonlybyappearance
andmannerisms,butoftenwithpsychologicalanalysis.HerculePoirotshortstoriesoften
beginwiththedetectivethinkinginthiswayabouthisnewclient.Forexample,in“The

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CretanBull”,ayoungladycomestoPoirotwhenherfiancébreaksofftheirengagement
becausehebelieveshesuffersfromaformofhisfamily’sinsanity.Thestoryopensinthis
way:

HerculePoirotlookedthoughtfullyathisvisitor.
Hesawapalefacewithadeterminedlookingchin,eyesthatwere
moregreythanblue,andhairthatwasoftherealblueblackshadeso
seldomseen[…]Henotedthewellcutbutalsowellworncountry
tweeds,theshabbyhandbag,andtheunconsciousarroganceof
mannerthatlaybehindthegirl’sobviousnervousness.(Christie520)

“TheApplesoftheHesperides”beginsinaverysimilarfashion:

HerculePoirotlookedthoughtfullyintothefaceofthemanbehindthe
bigmahoganydesk.Henotedthegenerousbrow,themeanmouth,
therapaciouslineofthejawandthepiercingvisionaryeyes.He
understoodfromlookingatthemanwhyEmeryPowerhadbecome
thegreatfinancialforcethathewas.
Andhiseyesfallingtothelongdelicatehands,exquisitelyshaped,that
layonthedesk,heunderstood,too,whyEmeryPowerhadattained
renownasagreatcollector.Hewasknownonbothsidesofthe
Atlanticasaconnoisseurofworksofart.(Christie587)

AllofAgathaChristie’sdetectivestrusttheirabilitytoanalysepeopleinthisway.However,
MissJaneMarplealsousesanothermethodparticulartoherself.Becauseshehasspentso
manyyearsofherlifestudyingpeopleinasmallvillageandsolvingveryminorpuzzles
abouttheiractions,whenshehastodealwithamurder,sheoftenreliesonfinding
parallelstovillagelifeandvillagepeople.InthenovelTheyDoItwithMirrors(1952),for
example,MissMarplestrugglestounderstandthepersonalityofoneyoungman:

Ifonlyshecouldfindinhermemorytherightparallel.
PainstakinglysherejectedthecuriousbehaviorofMr.Selkirk’sdelivery
van–theabsentmindedpostman–thegardenerwhoworkedon
Whitmonday–andthatverycuriousaffairofthesummerweight
combinations.(Christie54)

Inanothernovel,4:50fromPaddington(1957),MissMarplecomesupwithvillage
parallelsforsuspectsinthecurrentmurdersheisinvestigatingandmentionsthesetoa
policemansheknowswell:

“Allonecandoistoobservethepeopleconcerned,orwhomighthave
beenconcerned,andseeofwhomtheyremindyou.”[…]
Craddocksmiledandsaid:
“AndAlfred?”
“Jenkinsatthegarage,”MissMarplerepliedpromptly.“Hedidn’t
exactlyappropriatetools,butheusedtoexchangeabrokenorinferior
jackforagoodone.”(Christie137)

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Inthisway,analysisofthepersonalitiesandbehaviourofsuspectsbecomesjustas
importantincluepuzzlecrimefictionascarefulinvestigationofphysicalcluesleftbya
murdereratthecrimesceneandmeticulouscalculationsofschedulesanddistances.
Indeed,inaGoldenAgedetectivenarrative,thephysicalcluesandalibisprovidedbytime
anddistancefromthemurdersceneoftenturnouttohavebeencleverlyfakedto
implicateanotherperson,whilepsychologicalanalysisindicatesthetruemurderer.

YOURINPUT3:CREATIVEACTIVITY

THECRIMESITUATIONISTHEFOLLOWING:BEFORETHEFINALEXAMINATIONINACOURSE
OFYOURCHOICE,THETEACHERISFOUNDDEADINTHEWASHROOM.SHEHASBEENHIT
OVERTHEHEADWITHAHEAVYHAMMERLEFTINTHELOBBYBYWORKERSDOING
RENOVATIONS.THISTEACHERISVERYSTRICTABOUTMARKSANDISALSONOTVERY
POPULARWITHHERFELLOWTEACHERS.

BYYOURSELFORINGROUPS,CREATEALISTOFSUSPECTS.GIVEEACHANAME;DESCRIBE
HISORHERAPPEARANCEANDPERSONALITYANDOFFERMOTIVESFORTHECRIME.INCLUDE
TEACHERS,ADMINISTRATIVESTAFFANDSTUDENTSINYOURLIST.THENARGUEWHICHONE
ISTHETRUEMURDERER.

6.WHATARETHEMAJORCHARACTERISTICSOFGOLDENAGECRIMEFICTION?

1. Socialrealism.

Thesenarrativesaresetinaspecifictimeandplace,whichmaybefictionalbutwhichare
basedonrealsocietiesandperiods.Thenovelsaredensewithdetailsaboutvillagesand
houses,furniture,clothing,meals,socialstructuresandthelike.Althoughtheclichéthat
GoldenAgestoriesalltakeplaceinacountryhouseorsmallvillageisnottrue,thereisa
distinctpreferenceforwhatiscalledaclosedsetting,aplacecontainingalimitednumber
ofpeople,mostofwhomknoweachothertosomeextent.Inadditiontovillagesand
countryhouses,thesemaybeuniversitycolleges,placesofbusiness,touristresortsandso
on.Inanycasethewriterusuallygoestoafairamountoftroubletoconstructarealistic
setting(intheolderGoldenAgenovelsamapwasoftenincludedofthevillageoraplanof
thehousewherethemurdertookplace).Incontemporarycrimefictionthatcontinuesthe
GoldenAgeformula,writersoftenproduceaseriessetinaspecificlocation,suchasthe
CanadianL.R.Wright’snovelssetonwhatisknownastheSunshineCoastofBritish
ColumbiainCanada,orRuthRendell’sInspectorWexfordseriessetinSuffolk,orthe
YorkshirenovelsofReginaldHill.Readersoftenfindthedetailedportrayaloftheserealistic
worldsasinterestingasthecrimemysterythatisbeingsolved.

2. Moralandideologicalvaluesofthedominantclass

Typically,inthefirstexamples,evenwhenthedetectiveisfromtheupperclass,Golden
AgefictionfocusesontheuppermiddleclassofBritishorAmericansociety.Lowerclass
charactersappear,includingservants,butarenotprimaryandalmostneverturnouttobe
themurderers.Themoralandideologicalviewsoftheuppermiddleclassaretakenfor
grantedasright,andmurderisseenasaviolationofthesocialorder.Socialstructuresare

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rarelyquestioned:itisassumedthatthegovernment,policeandotherformsofauthority,
thoughtheymayincludepeoplewhoareweakorcriminal,arenotcorruptorindifferent
tocrime.
3. Thedetectiverepresentsandreestablishesorder.
Althoughthedetectivemaynotbealeaderinacommunity,heorshesharesmiddleclass
valuesanditsideology.Crimeofanykind,butespeciallymurderisseenasadangerous
kindofdisorderwhichdisruptsordinaryhumanrelationsandthefunctioningofsociety.
Thedetectivesolvesthemysteryofthecrimeandbymakingthesolutionpublicand
havingthecriminalarrested,restoresordertothesystem.Inveryrarecases,thesolution
isfoundbutthemurdererisnotdirectlypunishedbythestate.However,thishappens
onlywhenthemurdererkilledapersonmuchmoreevilthanthemselves.Eventhen,the
murdereroftencommitssuicideorissaidtobesufferingfromafatalillness.
4. Thedetectivesolvesthemysterywithouttheuseofmuchphysicalaction,but
throughcloseobservationofplacesandpeople,andespeciallytheuseoflogicand
reason.
WhileSherlockHolmesdidrunaboutandoftensearchthesitesofcrimeforphysicalclues,
GoldenAgedetectivesrelymuchmoreontalkingtowitnessesandsuspects.Detectives
likeMissMarplearephysicallyincapableofstrenuousphysicalaction,thoughtheyare
quicktopickupsmalldetailsthathelpindicateaperson’spsychologicalstate.Muchofthe
interestforthereaderisinspeculatingonthelistofsuspectstoguesswhichonedidthe
crime.
5. Violenceisnotdescribedindetail,evenwhenamurderisinvolved.Nordoesthe
detectiveusuallyuseorfeelthreatenedbyviolence.
Unpleasantdetailsaboutpoolsofbloodareavoidedinthiskindofcrimefiction,asare
formsofmurderthatincludetorture.Althoughothercharactersareoftenkilledduringthe
courseofaninvestigation,thedetectiverarelyfeelsatrisk,almostnevercarriesaweapon
andisnotinjuredintheworkofsolvingthecrime.
6. Romanceandlovemayappearinthesenovels,andsexualdesireisoftenamotive
forcrime,buttherearefewdirectdepictionsofsexuality.
InthemoreclassicalkindofGoldenAgefictionthereisnoromanceofanyreal
importance.InChristie’snovelshermajordetectivesarenotsexualbeings,thoughother
writers,likeDorothySayers,makeherdetectivefallinlove.Nevertheless,moreexplicit
sexualreferencesaredefinitelycensored.
7. Thedetectiveisconfidentandfeelspartofhisorhersociety.
Asaseriesprogresses,thedetectivestendtobetreatedaspeoplewhoarerespected
investigatorsofcrimebythosewhoknowthem.Inanycase,evenwhenothersdonot
showthemmuchrespect,thedetectivesthemselvesareverysureoftheirvalue.
8. Thegeneraltoneofthesenovelsisanalytical,sometimesironic,withfearand
suspenseplayingarole,butnotalwaysamajorone.

Sometimesthereishumourinthesenovels,andoftenadistinctelementofsocialsatirein
thepresentationofcharacters.Thesearedefinitelynotplotsbasedonstrongsuspense;

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therearealwayspausesinwhichthesuspectsandthecrimearediscussedandargued
aboutinanintellectualway.

9. Thenarrativesbeginwithacrime(oftenafterashortintroductionoftheplaceand
majorcharacters)andendwithahappyending.

Theendingcanbesaidtobeclosed,asallthemysterieshavebeensolvedandreadersare
givenanideaofwhatwillhappenedtoallmajorcharacters.Theyarehappyendings
becausegoodtriumphsoverevil,thecriminaliscaughtandtherewillbenomorecrimes.
Ifthereisaromanticnarrative,itisnowconcludedhappilyaswell.

7.HARDBOILED(NOIR)CRIMEFICTION:ITSHISTORYANDCHARACTERISTICS

Hardboiledcrimefiction,oftencalledthenoirthriller(“noir”isFrenchfor“black”),
developedatmuchthesametimeasGoldenAgefictionand,likeit,isdescendedfromthe
SherlockHolmesstories.OneofthecharacteristicsofConanDoyle’sstorieswhichGolden
Agewritersdiscarded,thephysicalactivityofthedetective,becomesextremelyimportant
inNoirwriting.Herethedetective,atfirstalwaysaman,isaprofessionalprivatedetective
(orprivateinvestigator,fromwhichtheAmericanterm,theprivateeye,apunonthe
letters“p.i.”comesfrom).Moreover,heisalwaysayoungman,physicallyverystrongand
abletofight,familiarwithgunsandreadytoriskhisownlifetosolvecrimes.Thedetective
mustalsobeintelligent,quickwittedandperceptiveaboutpeopleandplaces,butthereis
muchlessoftheslowpacedreflectiononsuspectsthatischaracteristicofGoldenAge
detectivefiction.

Instead,hardboileddetectivestoriestendtomoveveryquicklyandincludealarge
numberofphysicalconfrontationsasthedetectivetriestogatherinformation.Thisiswhy
thiskindofnarrativeissometimescalledthrillers,althoughtechnicallythereisaseparate
genre,thesuspensethriller,inwhichexcitingfights,chasesandthelikecompletely
dominateoverrationalinvestigation.Frenchcritics,longbeforeAmericanorBritishones,
becamefascinatedbyAmericanhardboiledcrimefictionandthefilmsthatweremadein
asimilarstyle,imitateditandgaveitthenameofthenoirthriller.

HardboileddetectivefictionisevenmoreanAmericangenrethanGoldenAgeisaBritish
one,asitisassociatedcloselywiththemarketingsituationintheUnitedStatesinthe
interwarperiodaswellasthepowerofthecriminalunderworldduringthistime.Withits
largepopulationofimmigrantsandworkingclasspeopleingeneral,theAmerican
publishingmarketsoonsawthepotentialinverycheap,easytoreadpublicationsina
varietyofgenres.Inthisway,pulpfiction,inexpensivebooksofalittleoverahundred
pages,smallinformatandprintedonthecheapestkindofnewsprint,woodpulppaper,
appearedandquicklyattractedreaders.Pulpfictioncouldbeaboutanytopicfrom
sentimentalromancesandpornographicstoriestocowboy,sciencefictionanddetective
fiction,crimefictionsoonbecamethemostprominentandbestsellingofthesegenres.
ThemostfamousofthecrimefictionpublishedinthiswaywasthemagazineTheBlack
Mask,whichbeganin1920.Itprovidedaplaceforyoungwriterstostarttheircareer
beforemovingontothegreaterchallengeofahardboilednovel.

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DashiellHammett(18941961)wasthefirstgreatwriterinthenoirgenre,beginninginThe
BlackMaskwithshortstoriesinthe1920sandpublishinghisfirstfulllengthnovelRed
Harvestin1929.Someofhisothernovels,likeTheMalteseFalcon(1930),werelater
turnedintofilmswhosesuccessfurtheradvertisedthenewgenre.Hammettwasoneof
theveryrarewritersofdetectivefictionwhohadworkedasaprivateinvestigatorhimself;
hisexperienceintheprestigiousPinkertonAgencyinSanFranciscogaveagrittyrealityto
hisnarratives,whosecynicalprotagonistsareverydifferentfromthesociallyrefined
detectivesofGoldenAgefiction.Healsoproducedaformulathathasbeenused
successfullyeversince.Theprivatedetectiveisapproachedbyaclienttotakeupacase
thatmayormaynotappeardifficult.However,themoreheprobesandquestionspeople,
thecleareritbecomesthatheisdealingwithseriouscrimesanddangerousandpowerful
peoplebothinthecriminalunderworldandintheupperreachesofAmericansociety.
Thesenarrativestakeplaceinlargeurbancentres,whichmaybeNewYorkorChicago,
althoughCaliforniaisprobablythesinglemostpopularsettingintheinterwarperiodand
shortlyafterit.IncomparisontoGoldenAgetexts,thesenovelsappearmoremodern,as
fastcars,largeapartmentbuildingsandtheintricaciesofmunicipalpoliticsoftenfigurein
them.

AnothermajordifferencefromtheGoldenAgenovelsisthat,becausethedetectiveisa
youngandusuallyattractiveman,heisoftenapproachedbyattractivewomen.Sexualityis
nowmuchlesscensored,though,likeearlierdetectivesintheBritishmold,romancenever
lastslong.Indeed,asidefrombeingvictimsofcrime,womeninnoirthrillersareoftenfatal
women(fromtheFrenchfemmefatale),beautiful,sophisticated,andextremely
dangerous;theyarejustaslikelytobethekillersasanymalecharacter.

Furthermore,Hammettestablishedthetraditionofmakinghisdetectivesthefirstperson
narratorsoftheirstories,whilethelanguagetheyuse,aswellasthatusedinsnappy,
aggressivedialogues,isfullofcolloquialismsandslang.Ingeneral,itisclosertothe
languageofrealspeechthanwhatisfoundinGoldenAgefiction.Inaddition,too,thehero
ofahardboileddetectivestorymustbejustasquickwithhistongueaswithhisfistsand
hisgun,andusesbothasweaponsinatoughandcruelworld.Insomeways,the
detectivesinnoirthrillersseemmorestereotypicalthanthoseofGoldenAgecrimefiction,
becausethereisverylittledifferenceamongtheonesportrayedbydifferentwriters.Still,
theyescapebeingcompletelyflatcharactersbecauseofhintsofsensitivitybeneaththe
verytoughexterior.Externally,theyseemmoreconfidentthanaMissMarple,butthisis
notreallytrue.MissMarple,likeotherGoldenAgedetectives,feelssupportedbyamoral
systemofvaluesacceptedbythemajorityofthemembersofhersociety,whilenoir
detectivesareratherclosertothecriminalworldthantheywanttobe:attimesthey
acceptbribes,commitcrimestogetinformationandbeatupthosewhostandintheirway.
Atheart,theyarelonelymenwhoneverhaveasteadygirlfriendorwifeorevenaclose
malefriend,andwhofindreleaseinsmokinganddrinkingfartoomuch.

Oneofthefinestwritersofhardboileddetectivefiction,RaymondChandler(18881959),
hasproducedanumberofessayspraisingthiskindofcrimefictionattheexpenseofthe
GoldenAgevariety.Heisnotfairinhisassessmentsofthelatter,buthiscommentsonthe
Americangenreareinteresting.Forexample,heturnsoneofHammett’smemorable
detectives,SamSpade,intoaheroicwarriorforgoodagainstevilinthecomplexand
corruptworldofAmericanpowerandmaterialism:“Downthesemeanstreetsamanmust

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gowhoisnothimselfmean,whoisneithertarnishednorafraid.[…]Hemustbea
completemanandacommonmanandyetanunusualman.Hemustbe,tousearather
weatheredphrase,amanofhonor”(Chandler,“TheSimpleArtofMurder”533).This
soundsverymuchlikethetoughcowboywhobringslawandordertoaWildWesttownby
shootingallthevillains.Indeed,paradoxically,thereismorediscussionofmoralityinthese
storiesthaninGoldenAgedetectivefiction,wheremoralvalues,basedonChristian
moralityandsocialnorms,aregenerallytakenforgranted.Inthenoirworldthemoral
codeisalwaysdefeatedinonewayoranotherbythesheercorruption,materialismand
violenceofAmericansociety.

Asidefromthestrikinglydifferenttypeofdetectiveusedinhardboiledcrimefiction,
readersnoticeinparticularthemuchfasterpaceofeventsinthiskindofnarrative.Golden
Agedetectivestoriesoftenpauseintheactionwhilethedetectiveandothersconsiderthe
crimeandtheprobablesuspects.Sincethedetectiveoftenhasafriendwhoservesasa
limitedconfidante,cluesandopinionsarediscussedatlength.Thesegivereadersthetime
toalsoreflectonthecrimeandwhomayhavecommittedit,makingsuchfictionmoreof
anintellectualgame.Inhardboilednarratives,however,oneeventfollowsanothervery
fast,oftenwithmultiplescenesofpursuit,fightsandnewcrimes.AsinaGoldenAge
narrative,thenoirdetectivecollectscluesandquestionswitnessesandsuspects,butthis
happensfast,andmostofteninanatmosphereofpsychologicalconflictandphysical
violence.Forexample,inaveryshortstory,“GuiltEdgedBlonde”,byRossMacdonald
(19151983),oneofthemastersoftheAmericannoir,twomenaremurderedandthe
detectiveisthreatenedbyawomanwithagunandlatershootsherinthearm,allofthis
withinahandfulofpages.Moreover,whileGoldenAgewritersprefernottodwellonthe
unpleasantdetailsofamurder,inhardboileddetectivefiction,bloodandsufferingare
almostalwaysdepictedatlength.Inthiswayreadersarecaughtupintherapidactionand
havelittletimetoreflectonwhothemostlikelysuspectis.Still,cluesaregiventoreaders,
thoughthedetectivenarratormaymisinterpretthematfirst.Intheend,noirdetectives
alwayssucceedindoingthis,astheyarebrightandobservant,justlikethedetectivesof
theGoldenAgecrimenarrative.

Yetthecombinationofrapidaction,aggressivespeechandviolentactscreatesaparticular
atmosphereinhardboiledfictionthatisoneofitstrademarks.Itwasthisatmosphere,
strengthenedbyamodernAmericanbigcitysettingveryoftenseenatnightthatwas
reproducedinfilmversionsofthegenrewhichcaughttheattentionofFrenchcriticsof
literatureandfilm:theygavethisgenre,whichtheysawasextremelyAmericanand
uniquethenameofnoir,referringnotonlytothedarknighttimescenesbuttothe
generalmoodofcynicismandthedetective’sfeelingthateveninsolvingaparticularcrime
hehasfailedtodefeatevilforcesinsociety.

Intermsofsocialsetting,hardboileddetectivefictionrangesacrossalltheclassesin
Americansociety,butshowsaparticularfondnessfortheveryrich,whetherfamiliesofold
wealthandpower,orthenewlyrich,someofwhomarecriminals,alongwiththepoorer
workingclassandtheunderworldofprofessionalcrime.Thedetectivehimselfisneither
veryrichnorverypoor,butthegeneraltendencyisthathelivesfromonecasetoanother,
hasonlyasmallapartmentanddoesnotdriveanexpensivecar.Hecandealwiththe
membersofanyclass,butisnotreallyathomewithanyofthem.

Superficially,atleast,thesettingsofhardboiledfictionaremoreopenthanthoseof
GoldenAgenarratives.Thereadersareunlikelytofindthemselvesinasmallvillageor

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town,astheactionusuallytakesplaceinaverylargecity.Norwillthedetectivehaveto
solveamurderinaclosedsettinginwhichonlyasmallnumberofpeoplecouldhave
committedthecrime.Nevertheless,thisinitialsenseofopenness,emphasizedbyfrequent
drivesinacarfromoneplacetoanother,isinlargepartanillusion.Asthenarrative
progresses,thedetectivefindsthatallthecharactersarecloselyrelatedinanetworkof
earliercrimesandrelationshipsthatexplainthemajorcrimethatheistryingtosolve.

YOURINPUT:4

EITHERBYYOURSELFORINAGROUP,CHOOSEALITHUANIANVILLAGEFORAGOLDENAGE
MURDERMYSTERYORACITYFORAHARDBOILEDMYSTERY.DECIDEWHOWILLBE
MURDERED,ANDWHATTHEDETECTIVEWILLDOTOSOLVETHEMYSTERYINEITHERCASE.
FINALLY,BRIEFLYDESCRIBEYOURDETECTIVE.

8.RAYMONDCHANDLER’STHEBIGSLEEPASANEXAMPLEOFTHE
HARDBOILEDDETECTIVENOVEL

RaymondChandler’sprivatedetectivePhilipMarloweisfeaturedinanumberofnovels
thatareconsideredamongthefinesthardboileddetectivefictioneverwritten.InTheBig
Sleep(1939)Marloweishiredbyanextremelywealthyman,GeneralSternwood,todeal
withamanwhoisblackmailinghimbythreateningtopublishnudephotographsof
Sternwood’syoungerdaughter,Carmen,averywildandunbalancedgirl.Marlowedoes
notconsiderthisaverydifficultassignment,butitquicklyleadshimintoaworldof
violenceandothercrimes.AsthedeadbodiesbegintopileupandMarloweisforcedto
dealwithpowerfulunderworldbosses,hesuspectsthatmorecrimeslieinthepast.
EventuallyGeneralSternwoodadmitsthathereallywantshimtotrackdownhismissing
soninlaw,RustyRegan,whomhelikedverymuchbutwhosimplydisappearedoneday.
VivianRegan,theverybeautifulwomanwhoisRusty’swife,doesnotseemconcernedthat
heisgoneandmakesseveralattemptstoseduceMarlowe.Intheenditturnsoutthat
RustywaskilledbyCarmenbecauseherefusedtomakelovetoher,andthatVivian
protectedheryoungersisterbygettingagangstertohelpherhidethebody.Marlowe
refusesthemoneythatVivianoffershimtokeepquietoncehegetsherpromisethat
Carmenwillbeplacedunderguardsothatshedoesnotkillotherpeople.Norwillhetell
thetruthtoGeneralSternwood.Marlowehassolvedallthemysteries,butfeelsempty,
confirmedinhisviewthathisworldisapoisonousoneandthatnothingliketruthor
justicereallyexists.

Asalmostalwaysinthisgenre,thestoryhasafirstpersonnarrator,PhilipMarlowe
himself.Likeotherhardboileddetectiveshepresentsafrontthatisveryconfidentand
evenarrogant.Onthefirstpageofthenovelheintroduceshimselftothereaderinthe
typicalclippedsentencesofthisgenre:“Iwasneat,clean,shavedandsober,andIdidn’t
carewhoknewit.Iwaseverythingthewelldressedprivatedetectiveoughttobe.Iwas
callingonfourmilliondollars”(Chandler,BigSleep3).Thesamearroganceappearsinhis
dialoguewithGeneralSternwood’solderdaughter,VivianRegan,whoattemptstofindout
whatherfatherhashiredhimtodo,butcannotgethimtotellhermuch:

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 “Idon’tseewhatthereistobecageyabout,”shesnapped.“AndI
don’tlikeyourmanners.”
“I’mnotcrazyaboutyours,”Isaid.“Ididn’tasktoseeyou.Yousentfor
me.[…]Idon’tmindyourshowingmeyourlegs.They’reveryswell
legs,andit’sapleasuretomaketheiracquaintance.Idon’tmindifyou
don’tlikemymanners.They’reprettybad.Igrieveoverthemduring
thelongwinterevenings.Butdon’twasteyourtimetryingtocross
examineme.”(Chandler,BigSleep19)

Thisdialogueistypicalofthoseinhardboiledfiction.Ineffect,Vivianiseitherauseful
informantorasuspect,butinsteadofthecalmermannerofinterviewingsuchcharacters
inGoldenAgefiction,thiswholeconversationisabattleforpower,withVivianusingher
sexualappealandwealthtotrytogetinformationfromMarlowe,andhim
contemptuouslyrejectingboth.Moreover,hisspeechisamusinginacharacteristically
ironicway.Fromatechnicalpointofview,thiswittyreparteeisnotnecessarytotheplot,
butitamusesthereadersandestablishesthedetectiveascoolheadedandincontrol.

Duringthecourseofthenarrative,PhilipMarlowetakesoneriskafteranothertocarryout
hisassignment.Hebeginstorealizethatinsomewaysheisbeingmanipulatedtocover
othercrimes;morethanonceheisattackedandalmostkilled,andonceheshootsanother
mandead.Hecooperateswiththepoliceonlytoacertainextent,refusingtoshare
knowledgeabouttheSternwoodfamilythatwillharmthem.Whenapolicemanpointsout
thatheisnotbeingpaidverymuchforalltheserisks,includinggettingabadreputation
withtheauthorities,Marloweanswerswithoneofthestatementsthatexpressesthe
moralcodeofthehardboileddetective:“I’msellingwhatIhavetoselltomakealiving.
WhatlittlegutsandintelligencetheLordgavemeandawillingnesstogetpushedaround
inordertoprotectaclient”(Chandler,BigSleep114).Evenhereheisironicabouthisreal
efforts,whichgofarbeyondwhathesays.Still,inacorruptanddangerousworldhehas
setlimitsonwhatheiswillingandnotwillingtodo.

TheendingofTheBigSleepisoftenquoted.MarlowehasdiscoveredthatRustyRegan,
killedbyCarmen,hadhisbodydumpedintothefilthywaterofanoldoilwellsump.
However,hedoesnothaveanyfeelingthatthismanneedsamorehonourableburial:
“Whatdiditmatterwhereyoulayonceyouweredead?Inadirtysumporinamarble
towerontopofahighhill.Youweredead,youweresleepingthebigsleep,youwerenot
botheredbythingslikethat.[…]Youjustsleptthebigsleep,notcaringaboutthenastiness
ofhowyoudiedorwhereyoufell.Me,Iwaspartofthenastinessnow”(Chandler,Big
Sleep230).Still,thisisnottheactualendofthenovel.Chandlerdeliberatelyundercuts
thisphilosophicalmelancholybyhavingMarloweturn,asheoftendoes,todrinkingto
numbhisconscience:“OnthewaydowntownIstoppedatabarandhadacoupleof
doubleScotches.Theydidn’tdomeanygood.AlltheydidwasmakemethinkofSilver
Wig,andIneversawheragain”(Chandler,BigSleep231).Marloweneversaysdirectly
thathefeelsremorseorsadnessaboutanyone’sfate,andthesuggestionthathedoes
havetheseweakeremotionsisquicklycoveredbythestereotypicallymasculineactof
heavydrinking.Inthiswayreadersdonothavethatcomfortablesensethatcomesatthe
closeofaGoldenAgedetectivenovel,whereallthemysteriesaresolved,andsome
peoplearenowmuchhappier.Instead,lyingremainsthecommoncoinofhuman
relationshipsinChandler’sfictionalworld,andthoughthemysteriesaresolved,thefinal
moodisoneofsourirony.

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9.WHATARETHEMAJORCHARACTERISTICSOFHARDBOILED(NOIR)
CRIMEFICTION?

1.Socialrealism.

VeryoftenthesettingofthenarrativesisalargeAmericanurbancommunityorevena
verybigcity,andthedetailsofitsgeographicallayout,thenamesofneighbourhoodsand
majorstreetsareusuallytherealonesoftheplace.Thesettingseemstobeanopenone,
thoughoftenthedetectivereturnsfrequentlytoparticularneighbourhoodsorhouses.
However,ifthecharactersknoweachother,itisnotbecausetheyareneighbours:inthe
bigmoderncity,peopletendtoignoremostofthosearoundthemandformnetworksof
socialandworkrelationships.Sincesomuchoftheactiontakesplaceinmarginalized
settingslikethecriminalworld,andthedetectivehasnofamily,fewornofriendsandonly
asmallapartmentinwhichlittletimeisspent,readersfindtheunderworldsettings
intriguingbecausetheyarenotfamiliarones.

2.Thecollapseofmoralandideologicalvalues.

Although20thcenturyAmericansocietyhadverystrongvaluesandreligionplaysan
importantroleinthelivesofmanypeople,inthenoirworldnoonecanbecompletely
trusted:politicians,thepoliceandeventhedetectivemaybebribedoruseillegalmeans
togetwhattheywant.HereAmericansocietyisdepictedasaverytoughandmaterialistic
worldinwhichthosewhodonotsucceedinmakingmoneyaresimplecastaside,and
thosewhodo,nomatterhow(likegangsters)havepowerandprestige.Ifacharacter
showsrealloveforsomeoneelse,thenreaderscanexpectthatthispersonwillbe
betrayedorkilled.Hardboileddetectivefictionbeganintheinterwardecadeswhenthe
underworldruledmanypoliticiansandpeoplesufferedthepovertyoftheGreat
Depression,butthenovelswrittenafterWorldWarII,aperiodofgreatprosperity,show
nochangeinthemoralsystem:moremoneysimplymeansstrongerdesiresformoney,
andevengreatercorruptionandviolence.ThelargepartofAmericansocietythatleadsa
quietorderlylifeisnotdepictedinthesenovels.

3.Thedetectivesolvesmysteriesbutdoesnotreestablishsocialormoralorder.

Sinceallsocialstructuresarecorruptandevenevil,thefactthatthedetectivesolvesthe
mysteriesandoftenkillsavillainortwoorhandsthemovertothepolicemakeslittlereal
difference.Charactersonthewholearelessthansympathetic,andthedetectivemaybe
seenbyothersnotasaherobutasafoolforinsistingonkeepingtocertainmoral
principles.

4.Thedetectiveusesphysicalforcealongwithobservationandreason.

Inthiskindofcrimefiction,thedetectivehastobephysicallystrongandgoodwith
weaponsasviolenceexplodesallaroundhimassoonashebeginstoinvestigateacase.
Typicallytherearescenesofpursuit,someinfastcars,aswellasofphysicalfights,at
whichthehardboileddetectiveexcels.Gunsplayanimportantroleinthesestories,in
parthelpedbythemuchmoreliberalgunlawsinlargepartsoftheUnitedStatesthanin
otherWesterncountries.

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5.Violenceisdescribedindetail,includingthesufferingthatthedetectiveendures.

Characterswhoaremurderedaredescribedclosely,withemphasisonbloodandother
unpleasantdetails.Oftenthemurdertakesplaceinfrontofthereaders’eyes,orthe
detectivereachesthevictimasheorsheisdying.Therearealsoseenoftorture,inwhich
thevictimismostlikelytobethedetective:tiedupbyvillains,heisbeatenbadly,though
laterhealwaysmanagestocarryonhisinvestigation.

6.Sexualityisattheforefrontofmanydescriptionsofcharactersandrelationships,
thoughloveinthetruesenserarelyappears.

Withthedetectiveasahandsomeyoungman,itisnotsurprisingthatthereareusually
manyscenesinwhichawomantriestoseducehimorbribehimbyofferinghimsex.
Usuallythisstopswithembracesandkisses,inconformitytothecensorshipofthesexual
actcommonuntilfairlyrecenttimesinEnglishlanguageliterature.Thehardboiled
detectiveoftenevaluatesthesexualattractivenessofwomenwhomhemeetsorshows
hisresponsetotheminwhatheisthinking,buthekeepscontrolofhisemotions.Women
whoseemtoreallybeinlovewiththedetectivealmostalwaysturnouttobecriminalsor
evenkillers.

7.Thedetectiveisarrogant,butfeelsmarginalizedinhissociety.

Althoughthedetectivespeaksandbehavesinaveryselfconfidentway,sincereaders
knowwhatheisthinkingandfeeling,theyunderstandthatheoftenfeelsmarginalizedin
hissociety.Afterall,hehasnofamily,littlemoney,fewornofriends,andbadhabitslike
anaddictiontoalcohol.Hedoesnotreallytrustanyoneandsohasnoconfidants.Ina
societythatissomaterialistic,hislackofeconomicsuccessmeansheisnottreatedas
worthagreatdealofrespect.Therichseehimasatool,thepoliceassomeonewho
breakslaws,andcriminalseithertreathimasanopponentorofferhimapositioninthe
underworld.Basically,heisdepictedasaverylonelyman,thoughheexpressesthisonly
indirectly,mostoftenthroughdrinking.

8.Thegeneraltoneofthesenovelsisoneofsuspenseandanxiety,thoughthewitty
humourofthedetective’sthoughtsandspeecheslightensthemood.

Thesearedefinitelydarknovels,withcharacterssuddenlybeingkilledoffandthemood
oneofsuspenseasreaderswaitforthenextattackofviolence.Charactersspeakincynical
waysofeachother,evenfamilymembers.Theyhavedreamsanddesires,buttheseseem
doomedinadvance.

9.Thenarrativesbeginwithacrime(oftenafterashortintroduction)andendwiththe
solutionofallthemysteries.

Theendingscanbesaidtobeclosedasallthemysteriesaresolved,buttheyfeelmore
openthanintheGoldenAgefictionbecausethemaincharacter,thedetective,isnot
happywiththeresults.Gooddoesnotreallytriumphoverevil,andevenifsomecriminals
havebeencaughtorkilled,morewillprobablyappearsoon.Ifthereisanythinglikea
romanticnarrative,thenitendsbadly.

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10.WOMENINHARDBOILEDCRIMEFICTION:FATALWOMENANDWOMEN
HARDBOILEDDETECTIVES

Upuntilthe1980sAmericanhardboiledcrimefictionfeaturedstereotypicallymasculine
maledetectivesinaworldinwhichwomenhadlittleplaceexceptasvictimsorwivesand
loversofmalecharacters.AlthoughMarciaMuller(b.1944),amajorwriterinthegenre,
didcreateSharonMcCone,afemaleprivateeye,herprotagonistisnotverysimilartothe
hardboiledmaledetective.McConedoeshavetodealwithviolentsituations,butsheis
moreaverycleverandhardworkingwomendetectivewithoutthephysicalforceorwise
crackingwittylanguageassociatedwithmalehardboileddetectives.

Nevertheless,thereisonefemalefigurethatisverytypicalofthetraditionalhardboiled
detectionnovel,andthisisthefemmefataleorfatalwoman,whoappearsvery
frequentlyinnovelsandfilm.AstheuseoftheFrenchterm“femmefatale”suggests,this
isastereotypeoffemininitythatappearedfirstinFrance,notinliteraturebutintheart
movementknownasSymbolism:thisbeganinthe1870sandthenspreadalloverEurope;
itwasstillinfluentialintheearlydecadesofthe20thcentury.

Thefatalwoman(theterm“femmefatale”hasnowbeenacceptedintoEnglishcritical
usageandappearsmoreoftenthanitsEnglishtranslation)isfirstandforemostavery
attractivewomanwhoexpressesastrongandaggressivesexualitythatgoesagainstthe
traditionalnormsforfemininity.Bothinvisualandverbalarts,sheismostoftentall,
strikinginappearance,withashapelyfigure,fullredlipsandeyesthathaveahypnotic
powerovermen.Fatalwomendonotfollowanymoralcodesornormsforfeminine
behavior:theirsexualappetitesarevoraciousandtheirseductionexpressedverydirectly.
Atthesametime,theymakeitclearthattheywillnotsubmitinanysensetomalepower,
andareexpertsinmanipulatingmalesexualappetitesfortheirownbenefits.Theword
“fatal”means“deadly”,andrelationshipswithfatalwomenendinthedestructionand
evendeathoftheirmalevictims.Inadditiontotheiraggressiveness,theyhaveother
qualitiesthatareassociatedmorewithstereotypicalmasculinity:theyarenotsentimental
andtheirintelligencecontrolstheiremotionseasily;theydonothesitatetouseviolence
asameanstotheirgoals;theymovefreelyfromonemantoanotherandshownointerest
inbeingawifeormother.

Inhardboileddetectivefictionthemaledetectiveisoftenbothattractedandputoffby
thefatalwoman.Theymaybecomelovers,butshealwaysbetrayshim.Indeed,sheoften
turnsouttobethemajorvillainofthestory,eitheractingdirectlyorincitingmenwhom
shehasseducedtocarryoutcrimes,includingmurder.InDashiellHammett’sTheMaltese
Falcon(l930),forexample,thefatalwoman,BrigidO’Shaughnessy,appearsonthe
openingpagesofthenovelasthedetectiveSamSpade’sclient.Hertemptingappearance,
tallandcurvaceous,withredhairand“fulllipsmorebrightlyred”(Hammett2)signalher
truenaturetothereaders,thoughSamSpadehimselfistrickedintoseeingherasaweak
womanseekingprotectionfromhim.Thenovelendswithhisfullrecognitionofhowevil
sheis;hehandsherovertothepolicetobepunishedforhercrimes.

Moreoften,thefatalwomenarerecognizedassuchbymaledetectivesatfirstsight(as
hasbeenstated,thedetectivesalmostalwaysfunctionasfirstpersonnarratorsinthis
genre).InRaymondChandler’sTheBigSleep,VivianReganisintroducedinthiswaybythe
detective:“IsatdownontheedgeofadeepsoftchairandlookedatMrs.Regan.Shewas

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worthastare.Shewastrouble”(Chandler,BigSleep17),andindeedshedoesdisturbboth
hispeaceofmindandhisinvestigationofcrimes.InanothertextbyChandler,thenovella
“TroubleIsMyBusiness”(1933),thefatalwomanisgiventhesuggestivenameofMiss
HarrietHuntress.Insimilarfashion,CarrollJohnDaly(18891958),anearlywriterofhard
boileddetectivefiction,callshisfatalwoman“TheFlame”inthenovella“JustAnother
Stiff”(1936)andhisdetectiveseesherinthisway:“Thereweretimeswhenshewasyoung
andlovely,thesparkleofyouthinhereyes–andtimes,too,whenshewashard,cold,
cruel,awomanofthenight.Beautiful–sure,butinasinisterway”(Daly18).Anotherof
theearlynoirwriters,LeighBrackett,introduceshisfatalwomanin“IFeelBadKillingYou”
(1944)as“aredhaired,greeneyedgirlwithasmouldering,angryglowdeepinsideher”
(Brackett75):sheturnsouttohavekilledorinstigatedthemurdersofmanypeopleand
alsowindsuphandedovertothepolicebythedetectiveattheendofthestory.

Thesefatalwomenareinterestingcreaturesbothonthepageandonthescreen(Marlene
Dietrichwastheepitomeofthetypeinthefirsthalfofthe20thcentury),buttheyare
stereotypesoftheflattestkind.Tofindpositiveexamplesofwomeninnoirfictionwhoare
notsimplypassivevictims,readershavehadtowaituntilthefeministmovementprepared
thegroundforhardboiledwomendetectives.Then,in1982,SaraParetskyintroducedV.I.
WarshawskiinIndemnityOnlyandSueGraftonstartedheralphabeticalseriesabout
KinseyMillhoneinAIsforAlibi.Earlier,someshortstoriesofthiskindwerepublishedin
thelatel970s,butitwasthenovelsthatmadebestsellerlistsandsignaledamajorchange
inhardboileddetectivefiction.

CriticslikeSabineVanackertendtorefertothesenewexamplesofnoirfictionas
“feminist”(Vanacker6971),butthewordisapplicableonlyifonereferstotheideological
changesinAmericansocietythatmadetheideaofanindependentandprofessional
womanmoreacceptable,orperhapstothefactthatfeministreadersfindthesecharacters
enjoyabletoreadabout.Insomewaystheyareasmuchfantasiesandstereotypesasthe
traditionallysupermasculinehardboileddetectives.Likethem,theyarelonerswhoseem
happywithouttheeverydaysupportoffamilyorfriends,abletoworkwithoutsleepfor
daysandtoshowincrediblephysicalenduranceevenwhensickorinjured.Still,theyare
notpurelymasculinizedwomen,fortheypossessthebasicfeaturesofthehardboiled
detectivebutincludesomecharacteristicsthatseemmoretraditionallyfeminine.
Moreover,KinseyandV.IWarshawskiarenotsimilarintheircombinationofmasculine
andfemininetraitsand,indeed,laterwomenhardboileddetectivesshowmore
individualitythantheirmaleequivalents.

Atfirstreadingthesimilaritiesaremorestrikingthanthedifferencesbecausenoircrime
fiction,likemostpopulargenres,iscentredonplot,settingandmoodratherthan
character.Grafton’snovelsaresetinCaliforniawhileParetsky’sareinChicago,butboth,
intruenoirtradition,emphasizethemoraldegradationandpoliticalcorruptionof
Americansociety.Alltheusualclassesofsocietyappear,withtheemphasisbeingonthe
richandpowerfulalongwiththepoorandcriminal.Rapidaction,frequentactsofviolence
describedindetailandamoodofbitternessevenwhenthecrimesaresolvedarejustas
commoninthewomenwriters’novelsastheyareinthosebymen.Furthermore,both
womendetectivesshowthesamefanaticaldedicationtotheirwork,andarereadyto
employillegalmeansiflegaloneswilltaketoolongorarenotavailable.

Finally,bothwomenemploythesarcastic,quickwittedtoughlanguageindialoguesthat
issocharacteristicofmalenoirheroes.Forexample,inParetsky’sKillingOrders(1985),

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V.IWarshawskigetsatelephonecallfromhercousinAlbert,whomshedislikes;he
complainshehasbeentryingtoreachherforalongtimeanddemandstoknowwhereshe
hasbeen.Warshawskisnapsbackironically,“Atanallnightsexanddopeorgy.Thesex
wasterriblebutthecokewasgreat.Wanttocomenexttime?”(Paretsky,KillingOrders
37)Grafton’sKinseyisevenmorepronetowisecrackingonalloccasions.Whensheis
trappedbyakillerwhohasplantedatimebombinherhome,sheisfrightened,butsays
coolly,“Sorrytointerruptyou.[…]Don’tstickaroundonmyaccount”(Grafton,EIsFor
Evidence193).Inthesamenovel,catchingupwithanoldschoolfriendwhoadmits
“SomeoneaskedmeoncewhichI’dratherhave–sexorawarmchocolatecookie,”Kinsey
immediatelyresponds,“Goforthecookies.Youcanbake‘emyourself”(Grafton,EIsFor
Evidence39).Thisrepeatedironymakesthewomendetectivessoundtough,especiallyin
dangeroussituations.

Yetdifferencesdoappear,andtheyarenotinsignificantones.Itshouldberemembered
thathardboileddetectivesarethefirstpersonnarratorsoftheirstories,sothatreaders
areinsidetheirmindsallthroughthenarrative.Whilemalenoirdetectivesmayfeel
uneasy,theyneverfeelthefearorevenpanicthatoftenaffectsGrafton’sorParetsky’s
heroesastheyfaceverydangeroussituationsorareattackedbyvillains.Infact,thetypical
climacticscenesofthesenovelsdepictthewomendetectivesjustbarelyescapingdeathat
thehandsofthevillains.Moreover,throughoutthenovels,whilemalehardboiled
detectivessignaldepression,stressorlonelinessbyharddrinking,femaleonesdoreflect
ontheirsituationsandwonderwhethertheyhavemadetherightdecisionsinlife.

SueGrafton’sKinseyisclosertotheclassicalmodelofthemalehardboileddetective.She
hasnoclosefemalefriends:shedoeshaveafewmaleones,thoughunlesstheyare
policemen,shedoesnotconfidethedetailsofhercasesatalltothem.Sheisaprivate
investigatorbyprofessionandwasonceamemberofthepoliceforce.OccasionallyKinsey
hasdoubtsaboutherappearanceandclothes,butasshepersistsinnotwearingjewellery
ormakeup,cutsherownhairandwearsbypreferencejeansallthetime,shedoesnot
showthestereotypicallyfemininestrongconcernwithone’sappearance.Kinseyhasno
familyanddoesnotwantone,doesnotlikechildrenand,thoughshewasmarriedtwice
(anddivorcedtwice),doesnotseemtobelookingforalongtermrelationship.Shehasno
domesticqualitiesatallandeatsbypreferencefastfood;herideaofcookingismakinga
peanutbutterandpicklesandwich.

InSaraParetsky’snovelsV.I.Warshawski(likeKinsey,shehasafirstnamethatcouldbe
maleorfemale)hasafewmoretraditionallyfeminineinterestsandcharacteristicsthan
Grafton’sdetective.Shedoescookdinnersforfriendsandoftendressesupaccordingto
recentfashions.Themenwhomeetherconsiderherveryattractive,somethingthatis
neversaidaboutKinsey.Inaddition,ineachnovelreaderslearnmoreaboutherparents,
nowbothdead,andfriends,mostlywomen,whomeanagooddealtoher.Althoughshe
livesalone,shegoesoutfrequently.WhileKinseyistruetothenoirdetectivetraditionof
notbeingwelleducatedorwidelyread,V.IWarshawskihasadegreeasalawyer,though
shenowworksasaprivateinvestigator.Moreover,shesingsclassicalmusicwellandplays
thepiano,andisgenerallyacultivatedperson.Paradoxically,then,sheisfarmore
personallyviolentthanKinseyandfarbetterathandtohandcombat,thoughshetoo
feelsfearduringsuchstruggles.Shealsohasmorepoliticalinterestsandrefersfrequently
tomunicipalissuesintheChicagoarea.

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Still,ithastobekeptinmindthattheseareaspectsofherpersonalitythatreaderspick
uponlybyreadingseveralofthenovels,andthatinthecourseofthesefastmovingaction
stories,Warshawskiseemsmoremasculinethanmightappearfromthisanalysis.Someof
thedifferencesthathavebeenlisted,afterall,owemoretoclassthangenderdifferences,
forWarshawskiclearlybelongstothemiddleclass,whileGrafton’sKinseyisworkingclass
inoriginandattitudes.

11.THEPOLICEPROCEDURALASANOTHERKINDOFCRIMEFICTION:
ITSHISTORYANDCHARACTERISTICS

AlthoughthepoliceappearascharactersinbothGoldenAgeandhardboiledcrimefiction,
theyaregenerallygivenaminorroleandareoftencontrastedtotheprivatedetectiveas
lackingimaginationandbeingtooquicktocometoaconclusion.However,afterthe
secondworldwar,bothinBritainandtheUnitedStates,anewkindofcrimefiction
appearsinwhichthepoliceandtheirmethodsofinvestigationareattheheartofthese
narratives.Whatisinterestingisthatthiskindofcrimestorycanbefoundbothasnovels
andasradioandlatertelevisionshows,andisimmediatelyextremelypopular.Still,this
newgenredoesnotinanysensereplacetheGoldenAgeandnoirnarratives,which
continuetoattractlargenumbersofreaders:thepoliceproceduralisaparallel
development.
GeorgeN.Dove,whosebooklengthstudyentitledThePoliceProcedural,though
publishedin1982,isstillamajorsourceonthesubject,agreeswithotherhistoriansof
detectivefictionthatthefirsttruepoliceproceduralwasLawrenceTreat’sVasinVictim,
publishedin1945.However,healsoindicatesthatthegreatsuccessofthegenrebegan
withtheAmericanpolicecrimeseriesDragnet,whichbeganasaradioprogramin1949
andwastransferredtothetelevisionscreenin1952,whereitranforsevenyears.Thena
numberofwritersstartedpoliceproceduralseriesthatconsolidatedthegenreinthe
publiceye:oftheearlywriters,thebestknownisJohnCreasey(writingasJ.J.Marric),
whoseseriesaboutGeorgeGideonofScotlandYardinLondonestablishedmanyofthe
narrativetraditionsofthenewgenre(Dove214).
Amajornoveltyinthepoliceproceduralis,asitsnamesuggests,thatitpaysagooddealof
attentiontothewaythatpoliceinvestigationsreallyworkandsoseemsmorerealistic
thanGoldenAgeorNoircrimefiction.Bothofthelattergenresfeatureadetectivewhois
inmanywaysasuperhero,whethermaleorfemale,abletosolvethemostcomplicatedof
crimesand,althoughthisisnotemphasized,dependingagooddealonlucktomeetthe
rightpeoplewhocanhelphimorher.Whetherheorsheissuperintelligentorsuper
strong,thisdetectiveisclearlynotanordinarymanorwoman.Thereaders’identification
withthedetectivehasastrongelementofwishfulfillment,oftakingpartinafantasyof
greatersuccessthanmostpeoplearelikelytoachieve.
Thepoliceinpoliceproceduralsare,forthemostpart,muchmoreordinaryindividuals:
theymaybecleverorstupid,hardworkingorlazy,haveastrongvarietyofprivate
intereststhatinterferewiththeirworkandarepresentedasindividualizedcharacters.
Whatismostimportant,however,isthattheybelongtoastricthierarchy,areassigned
specifictasksinaninvestigation,someofwhicharedullandleadnowhere,andworkin
pairsandteams,reportingbackregularlytopoliceheadquarters.Inaddition,the
requirementsofthelawforevidenceagainstcriminalsmeansthattheyhavetowritea

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vastnumberofshorterorlongerreports,ataskmostofthemdislikebutdocarryout.
Mostofthewritersofpoliceprocedurals,especiallytheearliergeneration,workedinthe
policethemselves,whileotherscarryoutcarefulresearchonpolicepractice:manyoftheir
novelsbeginwithwordsofthankstospecificpolicedepartmentsorindividualswhohave
helpedthemgettheprocedureright.
Nowadays,manycrimenovelsfeaturingpoliceofficershavemovedfromtheoriginalplot
andcharacterformulasbyincorporatingelementsfromGoldenAgeand,especially,from
hardboiledcrimefiction.Itisanecessityofnarrativeartthatoneortwofictionalpolice
officersdominateaninvestigationinawaythatrealpolicedetectivesdonotnecessarily
do,butlatelythetrendhasbeentofocusmuchmorecloselyononememberofthepolice,
makinghimorherclosertothesuperheroand,inanunrealisticfashion,freeingthis
protagonistfromtheteamworkandhierarchicalstructureinwhichtherealpoliceactually
work.However,eventhesenovelsembodythecorefeaturesoftheoriginalpolice
procedurals.
Theessentialnatureofapoliceproceduralisclearerwhenoneconsidersanexamplefrom
theearlynovels.Gideon’sDay,publishedin1955,wasthefirstofthelongrunningGideon
serieswrittenbyJohnCreasey.Aswasstandardinthatperiod,thenovelisnotlong,less
than200pages,yetitdescribessixdifferentcasesthatSeniorSuperintendentGeorge
Gideonworksoninasingleday–andmostareactuallysolvedwithinaperiodofabout
eighteenhours.TheyarenotallthekindsofcrimesthatwouldinterestAgathaChristie’s
HerculePoirotorRaymondChandler’sPhilipMarlowe:inone,forexample,ayoungman
withacriminalrecordbeatsanelderlywomanrunningasmallshoptodeathforthesake
ofafairlysmallamountofmoney.Theothercrimesareamixedbagofthosecommitted
byprofessionalcriminalsandthosecarriedoutbypeoplewithnorecordofprevious
crime.Forinstance,ArthurSayergivesintohissexualdesireforveryyounggirlsandrapes
andkillssomebeforeheiscaught.Anothermanwithacleanrecord,AlecFitzroy,
organizestherobberyofabank’ssafetydepositboxesbutistrappedbythepoliceand
shootshiswayout,killingatleastoneman.Inanothercase,aseriesofrobberiesofthe
RoyalMailisfinallysolved,thoughonlyaftersomemorekillings.Onecrimemayturnout
tobeentangledinanotherone,especiallywheretheprofessionalcrimeworldis
concerned.
Inmostofthesecrimesthereisnorealmysteryassuchtobesolved.Thenovelsaretoldin
thethirdperson,sothatsometimesreadersenterthemindsofcriminalsplanningtheir
crimesorcarryingthemout.Inothercasestheremaybesomedoubtsaboutoneperson
oranother,butthesedonotlastlong.AlthoughGideontakesparttosomeextentinallthe
investigations,heisstilldependentonhisteamofofficerswhocarryoutinquiriesand
reporttohim,aswellastopoliceinformersfromthecriminalunderworld.Yetthenovelis
excitingtoread,movingquicklybackandforthbetweenthedifferentcases,andoften
risingtoacutesuspense:willthelittlegirltakenbythepedophilemurdererescapeorbe
killed?Willthepoliceinformer,nowhuntedbymobmembers,getaway?Whenthebank
robberystartstogowrong,willitsorganizermanagetogetthroughthepolicechainorbe
caught?
StillanotherthreadinthenarrativeisGideon’spersonallife.Rightthroughthenovelhe
thinksabouthisrelationswithhiswifeofmanyyears,howcloseheandKatewereandhow
fartheyhavenowmovedapart.Thepolicearenotoriouslyaprofessiontroubledbyfailed
marriages,asthedemandsofovertimeworkandtheintensityofsomeoftheexperiences

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duringworkmakeithardforapoliceofficertokeepupasuccessfulfamilylife.Gideonis
awarethatKateisunhappywithhislongabsencesand,inoneveryinterestingscene,he
recallshowangryshewaswhenshefoundoutshewaspregnantforthefifthtime.In
Gideon’sDayhebeginstomakeanefforttodropbackathomeduringthedayandtotalkto
herabouthisworkatleastalittle.Thenovelconcludeswithawarmerrelationshipbetween
thetwo.Sincepoliceproceduralsarealmostalwayswrittenasachronologicalseries,the
writershavetheopportunitytodevelopthepoliceofficers’personallivesoverthecourseof
anumberofyears,showingmaritalchanges,problemswithchildren,andevenromantic
developments.Charactersalsoageandmatureintheseseries,whichalmostneverhappens
inGoldenAgeorhardboiledseries:herethedetectiveisfixedpermanently,withveryfew
exceptions,atacertainage.Christie’sMissMarple,forexample,isanelderlywomaninthe
firstnovelinwhichsheappearsinthe1920sandremainsanelderlywoman,onlyalittle
moretroubledbyarthritis,inthenovelsofthe1960s.
Furthermore,inGideon’sDay,GeorgeGideonisfrequentlyseendiscussinghiscaseswith
officersseniortohim,aruleinpolicework.Healsospendsagooddealoftimewithhis
assistantChiefInspectorLemaitre,amanwhoirritateshim,butwithwhomhestillshares
hisideasabouthowheshouldproceed.Thenthereareawholerangeofexpertsof
differentkindswhoarementionedandwhoprovidescientificanalysisofcluesfoundata
crimescene.Gideongetsonextremelywellwithhisseniorsandjuniors,whichisnot
completelyrealistic;still,theirpresenceinthenarrativeremindsthereadersoftheofficial
teamworkwhichisessentialinpoliceinvestigations.

Finally,althoughtheGideonseries,especiallyintheopeningnovels,isnotverycriticalof
Britishsocietyorthegovernment,therearestillallusionsinGideon’sDaytothefactthat
thepoliceareoverworkedandthattheydonothaveenoughstafftocoverallthecrimes
theyhavetodealwith.Thisnovelalsoincludesasoneofitsstorylinesthatofacorrupt
policeofficerwhohasbeentakingsubstantialbribesfromamajorcriminal,akindof
problemthatislaterdevelopedinotherpoliceprocedurals.Indeed,thefactofcorruption
higherupingovernmentadministrationandhowitmakesithardforthepolicetofunction
becomesamajorthemeincrimefictioncentredonapolicestation.YetCreasey’sseriesis
realisticinmostways,includingthefactthatsomeofthecharactersthreatenedby
criminalsdosufferorevendiebeforethepolicecanhelp.

YOURINPUT:5

WHATKINDOFWORKDOESTHEPOLICEINYOURCOMMUNITYDO,ASIDEFROMSOLVING
MAJORCRIMES?HAVEYOUEVERBEENINAPOLICESTATIONOFANYKIND?
DESCRIBEWHATYOUSAW.

12.WHATARETHEMAJORCHARACTERISTICSOFPOLICEPROCEDURALS?

1.Socialrealism.

Althoughthepolicehierarchyandpolicestationsarefictionalizedtosomeextent,they
stillcloselyreflecttherealpoliceinaspecificplace.Thisisnamedifitisalargecity,but
maybefictionalifitisasmalltown.Atfirstpoliceproceduralswerealmostallsetincities,
butlatermanywereplacedintownsorevenruralregions.Thishelpscreateaclosed

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settingofakind,asthepoliceinchargeofatownorpartofacitytendtoknowtheir
territoryintimately,especiallytheminorranksofcriminalswhoworkinit.Furthermore,
thereareoftenmanyreferencestothecharacteristicsoftheplaceitself.

2.Moralandideologicalvaluesofaconservativekind.

Thepolicetendtobeconservativeintheirattitudesandvalues,andreflectthe
conservativemiddleclassvaluesystemoftheirday.Thoughtheymayfeelsympatheticto
somesmalltimecriminals,theytendtoseetheworldinblackandwhiteterms,goodor
evil.Often,especiallyinearlypoliceprocedurals,theyarequicktostereotypedifferent
classesandraces,andtoapplyconservativegendercodes.However,therearedifferences
betweentheBritishandtheAmericanschoolsinthisrespect,astheAmericanpolice
proceduralswereearliertoemphasizethatmanypoliceofficersareinpartcorrupt.

1. Thedetectiverepresentsandreestablishesorder.

Thepolicehavegreatauthorityandpowerinsociety,andsothedetectivesinpolice
proceduralshaveastrongsenseoftheirrightanddutytoenforcethelaws.Unlessthey
arecorruptthemselves,theyseetheirroleasgoodfightingagainstevilandhaveastrong
needtocatchcriminals.Oftentheyfeeldissatisfiedwithlawsthatseemtooweakin
punishingcrime,orlawsthatmakeithardforthemtoworkandcollectevidence.They
feelgreatsatisfactioninarrestingmostcriminals,butarenotoptimisticaboutsocial
problemsingeneral,astheyseefartoomuchofthedarksideoftheircommunities.Early
policeproceduralstendtoendmoreoptimistically,withthestoppingofacrime,while
morerecentonesshowthepoliceasexhaustedanddepressedbytheirwork.

4.Thepolicedetectiveoftenusesforceasanecessaryweaponagainstcrime,alongwith
rationalstudyofevidenceandpsychologicaldeduction.

Policedetectivesaretrainedandallowedtousephysicalviolenceandweaponsinthe
courseoftheirwork,thoughtheygenerallyaresubjecttoinquiryiftheyshootorkill
someone.However,theyspendagreatdealoftimeingoingthrougholdrecordsand
questioningeveryonelivingintheneighbourhoodofacrime.Mostofthisisonly
summarizedinpoliceproceduralfiction,asitisdullworkandtakeshours,daysoreven
weeks.Theyalsowaittogetlaboratoryresultsfromspecialists(fingerprints,analysisof
blood,fabric,etc.).Insteadofthemoreinformalinterviewcarriedoutbydetectivesin
GoldenAgeandNoirfiction,policeinterviewsareoftenveryofficial,bothwithsuspectsor
peoplewhohavebeenarrested.

5.Violenceisdescribedindetail,moreorlessdependingonthewriter.Thepoliceofficer
isoftenindanger.

Policeofficersoftenareinjuredorkilledinthelineofduty,sothisisnotatalluncommon
inpoliceprocedurals.Thefearofthishappeningaffectsapolicedetective’sfamily
relationshipsorromancesaswell.Moreover,thepoliceoftenarecalledintohelpincrises
likeattemptsatsuicideorfireswhentheymustalsorisktheirlives.Suchepisodestendto
maketheprotagonistsinpoliceproceduralsheroic,astheyshowcourageinterrible
circumstances.

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5. Asthesearecontinuingseries,romanceandloveinthelivesofpolicecharactersare
oftenpartoftheplot.

Hereagainagreaterrealismoftenappearsthaninearliercrimefictiongenres,asmajor
charactersinapoliceproceduralfallinlove,getmarried,havechildrenandareeither
happyorhaveproblemswithintheirfamilies,includingdivorceandseriousissueswith
theirchildren.Inthefirstpoliceprocedurals,especiallytheBritishones,thereareonly
verymutedreferencestosexuality,inlinewiththemoralrestrictionsonpopularfictionin
theimmediatepostwarperiod,butlateracertainnumberofreferencesdoappear.

6. Policedetectivesinearlypoliceproceduralsandsomelateronesfeelverymuchpart
oftheircommunityandknowagreatdealabouthowitworks.

Thepolicemayberespectedorhated,buttheyareperceivedasimportantandpowerful
bytheircommunity.Theytendtoknowmajorpoliticiansandwealthypeopleofinfluence,
aswellasmanyordinarypeople.Inlaterpoliceprocedurals,charactersareoftendeeply
cynicalabouttheirsocieties,andespeciallyaboutthoseinpower.

8.Thegeneraltoneofthesenarrativesisexciting,fastmoving,andactionoriented.

Humourmayormaynotbeused,butitistheverybusyscheduleofthepolice,andthe
suddenemergencycallsthatcomeinwhichcreatefastpacednarrative.Strongsuspenseis
created,asreadersofthesethirdpersonnarrativesoftenknowbothwhatthecriminals
andthepolicearethinkinganddoing.

9.Thenarrativesbeginwithoneormorecrimesthatneedtobeinvestigated,somenew
andotherscontinuingfromearlierdays.Theyconcludewithsomecrimessolved,though
thecriminalsmaynotbebroughttojustice.

Unlikethenoirthrillers,whichfocusonasinglemajorcriminalact,policeprocedurals
alwaysincludeanumberofcrimes.Moreover,thenextdaywillbringfurthercrimes,some
minorandothersveryserious.Inthisway,thoughthereisclosureofakind,thepolice
proceduralhasafairlyopenending.Tomorrownewproblemswillariseforthepoliceto
dealwith,whilethepoliceofficers’personalliveswillalsoshownewdevelopments.

13.SUSPENSETHRILLERS:HOWDOTHEYDIFFERFROMDETECTIVEFICTION?

Suspensethrillersbelongtothelargefamilyofnarrativethatiscalledcrimefiction,but
theydifferinmanycriticalwaysandoftenappealtoreaderswhodonotlikedetective
stories.Theverywordsusedforthisextremelypopulargenreinprintandcinematic
versionsdefinewhatreadersexpecttogetfromit.A‘thrilling’experienceisaveryexciting
onethatusuallyincludesanelementoffear,apleasurablefearinthosecaseswhereone
feelssafe,asincarnivalrides,andalesspleasantoneifthesituationisadarkstreetanda
manwithaknife.Theotherterm,‘suspense’,meansthatreadersorviewerswantvery
stronglytoknowwhatwillhappennext,andfearthatitmightbesomethinghorrifying.For
readersandcinemaortelevisionviewersofsuspensethrillers,theidealistobegrippedby
thenarrative,tobeunabletostopreadingorwatchingit,andtofeelamaximumofstrong
sensations–whileknowingperfectlywellthatthisisnotrealitybutonlyanimaginary
situation.

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Withthisinmind,itiseasytoseethatthekindofcrimefictionthatisclosesttosuspense
thrillersisthehardboileddetectiveornoirfiction,whereviolentencountersandchases
arecommonandoftenfolloweachotherinquicksuccession.TheGoldenAgecluepuzzle
narrativemovesmuchmoreslowly,givingtimeforreflection:itdoescontainsuspense,
butthisisanintellectualkindofsuspense,astrongdesiretosolvethemysteryandfind
outwhocommittedthecrimeandwhy.Thetraditionalpoliceproceduralalsodoesnot
providetheunremittingkindofactiondemandedinasuspensethriller,sincebydefinition
ithastoshowhowthepolicereallywork,withatleastsomereferencestotheboredomof
fillingoutreports,thelonghoursspentquestioningpeoplenearacrimescene,andthe
rigidadministrativestructurethatdictatesthechoicesapolicedetectivecantake.

Still,althoughhardboileddetectivestoriesandsuspensethrillersoverlapthematicallyin
depictingacorruptmodernsocietyinwhichdangerandviolencearecommonplace,
especiallyifonetriestodisturbthepowerofthoseatthetop,thetwogenreshavedistinct
differences.Thehardboileddetectivenovelhasafairlyrigid,formulaboundnarrative
structure.Herethecentralcharacteristhehardboileddetective,whoisusuallythefirst
personnarrator,andtraditionallyastrongyoungman.Inasuspensethriller,athird
personnarratorisoftenused,orthestorymovesfromonefirstnarratortoanother–
althoughthereisnorulehere.Amajordifferenceisthatinsuspensethrillers,although
theyincludemysteries,thesepuzzlesareoftenmultipleandkeepappearingasthe
narrativeprogresses.Forexample,inDanBrown’sTheDaVinciCode,amanandayoung
womanaretheprotagoniststryingtomakesenseofamysteriousdeathinParis.However,
veryquicklytheseamateurdetectivesbecomepotentialvictimsandhavetofleebefore
theyaremurderedthemselves.Theyareneverinpossessionofallthecluesbutprogress
fromonemysterytoanother.Thenovelisalsotypicalofsuspensethrillersinits
internationalsettingsandrapidmovementsfromonecountrytoanotherandoneplacein
acountrytoanother.Becausethereadersknowsomethingaboutthevillainsandtheir
plans,twoissuesareputinsuspense:whyarethesecrimestakingplace?Andwillthe
protagonistssurvive?

Oneofthemostpopularnarrativeelementsinasuspensethrilleristhechasescene:
usuallythrillerscontainoneormore,rangingfromcharacterssimplyrunningawayto
pursuitsincars,airplanesorwhatever.Ifthesuspensethrillerisafilm,thenthesescenes
involvemayverycomplexspecialeffectsandthedestructionofanynumberofvehicles,
bridges,buildings,boatsandthelike.Theremaybeagooddealofshootinggoingonas
well,thoughtheprotagonistsmanagenottobehitbyanybullets.

Ingeneral,allnarrativesareartificialandarelikelytoincludeanunrealisticdependenceon
coincidence,illogicaljumpsinplot,bizarrechangesincharacterandpsychologically
unlikelybehavior.However,suspensethrillerscertainlyoutdoothergenresofcrimefiction
intheiruseofimprobability.Readersandviewersdonotmindatall:thesuspensethriller
isescapistcultureaimedatarousingstrongemotion,notrationalreflectionand,inany
case,theplotmovessoquicklythatthereislittletimeforlogicalcriticism.

Thrillersthemselvesfallintoavarietyofkindsdependingonplotelements.Probablythe
bestknownoftheolderkindsisthespythriller,inwhichthemaincharacterisemployed
byagovernmentagencytospyonforeigncountriesoronimportantbureaucratsand
governmentfigureswhoaresuspectedofbeingdoubleagents.IntheColdWarperiod
afterthesecondworldwar,whentheSovietUnionononesideandtheUnitedStatesand
Britainontheotheremployedanetworkofspiesandagentsallovertheworldagainst

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eachother,thisgenrefitinverywellwiththepoliticalatmosphereofconflict,threatof
warandrealwarsconductedinvarietyofcountries.Thesethrillerswereoftenwrittenin
serieswiththesamespyastheprotagonistorthespyserviceitselfasakindofcollective
protagonist.

Ofthese,themostfamousandsuccessfulhavebeentheJamesBondserieswrittenbyIan
Fleming(19081964).Fleming,aproductoftheBritishupperclasseswhoworkedasa
journalistinMoscowforatime,createdinJamesBondthekindofherothathasbecomea
stereotype:intelligent,withsophisticatedtastesinfood,alcohol,expensivecarsandother
upperclasspleasures,yetphysicallyverystrongandoftenequippedwiththelatestin
technicalweaponry.Bondisahandsomemanwhoattractswomenandregularlyfallsin
lovewithoneduringeachnovel,butthisloverelationshipalwaysends,leavinghimfreeto
engageinanotheroneinthenexttext.Likemanythrillerheroesanddetectivesingeneral,
Bondhashisownideasonhowtorunhiswork,andsooftengetsintotroublewithhis
superiorsintheBritishSecretService.However,usuallyatthecostofmanylives,he
succeedsindefeatingtheenemy.Flemingalsodevelopedaverypopularformofthevillain
inhisnovels,whichhasalsobeenimitatedbylaterthrillerwriters:theallpowerfulyet
eccentricvillain,fondofarrangingsadistictorturesandhorribleformsofdeath,andyet
intellectuallyinterestingandcapableofintelligentconversation(forexample,asinDr
Goldfinger).

Fleming’sseriesreflectstheconcernsoftheimmediatepostwarperiod,whentheBritish
peoplelivedamongruins,stilldealtwithrationingandhadtoacceptthatBritainwasno
longeragreatplayeringlobalpolitics.InonesenseJamesBond’selegantandwealthyway
oflifecanbeinterpretedasaformofwishfulfillmentfantasy.InFleming’snovels,
AmericanspiesareusuallytreatedasinferiorandBond’svictoriesallowtheillusionthat
Britishpowerisstillsignificant.Furthermore,althoughFlemingdiedin1964,the
continuingproductionofJamesBondfilmsandtheremakeshaskepttheJamesBond
formulaaliveinglobalpopularculture.

AnotherwriterofBritishspythrillerswhohasgainedworldrenownisJohnLeCarre
(b.1931,thepseudonymofDavidJohnMooreCornwall).LikeFleming,heenjoyedan
upperclasseducation;thenheactuallyworkedforanumberofyearsintheBritishspy
system.HisnovelsarelongerandintellectuallymorecomplexthanFleming’s,thoughthe
basicformulaissimilar:theheadsoftheBritishForeignService,thespies,oneofwhomis
theprotagonistofthenovel,thestruggleagainstanenemythatisextremelywealthy,
powerfulandunscrupulous,aloveaffairwithabeautifulwomanwhichgenerallyendsor
sheiskilled,andalltheusualsuspensethrillerchases,betrayals,andphysicalviolence.

However,unlikeFleming’sJamesBond,whoalwaysemergessafeattheendofthenovel,
LeCarre’sheroesoftendieincarryingouttheirwork.Themajorvillainisusuallydefeated
butatacost.Inothercases,thespyherohimself(fortheseareallmaleprotagonistsinthe
vastmajorityofthrillersbeforetheendofthe20thcentury)isbetrayedbyanagreement
betweenthegovernmentandthevillains.Indeed,thepicturethatLeCarredepictsisfar
fromJamesBondenjoyingthepleasuresoffinehotels,resorts,excellentrestaurantsand
thelike.ThetypicalLeCarrehero,whetherlowerorupperclassinorigin,spendsagood
dealoftimeinagreyworldofrain,cold,dirtythirdclasshotelsandloneliness.Indeed,Le
Carreisoftenclassifiedasa‘literarywriter’whosenovelsdevotemanypagestothe
feelingsofalienation,loneliness,fearandfailureofthespyhero.Forexample,inTheNight
Manager(1993),JonathanCaseworksisaBritishspywhooftenplaysthepartofa

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managerinaluxurioushotel.Allthroughthenovelheishauntedbythefactthathewas
trustedbyabeautifulEgyptianwomanwithimportantdocumentsaboutinternational
armssmugglingandhandedtheseovertohissuperiorsintheservice.Theresultisthathis
sourceisbetrayed:thewomanwhomhehadfalleninlovewithistorturedtodeath.At
firstheleavestheservicebutisluredbacktohelpbringdowntheBritishcriminalwhowas
partofthiskilling.Thenovelhasalltheusualthrillerelements,whileCasehimselfisa
trainedspywithamazingphysicalstrength,buthissuperherotraitsarelessinteresting
thanhisdoubtsandfeelingsofguilt.Intheendtheusualbetrayalsoccuramonghigher
Britishgovernmentofficials,butCasehimselfresistsandremainstruetoanotherwoman
hehascometolove.LeCarre’snovelsinthissenseareclosetoonesthatcanalsoberead
asthrillersbutwhicharegenerallyacceptedas‘highliterature’,thenovelsofGraham
Greene(19041991).

Anothervarietyofthrilleristhelegalthriller,ofwhomthecurrentleaderisheldtobe
JohnGrisham(b.1955),alawyerandstatepoliticianbyprofession.Hissecondnovel,The
Firm(1991),establishedhisworldwidecareer,aswellasthebasicformulaofcharacters
andplotthataretypicalofhisnovelsandmanylegalthrillersingeneral.Insuchnovelsthe
protagonistisnotaspyordetectivebutalawyer,usuallyaperfectlyhonourableone,
oftenyoungandstillnotveryexperienced.Grishamdoesnotwriteserieswiththesame
lawyer;thiswouldincreasetheimprobabilityofnovelsthatarealreadyfullofit.TheFirm
opensinawaythatiscommoninmanythrillers,withthevillain,notthehero:inthiscase
anunnamedmanisconsideringwhichofanumberofyounglawyerstohirefor“thefirm”,
alargefinancialcompanyrathersurprisinglylocatednotinamajorAmericancitybutin
thesmalloneofMemphisintheUnitedStates.Itisclearthatthereissomethingshady
andillegalgoingon,asthemanrecallsamistakemadeearlierinhiringanoverlyhonest
andzealouswomanlawyer:shehadtobefiredandshortlyafterwardsdiedinacar
accident.Theexperiencedreadersofthrillersneednoothercluestoseethatthe
‘accident’wasundoubtedlyarrangedandthatthefirmisrunbysomeformofmafia.In
thisway,thereadersalreadyknowmoreaboutthetruesituation,whilethelawyerhero
onlylearnsitwhenheisinformedbytheFBI.Intheend,heunderstandsthatheisbeing
betrayedbytheFBIaswell,managestostealmillionsofdollarsfromthefirmandescapes
withhiswifetoaCaribbeanisland.AlthoughthefirmitselfisclosedbytheFBI,thenovel
endswiththeheroandhiswifewellawarethatbothgovernmentorganizationsandthe
mafiawillbeafterthem,andthattheirchancesoflivingapeacefullifearealmostzero.

Unlikemanycrimenovels,thrillerstendtobeconnectedtothepoliticalbeliefsand
concernsoftheperiodinwhichtheyarewritten.Forexample,theonescreatedinthe
ColdWarperiodbyIanFlemingandJohnLeCarreoftenrefertoSovietAmericanconflicts
andheightenanxietybycreatingmanydoubleagentsandcastingdoubtonthefidelityof
theagenciessupposedtoprotectWesternstates.Astimepasses,theMiddleEast,which
atfirstisdepictedasanareacolonizedbydifferentWesterncountries,becomesmoreof
anindependentplayerwithArabpoliticalgoalstakingonnewimportance.Inrecent
thrillerswarsinIraqandAfghanistanarelikelytoplayapart,alongwithmuchmore
emphasisonterroristforcescarryingoutcrimesincountrieslikeBritainandtheUnited
States.Newkindsofinternationalcrimealsoappear,fromkillingpeopletoselltheir
organs,tradeinchildrenforprostitutionanddifferentsortsofmanipulationofinformation
technology.Tobesure,theseissuesaregreatlysimplified,buttheyaremoreprominentin
themotivationofwrongdoersinthrillersthaninotherkindsofcrimefiction,where
violenceismorelikelytohavebeencarriedoutforpersonalreasons.

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14.WHATARETHEMAJORCHARACTERISTICSOFTHRILLERS?

1.Socialrealism.
Morethananyothergenreofcrimefiction,theactioninthrillersmovesrapidlyfromone
placetoanotherandmaytakeplaceinanumberofdifferentcountriesoftheworld.Spy
thrillersinparticulardepictaverywidevarietyofsettings,thoughtheyfavourmajorcities
fromLondontoTokyowhereimportantinstitutionsandgovernmentofficesarelocated.
Protagonistsinthrillersmayfindthemselvesinjunglesanddeserts,butareevenmore
likelytobeinsettingsassociatedwiththeveryrichandpowerful.Inthissense,theydepict
settinginaromanticratherthanarealisticway.However,manythrillersgivedetailsabout
aninstitution,whetherlegalornot,andthesedetailsareoftenresearchedandfairly
reliable.InthiswayreadersenjoylearningaboutthestructureoftheBritishorAmerican
secretservice,alegalfirm,advancedtechnologyandillegalfinancialtransactionsincluding
drugsandarmsfromaninsider’spointofview.Exoticsettingsarealsopopularamong
thrillerwriters,andthesegivethereadersthepleasureofimaginarytourism.
2.Thecollapseofmoralandideologicalvalues.
WhilethehardboileddetectivestoryorpoliceproceduraloftendepictsWesternsociety
ascorrupt,thisisusuallyatthelevelofcertainpeopleororganizationswithinasinglecity.
Inthethrillerthestakesaremuchhigher,aspowerfulgovernmentsandtheirlegal
institutionsagreetofalsifyevidence,havetroublesomepeoplekilledandcollaboratewith
criminalstoamuchgreaterdegreethanthegeneralpublicrealizes.Thismoraldecayis
opposedbyasmallnumberofcharacters,includingtheprotagonist,whostillhaveasense
ofhonour(thougharatherbatteredone,astheytooarecorruptinsomeways).
Therefore,theoldbattleofgoodagainstevilisfoughtoutataninternationallevel,forthe
victoryofevilheremeanswarsandsufferingforhundredsofthousandsofpeople.Nordo
thesenarrativesendwithgoodwinning;anyvictoriesarelimitedandoftencostthelives
ofmajorcharacterswithwhomthereadersidentify,sometimesincludingtheprotagonist.
3.Theprotagonistsolvesmysteriesbutdoesnotreestablishsocialormoralorder.
Ineffect,evenwhentheprotagonisttriestosolvemysteries,heorshedoesnotfunction
asatruedetective.Mostoftherevelationscomefromsomeonetellingtheprotagonist
thetruth.Moreover,theprotagonistalmostalwaysbetrayssomeoneorsomeprinciplesin
thecourseoftheaction.
4.Theprotagonistusesphysicalforcealongwithobservationandreason.
Thedegreetowhichathrillerprotagonistusesphysicalforcedependsonthekindof
thrillerandthechoiceofprotagonist.Spiesinspythrillersareverypronetousingtheir
fistsandavarietyofweaponstohandledangeroussituations,whilealawyerinalegal
thrillerbyJohnGrishamisnottrainedoraccustomedtophysicalcombatandusesforce
onlyasadesperatemeasureofselfdefence.Protagonistsintechnothrillersmayexcelin
intelligenceincertainfieldsandusecomputersasakindofweapon.
5.Violenceisdescribedindetail,includingthesufferingthedetectiveendures.
Insuspensethrillers,oneofthethingsthatreadersfearwillhappensoon–anditdoes
happen–isscenesofviolence,givenindetail,includingscenesofthemaincharacters

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beingbeatenuportortured.Inaddition,violencealsoappearsinscenesofcarorplane
crashes,explosionsandthelike.
6.Therearemanyscenesofpursuitinthrillers.
Chasescenesandpursuitofothercharactersarethehallmarkofthrillersofallkinds.In
general,atacertainpointintheaction,theprotagonistfallsintodangerandoftenis
pursuedbydangerousfigures.Pursuitsmaylastafewminutesorhoursorgoonfordays,
asthecharacterdrivesorfliesfromonecountrytoanother.Infilmversionsofthrillers,
thesepursuitscenesbecomeevenmoreimportantandresultinthemassdestructionof
cars,planes,bridges,buildingsandmanypeoplewhohappentobearound.
7.Theactionisthrillersmovesveryfast,withmanyunexpectedturnsandtwistsinthe
plot.
Allpopulargenresofnarrativemovequickly,butthesuccessfulthrillerusuallyprogresses
atbreakneckspeedaftertheintroductorypart,andthepacequickensinthelastthirdof
thetext.Thestoryalsodependsonagoodnumberofbetrayalsandtransformationsof
characters:thosewhomtheprotagonistconfidedinoftenturnouttobevillains(andthe
readersgetcluesaboutthisbeforetheprotagonists,thusincreasingsuspense).Very
ordinarypeoplecansuddenlyturnintopathologicalmonsters,whilethoseinhigh
positionsrevealthattheyhavenomoralprinciplesatall.Criticswhoobjecttothegenre
oftenpointoutthehighdegreeofcoincidenceintheseplots,andthepsychologicaland
physicalimprobabilitiesinwhichtheyabound,butreaderswhoarecaughtupinthestory
donotcareabouttheseatall.
8.Bothsexualityandloveoftenplayapartinthrillers.
Rathersurprisingly,giventheemphasisonexcitingaction,sexualityandevenreallove
appearfrequentlyinthrillers.Themaleprotagonist(mostaremaleinthrillers)mayengage
insexualrelationswithmorethanonewoman,butoftenalsofallsgenuinelyinlove.Some
protagonists(usuallynotthoseinspythrillers)haveawifeoralongtermpartner,andthis
makestheirescapemoredangerous.Thedeathofaloverisamajortraumaticeventina
thriller.
9.Theendingofathrillermaybeseenasbothopenandclosed.
Thenarrativeshaveaclosedendinginthatthecurrentstoryisfinished:themajorcriminal
activityhasusuallyendedorbeenstopped.However,inafairnumberofcases,although
thecriminalsmayevenbekilledorarrestedbythepolice,thelargercriminalorganizations
andthecorruptionwithingovernments,includingsecretserviceorganizations,continue.
Whetheraliveordead,theprotagonist’seffortshavenotbeenmuchuse.Thenonecan
refertotheendingasmoreopen.Still,thecurrentsequenceofviolencewhichconstituted
theproblemofthenovelhascometoanend,atleastforthetime.

15.NEWERTRENDSINCRIMEFICTION:ANEXPLOSIONOFSUBGENRESAND
CROSSOVERGENRES

WhileGoldenAgecluepuzzlenovels,noirfiction,policeproceduralsandsuspensethrillers
proliferatedafterWorldWarIIandfoundeageraudiences,moreandmorewritersbegan
toexperimentwiththesegenres,sometimescreatingspecializedsubgenreswithinthe

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dominantones,andoftenwritingcrossoversbetweentwogenres.Iftheyarewellwritten,
allofthesefindreaderseasily,asthewholepointofpopularfictionisthatreaders
discoverthekindofnarrativeformulathattheyenjoy,veryquicklyreadalltheolder
classicsinthefieldandthencravenewertextsofthesamebasickind.AgathaChristie,for
example,ineffectcreatedaneed;asasinglewritershecouldnotproduceenoughclue
puzzlestoriestosatisfyheraudiencesothattheybegantolookforotherwritersworking
inasimilarway.Whenthishappened,itbecameclearthatChristie’snovelswerepopular
foranumberofreasons.SomereaderslikedtheeccentricityofadetectivelikeHercule
Poirot,andsowriterscreatedsuchdetectives.OthersweremoreinterestedintheEnglish
villagesettingforamysterystory,andfictionalEnglishvillagestroubledbymysterious
murdershavesprungupbythehundredsunderthecleverhandsofnotonlyBritishwriters
butalsoCanadianandAmericanones.
Furthermore,manymysterywritershavefoundthatreadersenjoyaseriesofdetective
novelsthathaveaspecifickindofsetting,characterortheme.Bynowtherearecountless
numbersofthesespecializedfields–Christietypemysteriesthatfeaturerecipesand
cooking,ortravelabroad,ortheJewishfaith.Somedetectivesareindividualizedbyhaving
apetcatthathelpssolvethemystery.Othersareratherimprobabledetectives,like
professionalburglarsorovereightyyearoldresidentsinhomesfortheelderly,buta
cleverwritercandowellwithaseriesthatstandsoutlikethis.Oneofthebestseries
currentlygoingisAlexanderMcCallSmith’ssetinBotswanaandfeaturingMma
Ramotswe,whosetsupthedelightfullynamed“No.1Ladies’DetectiveAgency’,whichshe
runswithconsiderableflareandsuccess.ThisserieshasmanyGoldenAgefeatures,
includingaslowerpace,thedetailedsocialanalysisandrelianceonknowledgeofpeople
shownbythedetective,aswellastheinevitablyhappyendingwithallcrimessolved.Still,
ithasborrowedadegreeofrealismfromthepoliceprocedural,forMmaRamotswedeals
withmorethanonecaseatatime,andworksononesthatrangefromthetrivialtothe
dangerous.Heremuchofthecharmistheauthor’sability(hespentmanyyearsin
Botswana)topresentlifeinthisAfricancountryfromtheinsidewithoutexoticizingit.
Englishlanguagewritershavealsostartedsituatingtheircrimefictionseriesinforeign
countrieswithwhichtheyhavehadsomecontact.Thesearedistinctlycrossovernovels
whichborrowfeaturesfrommorethanonesubgenreofcrimefiction.Forexample,
NicholasFreelinghaswrittentwodifferentseries,onewithaDutchpolicedetectiveand
theotherwithaFrenchone,whileH.R.F.Keating,aBritishwriter,haschosenashispolice
detective,InspectorGhote,amemberoftheC.I.D.inBombay,India.Englishlanguage
readersseemreadytoacceptforeignsettingsinterpretedbyBritishandAmericanwriters
morethanthenativeproductsincrimefictionproducedbywritersofdifferentcountries
whichhavetobetranslated.
Ifthereisatendencythatstandsout,itistheincreasingpopularityofdetectivesinseries
tobemembersofthepolicedepartmentratherthanprivateinvestigators.Privateeyesare
notcommondetectivesincrimefictionanymore,thoughamateurdetectiveswho,
somewhatimprobably,havetosolveonemurderafteranother,areverycommon.Jo
Dereske,anAmericanofLithuanianorigin,forexample,setsherMissZukasseriesonthe
northwestcoastoftheUnitedStatesandhasalibrarianasherdetective.Ms.HelmaZukas,
neattothepointofpedantry,likethestereotypicallibrarian,isadescendantinliterary
termsofChristie’sMissMarple,butshehasthefeaturesofawomanofthesecondhalfof
the20thcentury:shehasaprofessionandlivesbyherself,drivesacar,graduallybecomes
romanticallyinvolvedwiththecity’schiefofpoliceandhasaneccentricartistfriendRuth

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whoconnectshertoworldsthatwouldotherwisebeforeigntoher.Onecanfindany
numberoffictionaldetectivestoday,who,likeMissZukas,arebasicallycuriousabout
whathappensaroundthemandcareaboutjustice(majorcharacteristicsofMissMarple),
whilealsobenefittingfrompolicehelpandinformation.

Thereadersofcrimefictionarenotahomogeneousgroupsothattheirmotivesinpicking
upanovelofthiskindorwatchingatelevisionorcinemafilminthisgenrearevaried.
Somereaderslikeonlyacertainkindofcrimefictionandrefusetoconsideranyothers,
whilesomereadGoldenAgenovelswhentheywanttorelaxinaquietwaywiththe
guaranteeofahappyending,butreadapoliceproceduralorthrillerwhentheyareina
differentkindofmood.

16.THEPOLICEMANASDETECTIVEINCONTEMPORARYCRIMEFICTIONSERIES:
SUPERDETECTIVES,FATHERLYFIGURESANDMAVERICKS

BothintheEnglishspeakingworldandbeyondit,someoftheinternationalbestselling
crimefictionseriesinthelasttwentyyearshavebeenthosefeaturingapolicemanwith
particularcharacteristicsasthedetective.Thesecanbedividedintothreebasic
prototypes:thesuperdetective,thefatherlyfigure,generallythechiefofthepolice
sectioninwhichheworks(nowomenchiefofpolicehaveyetappearedinseries,asthis
wouldbetoounrealistic,givenprevailinggendercodes),andthemaverickpolicemanwho
clearlysuffersfromavarietyofpsychologicalproblems,mostoftenshowninalcoholism,
heavysmokingandaninabilitytoformstablepersonalrelations.Allthreetendtoacton
theirownmorethanwouldactuallyoccurinarealpolicesystem,butthemaverickin
particularrepeatedlybreakstherulesandtakesactiononhisorherown,despitespecific
prohibitionsfromthoseinauthority.Theseseriestendtorunoveralongnumberofyears
andanalyseaparticularsociety,bothreflectingchangesinsocialconditionsandnorms
andcommentingdirectlyonthese.Thedetectivemayalsochangetosomeextent,without
alteringhisorheressentialcharacteristics.

17.P.D.JAMES’CHIEFINSPECTORDALGLIESHSERIES:THESUPERDETECTIVE

Inthe1960s,whenAgathaChristie’slongcareerwasdrawingtoanend,publishersand
reviewersofcrimefictionwereconstantlyonthelookoutforanew‘QueenofCrime’.The
titlehasbeengiven,withoutmuchbasisexceptthedesiretoadvertiseawriter,tomore
thanonewomanwriterofthegenre.Inparticular,twoverydifferentBritishwriters,
PhyllisDorothyJames(b.1920;alwaysknownincriticismasP.D.James)andRuthRendell
(b.1930)havelongbeenseenascontinuingthetraditionofChristieasextremelypopular
womendetectivestorywriters.However,inbothcasestheseriescreatedbythesewriters
featureapolicedetective,signalingtheeffectofthepoliceproceduralandbringingwithit
distinctdifferencesfromtheChristienarrativeformulas.

In1962P.D.JamespublishedherfirstdetectivenovelfeaturingAdamDalgliesh,CoverHer
Face,andhascontinuedpublishingregularly,withherlatestwork,ThePrivatePatient,
appearingin2008.TheearlynovelsdoindeedshowtheirconnectionwiththeGoldenAge
tradition,asthereisastrongemphasisonaclosedcircleofcharacterswhomighthave

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committedthemurder.CoverHerFaceissetinanEnglishvillageintheearly1960s:the
victimisaservant,SallyJupp,butnotatallthekindofservantthatappearedincountless
interwarnovels.TheMaxiefamily,likemostpostwarEnglishupperclassfamilies,is
sufferingfromincreasedpropertytaxesandreducedincomes,andbarelymanagestokeep
alivetheirestateandroleasaleadingfamilyamongthelocalgentry.TheyacceptSallyasa
maidfromaninstitutionwhichhelpswomenwhohavechildrenoutofwedlock.Sally,
however,asidefrombeingveryattractive,enjoysmakingtroubleandmanipulating
people,andsuddenlyannouncesthatStephenMaxie,theheir,hasproposedmarriageto
her.Classfeelingisstillsopowerfulthatthisisconsideredasufficientmotiveforoneof
theMaxiefamilymemberstohavekilledherthatverynight.

Thenovelsoonestablishesashortlistofpossiblesuspects,eachofwhomisinterrogated
byDalgliesh.Referencestopoliceproceduredoappear,butareratherperfunctory,andit
isDalglieshwhohasflashesofintuitionthatenablehimtoeventuallysolvethecrime.In
addition,Jamesmakeshimaveryhandsomemanandelementsofromanceinhis
relationshipwithonesuspectappearneartheendofthenovel.Althoughthisfirstnovelin
theDalglieshseriesisnotcompletelytypicalofthelaterones,astheyaremuchlongerand
morecomplicatedinplot,itdoescontainsomeofthecharacteristicsthatmarkallof
James’work.OneisanacutesensitivitytoBritishclassdistinctions,withpeopleofthe
workingclassorlowermiddleclassbeingseenaslessintelligent,lackingingoodtasteand
oftenmorallyirresponsible.James’ownoriginsmaybecalledaspiringmiddlemiddleclass,
asherfatherwasacivilservant,butnotwealthy.Astheseriesprogresses,Dalgliesh
becomesincreasinglylinkedtotheupperclasswithtitledfriends,intellectualinterests(he
isapublishedpoet)andaneasyfamiliaritywithliterature,architecture,classicalmusicand
othercanonicalculturalfields.

Further,Jamestendstomakemurdervictimsunsympatheticandinlargeparttoblamefor
theangerthattheyarouseinsomeonemoresympatheticwhoeventuallykillsthem.Thisis
quiteunlikeAgathaChristie,inwhosenovelsthemurderercanbeanyoneatall,andmay
evenbeahighlysympatheticcharacter,whilevictimsmaybecompletelyinnocent.
Althoughpoliticalissuesofthedaydonotenterthenovels,itissignificantthatP.D.James
holdsaveryconservativeviewoflifeandliterature,andeventuallywasrewardedforher
longcareerwithalifepeeragegrantedtoherthroughtheConservativeParty.Manycrime
fictionreaderscanbeclassifiedasomnivores,buttherearealsothosewhoholdtoa
rathersnobbishnotionthatsomecrimefictionispurelypopularliterature,whileafew
selectwriters(andJamesisoftencitedasone)write‘seriousliterature.’

ClassfeelingisespeciallyevidentinJames’presentationofawomanpolicedetective,Kate
Miskin,whoplaysanincreasinglyimportantroleasoneofDalgliesh’syoungercolleagues
inthelaternovels.Miskinhasanalmostmelodramaticallyunfortunatesocialorigin,not
simplyworkingclass,butabandonedbyhermotherandraisedbyaverypoor
grandmotherinadisreputablepartofLondon.Thecomfortablyoffandrisingworking
classes,whicharesoimportantinBritishsociety,donotseemtoexistinJames’fictional
EnglandMiskinismadetobesociallyawkward,physicallyunattractiveandhopelesslyin
lovewithDalgliesh;sheisalsotormentedbyfeelingsofsocialinferioritywhichaffecther
tothepointthatsheresentsotherpoliceofficerswho,likeDalgliesh,knowtherightkind
ofwinetobeservedwitheverycourseandrecognizelittleknownliteraryquotations.

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However,tobefairtoJames,shedoesgraduallysmoothoverherportrayalofKateMiskin,
lettingherbecomemoreattractiveand,inthelastnovels,givingherapromisingifunlikely
loverinthepersonofacolleaguewhoisveryattractive.Inaddition,shesaveshersuperior
officermorethanonce,and,asanactivefigureintheplot,becomesalmostmore
interestingthanthestaticDalgliesh.Meanwhile,Dalgliesh’sloverelationshipsare
generallyunfortunate,evenwhenhemarriesawomanhehasbeencourtingforyears.

GenderissuesaretreatedwithambiguityinJames’work.Althoughsomecriticshave
attemptedtoseeehertwonovelsaboutawomanprivatedetective,CordeliaGray,as
earlyfeministdetectivefiction,thisdoesnotworkwellwhenthenovelsthemselvesare
analysed.Inthefirstofthesenovels,AnUnsuitableJobforaWoman(1972),Cordelia
encountersagooddealofchauvinism,butithastobeadmittedthatsheisfartoo
sensitiveemotionallytoserveasadetectiveinamurdercase.Evenintheinterwarperiod
AgathaChristiecreatedanynumberofmuchmorestrongmindedyoungwomenwhofall
intotheroleofthedetectiveandmanageverywell.WomeninJames’fictionmayoccupy
importantprofessionalposts,thoughitisveryrarethattheyheadanythingbutaschoolor
similarinstitution.Theyusuallyappearassubordinatestoamalecharacter,thoughnot
necessarilyinferiortotheminintelligence.

Jamesdoesnotseemtobelieveinhappyfamilies,asalmostnoneappearinhernovels.
Thegreatmajorityofherpoliceofficersareunmarried,whilethosecharacterswhoare
marriedoftendonothavechildren.AdamDalglieshhimselfbeginshisfictionallifeasa
widowerstillfeelingguiltythathiswifediedalongwiththebabyafteradifficultchildbirth.
Sometimeshemeetswomenwhomhefindsattractive,butnothingmuchcomesofthese
relationships,whicharenotwelldeveloped..ThePrivatePatientdoesendwithhisthird
marriagetoaverybeautifulandmuchyoungerwomanwhoisateacheratCambridge
University.

ManyofJames’majorcharacters,includingDalgliesh,sufferfromtraumaticemotional
problems.Thosewhofallinlovemostoftenarerejected,andresorttohumiliating
measurestowinbacktheirlovers.Feelingsofdegradationandshameappearequallyin
maleandfemalecharactersandaretypicalfromtheveryfirstnovel.Thisuseofneurotic
charactersseemstohavecontributedtoJames’popularity,ascomplexcharacterizationis
oftenmentionedasastrengthinhernovels.Nevertheless,oncloserexamination,like
almostallcharactersinpopularnarrativegenres,hercharactersarenotveryprofound,
butgiveanimpressionofdepthbecausetheyhidetormentedfeelingsunderamaskof
coolreserve.Still,theyaredefinitelyinterestingcharacters,giventoemotionaloutbursts,
attemptsatsuicideorextremebehavior.P.D.Jamesseemstosuggestthatthewellknown
upperclassBritishreserveresultsinmenandwomenwhoareunabletocommunicateand
whosepassionsarerepresseduntiltheyexplodeinverbalorphysicalviolence.

WhatJamesdoescarryonfromthecluepuzzlenoveloftheGoldenAgeisapreference
fortheclosedcircleofsuspects.Occasionallyshesetshernovelsinisolatedareasof
England,butjustasoftensheachievesthesameeffectbychoosinganinstitutionofsome
sortforherinitialmurder.Forexample,OriginalSin(1994),issetinasmallpublishing
house,andtheintricaciesofboththebuildingontheThamesriversideandthoseofhow
publishingworksareanalysedbothforreasonsofplotandasinterestinginthemselves.
LikeChristie,motivationforcrimesisstillmostlypersonal,andthestaffatthisworkplace
turnsouttobeintricatelyboundupinlongheldlovesandhatreds.AtthebeginningofThe
MurderRoom(2003)AdamDalglieshbychancevisitsasmallprivatemuseumthatincludes

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anexhibitionofcrimesoftheinterwarperiod;herehemanagestomeetwithanumberof
peoplewhoselivesareintimatelyconnectedwiththemuseumindifferentways,preparing
readersforthefirstmurderthatwillsoontakeplace.Inasimilarway,afterthe
introductionofcharactersinconflict,theactionofThePrivatePatient(2008)mostlytakes
placeinanisolatedprivateclinicforplasticsurgeryinaremotepartofDorset.Although
Jamesdoesnotgointomedicaldetailsofhowsuchclinicsreallyfunction,enoughare
giventocreatetheimpressionofaspecificprofessionalworkplace,andagainare
interestinginthemselves.Thisabilitytofindparticularsettingsforhernovelshasaddedto
James’reputation,alongwithherabilitytocreatedramaticcharacters.

18.RUTHRENDELL’SCHIEFINSPECTORWEXFORDSERIES:THEFATHERLY
POLICEDETECTIVE

RuthRendell(b.1930)publishedherfirstdetectivenovelandbegantheWexfordseriesin
1964,justtwoyearsafterP.D.James’firstbookandwasalsoidentifiedastakingupthe
workofAgathaChristie,eventhoughherdetectiveisapolicemanandthenovelhas
distinctfeaturesofthepoliceprocedural.Nevertheless,intheWexfordnovels,theGolden
Agetraditionscanbediscerned,thoughtoalesserdegreethaninJames’novels:Wexford
worksinasmalltowninanunnamedEnglishcounty,apparentlybasedonSuffolk,where
Rendellherselfhassettled.Acrimeiscommittedandarangeofwitnessesandsuspects
areinterrogated;oftenWexforddiscussestheinvestigationandspeculatesonpossible
motiveswithanotherpoliceman,whograduallybecomesmainlyMikeBurden,another
majorfigureintheseries.However,likeGideoninJohnCreasey’spoliceprocedural’s,
Wexfordisdepictedasafamilymanwithawife,Dora,andtwodaughters,andhis
professionalworkisnotlimitedtosimplyinvestigatingonemurder.

Rendellapparentlyfoundtheformulaoftheseriesconstrictingafterawhile,asshebegan
publishingcrimefictionwithmorefeaturesofthesuspensethrillerunderthenameof
BarbaraVine.Thesenovelshavealsobeensuccessful,butanynewWexfordnovelisa
guaranteedbestseller.

SincetheWexfordserieshascontinuedforclosetohalfacentury,itprovidesan
interestingexampleofchangesintheformatofcrimefictionandinsocialnormsin
England.Theearliernovelsarealllessthan200pages,thestandardlengthforamurder
mysteryfromtheinterwarperiodonwards.However,aspublicdemandforlongernovels
grew–multigenerationalromancesandsuspensethrillersbecametypicallymuchlonger–
theWexfordstoriesnowareusuallybetween400and500pages.Thesameincreasein
lengthcanbeseeninP.D.James’novels.Thereareanumberofstandardstructural
devicesthataretypicaloftheselongnovelsinseries.Writersincreasethelengthby
addingapparentlyminorcrimepuzzleswhichoftenturnouttobeconnectedtothemain
crime,orbyusingaserialkillerformat,aswellasbygivingmorespacetothepresentation
ofthedetective’spsychologicalproblemsorfamilyproblems.

Atthesametime,thewriterofaseriesrarelyallowsthedetectivetoagenormally.Inthe
1960sRegWexfordappearsatthebeginningoftheseriesasamaninhisearlyfifties,but
nevergoesmuchbeyondthisinthenextfivedecades.Still,hisattitudeschangestrikingly.
Inoneoftheearlynovels,MurderBeingOnceDone(1972),forexample,hiswifeDorais
presentedasarathersillywomanwhosewisheshepaysnoattentionto.Whenhehas

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goneoffforseveralhoursinLondonwithoutleavingnews,andhiswifebecomesvery
worried,heneverconsidersapologizing:“Dora’smanner,whenshecamedown,was
injuredanddistrait,butthechiefinspectorhadbeenmarriedforthirtyyearsandhad
seldompermittedpetticoatgovernment”(Rendell,MurderBeingOnceDone44).

Further,intheBritishtraditionofintellectualcrimedetectives,hefrequentlyquoteslines
fromEnglishliteratureorrecognizesthemwhenothersdo.Forexample,whenWexford’s
nephewtakeshimtoapubinKenbourneLaneinLondon,hethenquoteslinesfromthe
poetThomasHood,addingthattheycomefrom“anunpublishedpoem”,abitof
intellectualsnobberydesignedtoappealtotheelitereader(Rendell,MurderBeingOnce
Done28).Thereareveryfewreferencestopopularcultureinsuchnovels.Eventhetitles
oftheseearlynovelsaremostlyphrasestakenfromliteraryworks.

By1998,inRoadRage,however,Wexfordismuchmoresensitivetowomen’sissues,while
Dorahasbecomeastrongpersonwhomeansagreatdealtohimandfiguresintheaction.
Wexford’stwodaughtersoftenplaymajorrolesinthelaternovels,alongwithhisfeelings
ofguiltthathelovesoneverydearlyandfindstheotherirritating.Hispartneratwork,
Burden,alsochangesfrombeingaveryprudishandmoralisticyoungmantoamore
tolerantone:hesuffersthelossofhiswifebutgraduallyrecoversovertheseriesandfinds
happinesswithasecondwifewhoismuchmorefeminist.Eventhetitleofthisnovel,
“roadrage”,isarecenttermtodescribedriverswhobecomeviolentunderstress,while
thenovelisverysympathetictotheeffortsofecologiststosaveastretchofwoodsthatis
beingthreatenedbythebuildingofanewsuperhighway.

Moreover,theconservativeBritishcommunityWexfordisresponsibleforhasevolved.
Nowtherearefemaleofficersonhisstaff,aswellaspeopleofcolour.Wexfordremainsa
conservativemaninmanyways,butheisperfectlyhappyeatingethnicfood,andis
toleranttothosefromotherculturesandreligions.Thenumberofliteraryallusionsgreatly
diminishesaschangesineducationhavereducedthenumberofreaderswhomight
recognizesuchallusions.

Mostimportant,throughouttheseriesWexfordremainsafatherlyfigureinthebestof
senses,feelingadeepresponsibilityforhisownfamily,forhisstaffandforhiscommunity.
Herarelyloseshistemper,usesviolenceonlywhenabsolutelyforcedtoinstoppingcrime,
andinspiresotherpoliceofficerswiththedesiretoworkhard.Hemayoccasionallybend
therulesalittleinthecourseofaninvestigation,butheneverbreaksthelaw.Likeboth
GoldenAgedetectivesandGideoninCreasey’sseries,hespeaksupformoralprinciples
andisuneasywithchangesinsocietythathavemadedrugtaking,theabuseofwomen
andchildrenandviolenceofallkindsverycommon.Thenovelsconcludewiththevictory
ofrightoverwrong,thecompleteidentificationofthekillerandhisorherarrestordeath,
aswellastheresolutionofwhateverpersonalproblemWexford,hisfamilymembersora
policeofficermayhavehad.

AlthoughWexfordandP.D.James’AdamDalglieshhavecertainfeaturesincommon–
bothareverytalentedpolicedetectiveswhoarepresentedasworkingwithyounger
colleagueswhorespectthem–theyarebasicallyverydifferent.Dalglieshhastheprestige
ofbelongingtotheLondonC.I.D.andisoftendemandedforacaseoutsideLondonbyrich
andpowerfulpeople.Hisyoungercolleaguesworshiphim;inthelaterbookstheytakeup
theratherirritatinghabitofreferringtohimbyhisinitialsas“AD’,whereasWexford’s
closestassociatescallhim‘Reg’.Moreover,Dalglieshisveryrarelyrebukedbyhis

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superiorsororderedtofollowadifferentlineinhisinvestigation.RegWexford,onthe
contrary,ismuchmorerealisticallypresented,andinanycaseissociallyawholeclass
belowDalgliesh.Althoughinchargeofhisstation,heisoftencalledupbysuperiors,taken
offcasesorcriticizedforhishandlingofthem.Hisyoungercolleaguesdonotseeminawe
ofhim,andhisclosestassociate,Burden,feelsfreetodisagreestronglywithhim–and
sometimesisprovedrightintheend.BothmenenjoytheclassicsofEnglishliteratureand
quotefromthem,butDalglieshisapoethimself.Finally,James’policemanlivesinan
atmosphereofupperclassluxury,whileRendell’shasapleasantbutnotespeciallylarge
houseandnoexpensivehabitsIndeed,DalglieshisthedescendantbothofSherlock
HolmesandDorothySayers’aristocraticprivatedetective,LordPeterWimsey,while
Wexfordisfarmorelikethefirstmajorfigureinpoliceprocedurals,JohnCreasey’sGideon.

19.IANRANKIN’SINSPECTORREBUSSERIES:THEMAVERICKPOLICEMAN

MorerecentpolicedetectiveseriesthanRuthRendell’sandP.D.James’smoveawayfrom
thecozierfeaturesofGoldenAgefictionandprefertofeatureatroubledandoftenviolent
policeofficerstrugglingtosolvecrimesinacorruptsociety,mostofteninalargeurban
setting.Eventhisbriefdescriptionclearlylinksthesenewerworksofcrimefictiontothe
noirtradition,thoughelementsfrompoliceprocedurals–teamwork,havingtodealwitha
numberofcrimesatthesametime,fromminortomajor,andthegrowingtechnology
usedinsolvingacrime,alongwithincreasedbureaucraticrequirements–stillfigurein
verysignificantwaysinthenewercrimenovels.

Althoughtherearealargenumberofmaverickpolicemenseries,thecurrentbestselleris
IanRankin(b.1960)withtheInspectorJohnRebusseries,whichbeganin1987andhas
apparentlyconcludedin2007withRebus’retirementintheaptlynamednovelExitMusic.
Likemanyprotagonistsofseriesnovels,Rebusaltersalittlefromtheveryfirsttothe
middleworks.Rankinstartedbymakinghimmoreintellectualandfondofclassicalmusic,
inthetraditionofagreatnumberofBritishdetectives,butquicklyhebecomesdistinctly
workingclassanddevotedtorockmusic,whichheplaysandquotesthroughoutthe
novels.Themovementfromeliteculturetopopularculturesignalsarealchangein
readers’knowledgeandinterests:fewreadersareexpectedanymoretorecognizeminor
poetsbutrocksongsareconsideredtobefamiliartomany.Moreover,likeRankinhimself,
whointhebriefbiographiesgiveninhisbooksisalwayssaidtohavebeenbornnotsimply
inScotlandbutintheKingdomofFife,anolderregionaldesignation,JohnRebusisvery
muchaScottishfigurewhilethenovelsexplorethedarkerhistoryofthecityofEdinburgh.

Theseriesisveryrichinsocialanalysis,referringtorealpoliticalfiguresandsometimes
evenbringingthemintothenovelsbrieflyinawaythatisunusualindetectivefiction.In
SetinDarkness(2000),forexample,thecrimestakeplaceagainsttheeventsaroundthe
meetingoftheG8worldleadersinEdinburgh;theprotestorsandtheirconfrontations
withthepolicearedescribedindetail.LaterthereallifeterroristbombingsintheLondon
subwaysystemalsoenterthenarrativeinameaningfulway.Rebushimselfishighly
skepticalofallpoliticiansanddoesnotsupportScottishindependence,buttheseissues
arediscussedandaresignificantindepictingonecharacteroranother.Withseventeen
Rebusnovelsintwentyyears,IanRankin,likeRuthRendell,providesapictureofa
changingsociety.

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Fromthebeginningoftheseries,Rebushimselfappearsasatoughpolicedetectivewith
greatflairbutonewhosepreferenceforworkingbyhimselfandnotsharinghis
informationistreatedasaseriousproblembyhissuperiors.Indeed,likeothermaverick
policedetectives,itstrainscredibilitythatRebusgetsawaywithsomeofhisflagrantrule
breaking,tosaynothingofasuspiciouslycloserelationshipwithanEdinburghunderworld
boss,BigGerCafferty.ThedramaticclosingsceneofExitMusic,withRebusfrantically
tryingtoreviveCaffertyasthelatter’sheartstopsinthehospital,givesmoreofasense
thattheseriesisoverthanthefactofRebus’sretirementfromthepoliceforce,asin
almostallthenovelsthecatandmousegamebetweenthetwomenissoimportant.

Rankingiveshisprotagonistallthecharacteristicsthatcanbefoundinmanyother
maverickpolicemanseries:Rebus’swifehaslefthimandhehasonlyadistantrelationship
withhisdaughter,somethingthatmakeshimfeelguilty.Hisperiodicaffairswithother
womenareusuallylimitedtoonenovelandindeedseemobviouslydoomed,ashenever
giveshisloversthenormalattentionoraffectionthatapersonwouldexpect.Hedrinks
heavily,notonlyathomebutduringthedaywhileworkingaswell,sothatthebarsof
Edinburghanditsenvironsbecomefamiliarplacestoreaders:someofthem,likethe
OxfordBar,whichRebusfavours,arerealcitybars.Moreover,Rebusishauntedbyhis
traumaticexperiencesintheBritisharmyinNorthernIrelandandhistrainingtobea
commando,aswellasmurderswhichhefelthecouldhaveprevented.Thisleadsto
nightmaressotroublingthatherarelysleepsinhisbed,butinsteadfallsasleepdrinkingin
anarmchair.Healsosmokesheavily,becomesoverweight,andisoftenremindedthathe
isrunningtheriskofserioushealthproblems.

Asadetective,however,likealldetectiveheroesincrimefiction,Rebusisasuperlative
figure.First,heisaclassicalworkaholic,continuinginvestigationsatnightandwhenheis
notonduty.Indeed,heisafraidnottobeworking,asthenhedrinksevenmorethan
usual.Furthermore,likedetectivesfromAgathaChristie’screations,Rebusoftenoperates
accordingtoinstinctandwillgoagainsthardfactswhenhisintuitiontellshimthatthereal
suspecthasnotbeencaught.Itisanironicfeatureofdetectivefictionwrittenbymenand
featuringmaleprotagoniststhatintuition,whichisstereotypicallyassociatedmorewith
womenthanmen,playsamajorpartinthesuccessofmostfictionalcriminal
investigations.

Inpartthiscanbeattributedtothenecessitiesoffictionalnarrative,inwhichcoincidence
andsuddenflashesofinsightareusedtosolvemysteriesinwaysthatdonothappenvery
ofteninreallife.Awriterhastoputtogetheraplotinacompactwayandcannotdragit
outaccordingtothemorenormalpatternofeventsinreallife.Atthesametime,this
abilitytoworkaccordingtoaninbornknackforsolvingcrimessetsthedetectivehero
apartfromcolleagueswhofollownormalprocedureandarenotsensitivetoatmosphere
ortinydetailsofhumanbehavior.Thedetective,afterall,hastobeasuperiorcharacterin
crimefiction.Eveninsuspensethrillers,thedetective,whomaybecomeavictim,stillfinds
outthetruthandoftensucceedsinstoppingthecareerofamajorcriminal.

Therefore,becausethemaverickdetectiveworksaccordingtoaspecialflairformystery,
manyoftheconflictsinthesenovelsarethosebetweentheheroandhiscolleaguesor
superiors.Asinasuspensethriller,themaverickdetectiverunstheriskofbeingbeaten
up,takenoffacase,subjectedtodemotionorsuspensionorevenofbeingkilledby
criminalswhoprovetohavelinkswiththepowerstructureswithinsocietyandthepolice
forceitself.Thisupsetsthedetectivelessthanonemightexpect:usuallythiskindof

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charactermayhavesensitivepoints,butcareslittleabouttheopinionofothersandisnot
afraidofviolenceorthelossofajob.Ingeneral,themaverickdetectiveisnot
unnecessarilyviolent,butcaneasilyturntoviolenceifthesituationrequiresit.Inallthese
ways,themaverickpolicedetectiveiscloselyrelatedtothehardboileddetective.

IntheRebusnovels,asinmanyofthosethatfeatureapolicedetective,theheroisoften
givenapartner,eitherofequalorlowerrank.InRankin’snovels,atfirstthisisone
policemanorotherbutthensettlesverysuccessfullyintothefigureofawomanpolice
detective,SiobhanClarke.DespiteherIrishfirstname,sheisEnglishandsosomewhatofa
foreignerinEdinburgh.Siobhanisaninterestingfiguredespiteorperhapsevenbecauseof
manyinconsistenciesinpresentation.Shehasauniversitydegree,unlikeRebus,andis
muchyounger,apparentlyrepresentinganewbreedofpoliceofficers.Shedrinks
moderatelyanddoesnotsmoke,andismoreathomewithcomputertechnologythan
Rebus.Still,thoughlesstemperamentalthanhim,sheturnsouttobejustasmuchofa
loner,forsheseemstohavenoclosefriendsexcept,eventually,Rebus.Althoughan
ardentfootballfan,sheattendsthegamesbyherself.

Perhapsmoststrikingly,sheseemsasexual,neverfallinginlove,asRebusinpartdoes,and
indeedneverhavingasteadyboyfriendorevenanoccasionallover.Norarethereany
referencestoearlierpartnersorsexualexperiences.Whilecolleaguesassumethatsheand
Rebusareorwerelovers,thisisnottrue;theyarecolleaguesandclosefriends.Thereisa
degreeofsexualtensionintheirrelationship,butitisonecreatedbythetraditionsof
narrative,inwhichamaleandfemaleheroeventuallypairoff.AlthoughRebusdoeshave
abriefaffairwithanotherwomanofficerwhoeventuallybecomeshisimmediatesuperior,
nothingsimilarhappenswithSiobhanevenwhenmalecolleaguesshowadistinctsexual
interestinher.YetthecombinationofRebusandSiobhanClarkedoesaddapsychological
dimensiontothenovels.Likecharactersincrimefictioningeneral,theyaremoreflatthan
round,butRankinmakesthemseemtohavedepthbynottryingtomakethemcompletely
consistent,justaspeopleinreallifearefullofinconsistenciesandsurprises.

AfinalfeatureoftheRebusseriesthatisinterestingisthatthisisthefirstScottishseriesto
havebecomesopopularand,indeed,influential.AlthoughonespeaksofBritishcrime
fiction,untilrecentlyithasalmostallbeensetinEnglandandonlyveryexceptionallyin
Wales,ScotlandorIreland.Charactersfromtheseplacestendtoappearedasminor
figures,stereotypicallyportrayedandoftencomic.IanRankinispartofageneralScottish
literaryrenaissancethathasaccompaniedthemovementsforpoliticalautonomyand
independence,andhismodeofdepictingadirtyworldofcrimeandcorruptionfromthe
highesttothelowestclassicsisconnectedtowhatissometimesknownasScottishNoir
writing.Indeed,withtimethecrimefictiongenrehasbeensuccessfullyinfiltratedbya
numberofminoritygroupswithintheEnglishspeakingworldaswellasbywomenwriting
aboutwomendetectives,farmoresuccessfullythan,say,genreslikesciencefiction.Inthis
waycrimefictiongivesavoicetopreviouslysilencedgroupswithinpopularculture.This
canbeparalleledwithsimilarchangesintelevisiondramaandseries–andmany
successfulcrimeseriesareturnedintosuccessfulTVseries.

Inasimilarway,theEnglishspeakingworld,whichissoimpermeabletowritingsinother
languages,isbeginningtoopenupinthegenreofcrimefiction.Earlieritwashardtofind
examplesofcrimefictionwritersotherthantheFrenchman,GeorgesSimenon,thecreator
oftheMaigretseriesofdetectivenovels,whowereregularlytranslatedandattracted
substantialAngloAmericanreaderships.NowScandinavianwritersinparticular,

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supportedbystrongstateprogramsoftranslation,havebrokenintotheAngloAmerican
market.ThebestsellerhereisHenningMankell,aSwedishwriterbornin1948,whose
InspectorKurtWallanderseriesisextremelypopularonaninternationalscale.Mankell’s
firstWallendernovelappearedinSwedishin1991;translationsoftheseriesweremade
intootherlanguagesquickly,butonlystartingin1997intoEnglish,suggestingthatevena
verystrongdetectivewriterfromthenonEnglishworldhasproblemsenteringtheAnglo
Americanmarket.However,withhissuccess,manyotherScandinavianwritersof
detectiveseriesarebeingregularlytranslatedandsellwell.Mostofthese,suchasAnne
Holt,JoNesboandKarinFossum,alsouseapolicedetectiveastheprotagonist.

Mankell’sKurtWallenderisstrikinglylikeRankin’sRebus,thoughthereislittlelikelihood
ofanydirectinfluence.Hetooisdivorcedwithadaughter,thoughthenovelsalsodepict
hisfather,whohasneverapprovedhischoiceofaprofessionandwithwhomhehas
manyconflicts.HeisnotasstronglyaddictedtoalcoholasRebusbutdoesdrinkandlive
alone,thoughhisfavouritemusicisclassicalopera.Wallenderismoreofateamworker
thanRebus,buthealsoangershissuperiorsbyinsistingoncontinuingoncasestheywant
toclose,targetingassuspectsrichandpowerfulpeopleandoftenactingalonewhenthis
violatespoliceregulations.Forexample,inTheManWhoSmiled(2005translationof
Mannensomlog,1994),Wallenderbreaksintoacastleownedbythevillainwhenhe
suspectsoneofhisinformersisindanger,thoughheshouldneverdosomethinglikethis
withouttellinghissuperiorsandhavingotherpoliceasbackup.Hedoesmaintain
telephonecontactwithacolleaguebut,evenafterfindingadeadbody,hestillrefusesto
callintherestofthepolice.Asaresult,thoughthevillainconfessesallhiscrimes,he
nearlyescapesinhisprivateairplane.Inanexcitingfinalepisodeverymuchinthe
suspensethrillertradition,Wallenderstopstheplanebyrammingitwithanairport
luggagevehicle.Ingeneral,Mankellusesmoreactionscenescharacteristicofthrillersthan
ofpoliceproceduralsthandoesIanRankin.

However,likeRankin,MankellalsoexploresandquestionschangesinSwedishsociety,
whichhedepictsinthe1990sandearlytwentyfirstcenturyasdeeplycorruptandfar
fromitsoriginalsocialistidealsasawelfarestate.HisviewofSwedenisbroaderthan
Rankell’sofScotland,asWallenderworksinatown,Ystad,notthecapital,andfrequently
hastogotothecountrysideaswellastourbanlocations.Further,asSwedenisasmall
power,therearefarmorereferencestoothercountriesintheworldthaninIanRankin’s
work.MankellhasspentmuchofhislifeworkinginAfricaandhisactivisminleftistcauses,
thoughnotatallpartofInspectorWallender’sinterests,isreflectedinthesubjectsofhis
novelsingeneral.Still,hisbasicformulaisverysimilartothatofRankin,focusingonpolice
work,socialcorruptionandthepersonalityofthedetectiveinhisoftenunsatisfactory
relationswithfamilyandcolleagues.

20.KATHYREICHS’DRTEMPERANCEBRENNANSERIES:THEFEMALE
PROFESSIONALINTHEPOLICETEAM

Therearemanywomenpoliceofficersincrimefictionwritteninthepasttwentyyears,but
onlyrecentlyhavethesebeengivenupperpostswithinthesystem.Thisreflectsreality:
thoughwomenhaveworkedinthepoliceformuchlonger,theirrolesandopportunitiesto
advanceusedtobestrictlylimited.Eventoday,itisnotcommonforapolicechieftobea
woman,thoughwritershavebeenexperimentingwithsuchfigureslately:IanRankin

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promotesGillTempler,onceRebus’colleagueandevenshorttimelover,tobecomehis
superior.TheCanadianwriterL.RWright,afterherchiefofpoliceKarlAlbrightretires,
startedaserieswithawomanchiefofpolice.
Still,inkeepingwithsocialrealism,someoftheseriesthathaveachievedmajorpopularity
havewomenwithinthepolicedepartmentinspecializedprofessionalroles.FirstPatricia
CornwellcreatedDrKayScarpetta,achiefmedicalexaminerworkinginVirginia,andlater
arealforensicanthropologist,DrKathyReichs,amajorfigureinherownfield,in1997
introducedTemperanceBrennan,anAmericanforensicanthropologistwho,likeher
creator,worksinbothCharlotte,NorthCarolinaandinMontreal,Quebec.
Cornwellisaverysuccessfulwriter,butthereisnodenyingthatherdepictionsofautopsy
evidenceareoftennotespeciallyessentialtothemysteryanditssolution,whileReichshas
succeededinrealscientificprocesseswithinthestructureofhercrimefiction.Thefirst
novelfeaturingDrKayScarpetta,PostMortem(1990),usesthepopularstructureofa
serialkillerandshowsScarpettaaidedbySergeantPeteMarino,whobecomesastandard
featureinthenovels.Hisclosecollaborationwithher–atfirstreluctantandlater
extremelyfriendly–isnotrealisticaccordingtopoliceprocedure,butallowsKayScarpetta
accesstoinformationwithoutwhichshecouldneversolvethecrime.Thenovelconcludes
withthekillerattackingScarpettaherselfandbeingshotbyMarino.
Astheseriescontinues,DrScarpettatakesonthefeaturesofthesuperwoman,notinany
supernaturalsense,butinherextremecompetencenotonlyincarryingoutautopsies,but
alsoinmorestereotypicallyfeminineactivitieslikecookinggourmetfood(Cornwellhas
publishedbooksofScarpetta’srecipes).Thoughtsheisnotmarried,shemoreorless
bringsuphernieceLucyfromtheageofteninthefirstnovel.Atthesametime,Scarpetta
carriesagunwithhermuchofthetimeandaddsmoreandmorephysicalskillstoherlist.
InCauseofDeath(1996),forexample,sheisanexperienceddiverwhomakesarisky
descenttobringupadrownedbody.Thisparticularnovelturnsintoasuspensethriller,
withtheFBIbeingcalledin,ScarpettadealingwithAmericangeneralsandflyingtoLondon
tomeetimportantpeoplethere,andaculminatingsceneinwhichshefoilstheattempts
ofcriminalswhohaveseizedanatomicplant.Bythefinalthirdofthenovel,allsenseof
probabilitydisappears,buttheactioniscertainlyveryexciting.
KathyReichs’Tempe,assheisgenerallyknown,moveswithinmorerealisticboundaries
and,ashasbeennoted,usesforensicanthropologytosolvecrimes.Sheisafairlycomplex
characterforacrimefictiondetective,asahighlyindependentandambitiouspersonwho
regularlyhastodealwithsexistprejudiceagainstherasawomaninaman’sworld.These
tensionsareespeciallywelldrawninthenovelsthattakeplaceinMontreal,whereTempe
isalsoanoutsiderasanAmericanwhohasjustlearnedFrench.Then,too,thenovels
regularlypresentTempeasthelovingandanxiousmotherofKaty,firstawayward
teenagerandthenauniversitystudent,aswellasawomanwhohasleftherunfaithful
husbandPetebuthasnotdivorcedhim,andfeelsveryambivalentaboutmen.Overthe
seriesofmanynovels,TempebecomesinvolvedwithaQuebecpoliceman,butstill
hesitatesaboutcommitment.
InmanywaysTempeBrennanismoresimilartoSueGrafton’sKinseyandIanRankin’s
RebusthanCornwell’sKayScarpetta.Shehasnointerestincookinganddressesmostlyin
verypracticalclothes.Shedoesnotdrink,buthasbeenanalcoholicandstillfeelsshe
couldbecomeoneagain.LikeRebus,shedevelopsinstinctivefeelingsaboutlinksbetween
apparentlyseparatecrimesandinsistsonpursuingthemdespitetheopenoppositionof

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seniorpoliceofficersandpolicecolleagues.Likehim,too,shetakesmanypersonalrisks,
headingofftoinvestigateevenwhensheknowsshemaybeindanger.Unlikemostfemale
policeofficersdepictedinfictiontoday,however,shehasnotraininginselfdefenceand
rarelycarriesanykindofweapon.
Thefirstnovelintheseries,DejaDead(1997),doesintroducearomanticinterestfor
Tempe,butthenovel,asidefromthecomplexsequenceofmurders,ismoreconcerned
withherdesiretowintherespectofMontrealpoliceofficers,especiallyLucClaudel,a
hardheadedmanwhomakesitclearhethinksthatsheisbothoutofplaceandoutof
line.Attheendofthenovel,whenTempe,emotionallydrainedbytheharrowing
investigation,considersleavingherpostinMontreal,itisabriefletterfromClaudel
praisingherworkandhopingshewillstaythatconvinceshertodoso.
Intermsofnarrativestructure,Reichs’novels,likethoseofSaraParetsky,SueGrafton,
andPatriciaCornwell,usuallyfeatureamajorsceneneartheendinwhichthekiller
attacksthewomandetectiveherself;Tempeescapesthroughacombinationof
determinedresistanceandpoliceintervention–butnot,itshouldbenoted,thatofher
boyfriend.Onecanspeculatethatitstillseemsmorenaturalforawoman,whethera
detectiveornot,tofigureasavictimofviolence,whileanovelwithamaleprotagonist
mayendwiththesuccessfulpursuitofthecriminalThesescenes,alongwithanumberof
othersfeaturingviolence,givethenovelstheflavorofsuspensethrillersattimes,though
likeRankin’snovels,whicharesometimesadvertisedasthrillers,thistermisnotreally
applicable.Likemostdetectivefiction,bothReichsandRankingiveagooddealofspaceto
scenesinwhichthedetectivebyhimorherselforwithcolleagues,reviewstheevidence
andarguesaboutpossiblesuspects.
Inaddition,Reichscreatesvarietyinhernovelsnotonlybymovingbackandforthfrom
NorthCarolinatoQuebecbutalsobyfocusingonmorethantheratheroveruseddevice
oftheserialkiller.Todate,Reichs’novelshaveincludedtopicsliketheGuatamalan
genocide,motorcyclegangsinMontreal,ecologicalissuesandseveralothers,mostof
thembasedonexperiencesthattheauthorKathyReichshasactuallyhad.Inallthese
cases,TempeBrennanismotivatednotonlybytheinvestigator’sdesiretoknowthetruth
(for,unlikemostprotagonistsincrimefiction,sheisnotaprivateorpolicedetective
whosejobitistodothis),butalsobymoralidealswhichunderlieinvestigatorsevenas
cynicalasRaymondChandler’sPhilipMarlowe.Forexample,intheopeningnovelinthe
series,beforestartingtheautopsyofasixteenyearoldgirlwhowasbadlybeaten,killed
andthendismembered,Tempefirstseesthebodyasthatofanindividual:“Withastabof
pain,I’dnoticedthathertoenailswerepaintedasoftpink.Theintimacyofthatsimpleact
hadcausedmesuchanachethatIwantedtocoverher,toscreamatallofthemtoleave
heralone(Reichs,DejaDead46).Morethanonce,sheexplainswhyherworkisso
importantthatshededicatesherselftoit;inthe2006BreakNoBones,shestates,“Violent
deathismyjob[…]FriendsaskhowIcanbeartodotheworkthatIdo.Itissimple.Iam
committedtodemolishingthemaniacsbeforetheydemolishmoreinnocents[…]WhileI
cannotmakethedeadliveagain,Icanreunitevictimswiththeirnames,andgivethoseleft
behindsomemeasureofclosure”(Reichs,BreakNoBones36),

Withthiskindofunderlyingmoraldedication,theprotagonistofnewcrimefiction,like
thatofolderforms,continuestoservethecauseofgoodagainstevil.Readersdonot
merelygetathrillfromexcitingactionortheintellectualsatisfactionofsolvingamystery:
theyalsoparticipatethroughidentificationwiththedetectiveinamoralact.

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Thompson.London:Vintage,2005.
Paretsky,Sara.KillingOrders.NewYork:BallantineBooks,1985.
Priestman,Martin,ed.TheCambridgeCompaniontoCrimeFiction.Cambridge:Cambridge
UniversityPress,2003.

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Pyrhonen,Heta.MayhemandMurder:NarrativeandMoralProblemsintheDetectiveStory.
Toronto:UniversityofTorontoPress,1999.
Rankin,Ian.SetinDarkness.London:Orion,2000.
Reichs,Kathy.BareBones.London:RandomHouse,2004.
Reichs,Kathy.BreakNoBones.London:RandomHouse,2006.
Reichs,Kathy.DejaDead.London:RandomHouse,1998.
Rendell,Ruth.MurderBeingOnceDone.London:ArrowBooks,1972.
Rendell,Ruth.RoadRage.London:RandomHouse,1998.
Shaw,Bernard.MrsWarren’sProfession.1893.TheNortonAnthologyofEnglishLiterature.Vol.2.
7thed.Ed.M.H.Abramsetal.NewYork:W.W.NortonandCo.,2000.
Vanacker,Sabine.“V.I.Warshawski,KinseyMillhoneandKayScarpetta:CreatingaFeminist
DetectiveHero.”CriminalProceedings:TheContemporaryAmericanCrimeNovel.
Ed.PeterMessent.London:PlutoPress,1997.
Wagoner,Mary.AgathaChristie.Boston:Twayne,1986.

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 EXERCISES

Theseexercisesareintendedtocheckyourabilitytoseeatextasbelongingtoaspecific
subgenrewithincrimefiction.Answersareprovidedaftertheexercises.

INDENTIFYEACHOFTHEFOLLOWINGASGOLDENAGE,HARDBOILED,POLICEPROCEDURAL,
MAVERICKPOLICEDETECTIVEORTHRILLER,INDICATINGTHEPHRASESINTHETEXTTHAT
ARETHEBASISFORYOURANSWER.

l.[thedetectiveisaddressingsuspectsafteraseriesofmurders]

“Xsaidquietly:‘WhenColonelCarburymentionedthisbusinesstome,Igavehimmy
opinionasanexpert.Itoldhimthatitmightnotbepossibletobringproof–suchproofas
wouldbeadmissibleinacourtoflaw–butItoldhimverydefinitelythatIwassureIcould
arriveatthetruth–simplybyquestioningthepeopleconcerned.Forletmetellyouthis,
myfriends,toinvestigateacrimeitisonlynecessarytolettheguiltypartyorpartiestalk–
always,intheend,theytellyouwhatyouwanttoknow!’”

2.[achildmolesterhaskilledalittlegirl]

“DownstairsintheInformationRoom,uniformedmenwerestandingbythebigmaps
spreadoutontablesinfrontofthem[…]AlltheDivisionalPoliceStationsandthesub
stationsinthesouthwesternareaofLondonwerereportingregularly.Policeinuniforms
andinplainclotheswerecallingonshopkeepersthroughoutthehugearea,with
descriptionsofX.Photographs,someprintshardlydry,werealreadybeingdistributedin
largenumbers.SpecialforceswerewatchingspotslikeClaphamCommon,BatterseaPark
andTootingBec–allplaceswherechildrenplayed.”

3.[thewomanprotagonistliesherwayintoabuildingofnationalimportancenow
controlledbycriminals]

“IpointedtheflashlightatBearasIpushedabutton,andheshriekedatthedazzlingpop
ashegrabbedhiseyesandIswungtheheavyflashlightlikeabaseballbat.Bones
shatteredinhiswrist,thepistolclatteringtothefloor[…]Iflungmyselfdownflatonmy
face,coveringmyeyesandearsasbestIcould,andtheroomexplodedinblazingwhite
lightasaconcussionbombblewoffthetopofToto’shead.Therewasscreamingand
cursingasterroristsblindlyfellagainstconsolesandeachother,andtheycouldnothearor
seewhendozensofHRTagentsstormedin.”

4.[agroupofinvestigatorsdiscusstheproblemofsolvingthemurder]

“Hesaid,‘Let’sbeabsolutelyplainaboutthelayoutofthehourse.Asyousee,it’sH
shaped,southfacingandwithwesternandeasternwings.’[…]

Hepaused,thenlookedatXwhotookover.

‘OurproblemisthatwehaveagroupofsevenpeopleintheManor,anyofwhomcould
havekilledMissGradwyn.Allknewwhereshewassleeping,knewthatthesuitebeyond
wasunoccupiedprovidingapossiblehidingplace,knewwherethesurgicalgloveswere
kept,andalleitherhadorcouldhaveobtainedkeystothewestdoor.’”

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5.[twopoliceofficers,onesenior,theotherjunior,aresittinginacar;themalepolice
officerisgoingtoenterprivatepropertyillegallyinsearchofevidenceinamurdercase]

“Theysatthereinthedark.

“I’llbeintoucheveryhour,’saidA.‘Ifyouhearnothingformorethantwohours,phone
Bjorkandtellhimtoorganizeafullemergencycallout.’

‘Youshouldn’tbedoingthis,youknow,’shesaid.

‘AllmylifeI’vebeendoingthingsIshouldn’tbedoing,’Xsaid.‘Whystopnow?’

Theytunedtheirradiotelephones.”

6.[thedetectivehasbeenbeatenupandtakentoaMafiaboss,EarlSmeissen]

‘EarlSmeissen.Howabsolutelydelightful.Butyouknow,Earl,ifyou’dcalledmeupand
askedtoseeme,wecouldhavegottentogetherwithalotlesstrouble.[...]Hehadasmall
pieceofthedrugbusiness,andtherumorwasthathewouldarrangeakillingtoobligea
friendifthepricewasright.

‘Earl,thisisquiteaplaceyou’vegot.Inflationmustnotbehurtingbusinesstoomuch.’”

7.[theprivatedetectivewindsupwithabunchofdangerouscrooks,twomenanda
woman,CarolDonovan]

“Thegirlslippedherhandunderherbag.Thebagliftedaninch.Thegunthatwascaught
thereinatrickclip[…]spatandflamedbriefly.

Sunsetcoughed.HisColtboomedandapieceofwooddetacheditselffromthebackofthe
chairMadderhadbeensittingin.SunsetdroppedtheColt[…]hislonglegsslidoutinfront
ofhimandhisheelsmadearaspingsoundonthefloor.Hesatlikethat,limp,hischinon
hischest,hiseyeslookingupward.Deadasapickledwalnut.

IkickedMissDonovan’schairoutfromunderherandshebangeddownonhersideina
swirlofsilkenlegs.Herhatwentcrookedonherhead.Sheyelped.Istoodonherhandand
thenshiftedsuddenlyandkickedhergunclearacrosstheattic.Isentherbagafterit–
withherotherguninsideit.Shescreamedatme.

‘Getup,’Isnarled.

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 ANSWERSTOTHEEXERCISES

1. AgathaChristie,AppointmentwithDeath.1938.London:HarperCollins,2001,255256.
ClassicalGoldenAgedetectivefiction.HerculePoirotshowstheabsoluteselfconfidence
ofthiskindofdetective(ItoldhimverydefinitelythatIwassureIcouldarriveatthetruth)
andexplainshismethodology–noviolenceorunnecessaryaction,simplylogicalanalysis
ofwhatthesuspectssay.
2. JohnCreasey,Gideon’sDay.1955.London:HodderandStoughton,1964,58.
Anotherclassicalexample,thistimeofthepoliceprocedural.Thechildmolesterwillbe
caughtbyteamsofpoliceofficerscheckinghundredsofplacesinLondon.Thewaythe
policereallyworkisdescribedclearlyhere(theInformationRoom;bigmaps;callingon
shopkeepersthroughoutthehugearea;photographswerebeingdistributed).
3. PatriciaCornwell,CauseofDeath.NewYork:PenguinPutnam,1996,330.
Herethepoliceprocedural,sincetheprotagonistisamedicalinvestigatorforthepolice,
turnsintothethriller,withthenecessaryelementsofamajorcrimethathasnational
significanceandinwhichsignificanttechnologyisusedtodealwiththecriminals(a
concussionbombblewoffthetopofToto’shead;terrorists;dozensofHRTagentsstormed
in).Butifyouthoughtitwasahardboiledwomandetective,youcouldprobablyargue
thataswell,asshetakesthemajorrisksandsucceedsintheessentialfirststepinthe
operationagainsttheterrorists.
4. P.D.James,ThePrivatePatient.London:PenguinBooks,2008,248249.
ThissceneisclassicalGoldenAgedetectivenarrative:aclosedcircleofsuspectsina
particularplace(wehaveagroupofsevenpeopleintheManor,anyofwhomcouldhave
killedMissGradwyn).Thecharactersherearepolicedetectiveofficers,ledbyAdam
Dalgliesh,sothatthereareelementsofthepoliceprocedural,butthisparticularscene
movesawayfromhowthepolicereallyworktoformulateacluepuzzleforthereaders.
5. HenningMankell,TheManWhoSmiled.1994.Transl.fromSwedishbyLaurie
Thompson.London:RandomHouse,2006,401.
Themaverickpolicedetective,Mankell’sKurtWallender.Contemporarypoliceprocedural
withemphasistooonthedetectiveasworkingoutsidethesystemandrefusingtoobey
therules(AllmylifeI’vebeendoingthingsIshouldn’tbedoing.Whystopnow?).
6. SaraParetsky,IndemnityOnly.NewYork:Dell,1982,80.
Thetypicaltoughtalkandwisecracksbythedetective,awomanhere,wheningrave
dangerofbeinghurtorkilledmakeitclearthatthisisahardboileddetectivenarrative
(EarlSmeissen.Howabsolutelydelightful;thisisquiteaplaceyou’vegot).
7. RaymondChandler,“Goldfish”.InTroubleIsMyBusinessandOtherStories.1946.
London:Penguin,1950,172173.

Classicalhardboileddetectiveatwork,usingviolencefreelytodealwithdangerous
criminals(IkickedMissDonovan’schairoutfromunderher;Istoodonherhand).Miss
Donovancanbeseenasafatalwomanaswell.

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 PRACTICALADVICEABOUTCARRYINGOUTRESEARCHONCRIMEFICTION

Crimefictionispartofpopularliterature,andcriticswhodonotseemtorememberthis
shouldbetreatedwithcaution.Thosewhospeakofcrimefictionwithadegreeof
contemptasmerelyformulaicnarrativearebehindthetimes:criticstakepopularfiction
veryseriouslynowadays.Atthesametime,ifasourcestartstoclaimthataparticular
writerofcrimefictionbelongstoeliteliterature(‘seriousliterature’,“highliterature’),this
sourceiseitherpublishingpropagandaoracriticswhodoesnotwanttoseethe
formualaicnatureofallcrimefiction.

Youshouldautomaticallyciteanysourcewithoutconsideringwhetherwhatisbeingsaidis
rightorwrong.Thegenredistinctionsmadeinthislearningaidarebasedoncurrent
criticalthinkingaboutcrimefiction–forexample,thatthrillersareaspecialkindofcrime
fiction.Nordoyouhavetoagreewithanycritic,includingtheonewhowrotethistext.
Keepinmindaswellasanyindividualwriterplayswithnarrativeformulasandoftendoes
notfollowalltherulesforasubgenre.AgathaChristie,forexample,wrotethrillersaswell
asGoldenAgedetectivefiction,asinTheABCMurders,whichaboutaserialkiller.Shealso
didcrossovercrimefictionwithstrongelementsofthesupernaturalandotherswhichare
inlargepartromancenovels.

Generally,booksoncrimefictionwrittenbyacknowledgedspecialists,oftenuniversity
professors,aremorereliablethanarticlesontheinternetthathavenoauthororare
authoredbystudents.Neverusedictionarydefinitionsandavoidencyclopedias,unless
thesearespecificallyonliterarycriticism.Theterminologyusedinanalyzingcrimefiction
givesordinaryEnglishwordsadifferentmeaningfromthatwhichtheyhaveinaregular
dictionary.

Youshouldalwaysstartwiththebooksoncrimefictioninuniversitylibraries.Inthe
VytautasMagnusLibrarysystem,someoftheseareintheBiržiškaReadingRoomat52
DonelaiioStreet,whileothersareinthelibrarystackssothatyouneedtohuntthemup
onthelibrarycatalogueandaskforthemonthefirstfloor.VilniusUniversityandthe
NationalMažvydasLibrarymayalsohavesomethingworthconsulting:youcanlookat
theirholdingsthroughtheinternet.

BooksintheVytautasMagnusUniversityLibrary

Horsley,Lee.TwentiethCenturyCrimeFiction.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2005.[One
ofthebestwritersoncrimefictiontoday,andtheauthorofseveralbooksandarticles.
Evenifshediscussesanovelthatisnottheoneyouarelookingat,itisworthwhilereading
heranalysistopickuptheoreticideasandmethodology.Notethatsheisawomanwhen
referringtoher.]

Palmer,Jerrry.Potboilers:Methods,ConceptsandCaseStudiesinPopularFiction.London:
Routledge,1991.[Hasachapteroncrimefiction.Usefulintroduction,thoughnotveryup
todateintermsoftheory]

Pepper,Andrew.TheContemporaryAmericanCrimeNovel:Race,Ethnicity,Gender,Class.
Edinburgh:EdinburghUniversityPress,2000.[thetitleindicatesitsspecialinterests,with
chaptersonAfroAmericandetectivefictionandthelike]

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Priestman,Martin,ed.TheCambridgeCompaniontoCrimeFiction.Cambridge:Cambridge
UniversityPress,2003.[Anextremelyusefulcollectionofarticlesondifferentgenresand
periodsofcrimefiction.IncludesverygooddiscussionsoftheSherlockHolmesstories,the
GoldenAgeperiod,policeprocedurals,thrillers,hardboileddetectivefiction,women
detectivesandnewtrends.Usetheindexatthebacktocheckforreferencestoyour
author.Hardboileddetectivefictionappearsinthearticle„ThePrivateEye“byDennis
Porter.Abookyoumustuse.]
Pyrhonen,Heta.MayhemandMurder:NarrativeandMoralProblemsintheDetective
Story.Toronto:UniversityofTorontoPress,1999.Availableontheinternetaswell[A
deepertheoreticalstudyofcrimefictionandtheissuesviolenceandmoralresponsethat
thiskindofliteratureraises.Worthreadingevenifsheisnotdealingwithyourkindof
novelorgenre]
Iftheauthoryouaredealingwithisanolderone,especiallyConanDoyleorAgatha
Christie,thenyoushouldchecklargerencyclopedicbooksintheReadingRoomonBritish
Writers,WomenWritersandlike.
InternetSources
Again,remembertobecautiousandevaluateanyinternetsourcebeforeusingit.But
someverygoodthingsoncrimefictionareavailablethisway,asinterestincrimefictionas
popularfictionhasgrownveryrapidlyinthelast15years,exactlythetimewhenthe
internetdeveloped.
SourcesonParticularWritersandParticularTexts
Ifyousimplygooglethenameofaparticularwriter,youwillfaceanalarmingnumberof
sources,mostofwhicharesimplylistsofpublicationswithafewsimplebiographicalfacts
orofferstobuysecondhandbooksbytheauthor.

Therefore,inyourseachengine,typeinphraseslike„IanRankinandinterviews“or„Sara
Paretskyandcriticalarticles“orP.D.James‘ThePrivatePatientandreviews“.Thoughthe
searchenginewillstillproduceanumberofuselessitems,itshouldthenalsogiveyou
somethataregood.Interviewswithanauthor,evenwhennotspeakingaboutthetext
youareanalysing,arehelpfulsourcesattimes.
Toevaluateasourcewithoutopeningit,lookattheinformationinthelinesandaddress.A
universityjournalisagoodsource.Wikipediashouldneverbequoted,asitcontainsmany
factualerrors,butoftenhasgoodlinkstobettersourchesattheendofanarticle.
CliffNotesisintendedforsecondaryschoolstudents,notyourlevelofanalysis,butisnot
absolutelyforbidden.
Thecriticslistedaboveareallgood,andoftenhaveotherarticlesontheinternet.You
shouldalsolookatthecriticstheycite,andthentrytofindtheseontheinternet.

Recommended

www.crimeculture.comAnexcellentwebsiteestablishedbyLeeandKatherineHorsleyin
2002,andonethatisacademicinstyleandcontent.Throughityoucanaccessnewarticles
thatmaynotbepreciselyonyourtopicbutareoftenveryusefulfortheory,termsand
criticalapproaches.

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GeorgeDove‘sPoliceProcedural(1982)ispartlyavailableforreadingontheinternet.
MildaDanytehasphotocopiesofmuchofthebook,whichthougholder,isstillsignificant.

CarlDarrylMalmgrenanatomyofmurder(2001)isnotaveryprofoundanalysis,buthas
goodthingsinit.Itisalsopartlyavailableforreadingontheinternet.

WilliamMarlingisanAmericanuniversityprofessorwhoisaspecialistonhardboiled
Americancrimefiction.Ontheinternetheoffersveryusefulbasicdefinitions,aswellas
analysisandhistoryofthissubgenre.Googledetectivefictionwilliammarlingtofinda
listofhisarticles,includingabriefbutexcellentoneonthefatalwomanincrime
literature.

JohnScaggscrimefiction(2005)ispartoftheRoutledgeCriticalIdiomseriesandisquitea
goodbookwithbothhistoryandtheoryinit.Ontheinterneteverysooftenafewpages
areomitted,butyoucanaccessmostofit.

YoushouldalsoconsultBAthesesoncrimefictionheldinDepartmentofEnglishPhilology
fortheirsources,assomeofthesedirectyoutospecificinternetsitesofvalue.

Rememberthebasicruleofdoingresearch,whetherwithprintorinternetsources:the
sourceyoufindmaybemoreusefulforitemsinthelistofreferencesthanforanythingit
says.Yougofromonesourcetoanother,graduallyunderstandingwhothemajorcritics
areinyourareaofresearch.

Donotdespairifthesourceisanarticleinascholarlyjournal.Manyscholarlyjournals
arenowavailablefreeforreadingontheinternet,exceptforthelatesttwoyears.

Researchisakindofdetectiveworkaswell,andcanbefun!

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Danyt,Milda
INTRODUCTION TO THE ANALYSIS OF CRIME FICTION, A USERFRIENDLY GUIDE / Milda Danyt. –
Kaunas:VytautoDidžiojouniversitetas,2011.–59p.

ISBN9789955126980







































MildaDanyt
INTRODUCTIONTOTHEANALYSISOFCRIMEFICTION
AUSERFRIENDLYGUIDE

Elektroninisleidinys

RedagavoKristinaAurylait
MaketavoJaninaBaranaviien
IšleidoVytautoDidžiojouniversitetoleidykla
S.Daukantog.27,LT44249Kaunas

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