Synthesis of Ag-Nutr Guidance - Final Draft

Synthesis of Guiding Principles on
Agriculture Programming for Nutrition

Anna Herforth, consultant to FAO
April 2012
This work was supported by FAO and benefited greatly from comments from the Agriculture-to-
Nutrition Community of Practice (the Ag2Nut CoP), FAO staff, and authors of the guidance
notes reviewed. This draft is open for public consultation.
The title page graphic is based on the frequency of word occurrences in quotes
extracted from the guidance notes (text from Annex 3).
Final Draft for Consultation

Contents
Introduction and Purpose ............................................................................................................................. 1
Methods ........................................................................................................................................................ 1
Summary guidance ....................................................................................................................................... 4
Planning .................................................................................................................................................... 5
Doing: Main Activities ............................................................................................................................... 5
Supporting................................................................................................................................................. 6
Conceptual framework of guidance.............................................................................................................. 7
Summary conclusions ................................................................................................................................... 8
Current guidance shows a high degree of alignment between institutions ......................................... 8
What is missing from the current guidance .......................................................................................... 9
Next steps ........................................................................................................................................... 12
Discussion of guidance by theme ............................................................................................................... 14
Nutrition Objectives ................................................................................................................................ 14
Context assessment ................................................................................................................................ 15
Do no harm ............................................................................................................................................. 16
Monitoring & Evaluation......................................................................................................................... 17
Multisectoral collaboration..................................................................................................................... 19
Maximize impact of household income .................................................................................................. 20
Equitable access to resources ................................................................................................................. 21
Targeting ................................................................................................................................................. 22
Diversify production and livelihoods ...................................................................................................... 24
What to produce ..................................................................................................................................... 25
General guidance ................................................................................................................................ 25
Horticultural crops .............................................................................................................................. 25
Animal-source foods ........................................................................................................................... 26
Underutilized foods............................................................................................................................. 26
Legumes .............................................................................................................................................. 27
Biofortified crops ................................................................................................................................ 27
Staple crops ......................................................................................................................................... 27

Cash crops ........................................................................................................................................... 28
Reduce post-harvest loss and improve post-processing ........................................................................ 28
Increase marketing opportunities .......................................................................................................... 29
Reduce seasonality ................................................................................................................................. 29
Women’s empowerment ........................................................................................................................ 30
Nutrition Education................................................................................................................................. 32
Management of natural resources ......................................................................................................... 33
Policy coherence ..................................................................................................................................... 34
Good governance for nutrition ............................................................................................................... 35
Capacity-building .................................................................................................................................... 36
Advocacy and communication ................................................................................................................ 37
Table 1: Purpose, Audience, and Scope of each Guidance Note ................................................................ 38
ANNEX 1: ALL DOCUMENTS IDENTIFIED: Institutional Guidance/Statements on linking agriculture and
nutrition ...................................................................................................................................................... 45
Summary: ................................................................................................................................................ 45
Guidance notes (10 institutions) ............................................................................................................. 45
UN inter-agency guidance (2 inter-agency bodies) ................................................................................ 47
Manuals (5 institutions) .......................................................................................................................... 47
Statements and strategies (9 institutions) .............................................................................................. 48
Other ....................................................................................................................................................... 49
(4 commissioned literature reviews, 1 research program, 1 community dialogue)............................... 49
ANNEX 2: ADDITIONAL RESOURCES............................................................................................................ 51
Indicator guidance: ................................................................................................................................. 51
Context Assessment and Implementation guidance: ............................................................................. 51
Context assessment data sources:.......................................................................................................... 52
Other: ...................................................................................................................................................... 53
ANNEX 3: quotes supporting each theme by organization ........................................................................ 55
Nutrition Objectives ................................................................................................................................ 55
Context assessment ................................................................................................................................ 57
Do No Harm ............................................................................................................................................ 61
M&E ........................................................................................................................................................ 67
Multisectoral collaboration/coordination .............................................................................................. 72

Household income .................................................................................................................................. 77
Equitable access to resources ................................................................................................................. 79
Targeting ................................................................................................................................................. 82
Diversify production and livelihoods ...................................................................................................... 85
What to produce (general) ..................................................................................................................... 87
What to produce: Horticultural crops................................................................................................. 90
What to produce: Animal-source foods.............................................................................................. 92
What to produce: Underutilized crops ............................................................................................... 94
What to produce: Legumes................................................................................................................. 97
What to produce: Biofortified crops ................................................................................................... 98
What to produce: Staple crops ........................................................................................................... 99
What to produce: Cash crops............................................................................................................ 100
Reduce post-harvest losses and improve post-processing ................................................................... 102
Increase marketing opportunities ........................................................................................................ 106
Reduce seasonality ............................................................................................................................... 108
Women’s empowerment ...................................................................................................................... 109
Nutrition education............................................................................................................................... 115
Nutrition Education: Agriculture staff............................................................................................... 120
Manage natural resources .................................................................................................................... 122
Policy coherence ................................................................................................................................... 125
Good governance for nutrition ............................................................................................................. 129
Capacity building ................................................................................................................................... 133
Advocacy and communication .............................................................................................................. 135

Introduction and Purpose
In the last two years, there has been a proliferation of interest in leveraging agriculture to
maximize nutrition impact. Many development institutions have published guidance notes about
linking agriculture and nutrition, mainly intended to assist program planners to understand and
implement the linkages. Several other institutions have released public statements of their own
approach to maximize nutrition impact through agricultural programs. Development institutions
have also sponsored literature reviews, community conversations, and research programs to
investigate the best strategies based on evidence and experience.
This synthesis aims to provide an updated and complete list of current guidance, institutional
strategies, and other publications released by international development institutions and inter-
agency UN bodies on maximizing nutrition impact through agriculture, and will provide an
analysis of the key messages currently available. The purpose of this paper is to provide
accessible information on what the international development community is saying on this topic,
to underscore key points of emerging consensus and to expose differences that may be
potentially confusing to implementers or which offer opportunities for further refinement of
guidance and strategies. The main audience is country-level policy-makers and program-
planners; a secondary audience is the international development community, which has an
opportunity to amplify key messages that have been voiced independently by separate
institutions. In alignment with the Rome Principles (2009), this synthesis helps to foster strategic
coordination between institutions and to strive for comprehensive, sustainable agricultural, food
security, nutrition and rural development programs.
Methods
Selection Criteria of Resources Reviewed:

1. Bilateral, multilateral, or NGO publication (no scientific journal articles, abstracts, or results
of individual studies)
2. Official institutional publications intended for public use (no internal deliberative documents
or unofficial working papers)
3. Materials destined for professionals working on agriculture program design and
implementation
4. Specific focus on agriculture-nutrition linkages (i.e. not nutrition programming in general)
5. Published since 2008 (although a few exceptions were made where older documents were
generally still consistent with the institution’s current approach, or more recent material was
not available)
Search methods:
1. Listed all organizations with a potential interest in links between agriculture and nutrition,
and searched for guidance, with the assistance of the Ag-Nut Community of Practice and
FAO staff.
2. Gathered statements from bilateral, multilateral, or NGO leaders given at the IFPRI
conference “Leveraging Agriculture for Improved Nutrition and Health,” Delhi, Feb 2011.
Final Draft for Consultation Page 1

3. Where organizations with a known agriculture-nutrition work program did not appear to have
published statements, contacted key informants to ask for links to published statements.
4. Contacted the Agriculture to Nutrition Community of Practice (Ag2Nut CoP) and FAO staff
to review the list, and incorporated publications that were missing.
The complete list of documents identified is found in Annex 1. A total of 43 publications

were identified to date; 26 development institutions have published guidance, a statement, or
explorations of the evidence linking agriculture and nutrition.1 The documents identified were
then categorized into like groups. Five categories emerged:
 Guidance notes. The characteristic feature of a document categorized as a “guidance

note” was emphasis on general principles for maximizing nutrition impact of agriculture,
supported in many cases by specific examples of actions.
 UN inter-agency guidance. These were categorized separately because they reflect co-
signed consensus across many multilateral organizations. These included the UN
Standing Committee on Nutrition (SCN) and UN High-Level Task Force on Food
Security (HLTF).
 Manuals. These focused on specific operational steps within recommended actions. Two
documents were cross-filed in both the “guidance note” and “manual” category; they
were both entitled “manuals,” but placed significant attention on stating and describing
overarching principles as well.
 Statements and strategies. These were documents that publicly outlined the approach
of an individual institution to incorporate nutrition into agriculture, but that were not
aiming to give general comprehensive guidance on linking agriculture and nutrition.
 Other. Highly relevant published institutional documents that did not fall in any of the
above categories were placed in the “other” category. These included four commissioned
literature reviews, a community conversation, and a research program.
This initial draft of the synthesis paper only includes the 16 documents categorized as
“guidance notes” and “UN inter-agency guidance,” published by 10 institutions.2 It is
envisioned that subsequent drafts will include the other categories, and compare main messages
between documents in the different categories. For example, it would be useful in a next draft to
match recommendations with available evidence as summarized in the commissioned literature
reviews. Each institution that produced guidance notes strove to include the best practices based
on evidence and experience; it is assumed, therefore, that the recommendations are essentially
evidence-based, but comparing the final synthesis of guidance directly to main conclusions of
literature reviews would be a useful next step.
All identified guidance documents were read thoroughly and coded for themes. The minimum
inclusion criterion for a theme was that it was mentioned by at least three organizations.
1
The 26 institutions include: A2Z (USAID-funded project now closed), ACDI/VOCA, ACF, AED (now closed), AGRA,
Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Bioversity International, CGIAR, Concern Worldwide, EC, DFID, FANTA, FAO, HKI,
ICRW, IFAD, IFPRI, INSP (Mexico), IYCN (USAID-funded project now closed), Save the Children UK, USAID, World
Bank, WFP, World Vision International, and UN SCN and UN HLTF.
2
The new note from the UN HLTF, “Food and Nutrition Security for All through Sustainable Agriculture and Food
Systems,” is not included in this review because it was not yet available at the time this draft was being finalized.

Decisions on “lumping and splitting” themes was an iterative process. A list of potential themes
was generated and populated with quotes, which then were analyzed and sometimes combined or
separated, based on how much material was available for each potential theme, and how much
the material overlapped with other potential themes. The final list of 20 themes is based on an
inductive process that resulted in messages that were conceptually distinct, although often
somewhat overlapping (e.g. ensuring equitable access to resources and empowering women).
There were several other potential themes which were not included, because of too little mention,
or excessive overlap with other themes:
 Resilience and mitigating risk, which was a general principle threaded throughout all
topics (included in many other categories, including “targeting,” diversify production,”
“reduce seasonality,” and “manage natural resources,” among others)
 Investing in infrastructure (included in “policy coherence”)
 Food price policy (included in “policy coherence”)
 Population and Environmental policies/issues (both included in “policy coherence”
and/or “natural resource management,” depending on the nature of the quotes)
 Social protection components to programs (included in “multisectoral collaboration” and
“policy coherence,” depending on the nature of the quotes)
 Food safety (mentioned only in passing by 4 institutions; included in “post-processing”
and “nutrition education”)
 Financial incentives for including nutrition objectives (discussed explicitly only by
IFPRI; included in “multisectoral collaboration”)
 Food aid reform (discussed by only two of the guidance papers, Bioversity and ACF)
 Budgeting (discussed by only ACF).
A conceptual framework of the guidance was drawn up to visualize how the themes fit together.
This was a creative process not based on existing frameworks in any of the documents.
This review has sought to be comprehensive, but it does not necessarily include all institutional
publications relevant to the issue of linking agriculture and nutrition. Two omissions were due to
timing: both the World Bank and the UN High Level Task Force (HLTF) on Global Food
Security have prepared guidance notes not yet publicly available at the time this draft was
prepared. The review also did not encompass publications focused on sustainable agriculture or
food security with less explicit focus on strategies to link to nutrition, although some of the
recommended principles (such as targeting smallholder farmers) may overlap. (Examples
include the UK Government Future of Food and Farming report, the World Economic Forum’s
New Vision for Agriculture, and reports of the Global Donor Platform for Rural Development,
found in Annex 2.) Likewise, reports focusing on nutrition without explicit linkage to
agriculture were excluded, although several also may have contained relevant practical
approaches for rural contexts.

Summary guidance
The recommendations in the guidance notes were synthesized into a list of 20 main
messages, which broadly fit into three categories: planning a program or policy, main activities
(“doing”), and a supporting set of factors based on governance, policy, and capacity. These
messages were compiled from the 16 guidance notes on linking agriculture and nutrition
produced by 10 development institutions: multilateral organizations (FAO, IFPRI, Bioversity
International), bilateral and bilateral-supported organizations (EC, FANTA, IYCN), and NGOs
(ACF, Save the Children UK, World Vision); and inter-agency UN bodies (UN SCN). A table
containing the title, date, purpose, audience, and scope of each guidance document is found in
Table 1. A list of all documents identified is found in Annex 1.
The following 2-page summary is a distilled synthesis of the guidance. All information
contained in the summary, including sub-points as well as main points, was stated by at
least three institutions.
An analysis of the overall alignment of recommendations between institutions follows the

summary guidance. Each of the 20 themes is then summarized and analyzed in approximately
one page per theme under “Discussion of guidance by theme.”

Planning
1. Incorporate explicit nutrition objectives into agricultural projects, programs, and
policies. Traditional agriculture sector goals may have potential to yield nutrition
improvements, but evidence and experience shows that explicit nutrition objectives are
necessary to guide specific activities and M&E plans to maximize positive nutrition impact
and minimize harm.
2. Assess the context to identify and build on existing efforts, knowledge, and resources. This
will maximize effectiveness and efficiency of interventions and reduce negative side effects.
3. Do no harm. Avoid unintended negative consequences through a process of identifying
potential harms, developing a mitigation plan, and setting in place a well-functioning
monitoring system for timely detection of negative effects.
4. Measure impact through monitoring and evaluation. Measure intermediate outcome
indicators as well as nutritional status impact, to be able to track positive effects and attribute
them to the intervention. The most commonly recommended indicators are dietary diversity
scores and stunting.
5. Maximize opportunities through multisectoral coordination. Nutrition improvements
depend on many sectors, and translating food security and consumption impact into
nutritional status often requires improvements in health, sanitation, and care and feeding
practices. Coordination at least in the planning phase, and in the implementation phase
where possible, will maximize the likelihood of nutrition impact from agriculture.
6. Maximize impact of household income on nutrition, through increasing women’s access to
income-generating opportunities and discretionary control of income, and other mechanisms
(e.g. frequent payments).
7. Increase equitable access to resources through policies and programs. At the policy level,
pay particular attention to increasing access to land rights and water. Programs can facilitate
access to credit, productive assets, extension services, and markets (for women in particular).
8. Target the most vulnerable groups, including smallholder farmers, women, and poor/food
insecure households.
Doing: Main Activities
9. Diversify production and livelihoods for improved food access and dietary diversification,
natural resource management, and other purposes.
10. Increase production of nutrient-dense foods, particularly locally-adapted varieties rich in
micronutrients and protein, chosen on the basis of context assessment and local nutrition
issues.
a. Horticultural crops are highly recommended, to improve micronutrient intakes and
dietary diversity, increased income and women’s income control, and reduced
seasonality; homestead and market-oriented production are both likely to be positive.
b. Produce animal-source foods on a small scale to improve intakes of micronutrients,
protein, and fat; keep production small-scale to avoid harms to the natural resource base.
c. Promote the use of nutritious underutilized foods (such as indigenous or traditional
crops) as powerful resources to address malnutrition.
d. Increase legume production for their nutritional value (rich in energy, protein, and iron)
and for their attribute of nitrogen fixation, which can improve soil fertility and yield and
reduce inputs.

e. Invest in biofortification as a complement to other approaches.
f. Staple crop production may be necessary but insufficient for addressing undernutrition
because of its limited ability to improve dietary diversity.
g. Cash crops are not recommended as a strategy likely to improve nutrition on their own,
based on high risk of unintended consequences, particularly reduction in food security
and dietary quality; mitigation strategies should go along with cash crop production.
11. Reduce post-harvest losses and improve processing to increase and prolong access to and
consumption of micronutrient-rich foods, to preserve or increase nutrient content of food,
increase income and profit margins, and to improve food safety. Solar drying and
fortification are highly-recommended processing techniques.
12. Increase market access and opportunities. Social marketing and demand creation for foods
that smallholders have a comparative advantage in producing can be a powerful tool.
13. Reduce seasonality of food insecurity through diversification and use of locally-adapted
varieties throughout the year, improved storage and preservation, and other approaches.
…and all the above approaches should do these three things as well:
14. Empower women, the primary caretakers in households, through (i) increased discretionary
income; (ii) improving women’s access to extension services, financial services, technology,
inputs, markets, and information; (iii) avoiding harm to their ability to care for children; (iv)
investing in labor and time-saving technologies targeted to women; (v) adding program
components to enable high-quality child care; and (vi) advocating for policies to support
women’s rights to land, education, and employment.
15. Incorporate nutrition education to improve consumption and nutrition effects of
interventions. Develop a concise set of clear, actionable messages and strategies based on an
understanding of local perceptions, and barriers and opportunities to behavior change.
Messages often involve promoting consumption of locally-available and nutrient-dense food,
understanding nutritional requirements of different family members, and improving food
safety. Employ agricultural extension agents to communicate nutrition messages as feasible.
16. Manage natural resources for improved productivity, resilience to shocks and adaptation to
climate change, and increased equitable access to resources through soil, water, and
biodiversity conservation.
Supporting
17. Improve policy coherence supportive to nutrition, so that one policy does not work against
another policy or program. Food price policies, subsidies, and trade policies sometimes have
counterproductive effects on nutrition and may need reform. Pro-poor policies including
land reform, infrastructure-building, and social protection policies create an enabling
environment for nutrition improvement.
18. Improve good governance for nutrition, by drawing up a national nutrition strategy and
action plan, implementing nutrition surveillance, and increasing staff capacity.
19. Build capacity in ministries at national, district, and local levels, and increase nutrition staff.
20. Communicate and continue to advocate for nutrition. Disseminate impact results across
sectoral boundaries and translate them into policy-relevant messages for effective program
and policy changes.

Conceptual framework of guidance D O I N G
● ● ●
Diversify Production and Livelihoods
P L A N N I N G
Produce more nutrient-dense foods
including vegetables, fruits, animal
source foods, underutilized foods,
Do no harm legumes, and biofortified crops;
specifics depend on context
M&E
Reduce post-harvest losses and
Context improve post-processing
Assessment Nutrition Objectives
Increase market opportunities
Targeting
Reduce seasonality
● with ●
Maximize Opportunities:
Multisectoral coordination Women’s Empowerment
Impact of income Nutrition Education

Equitable access to resources
Management of Natural Resources
● ● ●
S U P P O R T I N G
Policy coherence, Governance and Capacity-building, Communication and Advocacy

Summary conclusions
Current guidance shows a high degree of alignment between institutions
It is striking how much overall agreement there was on main principles for reaching nutrition.
This was true even though many institutions published guidance primarily for the use of their
staff in their own programs and investments (see Table 1). Disagreement by omission was not
considered, because of the wide range of length/scopes of the guidance notes (1 to 100 pages),
omission could simply have been due to limited page space. The 20 main messages were each
supported by a majority of the institutions, not just the minimum of three for inclusion, which
demonstrates a strong convergence around a discrete set of principles. Some stakeholders have
voiced concern over the empirical evidence base underlying actions to increase nutrition impact
from agriculture programs, but the fact that a majority of international development institutions
independently recommend very similar approaches is itself a strong justification to increase
action around these principles. Policy decisions often must be made without the benefit of
airtight scientific evidence; or else the status quo continues, which has been clearly shown to be
inadequate for addressing nutrition. There is no good argument for inaction when the
international development community is so well aligned on many actionable principles to
maximize nutrition impact of agricultural investments. As new evidence is generated from
projects implementing the current guiding principles, the guidance may be refined or revised in
the future.
Apart from the overall high degree of alignment, there are some specific points where
recommendations may differ due to institutional priorities or experience in different contexts:
 How much to prioritize homestead food production for household consumption or for
market purposes, either of which could theoretically result in improved diets.
 How to target agricultural interventions to the needs of different livelihoods groups;
interventions that most benefit one may be slightly less beneficial to the other (though
double wins may also exist e.g. production by smallholders and processing or retail by
landless laborers).
 How much emphasis to place on three kinds of production in particular (within the
recommendations on what to produce): How much emphasis to place on staple crops
(because of their utility for energy intakes but potential competition with more nutrient-
dense food production), biofortified crops (notes were quite positive but several
emphasized that biofortification needed to be accompanied with other strategies, with
ACF representing a view opposed to any genetic modification), and animal-source foods
(which have characteristics that may be highly beneficial in some circumstances, and
harmful to health and the environment in others).
 How much to depend on agricultural extension agents or program agents to deliver
nutrition-relevant information, and how much to collaborate with or depend on health
staff to deliver coordinated messages.
 Whether multisectoral collaboration should involve joint implementation of projects, or
simply joint planning (e.g. for coordinated messages and referrals).

What is missing from the current guidance
While the recommended principles are well-founded from a nutritional point of view, greater
collaboration with agronomists, ago-economists and other professionals from the agriculture
sector in refining them and making them more actionable may be helpful. So far most of the
authorship of these guidance notes is based in nutrition. Increasing the substantive contributions
from the agriculture side may result in guidance that speaks the agriculture “language” and that
is more aligned with the main priorities and incentives of professionals working in the
agriculture sector. For example, only three notes mentioned market viability as a criterion for
production choice – which, next to yield, is a fundamental principle for the agriculture sector.
Nutritionists may wish to increase guidance on how to increase market viability of certain
nutritious foods, e.g. indigenous crops or biofortified crops, so that agriculture professionals are
better able to act on advice to promote them. Greater inclusion of agriculture staff may prompt a
larger discussion of production/income/nutrition trade-offs, and may expose some misalignment
in preferred approaches to reach nutrition. For example, in the Interagency Report to the G20 on
Food Price Volatility (June 2011), agricultural economists from FAO, IFAD, IMF, OECD,
UNCTAD, WFP, the World Bank, WTO, IFPRI, and the UN HLTF offered annexed advice on
increasing resilience of agriculture through nutrition, and discussed only biofortification as a
strategy, specifically dismissing dietary diversification strategies as being too long-term. That is
the opposite emphasis as compared to the guidance notes, which offer multiple strategies to
achieve dietary diversity, and which consider biofortification a complementary approach.
Nutritionists need to work together with agriculturalists in a sincere and open dialogue about
how to mesh priorities and approaches, and to raise awareness about the determinants of
malnutrition and best practices to achieve nutrition results; advice that is omnipresent throughout
the guidance notes. This process, of course, requires partnership from the agriculture side as
well, which may be gained through continued communication and advocacy about nutrition.
One area that would particularly benefit from agriculture sector input is the recommendation to
increase marketing opportunities. The guidance notes discussed the importance of livelihoods
and increasing market access, for equity and income generation, and also because farmers may
be more likely to produce nutritious foods if there is a market incentive. Specific
recommendations included the need for social marketing and demand creation, as well as some
sparse advice for supporting women-controlled crops, farmer organizations, and attention to
infrastructure. Advice on exactly how to improve market access for smallholders and other
vulnerable groups, however, was weak. The agriculture sector may prefer to assist vulnerable
households in subsistence/home production activities, because investing in market access
programs is too risky or too involved. Smallholders in many cases need intensive training in
business principles such as budgeting, production calendars, and consumer demand. They may
also need lengthy assistance from projects to broker deals with lucrative markets for them, in part
because large buyers may not be willing to consider contracts with smallholders without an
insurer, and smallholders may not be able to survive financially due to infrequent payments.
There are a host of marketing problems which marketing specialists and agricultural economists
are best equipped to handle; incentives for investing in market access assistance for smallholders
is an important topic that needs further discussion and partnership with the agriculture sector.

Another area that would benefit from more concrete and specific guidance, based on interaction
with agricultural economists, is on food price policies and other food and agriculture policies in
the “policy coherence” theme. Most smallholder farmers, a commonly recommended target
population, are net buyers of food; and urbanization is accelerating. The relative prices of foods
affect likelihood of consuming a diverse diet; more work is needed on elasticities of demand for
nutritious foods, supply constraints, and effective food policies and regulations to improve
dietary quality.
Costing of recommended interventions is currently missing. The most important costing may be
to identify the costs of agriculture programs that include nutrition objectives, for planning and
budgeting purposes. Cost benefit analyses that look at the effects of “option A” (an approach
with nutrition considerations) and “option B” (a standard approach) would also be helpful.
Neither pure costing nor cost benefit analyses3 have been done; even Save the Children UK did
not attempt to cost its agriculture recommendations within the guidance note “An eight-step,
costed plan of action.”
Many guidance notes recommended agricultural extension agents as a channel for nutrition-
relevant information, but depending on agricultural extension agents for the wide array of
nutrition messages needed may not be feasible; greater attention is needed to who will deliver
nutrition education in the context of agricultural programs. More evidence and experience from
various contexts would be useful to identifying effective combinations of delivery channels.
Further, relying on agricultural extension agents requires that they exist in sufficient numbers in
the first place. In many countries, they do not. An enhanced role of agricultural extensionists in
nutrition education probably needs to be combined with advice to simply increase funding
allocations for agricultural extension in general. This includes increases in quality of training,
including nutrition, as well as quantity of personnel (see capacity-building); remuneration may
also need increase in some cases to provide an incentive for skilled people to join and to provide
high-quality assistance.
Two areas related to women’s empowerment lacked a full discussion of the chance for
unintended consequences that could unintentionally result in disempowerment for women. One
was promoting market-oriented production of women’s crops (e.g. horticultural or indigenous
crops) for the purpose of empowering women through enhanced income generation, which could
potentially have the unintended consequence of shifting control over the crops to men. This has
been observed in practice, but how to ensure that women maintain production and income
control, even when yields and profits increase, was not discussed within the recommendations.
One possibility is that nutrition education – recommended by all institutions – and extension can
address roles and responsibilities of men and women. They can highlight the benefits to the
household from women’s income, taking a more proactive role in maintaining women’s control
over production and sale. Context assessment may also prove useful for exploring the likely
impact of marketing women’s crops.
3
Credible cost-benefit analyses have been done for biofortification, reaching the top of the Copenhagen
Consensus list, for the outcome of improved micronutrient intake.

The ubiquitous advice to recognize women’s role in providing child care also requires careful
operational thought and action. While the guidance generally was very supportive of approaches
to allow women to participate both in economic opportunities while being able to feed their
children well, there is a fine line between protecting women’s ability to care for their children
and prioritizing child care over other choices women may make. Similar to anti-discrimination
and maternity leave policies in high-income countries, it is important that the recommendations
avoid an unintended consequence of projects passing over women for lucrative opportunities
because they are assumed to be unable to take them on due to child care. Successful approaches
that increase women’s economic empowerment while maintaining or improving child care
practices need to be documented.
Although the recommendations stressed the importance of context assessment, currently it is rare
to find adequate funding, staff, and time for achieving that goal in most programs. Interventions
are frequently designed in proposals without comprehensive understanding of cultural context
and opportunities for collaboration with existing initiatives. Requests for proposals may need to
be reoriented to commit more funding, time, and staff to context assessment before the program
clock (3 years, 5 years, etc) starts ticking. Some existing manuals describe participatory methods
for rapid assessment at low cost (found in Annex 1 and Annex 2), and these methods may
increase willingness of donors and program staff to invest in context assessment. Local NGOs
sometimes specialize in participatory assessment, and large donor projects could sub-contract
with them for the purpose of context assessment. Improved access to information on the
existence and capacity of local NGOs would be helpful.
The recommendation to do no harm was near universal, and processes to operationalize that
advice have advanced recently. More work is needed, however, to help agriculture projects
predict potential harms likely for their specific region and project, and to incentivize that
thoughtful process in the planning and monitoring stages. While the guidance notes listed many
general classes of harm (such as reductions in women’s time), this recommendation is difficult to
generalize because it is context-dependent, and a likely harm in one place may be a non-issue
elsewhere.
The constraint of inadequate incentives is also true for the advice to collaborate multisectorally.
All guidance notes were supportive of multisectoral collaboration, at least in planning stages of
projects. Although the guidance notes fully acknowledged the difficulty of collaboration, advice
was generally weak on improving incentives for effective collaboration, even in planning stages.
FAO’s “Joint Planning” document (in the “manuals” category) offers operational guidance for a
workshop approach, and is an important tool to accompany the advice.4
Overall, the guidance notes provide a comprehensive, well-founded set of principles for
maximizing nutrition impact of agricultural policies, projects, and programs. How to implement
the guidance effectively was generally not addressed substantially, although that is probably due
to the inclusion of only “guidance notes” in this synthesis draft (not operational manuals). In the
few instances where organizations gave “how-to” advice (such as using positive deviance
sessions as a tool for context assessment, women’s empowerment, and nutrition education), it
4
There is also a new IFPRI book, “Working Multisectorally in Nutrition” (Garrett and Natalicchio eds., 2011).

was particularly noted in the discussion of guidance by theme, below. Many tools exist that
would assist with implementing the guiding principles, although they are not necessarily easily
accessible, and may not be adequate for needs in varying contexts. Beyond the project level,
operational guidance or a distillation of experience on how to strengthen nutrition governance
and alignment among sectors is needed. Research in implementation science can help to
identify approaches and tools that work.
There is likely a limit, however, to what pre-written tools can do, for two reasons: firstly, that the
specific “how to” depends greatly on the context (and most organizations implicitly recognized
this, in spending so much page-space discussing the importance of context assessment and how
to do it). Secondly, capacity building training is most effective in person, with written material
only as a support. Absorbing and understanding even the principles in this synthesis paper
require time and familiarity with nutrition determinants. Some of the guidance documents
included an introductory primer on nutrition, which is helpful as reference material, but deep
learning from practitioners cannot be expected without face to face interaction and discussion.
Therefore, in addition to operational tools and implementation science research, a
recommendation of this synthesis is that the principles be communicated through interactions,
for example in workshops, and iterative feedback on country and program plans. Development
institutions are encouraged to provide such support.
Next steps
The most important next step is to include the agreed-upon principles in forthcoming agriculture
programs and learn from the outcomes. This requires commitment from the highest levels of
governments and development institutions to link agriculture and nutrition, which has thus far
been inhibited by four main constraints: (i) information on what to do, (ii) how to do it, (iii) how
much it will cost (per benefit gained), and (iv) how it will be supported or rewarded.
The first constraint to action so far has been a perceived lack of clarity in guidance and evidence
for nutrition-friendly agriculture. Interested agriculture professionals have been unclear on what
to do to improve nutrition through agriculture, and the nutrition community on the whole has not
yet come together around common advice. This synthesis is a step to fill that gap, and the
finding of remarkable similarity of guiding principles among guidance notes independently
published by 10 international development institutions is encouraging. A next step would be for
these and other organizations come to consensus around guiding principles, reached in
partnership between the nutrition and agriculture professionals.
A second constraint apart from “what to do” is how to do nutrition-friendly agriculture. Better
guidance on operational best practices, particularly around improving market access and
ensuring that women benefit, would be of great benefit to include nutrition in agriculture
projects. Recommendations specific to project types, value chains for specific crops, and
agroecosystem types may also help.
The lack of costing and cost benefit information is another constraint to serious buy-in from
agriculture sector staff who want to be sure to spend scare resources wisely. Cost and impact

information (including nutrition impact, productivity, and economic impact) should be gathered
wherever possible.
A fourth constraint relates to how efforts to link agriculture to nutrition will be supported and
rewarded by governments and institutions. Food and agriculture policies supportive of healthy
diets and nutrition would help to make nutrition-friendly agriculture the lucrative option, which
would be by far the most powerful way to increase action. Support for capacity in agricultural
extension as well as nutrition training and staffing at all levels would increase the feasibility of
actions to improve nutrition through agriculture. This requires appropriate investments be made
in institutional development related to nutrition in the agriculture sector, an area which has so far
received very limited development support. Institutional incentives for multisectoral
collaboration, context assessment, and a planning process to avoid nutritional harm, would
increase the chances of their happening.
If consensus around key guiding principles can be reached, and the principles incorporated into
agriculture programs now, including appropriate monitoring and evaluation, then the result will
be a new generation of evidence that will improve knowledge on operational “how-to” best
practices, costs, and impact – and may result in a revision of guiding principles. This new
knowledge would further improve ability to plan for and include nutrition outcomes in
agriculture projects, propagating a virtuous cycle of knowledge, commitment, and action.
Figure 1. Virtuous cycle of knowledge, commitment, and action based on next steps
Commitment
Knowledge Support
Agriculture
 Consensus around  Food and agriculture
sector buy-in
guiding principles policies supportive of
(what to do) nutrition
 Better operational  Increased capacity in
guidance (how to do it) agricultural extension
 Costing and cost benefit Action and nutrition
information – includes Principles  Incentives for
better evidence on incorporated multisectoral
impact collaboration, context
assessment and planning

Discussion of guidance by theme
Nutrition Objectives
Including clear, specific, explicit nutrition objectives in agriculture projects, programs, and
policies was the most common message in all the guidance notes. All ten institutions that have
published guidance stated some form of this recommendation; nine stated it outright, and IFPRI
implied it from statements to “design agriculture, nutrition, and health programs with cross-
sectoral benefits”. All of the guidance notes make the point that nutrition objectives are needed
to drive agricultural programs in a manner that would better address nutrition. World Vision
makes the strongest statement, that to have an impact, “improved nutrition outcomes, particularly
for children, must be an explicit objective of agricultural policy and programs,” and “there is
limited evidence that improved nutrition will occur” in the absence of such an objective.
Common among the documents were the words “clear” and “explicit” objectives, repeated
several times (BI, EC, FANTA, FAO, Save UK, SCN, WV).5 Specific tools recommended to
clarify objectives included logical frameworks (ACF) and the Nutritional Impact Assessment
Tool (IYCN).
FAO (2009) brings out the important idea that explicit nutrition objectives guide agricultural
programs so that (1) they avoid harm and (2) they maximize opportunities. These two outcomes
are not the same, and it is important to note that both may be furthered by adopting nutrition
objectives. The FANTA publication (2001) echoes those two effects, and in addition points out
that specific nutrition goals help to guide agriculture and health staff “in their efforts to improve
consumption and nutrition and to ensure integration and overlap with health systems.” This is a
reminder that objectives should and do matter to guide program staff from planning committees
to field level, and as a corollary, that they need to be communicated clearly and understood by
staff at all levels for appropriate action to be taken.
The SCN wording suggests that a nutrition objective makes explicit the inherent opportunities
within agriculture programs, and can “activate” such opportunities. ACF, Bioversity, IYCN and
FAO (2004) bring up the basic use of an objective to (1) identify and clarify activities to reach
nutrition and (2) design appropriate indicators and M&E systems to track desired impact. ACF
encourages planners to include a nutrition objective in the project log-frame, and also to “make
sure that the objective is obtainable within the framework of the project.” In addition, ACF notes
that the indicators chosen will depend on “the nature and duration of the intervention.” These
two points together underscore that planners truly need to think through how their program or
policy will reach nutrition objectives, and act and measure appropriately; that it is not enough to
simply add a global nutrition indicator to a project and hope it improves. Bioversity builds on
this idea operationally, suggesting to “start first with the smallest change possible for the largest
impact possible” to instill confidence, which implies it is important to measure impacts other
than stunting, which is slow to show change.
5
Acronym definitions are contained in Annex 1.

Context assessment
Papers from most institutions (9/10) included the specific recommendation to assess the context
where an agricultural program was being planned, during the design phase (ACF, BI, EC,
FANTA, FAO, IFPRI, IYCN, Save UK, WV). This guidance was targeted more to program and
project planning than policy-making. The main point of the context assessment recommendation
was to identify and build on existing efforts, knowledge, and resources, in order to maximize
effectiveness and efficiency of interventions and reduce negative side effects.
Several specific functions of context assessment emerged from the guidance notes, listed below.
 Identifying nutritional problems, which could be done using existing data (such as
DHS and other survey data) (ACF, BI, FANTA, FAO)
 Identifying and targeting population groups most at risk (ACF, FANTA)
 Identifying the main causes of those problems / the main constraints to good nutrition,
using existing data and reports, collaborating and communicating with other sectoral
practitioners, civil society organizations and workers familiar with the area, and holding
focus groups with community members (ACF, BI, FAO)
 Identifying opportunities within the agriculture sector to address those constraints,
including those based on seasonality, labor, and local foods; and adapting interventions to
the specific program community/country based on the agro-ecological, market, economic
and human resources available (ACF, BI, FANTA, FAO). Ways to do this included:
o Creating seasonal crop and labor calendars, and fluctuations in food security and
nutrition (ACF, BI, FANTA, FAO)
o FAO recommended a specific assessment of how processing, storage, and
marketing affect prices of non-staple foods, which would enable prediction of
how income generation may or may not affect dietary quality.
o Several notes, most notably Bioversity International, highlighted the need to
understand local food resources, food culture, household decision-making and
markets around specific foods to envision how agricultural production could
maximize food-based opportunities (ACF, BI, FANTA, FAO, IYCN).
 Understanding existing knowledge, beliefs, skills and practices within
communities/cultures, which complements outsider information (FAO, IFPRI) and
provides a basis for effective behavior change and information dissemination (ACF, BI,
IYCN); the positive deviance/hearth method was suggested as an effective method to
identify and scale up positive practices (BI, WV).
 Building on and complementing existing interventions within the agriculture sector
and other sectors (ACF, IFPRI, WV)
 Initiating a process of collaboration and co-planning: activities related to context
assessment can build communication between development partners within or between
sectors, and can set a tone of inclusion of under-represented groups (e.g. women and
minorities) (ACF, BI, FANTA, FAO)
 Setting in motion a process of continuous assessment throughout the project, as the
effects of any intervention in a given context need to be monitored to avoid harm (EC).

FAO highlighted participatory approaches as the primary way to plan programs and involve
stakeholders. Several of the manuals listed in Annex 1, including ACF, Bioversity International,
and FAO manuals, include specific steps on context assessment and emphasize participatory
methods.
Do no harm
Eight of the ten institutions cautioned that agricultural programs can have unintended
consequences that cause harm to nutrition, health, and livelihoods. Potential harms included:
 Overburdening women who are also responsible for care of young children, with
potential negative effects on optimal infant feeding (ACF, EC, IFPRI, IYCN, FAO, Save
UK); could be mitigated by reducing tasks of women (FAO)
 Potential negative impact of cash crops on food production, financial risk, and gender
inequality (ACF, FAO, IYCN); could be mitigated with diversification
 Inability of smallholders to participate in projects requiring new investment, and the
danger of widening resource gaps between wealthy and poor farmers and out-competition
(ACF, IYCN); could be mitigated by encouraging small-scale appropriate technologies
(IFPRI)
 Higher food prices, through price supports or other reasons, can result in reduced
availability of food (FAO, IYCN)
 Danger of agrochemicals to health (ACF, FANTA, FAO, IFPRI, Save UK); could be
mitigated with protective gear and training
 Risk of disease from agricultural water use (malaria transmission, microbes and
pollutants in wastewater) and zoonotic disease and parasites (ACF, EC, Save UK); could
be mitigated with bednets, improved wastewater management, veterinary services
 Reduction in natural resource availability or access (ACF, IFPRI, FAO); could be
mitigated with sustainable production techniques
 Higher production costs (FAO)
 Danger of mechanization increasing unemployment among landless (IYCN)
 Manual labor can damage health and increase caloric needs (Save UK)
 Health risks of over-promoting animal-source foods: chronic disease, and milk may
displace breastfeeding (ACF)
Most of the notes identifying the risk of potential harm also suggested overall strategies to avoid
causing harm. The main strategies are:
1. Go through a systematic process in the planning phase to identify potential unintended
negative impacts on nutrition based on the context where the program is operating, and
develop a mitigation plan. (ACF, BI, EC, FAO, IFPRI, IYCN)
2. Have a well-functioning monitoring system to detect negative effects, to ensure timely
mitigation efforts on unforeseen negative impacts (ACF, EC, FAO, IYCN)
3. Have a clear nutritional goal to start with (FANTA, IYCN)
4. Collaborate with health officials to provide information on health risks and solutions
(which could be considered a specific type of mitigation plan) (IFPRI)

IYCN developed a “Nutritional Impact Assessment Tool” to assist project planners to avoid
unintentional nutritional harm, mentioned also by ACF and Save UK (see Annex 1, “Manuals”
section). This tool is the first formal attempt that “operationalizes a process for considering the
nutritional and food security impacts of proposed activities on these groups, and helps designers
to develop alternative sets of activities as well as a ‘do nothing’ alternative.”6
Monitoring & Evaluation
All guidance notes discussed the central importance of measuring nutrition-relevant impact
through program monitoring and evaluation, and most (eight) also made suggestions for specific
indicators. The main reason was to demonstrate nutrition impact, but there were other reasons.
Several institutions underscored M&E for the purpose of timely identification of poor
implementation or negative effects, so that problems could be corrected by adaptive management
before substantial time and money is wasted (ACF, BI, FAO, IYCN, UN SCN). Bioversity also
noted that M&E processes can help staff know when it is appropriate to phase out or provide
more permanent support (assuming the project timeline is flexible). Documenting successes and
failures, and lessons learned was seen as important for the general good (BI, IFPRI, Save UK).
UN SCN said that M&E can increase government accountability and policy-makers’ awareness,
raising the profile of nutrition on national agendas.
There was an expectation expressed throughout the guidance notes that projects should show
impact on nutritional status (ACF, EC, FANTA, Save UK); in fact Save UK said reductions in
child underweight “should be the litmus test for good agricultural investment.” In contrast, ACF
argued for increased attention to outcome indicators based on careful consideration of program
theory7, stating that “the measurable effects of stand-alone food security and livelihood
interventions on nutritional status are likely to be less significant…than multi-sectoral
interventions, thus most changes will be detected at the outcome level.” Relatedly, FANTA
stated that programs should be able to associate any nutritional status changes with the specific
strategy or interventions, in the same logic of program theory: “intermediate results, together
with the corresponding performance indicators, trace out the underlying conceptual framework
of a program…” In fact, many of the notes suggested both outcome (particularly diet) indicators
and impact indicators (see below).
Some institutions noted that specific indicators would clearly vary according to context and goals
of individual projects (ACF, EC, FANTA, FAO). All indicators should be SMART (specific,
measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound) (ACF, IYCN). Three guidance notes pointed
out that capacity to measure and analyze the indicators chosen is an important consideration;
there is no standard “off-the-shelf” set of indicators for nutrition in agriculture projects yet, and
6
The steps are as follows:
1.List project objectives. 2.Define food insecure population groups. 3.Determine the nutritional status of
nutritionally vulnerable groups. 4.Create alternative approaches. 5.Estimate expected outcomes. 6.Modify the
approach as needed. 7.Assess alternative approaches. 8.Design a mitigation plan. 9.Develop a review plan.
7
The pathway from an intervention input through programmatic delivery, household, and individual utilization to
its desired impact; with reference to Habicht, JP and Pelto, G.

often there are inadequate time and skills for analysis (ACF, FANTA, WV); ACF also suggested
allocating 2% of the overall budget for M&E. FANTA recommended simple, easy to administer
indicators of consumption and nutrition, only including indicators that monitoring agents can
accurately measure, or otherwise partnering with additional technical support.
The following are indicators the guidance notes specifically mentioned as important or promising
in many contexts; references for the tools to measure some of these indicators are in Annex 2:
Consumption-related
 Dietary diversity scores (ACF, BI, EC, FANTA, IYCN, UN SCN, WV)8
o Household dietary diversity score (HDDS) with months of adequate household
food provisioning (MAHFP) (BI)
o HDDS (ACF, UN CSN)
IDDS for women of reproductive age (EC, FANTA, IYCN)
o Minimum dietary diversity for children 6-23 months (EC, IYCN, WV)
o Minimum acceptable diet for children 6-23 months (ACF, EC, WV)
 Meal frequency (ACF, WV)
 Consumption of iron-rich foods for children 6-23 months (ACF, EC)
 Other core IYCF indicators (excl breastfeeding, initiation of breastfeeding) (ACF)
 Caloric intake (IYCN)
 Caloric adequacy of available food (kcal/person/day) (FANTA)
 Vitamin A and iron intake (IYCN)
 HFIAS or HHS (FANTA-developed food insecurity measures9) (IYCN)
Nutritional status
 Stunting10 (ACF, EC, FANTA, IYCN)
 Underweight (FANTA, IYCN, Save UK)
 Wasting (FANTA)
 Anthropometry in general (BI, EC)
 Vitamin A, iron, and iodine status for women and children (FANTA, IYCN)
Sickness and health

 Sanitation, health, home facilities (BI)
 Incidence of illness (FANTA)
Other
 Gender of project participants (FANTA)
 Changing seasonality of income, labor use, and micronutrient-rich food availability
(FANTA)
8
FAO could reasonably be added to this group although its guidance documents did not specifically mention DDS,
because FAO produced the widely-used “Guidelines for measuring household and individual dietary diversity”
(2011), referenced in Annex 2.
9
These were years away from publication at the time the FANTA guidance notes were published.
10
The ACF paper specifies that stunting is most likely to change if children under age 2 years are direct
beneficiaries and the intervention lasts at least 3-5 years.

 The Nutritional Functional Diversity Index, developed by the Earth Institute at Columbia
University (Remans, Flynn, 2011), which quantifies the depth and breadth of agro-
biodiversity according to dietary usage (BI).
Multisectoral collaboration
Every organization discussed multisectoral collaboration of some sort as essential for impact on
nutritional status. Three quotes strung together from different notes clearly describe the rationale
for multisectoral collaboration: “Perhaps the greatest challenge for the implementation of the
guidance given throughout this manual is that no one can do it alone - it requires preparation,
action and collaboration across a variety of sectors and stakeholders” (ACF). “Agricultural
interventions can make important contributions in the form of increasing production and income
and, often, household food consumption. However, health and environmental conditions, health
status, and childcare and feeding practices will ultimately determine whether increased food
access and consumption has a positive effect on nutritional status” (FANTA). “Provision of
livelihood support, creation of social safety-nets and an explicit focus on maternal and child
health are essential to improving the food and nutrition security of [vulnerable] groups” (UN
SCN).
These quotes underscore the need to address all the underlying factors of malnutrition (food,
health, and care), and that agriculture cannot do that alone. All guidance notes expressed that
stakeholders (program planning staff and management, field-level operational staff, researchers,
educators) in various sectors (including agriculture, health, nutrition, water and sanitation,
environment, sociology, social protection, poverty reduction, education) and institutions
(government ministries, NGOs, and multilateral programs) all have essential roles to play in the
fight against malnutrition, and coordination can maximize impact. Several terms for the concept
appeared throughout the guidance notes: multisectoral consultation, coordination, collaboration,
partnership, combined action, linkages, synergies, and integration.
The guidance notes agreed that coordination was desirable at least in the planning stage. There
was lack of clarity or possibly disagreement on whether sectors should collaborate mostly in
planning and then carry out their own sectoral responsibilities; or if sectors actually work
together in implementation as well. The stance of each institution was not very clear in any note,
although the EC recommended joint programming as important in emergencies and Save UK
showcased an integrated program. The two approaches are of course not mutually exclusive;
sectoral implementation based on shared accountability and indicators (IFPRI) can co-exist with
initiatives where multisectoral partners have joint funding for the same project (World Vision).
The opportunities for multi-sectoral implementation depend on context. Recognizing the
difficulty in prescribing one approach over another, FANTA offered a range of options for
successful collaboration: “[1] by implementing agriculture and nutrition programs in the same
geographical area, [2] adding program components to specifically address cross-sectoral issues,
or [3] fully integrating programs.
Four notes gave examples of how multisectoral linkages could occur:

 shared indicators and accountability mechanisms (IFPRI, WV)

 shared funding for co-implemented projects (FANTA, WV)
 multisectoral structures such as a national nutrition council or a multisectoral, multi-
institution task force (FANTA, FAO)
 consultation with nutrition or water and sanitation colleagues for technical expertise or
collaboration on a baseline survey (ACF)
 improved professional training through problem-based learning (i.e. building capacity for
multisectoral thinking and work among sector staff) (IFPRI)
 overlapping sector programs in the same geographic area (FANTA)
 specifying cross-sectoral collaboration as a condition in requests for proposals, and
requiring identification of potential collaborators in the field (FANTA)
 multidisciplinary extension teams to coordinate and supervise regional extension
services, and increased communication among nutrition, home economics and
agricultural extension staff (through workshops, for example) (FAO)
 IFPRI noted the need to learn more about how to build successful multisectoral
coordination.
FANTA also described an example of how to plan a functional multisectoral program; the quote
is included in its entirety here:
“A program design that effectively links agriculture, health and nutrition might employ the
following three-pronged approach:
1. The program has a well-designed agricultural component—effective at generating output,
income or added value, as well as at drawing in smallholders, women and/or poorer
households.
2. The program has a well-designed nutrition component—providing well-tailored health and
nutrition education to address specific local problems.
3. The agricultural, health, and nutrition components are mutually reinforcing. Project staff
collaborate to ensure appropriate health services and complementary health and nutrition
messages are provided, and that beneficiary populations participating in the agricultural and
health activities overlap.”
Maximize impact of household income
All 10 organizations discussed household income as an important mechanism for agriculture to

affect nutrition. Seven of the ten also included a caveat, that income generation broadly is not
enough; it may be inefficient or ineffective at improving nutrition without special efforts. In the
words of the FANTA document, “Agriculture and Health Officers may reasonably anticipate
strong income-consumption linkages, but this outcome is not inevitable.” One document further
suggests that in some cases income-generating activities could do harm to nutrition, if it
increases a power imbalance between women and men (FAO 2004). IYCN highlighted that
income increases are not always necessary for nutritional improvements: “In Bangladesh, an
improved vegetable program increased vitamin A consumption, decreased chronic malnutrition
by 28 and 43 percentage points among girls and boys, respectively, and improved women’s
nutrition—all despite failing to produce measurable effects on household income.” In summary,
the effect of income generation on nutrition improvement is modifiable, and varies by
circumstance.

Several recommendations are provided for how to increase the likelihood of additional income
having positive nutrition effects. These include the following:
 Most prominent among the recommendations is increasing women’s access to and
control of income, citing increased likelihood of income translating to expenditures
related to nutrition, while keeping in mind the need to promote IGAs that do not reduce
quality of infant and young child care (mentioned by six out of the ten institutions: ACF,
EC, FANTA, FAO, IYCN, World Vision).
 Two noted the importance of liquidity of financial resources / frequency of income
stream (Bioversity, FANTA) – implying that regular small amounts of income may even
be more beneficial than larger but less frequent payments.
 Related to both of the above points, two notes recommended diversification of production
systems and livelihoods, including small-scale agro-processing and in-kind revolving
funds or inventory credit (FANTA, SCN).
 FANTA also noted that income gains are more likely to be spent on food if nutrition
education is provided, or if income is in-kind (related to social protection schemes linked
to agriculture).
 Save the Children UK also pointed out the need to specifically target the poorest and
most vulnerable for income-generating opportunities.
 FAO and IYCN raised the concern that mechanization can be helpful to reduce women’s
workloads in some circumstances, but the situation should be carefully analyzed to
ensure that introduction of mechanization will not displace farm labor and thereby
deprive landless vulnerable households of income.
IFPRI simply stated the issue as a question: “What incentives need to be put in place to ensure
that increased farmer income translates into better health and nutrition?” Further work could
increase understanding of how to leverage household income for nutrition in diverse contexts.
Seven out of the ten organizations explicitly discussed improved equity of resources as a
requisite step toward improved nutrition for vulnerable households (ACF, EC, FANTA, FAO,
Save UK, UN SCN, World Vision). The main recommendations fell into two broad categories:
policies and program activities.
The policy side of ensuring equitable access to resources crosses over into the supporting role of
policy coherence, but development institutions could also advocate for policy changes. The main
policy recommendation, according to all documents that discussed equity, was securing land
rights for poor and vulnerable groups, particularly for women (ACF, FANTA, Save UK,
UN SCN, World Vision) as well as ethnic minorities (EC), smallholder/urban farmers (FAO, UN
SCN), and emergency-affected groups (EC). Land tenure is a necessary basis for productivity
and food security, and the UN SCN further noted that foreign direct investment may be a threat
to vulnerable groups without formal land rights, including to forests and rangeland (EC). The UN
SCN further gave specifics on how land tenure policies could improve even in situations where
entrenched rules and procedures could make sweeping change difficult.

Apart from land tenure reform, other policy recommendations included:
 Policies to increase access to water (EC, FAO, Save UK, UN SCN)
 Legal and policy support for the poor to access employment opportunities (ACF, EC)
 Policies to increase extension services, financing, access to inputs and appropriate
technologies for smallholders (FAO, Save UK)
Programmatic approaches to improved equity included:

 Credit and financial services, including insurance (ACF, EC, FANTA, FAO, Save UK,
UN SCN, WV)
 Increasing smallholder’s (and women’s in particular) access to markets (ACF, EC, Save
UK, UN SCN, WV) through transport, information, and farmer organizations/
cooperatives;
 Increasing access to productive assets such as livestock, seeds, and storage facilities (EC,
FAO, Save UK, UN SCN, WV);
 Improved access to water resources (EC, Save UK, UN SCN);
 Facilitating access to extension services and technology, especially for women (ACF,
FAO, Save UK);
 Social protection measures such as cash and food transfers and childcare services (ACF,
EC).
Both FANTA and the UN SCN stressed the importance of farmer groups. The UN SCN
discussed support for farmer organizations or cooperatives at length, as an activity based in
improving equity as well as efficiency: “groups are able to access credit, information, and other
important goods and services better than individuals.” Some of the other potential equity
benefits of smallholder farmer groups include political power to protect their rights (including
land rights), bargaining power in markets, and ability to purchase equipment and training they
would not be able to afford individually, thus putting them on more equal ground with large-
scale farmers. Program activities with farmer groups could include capacity-building on
prioritizing, costing, and managing production and marketing, as well as training on value-
addition (UN SCN).
Targeting
Nine out of the ten institutions recommended some form of targeting as a way to maximize
nutrition impact, mostly favoring pro-poor approaches, smallholder farmers and women. Despite
these underlying priority groups, advice was somewhat diffuse on whether to target by income
level, occupation (marginal farming, landless labor), geography (rural/urban/at-risk areas),
gender, lifecycle stage (first 1,000 days), or some other characteristic. The main point voiced by
all, however, was that it is important to target the most vulnerable groups; which population
group represents those most vulnerable may vary by context. Two institutions specifically stated
that the target groups often may not be chosen a priori, and would depend on context assessment
(ACF, BI).

To enable targeting, several organizations pointed out that some form of data collection is
necessary. ACF, Bioversity and IYCN explicitly recommended collecting data on household
food security and nutritional status, with ACF highlighting nutritional status of women and
children under age two. In EC’s advice to “prioritize areas or groups worst affected by
undernutrition,” data collection is implied. Bioversity suggests deciding on geographic target
areas based on “rapid assessment, key informant interviews, and visiting clinics and hospitals to
determine areas of need...” Data collection need not always require primary data, however, but
can rest on household surveys, vulnerability maps, or other existing sources (as described in the
“context assessment” recommendations).
As for which groups to target:

 seven institutions recommended targeting smallholder farmers (BI, EC, FANTA, FAO,
IYCN, Save UK, UN SCN), and two of those pointed out the idea of targeting via
promoting appropriate technologies for smallholders (IYCN, UN SCN), such as micro-
irrigation.
 four recommended targeting poor and/or food insecure households (ACF, FANTA, FAO,
UN SCN).
 six institutions advised explicit targeting of women (ACF, BI, FANTA, FAO, Save UK,
WV), although all guidance notes underscored the importance of women in agricultural
projects (see the “women’s empowerment” section).
 three also mentioned young children (ACF (<2 years), Save UK, and World Vision (<5
years)) along with women/mothers. The relatively low focus on lifecycle stage for
targeting efforts differs from the overwhelming focus on pregnant and lactating women
and children under two in recent movement on the global nutrition agenda, such as the
SUN Framework (2010) and Road Map (2011) and the 1,000-days movement, which
refers to the period of conception to a child’s second birthday where damage due to
nutrition is largely irreversible.11
 three highlighted the vulnerability of landless laborers and the need to avoid labor
displacement (EC, IYCN, UN SCN).
 two mentioned targeting urban and peri-urban food systems to expand access to diets (BI,
UN SCN).
 one suggested targeting youths in training around new technologies, and gender roles
(FAO)
Some unique target populations were also mentioned. Bioversity recommended targeting “early-
adopters” within program communities, so that households which may perceive too much risk in
investing in something new can observe what happens before adopting it themselves. ACF
11
Editorial comment: A blind targeting approach to only households with pregnant women and young children
would be logistically and ethically problematic in agriculture programs, but “targeting” here can also refer to
program design characteristics to reach vulnerable groups within households (e.g. producing nutritious
complementary foods). It is possible that the nutrition and agriculture communities have not fully embraced the
contribution agriculture has to make during the “1,000 days” period, such as its role in providing adequate diets,
empowerment, and income for health care for pregnant and lactating women; adequate and diverse
complementary food for children over 6 months; implications for workloads for pregnant and lactating women,
which affect pregnancy outcomes and child care practices; and environmental conditions that facilitate or inhibit
transmission of zoonotic and insect-borne diseases.

recommended approaches to prevent malnutrition over curing those already malnourished, which
has implications for how data on food security and nutritional status are used for targeting; i.e
target those at risk rather than those already malnourished.
The point was also made that efforts to target need to be mindful of social implications.
According to the two institutions that raised this concern, “restricted targeting…could create
tensions within families” (ACF) and “care should be taken to not alienate the non-target groups”
(BI).12
Diversify production and livelihoods
Almost all the institutions included the specific advice to diversify agricultural production. The
two that did not specify diversification (IYCN, IFPRI) could be assumed to support the advice,
however, since each recommended incorporating home gardens, which typically implies
diversification. Production diversification, according to the guidance, can offer support for
multiple pathways to nutrition, including:
 Food access and dietary diversification (EC, FANTA, FAO, WV).
 Natural resource management (ACF, BI, UN SCN)
 Productivity enhancement (BI); IFPRI also noted that incorporating home gardens, which
often implies diversification, can boost production.
 Risk reduction (e.g. from monocrop failure) (ACF, FANTA)
 Reduced seasonality (FANTA, FAO)
 Improved income streams and reduced cost of a nutritious diet (FANTA, Save UK)
 Adaptation to climate change (UN SCN).
 Women’s empowerment, based on in production of home gardens and minor crops,
which in many cases would constitute production diversification – this comes from the
“what to produce” section (BI, FAO, IYCN).
Ways to diversify included intercropping (FANTA, UN SCN), improved seed and information to
facilitate diversification through extension services (FAO, UN SCN), home gardens (FANTA),
introduction of cash crops as supplements rather than substitutes for food crops (FANTA), and
integrated crop-livestock systems (FAO). FANTA acknowledged that many semi-subsistence
farmers already use diversity as a strategy, and that it would be a useful strategy to “build on and
improve traditional cropping systems.” This suggests that farmers often choose intercropping,
for example, as a rational response to various household needs and weather/market uncertainties,
and that displacing such systems could do harm.
Several development organizations consider off-farm employment as an important activity to

steady income and reduce risk. World Vision and UN SCN specifically mentioned livelihoods
diversification as a strategy to improve incomes, reduce risk/increase resilience, and “increase
the amount of nutrient-dense foods for household consumption” (World Vision), presumably
through increased or more regular income streams or food preservation. UN SCN gave
12
Evaluations of social protection programs have shown that it is difficult to target single children within
households, because of the natural tendency to share resources between all children in a household.

examples of revolving funds and food processing as ways to diversify, noting that the latter can
also improve diet quality for urban dwellers. ACF also had a section on income-generating
activities for women, including food preservation, food service, and childcare provision; which
implies livelihood diversification as a strategy for improved nutrition, through women’s
empowerment, income generation, or reductions in seasonality.
What to produce
All organizations gave some guidance about what to produce on-farm to optimize nutrition. Most
(eight of ten) gave general guidelines as well as crop-specific suggestions.
General guidance centered around production choice based on nutritional value. Six of the
eight institutions recommended simply choosing nutritious foods to produce on the basis of
local nutrition issues and available solutions (BI, FANTA, FAO, IFPRI, Save UK, WV). Six
also advised promotion of micronutrient-rich foods (ACF, FANTA, FAO, IYCN, WV); three
advised promotion of protein rich foods (ACF, FAO, WV); three advised locally-adapted
varieties, particularly those which may have higher nutrient content (ACF, BI, WV); and unique
advice from ACF included promoting foods favored by children, foods rich in other non-nutrient
components such as antioxidants and fiber, foods low in anti-nutrients, foods or varieties
acceptable in terms of processing and cooking costs, and factoring in consumer acceptance;
IYCN suggested increasing production of foods consumed by at-risk groups. Strikingly, only
one guidance paper included a production choice recommendation based on increasing calorie
intake: increasing oil and fat in situations where fat/energy density is too low (FAO). To
achieve nutrition impact, the great preponderance of available institutional guidance
recommended actions to improve dietary quality over quantity.
Horticultural crops comprised the most commonly-suggested type of production to maximize

nutritional gain (by all ten institutions). The main reason was to increase availability, access, and
consumption of these crops to improve micronutrient intakes and dietary diversity. The
various notes interpreted this goal in two distinct ways:
(1) focusing on household use through homestead food production (ACF, FANTA, FAO,
IFPRI, IYCN, UN SCN, WV), and
(2) increasing general availability and reducing prices of horticultural products for general
public health nutrition, for both producers and consumers (FAO, Save UK, UN SCN).
Five of the notes also recommended horticultural crops particularly because they are often
under the control of women (ACF, BI, FANTA, FAO, IYCN); one noted that kitchen
gardening is a way for women to increase food access and decision-making without doing harm
to child care (ACF). To ensure that production translated to increased consumption, several
notes suggested combining horticultural interventions with education, behavior change including
social marketing (ACF, FAO, UN SCN; and several others more generally, see “Nutrition
Education” section).
Other goals of horticultural production included reducing seasonality (ACF, FANTA, FAO),
increasing income (ACF, FANTA, FAO, Save UK) and agricultural production (ACF, IFPRI),
and raising awareness about good nutrition in schools and communities (UN SCN).

Within horticultural crops in general, few notes made specific suggestions about what to grow,
but three notes named dark green leafy vegetables (ACF, FAO, WV). Two notes included
caveats about horticultural products: Save UK cautioned against high-value horticulture projects
simply as cash crops, and ACF noted that vegetables are low in energy content, that leafy
vegetables may contain tannins which can inhibit iron absorption13, and that it is important to
choose vegetables that are favored by children.
Animal-source foods (ASF) were discussed by seven of the ten institutions, with six clearly
endorsing ASF production at least on a small scale. The main reason was to increase household
access to and consumption of ASF to improve nutrient intakes (including micronutrients,
protein, and fat) and food security (ACF, FAO, Save UK, UN SCN, WV). Similar to the
advice on horticulture, all these notes recommended homestead production of animals to
improve diets; ACF, Save UK and UN SCN highlighted their contribution to income
generation; Bioversity pointed out animal husbandry as a potential pathway to women’s
income. Advice on how to promote animal production included promoting fish as well as
livestock (ACF, FAO, Save UK, UN SCN, WV), distributing improved hen species but also
using indigenous and small livestock, training on livestock management, and improving
veterinary services (UN SCN).
In contrast to the horticulture guidance, most organizations urged homestead production of ASF
for household use and income generation, without also recommending increasing ASF
availability for general consumption (among urban consumers, for example, as was
recommended for horticulture). Save UK was the one exception, which generally recommended
increased availability and reduced cost of nutritious foods, including meat and milk in pastoral
areas. The suggested focus on small-scale production was due to environmental concerns
(ACF, IFPRI, UN SCN), concerns about ASFs as risk factors for chronic disease (ACF), and
food system-level food security concerns, because animal production competes with cereal
production and availability (IFPRI). Alongside other notes’ advice to ensure ASF consumption
through education/promotional efforts at the household level (ACF, WV), IFPRI recommended
encouraging people to consume sustainable diets, implying advice to reduce consumption of
ASFs in many cases (such as in urban areas). UN SCN recommended livestock sector reform to
improve environmental sustainability. ACF brought up the need to ensure that animal
production does no harm to nutrition at the household level, through zoonotic disease,
parasites, reductions in water availability, and the possibility that promotion of cow milk could
displace breastfeeding if not done carefully.
Underutilized foods were discussed at length by six of the ten organizations. Four of these
conveyed the notion that traditional, indigenous, and/or wild foods are often powerful nutritional
resources because of their nutrient content (ACF, FAO, IFPRI, UN SCN). ACF and FAO
highlight the resource use efficiency and reduced inputs of producing indigenous food crops,
UN SCN noted their role in climate change adaptation due to superior productivity response
against local stresses, and Bioversity again noted that minor crops, which include many
13
While concern over anti-nutrient content is valid, this caveat is difficult to act upon: information on tannin
content of vegetables is generally unavailable, and dark green leafy vegetables are overwhelmingly recommended
as being nutritious foods (including by ACF).

traditional and underutilized crops, are often controlled by women and may increase women’s
empowerment. Echoing the general production advice of IYCN to promote foods consumed by
poor households, FANTA and FAO noted that indigenous food crops are important in the diet of
poor households and their continued productivity is important to food security, as well as to
harnessing a potential comparative advantage of poor/indigenous farmers were niche markets
and value chains to be created, as suggested by IFPRI, FAO and UN SCN. They could thereby
also improve consumer nutrition (FAO).
Advice on how to promote underutilized crops included research to improve understanding of
indigenous foods and their nutrient content (FANTA, FAO), improving production and
marketing of these foods through extension services (FAO), creating value chains to promote
their use (IFPRI), and promotion of indigenous crops particularly among HIV-affected
households (FAO). Two notes gave examples of underutilized foods: traditional staples like
sorghum and millet, forest products including trees and wild plants (UN SCN); wild fruits,
insects, worms and termites (which are acceptable and even prized in some cultural contexts) ,
herbs, and perennial plants (trees and bushes), which provide structural and soil-improving
functions as well as food use (ACF).
Legumes were highlighted by half of the institutions; both for their nutritional value (rich in
energy, protein, and iron) (ACF, EC, FAO, IFPRI, WV), and for their attribute of nitrogen
fixation, which can improve soil fertility and yield and reduce inputs (ACF, FAO, IFPRI).
FAO noted that they are also typically women’s crops. No caveats about legume production
were written. Advice on how to incorporate legumes included increasing awareness and
consumption via extension services (FAO), nutrition education on complementary cereal-legume
protein (FAO), and intercropping (FAO, IFPRI).
Biofortified crops, which often but not always are staple crops, were viewed more favorably
than staple crops in general, being fully endorsed as an important strategy by five of the six
institutions that discussed them (EC, FAO, IFPRI, UN SCN, WV), and tentatively accepted by
the sixth (ACF). Three of the notes framed biofortification as a complement to other
approaches (e.g. gardens and other efforts to increase dietary variety) (ACF, FAO, WV), noting
that biofortification “is not a panacea” (ACF, FAO). Concerns about biofortification included
opposition to genetic modification used in production of some biofortified varieties, and
questions about farmer and consumer acceptability (ACF).
Staple crops production was mentioned in six of the ten institutions. While three of them made
positive statements about the importance of staple crops for energy intakes and incomes (ACF,
EC, FAO), none made unqualified statements endorsing staples. Of the six institutions, four
voiced the caveat that staple crop production may be necessary but insufficient for addressing
undernutrition (ACF, FAO, Save UK, WV), because of its limited ability to provide dietary
diversity and also the anti-nutrient effects of phytates that reduce iron and zinc absorption; one
institution stated that evidence was lacking to support the theoretical link between staple
production and reduced undernutrition (EC); and one gave an example where improved maize
introduction could cause harm to vulnerable groups if it were to reduce their ability to compete
with larger farmers (IYCN). FAO suggested including staples consumed more often by the poor,
which may differ from those consumed by wealthier households.

Cash crops were viewed negatively within agricultural production-based strategies to improve
nutrition. Five guidance notes mentioned cash crops, all in the context of doing no harm and
mitigation of negative unintended consequences (ACF, FANTA, FAO, IYCN, Save UK). The
main concern of all five institutions was reduction in food security and diet quality, based on
the opportunity cost for household food production; “gains from cash crops do not automatically
cover this potential food gap” (ACF). According to FANTA, the risk is greater for high-value
export crops than for commercialization of a pre-existing food crop/ASF. Other concerns were
increased risk due to dependence on market volatility (ACF, FANTA), and increased inequity of
income control between men and women (FAO). Various strategies were proposed to mitigate
nutritional risk from cash cropping. Two notes suggested support for diversification strategies
in the context of cash cropping (ACF, FANTA), while the other three notes overall were
supportive of production diversification (FAO, IYCN, Save UK). FAO urged consistent
monitoring of effects on nutrition and community social welfare, as well as nutrition education.
According to two notes, cash crop promotion is less risky when land and labor are surplus
(FANTA, IYCN), when there is strong seasonality of food crops and the cash crop takes
advantage of slack labor periods, and when the cash-cropping is a women-led venture (FANTA).
Reduce post-harvest loss and improve post-processing
Beyond growing more food, retaining more of the food that is already grown would make a
significant contribution to agriculture and nutrition goals. ACF cited a statistic that 20% of
harvest is lost due to bad storage and handling. Reductions in post-harvest loss and improved
post-processing were discussed by seven of the ten institutions, for three main reasons:
(1) increasing and prolonging food access and consumption, particularly micronutrient-
rich food,
(2) preserving or increasing the nutrient content of the food, and
(3) increasing income through higher profit margins of food sold on the off-season,
steadier income flows throughout the year, and employment in processing ventures.
Other reasons not universally voiced included:
(4) improving food safety (FAO, IFPRI, UN SCN), and
(5) improving consumer access to diverse foods, through improved availability and
reduced prices (IFPRI, UN SCN).
UN SCN pointed out that education is helpful to translate increased year-round access to
micronutrient-rich food into consumption.
Several types of actions were suggested, with some specific approaches for each.
 Harvesting and handling
o Efficiency in post-harvest handling (ACF, IFPRI)
o Other “healthy harvesting” techniques, such as harvesting at maturity, avoiding
damage and bruising, and not consuming or selling crops recently sprayed with
pesticide (ACF)
 Preservation and processing
o Solar drying (FANTA, FAO, UN SCN, WV) or shed-drying (ACF), with
vegetables blanched before drying (ACF)
o Fortification (ACF, EC, FANTA, IFPRI, WV) or light milling (ACF)

o Pressing oilseeds (FANTA)
o Fermentation of flour, porridges and milks (ACF)
 Transport and Storage
o Washing and drying fresh produce before storage (ACF)
o Using cool, dark, well-ventilated facilities protected against insects and rodents
(ACF)
o Storage of seed and planting materials (FAO)
 Strengthening post-harvest issues in agricultural research (FAO)
ACF and FANTA both expressed that locally specific problems along the value chain and
feasible, innovative solutions would depend on context.
Increase marketing opportunities
Eight of the ten institutions discussed market access and opportunities. One focused on policies
to increase access to markets for smallholders (including women) to increase availability and
access to nutritious foods. Two advocated for helping smallholders achieve better prices and
gain bargaining power through farmer associations (FANTA, UN SCN), business training and
inventory credit schemes (FANTA). Small-scale processing and microenterprise, particularly for
women, was one suggestion for improving marketing opportunities (ACF, FANTA). Save UK
discussed access to transportation, poor market information, and cultural restrictions as barriers
to women’s access to markets. The need to choose marketable foods to produce was also noted
(ACF, Save UK, WV), as market viability is central to meeting needs for income as well as food.
Building on market viability, three notes advised to not overlook the power of promotion and
social marketing to increase demand for foods that smallholders may have a comparative
advantage in producing and which may improve consumer diets as well as famer household own-
consumption and income (FAO, IFPRI, UN SCN). EC advocated for infrastructure to improve
market access, and FANTA also noted reformed commerce regulations, policy support to
agribusiness, and non-traditional agriculture export promotion as potential but uncertain ways to
increase market opportunities.
Reduce seasonality
Five of the institutions included reducing seasonality of food access as a main recommendation.
As stated by World Vision, “this is particularly important for nutritionally vulnerable groups
such as children under 5, who have a very small window of time before reductions in quantity
and quality of food can cause severe and often irreversible health and cognitive impacts.” The
main recommended strategies cross into other themes, including diversification and use of
locally-adapted varieties throughout the year (BI, FAO, WV), and improved storage and
preservation (BI, FANTA, WV), including inventory credit programs (FANTA). FAO
specifically mentioned designing vegetable gardens to maintain supply of micronutrient-rich
food year-round. ACF included other possible ways to reduce nutritional set-backs in hungry
seasons: pre-positioning health resources and food aid before the lean months arrive, and
providing food or cash transfers (indexed to price trends) or other forms of social protection
during the hungry season.

Women’s empowerment
According to the IFPRI paper, women “are the nexus of the agriculture, nutrition, and health
sectors.” The recommendation to empower women through agriculture programs and policies
was universal in the guidance notes, and it was far beyond a mere mention; each guidance note
had quite a lot to say on the topic. Due to the volume and specificity of guidance about
empowering women, it was taken as a distinct theme, even though women’s empowerment
issues also fall under the themes of “targeting,” “household income,” “do no harm,” and
“equitable access to resources.”
All of the guidance notes discussed why it is important to empower women for nutrition impact,
and the reasons fell into two main categories: (1) reasons of equity and human rights, and (2)
practical reasons related to women’s centrality in translating agriculture inputs and outputs to
nutrition impact. The impact-related reason most often cited was that women’s income and
decision-making power have greater impact on household health and nutrition than income
controlled by men (ACF, FANTA, IYCN, FAO, Save UK, UN SCN, WV). This rests on
women’s role across cultures as providers and gatekeepers of household food, childcare, and
health (ACF, EC, FANTA, IFPRI, Save UK, WV). Bioversity highlighted women’s role as
“keepers of food culture,” which affects how food production may or may not translate to food
consumption, and their role in using biodiversity in farming systems, which may reveal
underutilized agricultural approaches to improve nutrition. FAO pointed out that attention to
women is due simply because of their large contribution to agriculture, which would be
foolhardy to overlook.
The guidance notes had many suggestions on what to do to enable women’s empowerment
through agricultural programs.
 In the planning stages of a program, IFPRI and IYCN advised assessing the trade-offs
between child care and agricultural production. ACF advised that time and labor demands
should be evaluated, and that physical labor is more difficult for undernourished people,
especially those suffering from iron deficiency – most of whom are women.
 Relatedly, several notes stressed avoiding harm mainly by
1. Avoiding increased workload on women, which could harm both their own nutritional
status due to physical work, and their children’s, if the time or quality women could
devote to child care were reduced (ACF, FANTA, FAO, IYCN, Save UK). FANTA
pointed out increased female labor could also harm food production for the household,
since women are often responsible for producing gardens or other products for household
own-consumption.
2. Including men and boys so that they understand and become more supportive of women
or the projects targeting women can also be helpful to avoid harm and to increase chances
of success (ACF).
 Specific agriculture activities to reach women included:
1. Focus on food crops grows by women. FANTA, FAO and Bioversity specify that non-
staple minor crop production (including vegetables, fruit, legumes, and traditional and
indigenous food crops) and/or animal husbandry are more likely to be female-controlled

(depending on the local context). Bioversity points out that focusing on women’s
production of these can “offer opportunities for value addition and increase income
security” while FAO states, “commonly, crops grown by women are used for home
consumption and, therefore, have a direct impact on household food security and
nutrition.” ACF and IYCN advocate for home gardens primarily because they are usually
under women’s control, and can therefore increase women’s decision-making power
about food consumption.
2. Improving women’s access to extension services, technology, inputs, markets, and
information (ACF, FANTA, FAO, WV).
3. Investing in technologies to reduce labor and time costs, especially for typically women’s
tasks such as weeding, harvesting, processing and food preservation (FANTA, FAO,
IYCN, Save UK).
4. EC, IYCN, Save UK and all the others by implication of their initial rationale, stressed
the importance of strengthening women’s income control (through the above activities) –
as long as trade-offs with child care quality are not too great.
 Other add-ons to agricultural programs, related to women’s empowerment were suggested:
1. Creating an enabling environment for childcare (ACF, EC, FAO, IYCN); ACF
encouraged project planners to think about childcare during training for women,
breastfeeding spaces, engage fathers and mothers-in-law and other authority figures, and
to support day care centers or the like for working women (especially urban women).
FAO suggested a policy of allowing breastfeeding breaks for laborers. Save UK
suggested supporting men to increase their participation in care-giving.
2. Improving access to financial services (ACF, FANTA, WV)
3. Including gender-sensitive social protection measures, such as providing extra food
rations or vouchers, vouchers for services, multiple micronutrient sachets (ACF).
 Several notes couched activities to empower women within broad needs for policies that
support women’s rights to land, education, and employment (ACF, FANTA, WV).
Only three guidance papers discussed the process for how to best reach women in activities such
as those listed above. FANTA and FAO recommended that the best way is to involve women at
the design stage, and to continue working with them directly during implementation. That way,
“women can identify appropriate mechanisms for addressing labor and other time constraints”
(FANTA). FAO suggested that deliberate policies to target women through extension, designing
extension programs relevant to women’s agricultural activities, and/or increasing the number of
women extension officers would help to reach women farmers more effectively. World Vision
recommended positive deviance as an approach to empower women directly through confidence
in their own knowledge and abilities: “access to opportunities must be accompanied by programs
(such as PD/Hearth) than recognize and build on poor women’s priorities and knowledge; the
purpose here is to support women’s leadership and confidence-building, so that they can translate
opportunity into action.”

Nutrition Education
Nutrition education was discussed by all ten institutions.14 Why: The main reasons for stressing
incorporation of nutrition education into agriculture projects was to improve consumption
effects, and also to improve nutrition impact of consumption (by modifying care practices and
hygiene, for example) (FANTA) – or as FAO summed it up, “to improve dietary habits and
feeding practices.” World Vision identified sustainability of interventions and associated
nutrition benefits as a reason for education and behavior change, and UN SCN described
nutrition education as a way to “activate the latent nutrition aspects of many agricultural
development projects and programs,” or to provide an “extra incentive to produce more,
diversify production, and retain more food for household consumption,” according to FANTA.
Mostly women were considered the primary target group for education efforts (explicitly or
implicitly), while a few papers also noted the importance of including men and whole families
(FANTA, FAO, WV).
What: Important topics education or training could address included:

 Awareness-raising on food handling and food safety (ACF, BI, FAO, Save UK, UN
SCN)
 Nutritional requirements of different family members (ACF, BI, FAO, Save UK)
 Encouraging cultivation and consumption of locally-available nutrient-dense food, even
if available nutritious foods are low status (FANTA, FAO, UN SCN)
 Healthy food choices and balanced diets (FAO, Save UK, UN SCN)
 Food preparation and storage, including cooking demonstrations (ACF, Save UK, World
Vision)
 Reduction of post-harvest losses and long-term storage to maintain nutrient content
(FAO)
 Strategies to increase and diversify family food supplies (FAO)
 Encouraging environmentally sustainable food consumption patterns (IFPRI)
 Health risks of highly processed foods and obesity/chronic disease (UN SCN)
How: Several of the guidance notes collectively spent a significant amount of page-space
describing principles for forming specific messages. They advise that successful education
efforts will do the following:
 Base messages and strategies on an understanding of local perceptions about diet and
nutrition, reasons for current behaviors, and barriers and opportunities to behavior change
(ACF, BI, FANTA, Save UK). Bioversity suggests using the positive deviance approach
for behavior change, because it inherently builds in these considerations.
 Have a concise set of clear, actionable messages (ACF, BI, FANTA, Save UK).
 Build on existing messages and guidelines in-country, such as essential nutrition actions
or national food-based dietary guidelines (ACF, WV).
14
Save UK put nutrition education in its own section, apart from agriculture, although that section contained
similar advice to many of the other guidance notes.

 Relate messages closely to the agricultural intervention, such as nutrition information
about crops produced and ways of preparing and preserving them (FANTA, Save UK,
UN SCN).
 Release information through multiple channels at once (ACF, Save UK).
 Four institutions (EC, FAO, Save UK, UN SCN) discussed ways to build an enabling
environment for nutrition education to take hold, beyond specific trainings: through
capacity building, including nutrition training for agriculture, health, and education
extension agents; nutrition curricula in primary schools, which may include school
gardens; and increasing the availability of fruits and vegetables.
Where: The guidance notes also presented a number of ideas for venues for reaching target
communities with nutrition education and information:
 Group-based activities (women’s groups, marketing associations, microfinance clubs)
(ACF, FANTA)
 Schools (ACF, FAO, UN SCN)
 Home visits (ACF, UN SCN)
 Community gardens or other gatherings specifically organized for trainings (ACF, FAO,
UN SCN)
 ACF and FAO also had the further suggestions of utilizing market days; religious centers;
performances (e.g. dramas, storytelling); and mass media (radio, television, billboards,
posters).
Who could or should give nutrition education trainings, and how much should be expected of
agricultural extension, is probably the subject of most debate within this theme. Five institutions
singled out agricultural extension agents as the most effective for communicating nutrition
information in the context of an agricultural program (ACF, FANTA, FAO, IYCN, UN SCN),
and Save UK included agricultural extension as one possible channel along with health workers,
mass media and/or schools. FANTA and UN SCN underscored the need for information to be
closely tied with the intervention, but FANTA also suggested that agricultural extensionists
could include simple, basic health messages. ACF discussed collaboration with health staff
(CHWs, auxiliary nurses, birth attendants) or nutrition volunteers to get all the necessary
messages out. Other notes did not specify who should be responsible for the nutrition education.
The potential disconnect between the large array of suggestions for messages and addressing all
the determinants of nutrition security, and the vast lack of capacity for agricultural extension
agents to take on more than specific messages around crop/animal production, was not well
addressed. Program staff, which may include nutritionists, or multisectoral collaborations, may
be the assumed staffing mechanisms.
Management of natural resources
The fact that eight of the ten institutions discussed natural resource management at length, in
documents providing guidance on how to reach nutrition, is interesting. At first glance, the
identified goals of improved productivity (ACF, FAO, UN SCN), resilience and adaptation to
climate change (ACF, EC, IFPRI, Save UK, WV), and increased equitability of access to
natural resources (BI, EC, FAO) through soil, water, and biodiversity conservation may

seem simply production- or environment-oriented with little direct impact on nutrition. These
goals are relevant to nutrition, however, through supporting livelihoods, pro-poor availability of
water and water quality management, including control of water-borne disease (EC, FAO, IFPRI,
UN SCN, WV), and as a means to food security; and as IFPRI stated, “stress on natural
resources…may cause farmers to adopt farming practices that are harmful to their own health
and to the health of the consumers and that are ultimately not sustainable.” EC echoed that
climate change and natural disasters are a clear threat to food security and nutrition, and
therefore nutrition-sensitive investments are those that increase resilience while restoring or
enhancing the natural resource base.
Each of the eight institutions discussed improving soil quality through fertility control of erosion.
Suggested mechanisms included legume production and intercropping, integrated crop-livestock
systems, economic support for inputs such as fertilizer, and sustainable land management
techniques. FAO advocated for the use of iodine, zinc, and iron fertilizers, which could improve
soil fertility but more directly, can increase those micronutrients in food crops grown in the soil.
Five of the notes discussed equitable access to water and sustainable, pro-poor management of
water resources (EC, FAO, IFPRI, UN SCN, WV); IFPRI noted this need would increase due to
climate change. FAO highlighted the potential of micro-irrigation (e.g. rainwater harvesting,
low-cost drip systems, treadle pumps) based on positive experience in Nepal. Three of the notes
discussed biodiversity conservation as an ecosystem service for nutrition, including use of
agroforestry, locally adapted varieties and supporting pest biocontrol from natural pests and
parasites (ACF, BI, UN SCN). FAO supported integrated pest management. UN SCN tied the
issue of natural resource management back to policy coherence around food and nutrition
security, and urged global policies supportive of conservation, biodiversity, and sustainable
management of natural resources.
Policy coherence
A majority of the guidance notes expressed that even efforts to improve nutrition through well-
targeted, context-appropriate, nutrition-friendly interventions at the household/community level
may be counteracted by a broader policy environment unsupportive of nutrition. The common
message on the need for policy coherence can be summed up as the need to “mainstream
nutrition considerations into relevant policies and programs, thus contributing to long-term
nutrition-sensitive development” (FAO). Seven of the ten institutions included the advice simply
to improve policy coherence, so that one policy does not work against another policy or program
(ACF, EC, FANTA, FAO, IFPRI, Save UK, UN SCN).
Further, most of those above-named institutions offered recommendations on exactly what kind
of policies are needed. These included:
 Food policy, which was by far the most common concern (discussed in five out of the
eight notes). Areas of food policy where guidance notes advocated for nutrition-sensitive
reform:
o Food price policies (EC, FAO, IFPRI). IFPRI made a special point that “price
policies can be used to promote consumption of more nutritious foods,” and
strongly recommended the use of policy instruments (including incentives, taxes,

and education/information) to correct market failures around the true price/cost of
food items, taking into account health and environmental externalities.
o Subsidies (EC, FAO, IFPRI). IFPRI specifically noted that “downstream” effects
are as important to consider as immediate effects of subsidies, giving the example
that untargeted consumer subsidies can help the poor obtain food in the short term
but in the long term, they can negatively affect consumption choices and reduce
more nutrition-sensitive investment.
o Trade policies, including import, export, and informal border trade (EC, FAO,
Save UK, UN SCN)
o Incentives (unspecified) to produce and market micronutrient-rich foods (UN
SCN)
o Policies specifically around export crops and staples (FAO).
o Control/release of food buffer stocks (FAO).
 Pro-poor policies in general (EC, FANTA, UN SCN).
o Land reform (FANTA, FAO, and others as detailed in the “equitable resources”
section)
o Legal codes, pro-poor regulations, and decentralization of licensing processes for
cooperatives, associations, and microenterprise (FANTA)
o Policies that enable access to agricultural inputs (Save UK)
 Infrastructure-building (roads, transportation, communication) (FANTA, EC, FAO,
IFPRI), which FAO noted can enable food distribution and reduce prices, and can
provide employment opportunities.
 Social protection/ social services (ACF, EC, FAO, IFPRI, Save UK)
o Cash transfers and other programs or policies to moderate prices15 for basic goods
and services for the poor (ACF, EC, FAO, IFPRI, Save UK)
o Provision of health services for the poor (FAO, IFPRI)
o School feeding programs (FAO)
o Supplementary feeding programs (FAO)
 Environmental policies, to support sustainable farming activities (FAO, IFPRI, Save UK)
 Macro-economic policies promoting investment in the agriculture sector (EC, FAO)
 Responsible foreign direct investment that includes smallholders (UN SCN)
 Policies around non-food land use (Save UK)
 Population policies (FAO).
Good governance for nutrition
Good governance for nutrition refers to high-level planning and action specifically to reduce
malnutrition. Policy coherence – which is about changing policies in various sectors that are
counterproductive to nutrition policies, and adding helpful non-nutrition-specific policies such as
pro-poor regulations – goes hand in hand with good governance for nutrition. They are treated
separately here because eight of the ten institutions had advice focused on specific nutrition
governance (ACF, EC, FANTA, FAO, IFPRI, Save UK, UN SCN, World Vision). The EC
15
Could include tax breaks, pricing by ability to pay, vouchers, subsidies, other incentives

paper had a complete section on improving nutrition through governance (see Annex 3 “good
governance for nutrition” table) with many points of guidance.
Leadership and commitment at the highest levels of government and donors is a prerequisite to
support the processes needed within good governance for nutrition (ACF, EC, FAO, Save UK).
The IFPRI paper suggested operational research is needed to learn how to generate effective
leadership for multisectoral collaboration and coordination.
The main recommendation in this area was to draw up a national nutrition strategy or action
plan (ACF, EC, FANTA, FAO, World Vision). FANTA discussed two kinds of plans: a food
security that aims to improve nutrition (generally an agriculture sector document), and a nutrition
strategy that can be explicitly addressed by agriculture (usually a national-level or health-sector
document). ACF, EC, FAO and World Vision noted that the current and planned budget (from
national and international sources), as well as institutional structures and capacity to support the
plan rapidly are also important factors, so that the plan doesn’t merely stay a plan. FAO had
several other suggestions for inclusion in national strategies, found in the table in Annex 3.
Nutrition surveillance was also frequently recommended (ACF, EC, FAO, UN SCN, World
Vision). National-level capacity to integrate and manage information from various sectors was
noted to be largely absent (FAO), and a topic that would benefit from research (IFPRI).
Accountability based on information, transparency, and nutrition indicators (EC, FAO) is

important to good governance. Two notes also mentioned reform of international bodies
affecting policies and actions at country-level, such as the CFS (FAO, IFPRI), that would assist
with accountability.
Other recommendations approached “policy coherence.” Incorporating nutrition into 5 or 10-

year development plans, poverty reduction strategy papers, and UN frameworks (EC, UN SCN)
is an element of good governance for nutrition, based on convincing planners that targeted
nutrition policies and interventions are necessary above and beyond economic development.
Agreement with international codes supportive of nutrition, such as the International Code of
Marketing of Breast Milk Substitutes is also a step toward good governance (ACF, EC).
Capacity-building16
Capacity-building, a theme closely related to nutrition governance, was discussed by five

institutions (ACF, FAO, IFPRI, UN SCN, WV). Advice was given regarding kinds of capacity
needed as well as actors who need it. Ministry staff, including local and extension services in
agriculture and health, were specifically singled out as needing greater capacity to understand
and address malnutrition (ACF, FAO, UN SCN), as well as policymakers and communities/the
public (FAO). As stated by the UN SCN, “There is a shortage of qualified personnel at every
level – national, district, and local.” Kinds of capacity needed included identifying food and
16
Note: this term refers to capacity building of personnel. Capacity building of households or beneficiaries is
treated under “nutrition education,” above.

nutritional problems and their causes and prioritizing needs, designing intervention strategies,
providing management and operational support, and nutrition communication skills (FAO, UN
SCN). Beyond increasing capacity of existing ministry staff, FAO pointed out that the coverage
of agricultural extension is low, and agents often have very limited resources available to them.
FAO and the UN SCN proposed that more nutritionists and home economics staff would also
help: “procuring funding for training nutrition specialists at all levels of government should be a
priority” (UN SCN). IFPRI suggested to “Invest in research, evaluation, and education systems
capable of integrating information from…agriculture, health, and nutrition” as well as human
and institutional capacity. Civil society involvement and inclusion may increase capacity for
action and assessment (ACF, EC).
Advocacy and communication
Communication and advocacy were raised by eight institutions as important tasks to link
agriculture and nutrition. Bioversity, FANTA, FAO, IFPRI, and World Vision recommended
wider dissemination of relevant results across sectoral boundaries, translated into policy-relevant
messages for effective program and policy changes. Suggested formats for knowledge-sharing
included bulletins, regular working groups, workshops, interagency meetings, and policy
dialogue (FANTA). ACF, FAO, IFPRI, and Save UK advocated for continued awareness-raising
among policy-makers of various stripes on the extent and consequences of malnutrition, and EC
recommended effective nutrition champions in different stakeholder groups (such as the
agriculture sector). FANTA suggested broadening open use of food security and nutrition
monitoring data, such as “standard data on health and agricultural production and prices
collected by ministries, NGOs, and UN agencies.”

Table 1: Purpose, Audience, and Scope of each Guidance Note
The purpose and audience of each guidance note were copied directly in most cases, and summarized when a direct quote was not available.
Organization Document title Year Purpose Audience Length

ACF Maximizing the July “This manual aims to provide practical ACF staff and other 100 pages
nutritional impact 2011 guidance to field workers in order to humanitarian
of food security maximise the nutritional impact of food practitioners
and livelihoods security & livelihoods (FSL)
interventions: a interventions”
manual for field
workers
BI Improving Oct “This guide describes the process and “This manual is aimed at 35 pages
(Bioversity nutrition with 2011 procedures for collecting important Bioversity’s national and (excluding
International) agricultural information required to assess local regional partners and appendices)
biodiversity: a farming systems and agrobiodiversity, humanitarian organizations
manual on household food consumption norms and with interests in the impacts
implementing food the nutritional status of vulnerable groups of agrobiodiversity on
systems field within a given population using specific food availability, nutrition
projects to assess indicators. Additionally, this guide and health in developing
and improve provides a framework for practical countries. It is a practical
dietary diversity, implementation of a holistic program that tool that can be used by field
nutrition and focuses on creating a customized workers trained in
health outcomes intervention based on community- agroecology and home
specific data.” survey data gathering
techniques, as well as
experienced health and
agriculture professionals.”

EC Addressing Sept “This Reference Document is intended as “aid administrators working 100 pages
Undernutrition in 2011 a resource to guide the practical within country teams — (3pp
External incorporation of nutrition objectives into delegations of the EU and specifically
Assistance: an relevant sectors and different funding offices of Member States. pertaining to
integrated methods used by the European Union In addition… national food security
approach through (EU) — whether in development counterparts and other and
sectors and aid cooperation or in humanitarian stakeholders.” agriculture)
modalities response.”
FANTA Improving the 2001 “This strategy and policy brief presents “USAID Mission staff, 20 pages
Nutrition Impacts recommendations for improving particularly Agricultural and
of agriculture consumption and nutrition impacts of Health Officers.”
Interventions: agricultural interventions, emphasizing “The information is most
Strategy and opportunities for strengthening appropriate for Missions in
Policy Brief complementarity between agriculture, countries with high rates of
health and nutrition program areas poverty and malnutrition,
without compromising program-specific where agriculture is a
strategic objectives” significant source of income
for the poor and where the
Mission has expressed a
strong interest in tackling
problems of malnutrition”
FANTA Increasing the 1999 “to foster a clearer and more in-depth Broad; but “produced for 20 pages
Nutritional understanding of program and policy USAID’s Office of
Impacts of options for improving the impact of Sustainable Development,
Agricultural agriculture projects on consumption and Agricultural Development
Interventions nutritional status.” Division within the Africa
Bureau”

FAO Assisting the food 2010 To describe the role of the food and 2 pages
and agriculture agriculture sector, and FAO, “to protect,
sector in promote and improve food-based systems
addressing to ensure sustainable food and nutrition
malnutrition security, improve diets, combat
micronutrient deficiencies, and raise
levels of nutrition, and in so doing,
achieve the nutrition-related Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs).”
FAO Investing in Food 2009 “The FAO Agriculture and Consumer investors (international and 2 pages (out
Security: Protection Department has produced this donor communities and the of a 30pp set
Linking series of briefs in the interest of guiding commercial private sector) of briefs)
Agriculture to investments. They highlight 12 aspects of
Nutrition Security agricultural production, processing and
food quality to illustrate where
investments can have big returns in terms
of improving productivity and
livelihoods while protecting the natural
resource base so essential for
sustainability.”

FAO Incorporating 2004 “The overall objective of this Policy Country-level policy-makers, 76 pages
Nutrition Brief is to create awareness and and health and nutrition (2pp
Considerations understanding of the advantages of good workers17 specifically
into Development nutritional status to the development on agric.
Policies and process, so that nutrition considerations policies and
Programmes can be incorporated into development programmes,
policies to facilitate sustainable but other
development.” sections also
This brief will “(a) provide policy- contained
makers with practical strategies for relevant
incorporating nutrition considerations guidance)
into relevant development policies.
(b) provide health and nutrition workers
with a tool to advocate for nutrition at the
policy level.
17
“In adopting the ICN (International Conference on Nutrition) Plan of Action for Nutrition, participating countries agreed to prepare
National Plans of Action for Nutrition (NPAN). In formulating their NPAN, several countries expressed the need for assistance in
terms of advocacy to raise awareness about the need to integrate nutrition objectives into development policies. In response to this
request, FAO developed this advocacy document.”

FAO Incorporating 2001 “This paper presents a series of Policy-makers, research 5 chapters
Nutrition guidelines meant to encourage and assist planners and managers,
Considerations Member Nations of the United Nations agricultural research workers
into Agricultural Food and Agriculture Organization and extension services
Research Plans (FAO) in addressing and including
and Programmes nutrition and health issues in their
agricultural research planning and
programmes...The paper also offers
practical suggestions for implementation
of these Guidelines, which are designed
specifically for four different disciplines
of the agriculture sector: policy-makers,
research planners and managers,
agricultural research workers and
extension services.”
IFPRI Leveraging 2011 “This “Way Forward” statement is a Broad 4 pages
Agriculture for synthesis of IFPRI’s preliminary
improving conclusions based on the policy
nutrition and consultation process and is designed to
health outcomes: stimulate international debate on the way
The way forward forward.”
IYCN Achieving Feb “This fact sheet summarizes these “agricultural professionals 4 pages
Nutritional Impact 2011 relationships by offering examples of involved in the design and
and Food Security what works and what does not, serving as planning of projects”
through a resource for agricultural professionals
Agriculture: Fact involved in the design and planning of
sheet projects”

IYCN Integrating Feb “This tool briefly describes how to Agriculture program 6 pages
Household 2011 develop objectives and determine designers
Nutrition and Food indicators that will maximize nutritional
Security objectives benefits for populations most vulnerable
into proposed to food insecurity and malnutrition.”
agriculture
projects:
Illustrative
guidance
Save the A life free from 2012 To “galvanize political Leaders of countries with 10 pages
Children UK hunger commitment…[to] dedicate the necessary high numbers of
Chapter 4: time and resources to ending the malnourished children,
Harnessing the malnutrition crisis.” global institutions that have a
Potential of mandate to tackle hunger and
Agriculture to malnutrition, and rich
Tackle country governments
Malnutrition
Save the Hungry for 2009 To “[provide] governments and Governments and 1 page
Children UK Change: An Eight- international agencies with a clear and international agencies
step, costed plan of credible roadmap to combat child
action to tackle malnutrition.”
global child
hunger,
Component 3:
Nutrition-Friendly
Agriculture and
Livestock Policies

World Vision Growing Healthy Feb This discussion paper seeks to make Broad; specifically WV and 9 pages
Children: 2011 explicit the role that agriculture, in other NGO program staff
Addressing child particular, support to smallholder
undernutrition farmers, has in reducing child
through agriculture undernutrition… to stimulate thinking on
concrete ways to improve nutritional
status through agricultural interventions.”
World Vision Growing healthy Feb To present publicly the information in the Broad 4 pages
children: Key 2011 discussion paper above and key lessons
Lessons from from World Vision’s experience, and to
evaluations of gain feedback at an international meeting
World Vision's (IFPRI International Conference,
integrated “Leveraging Agriculture for Improving
agriculture- Nutrition and Health”)
nutrition-health
programming
UN SCN 6th report on the 2010 “Chapter 4 discusses current trends in Broad 22 pages
world nutrition food and nutrition security, explores
situation, Ch4: immediate and long-term challenges, and
Sustainable Food presents the case for why agriculture is
and Nutrition central to improving nutrition.”
Security

ANNEX 1: ALL DOCUMENTS IDENTIFIED:
Institutional Guidance/Statements on linking agriculture and nutrition
Summary:
A total of 43 publications were identified to date; 26 development institutions have been
involved in publishing guidance, a statement, or explorations of the evidence linking agriculture
and nutrition. These fall into the categories of “guiding principles and operational guidance” for
increasing nutrition impact of agriculture programs; UN inter-agency guidance; “manuals” to
assist program staff in implementing the principles; “statements and strategies” describing
approaches of individual institutions; and “other” including four academic reviews, a community
conversation, and a research program. The papers identified in each category are identified
below.
Guidance notes (10 institutions)
ACF International (Action Against Hunger)

“Maximizing the nutritional impact of food security and livelihoods interventions: a manual for
field workers” (Geraldine Le Cuziat and Hanna Mattinen) July 2011
http://www.actionagainsthunger.org/publication/2011/07/maximising-nutritional-impact-food-
security-and-livelihoods-interventions
Bioversity International (BI)

“Improving Nutrition with Agricultural Biodiversity: a manual on implementing food systems
field projects to assess and improve dietary diversity, and nutrition and health outcomes”
Oct 2011
http://www.bioversityinternational.org/fileadmin/bioversityDocs/Research/Nutrition__new_/Imp
roving_Nutrition_with_agricultural_biodiversity.pdf
EC (European Commission)
“Addressing Undernutrition in External Assistance: an integrated approach through sectors and
aid modalities.” September 2011
Note: Sections 2.6-2.7 are most relevant: “Improving Nutrition through Food Security” and
“Improving Nutrition through Agriculture”
http://capacity4dev.ec.europa.eu/topic/fighting-hunger
http://capacity4dev.ec.europa.eu/sites/default/files/documents/topic/nutrition_en_web.pdf
FANTA (Food And Nutrition Technical Assistance - USAID)

“Improving the Nutrition Impacts of Agriculture Interventions: Strategy and Policy Brief” 2001
http://www.fantaproject.org/downloads/pdfs/NutAg_Mar01.pdf
Background paper: “Increasing the Nutritional Impacts of Agricultural Interventions” (Patricia
Bonnard) 1999
http://www.fantaproject.org/downloads/pdfs/nut_ag.pdf

FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN)
“Assisting the food and agriculture sector in addressing malnutrition” 2010
http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/agn/pdf/Food_and_Agr_sector_and_malnutrition.pdf
“Investing in Food Security: Linking Agriculture to Nutrition Security” 2009
http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/ag_portal/docs/i1230e00.pdf
“Incorporating Nutrition Considerations into Development Policies and Programmes” 2004
Note: p44-46 is most relevant: Policies and programs in agriculture.
ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/007/y5343e/y5343e00.pdf
“Incorporating Nutrition Considerations into Agricultural Research Plans and Programmes”
2001
http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/y1181e/Y1181E00.htm
IFPRI (International Food Policy Research Institute)

“Leveraging Agriculture for improving nutrition and health outcomes: The way forward.” 2011
http://2020conference.ifpri.info/publications/the-way-forward/
This piece has also been published as Ch.23 in Reshaping agriculture for nutrition and health
edited by S Fan and R Pandya-Lorch, IFPRI 2012 (Shenggen Fan, Rajul Pandya-Lorch, and
Heidi Fritschel)
http://www.ifpri.org/publication/reshaping-agriculture-nutrition-and-
health?utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=Feed%3A+ifpri-
agriculture-health+%28New+from+IFPRI+on+agriculture+and+health%29
IYCN (Infant and Young Child Nutrition – USAID)

“Achieving Nutritional Impact and Food Security through Agriculture: Fact sheet” Feb 2011
http://www.iycn.org/resource/?resource_categories=agriculture-
toolshttp://iycn.org/files/FINALIYCNAgricultureFactSheet022311.pdf
“Integrating Household Nutrition and Food Security objectives into proposed agriculture
projects: Illustrative guidance” Feb 2011
http://www.iycn.org/agriculture.php
Save the Children, UK

“A Life Free from Hunger: Chapter 4: Harnessing the Potential of Agriculture to Tackle
Malnutrition” 2012
http://www.savethechildren.org.uk/resources/online-library/life-free-hunger-tackling-child-
malnutrition
“Hungry for Change: An eight-step, costed plan of action to tackle global hunger” 2009
Note: “component 3” of the plan is about nutrition-friendly agriculture
http://www.savethechildren.org.uk/en/54_9544.htm
World Vision International (WV)

“Growing Healthy Children: Addressing child undernutrition through agriculture.” (Sheri Arnott)
Feb 2011
http://voices.worldvision.ca/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/Food-Sec-Nutrition-Discussion-Paper-
FINALver-2-feb-2011-21.pdf
“Growing healthy children: Key Lessons from evaluations of World Vision's integrated
agriculture-nutrition-health programming” (Kioko Munyao) Feb 2011

http://2020conference.ifpri.info/files/2010/12/20110211parallel2C3_Munyao_Kioko_note.pdf
World Bank
Addressing Nutrition through Multisectoral Approaches: Guidance Note for Agriculture and
Rural Development
To be released 2012
UN inter-agency guidance (2 inter-agency bodies)
UN SCN (Standing Committee on Nutrition)

“6th report on the world nutrition situation: Progress in Nutrition” 2010
Chapter 4: Sustainable Food and Nutrition Security
Note: the 6th report (SCN’s most recent) focuses on two priority areas: maternal nutrition (Ch
3), and agriculture as central to improving nutrition (Ch4).
http://www.unscn.org/files/Publications/RWNS6/html/index.html
UN HLTF on Global Food Security (High Level Task Force)

“Food and Nutrition Security for All through Sustainable Agriculture and Food Systems” March
2012
Available online soon at http://www.un.org/en/issues/food/taskforce/
“Updated Comprehensive Framework for Action (CFA)” 2010
http://un-foodsecurity.org/sites/default/files/UCFA_English.pdf
http://un-foodsecurity.org/sites/default/files/SUMMARY_UCFA_EN.pdf
Manuals (5 institutions)
ACDI/VOCA
Set of four “Nutrition Integration Fact Sheets” on integrating nutrition into value chains for
legumes, vegetables, maize, and rice, accompanied by a nutrition primer. April 2012
Not yet available online
ACF International
“Maximizing the nutritional impact of food security and livelihoods interventions: a manual for
field workers” July 2011
http://www.actionagainsthunger.org/publication/2011/07/maximising-nutritional-impact-food-
security-and-livelihoods-interventions
Bioversity International
“Improving Nutrition with Agricultural Biodiversity: a manual on implementing food systems
field projects to assess and improve dietary diversity, and nutrition and health outcomes”
Oct 2011
http://www.bioversityinternational.org/fileadmin/bioversityDocs/Research/Nutrition__new_/Imp
roving_Nutrition_with_agricultural_biodiversity.pdf

FAO
“Guidelines for joint planning for nutrition, food security, and livelihoods: Agreeing on causes of
malnutrition for joint action.” May 2011
http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/wa_workshop/docs/Joint_Planning_for_Nutrition_FA
O_May2011.pdf
“Protecting and Promoting Nutrition in Crisis and Recovery” 2005
ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/008/y5815e/y5815e00.pdf
“Guidelines for preparing micro-project proposals to improve food security and nutrition” 2002
http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/005/y2829e/y2829e00.htm
“Guidelines for participatory nutrition projects” 1993; currently being updated
http://www.fao.org/docrep/v1490e/v1490e00.htm#TopOfPage
IYCN
“Nutritional Impact Assessment Tool: a tool for maximizing the positive impacts of agricultural
interventions on nutritionally vulnerable and food insecure populations” September 2011
http://www.iycn.org/resource/?resource_categories=agriculture-tools
Statements and strategies (9 institutions)
AGRA (Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa)

“Transforming agriculture, nutrition, and health linkages” (Ngongi) Feb 2011
http://2020conference.ifpri.info/files/2011/02/20110210inaugural_panel_Ngongi_Namanga_note
.pdf
BMGF (Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation)

“Agricultural Development Strategy overview” Aug 2011
“Our ultimate goal is to reduce hunger and poverty for millions of poor farm families in Sub-Saharan Africa and
South Asia. We believe the best way to do this is by helping small farmers grow and sell more food so they can
improve their nutrition, become self-sufficient, and build better lives.”
http://www.gatesfoundation.org/agriculturaldevelopment/Documents/agricultural-development-
strategy-overview.pdf
Bioversity International
“Resilient Food and Nutrition Systems: Analyzing the role of agricultural biodiversity in
enhancing human nutrition and health” 2011
http://www.bioversityinternational.org/fileadmin/bioversityDocs/Research/Nutrition__new_/Bio
versity_Nutrition_strategy__fullversion__.pdf
Concern Worldwide
“Realigning Agriculture to Integrate Nutrition (RAIN) Project” (Tom Arnold) Feb 2011
http://2020conference.ifpri.info/files/2010/12/20110211parallel1B3_Arnold_Tom_note.pdf
HKI (Helen Keller International)

“Homestead Food Production and Nutrition Education” (Victoria Quinn) Feb 2011
http://2020conference.ifpri.info/files/2010/12/20110211parallel1B1_Quinn_Victoria_note.pdf

ICRW (International Center for Research on Women)
“A Leadership Strategy for Reducing Hunger and Malnutrition in Africa: The Agriculture-
Nutrition Advantage” (C Johnson-Welch, K MacQuarrie, S Bunch) 2005
http://www.icrw.org/files/publications/A-Leadership-Strategy-for-Reducing-Hunger-and-
Malnutrition-in-Africa-The-Agriculture-Nutrition-Advantage.pdf
IFAD (International Fund for Agricultural Development of the UN)

Strategic Framework 2011-2015: Enabling poor rural people to improve their food security and
nutrition, raise their incomes and strengthen their resilience
http://www.ifad.org/sf/index.htm
http://www.ifad.org/sf/strategic_e.pdf
USAID (United States Agency for International Development)

Feed the Future Guide 2010
Note: p13-14 outlines FTF approach to reducing undernutrition through agriculture
investments.
http://www.feedthefuture.gov/guide.html
Feed the Future Indicator Handbook: Definition Sheets
http://www.feedthefuture.gov/documents/FTFHandbookIndicatorDefinitions.pdf
Delivering Improved Nutrition: Recommendations for Changes to U.S. Food Aid Products and
Programs (Webb, P., B. Rogers, I. Rosenberg, N. Schlossman, C. Wanke, J. Bagriansky, K.
Sadler, Q. Johnson, J. Tilahun, A. Reese Masterson, A. Narayan.) Apr 2011
http://www.usaid.gov/press/releases/2011/DeliveringImprovedNutrition.pdf
WFP (World Food Programme of the UN)

“Enhancing nutrition along the value chain” (Ken Davies, P4P) Feb 2011
http://2020conference.ifpri.info/files/2010/12/20110211parallel1A2_Davies_Ken_note.pdf
Other
(4 commissioned literature reviews, 1 research program, 1 community
dialogue)
DFID-commissioned review (University of London):

“A systematic review of agriculture interventions that aim to improve nutritional status of
children.” (E Massett, L Haddad, A Cornelius, J Isaza-Castro) 2011
http://www.dfid.gov.uk/R4D/PDF/Outputs/SystematicReviews/Masset_etal_agriculture_and_nut
rition.pdf
http://eppi.ioe.ac.uk/cms/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=QbYFOlTyugs%3D&tabid=2974&mid=558
3
Masset E, Haddad L, Cornelius A, Isaza-Castro J. Effectiveness of agricultural interventions that
aim to improve nutritional status of children: systematic review. British Medical Journal (2012).
http://www.bmj.com/content/344/bmj.d8222

IYCN
“Nutrition and Food Security Impacts of Agriculture Projects: A review of experience” (Jim
Levinson) Feb 2011
http://www.iycn.org/agriculture.php
http://iycn.org/files/FINALIYCNReviewofExperience020911.pdf
Micronutrient Forum, USAID, A2Z, AED, IFPRI, INSP

“The Micronutrient Impact of Multisectoral Programs Focusing on Nutrition” (JL Leroy, M
Ruel, E Verhofstadt, D Olney) 2008
http://www.micronutrientforum.org/innocenti/Leroy%20et%20al%20MNF%20Indirect%20Selec
ted%20Review_FINAL.pdf
World Bank/IFPRI
“Pathways from Agriculture to Nutrition” 2007
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTARD/825826-
1111134598204/21608903/January2008Final.pdf
CGIAR (Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research)

CRP4: “Agriculture for Improved Health and Nutrition” 2011
http://www.cgiarfund.org/cgiarfund/sites/cgiarfund.org/files/Documents/PDF/crp_4_Proposal.pd
f
AED and FAO

“Deepening the Dialogue: Agriculture and nutrition collaboration to enhance global food
security: summary report from the Open Forum held on Nov 1, 2010”
http://typo3.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/fsn/docs/Agriculture_nutrition/Deepening_the_Dialo
gue__Summary_Report.pdf

ANNEX 2: ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
Some additional tools are identified below, which would assist implementers in following the
available guidance, or to understand the issues further. Note that this current list of additional
resources is far from exhaustive; it simply provides some pertinent references for further
information.
Indicator guidance:
FANTA/FANTA-2
Household Hunger Scale (2011)
http://www.fantaproject.org/publications/hhs_2011.shtml
Household Food Insecurity Access Scale for Measurement of Food Access: Indicator Guide,
version 3 (2007)
http://www.fantaproject.org/publications/hfias_intro.shtml
Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS) for Measurement of Household Food Access:
Indicator Guide, Version 2 (2006)
http://www.fantaproject.org/publications/hdds_mahfp.shtml
Months of Adequate Household Food Provisioning (MAHFP) for Measurement of Household
Food Access: Indicator Guide, Version 4 (2010)
http://www.fantaproject.org/publications/hdds_mahfp.shtml
Measuring Household Food Consumption: A Technical Guide (2005)
http://www.fantaproject.org/publications/householdcons.shtml
FAO
“Guidelines for measuring household and individual dietary diversity” (2011)
http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i1983e/i1983e00.pdf
IFAD
Results and Impact Management System (2011)
http://www.ifad.org/operations/rims/
WHO, UNICEF, USAID, AED, UCDAVIS, IFPRI

“Indicators for assessing infant and young child feeding practices: Part I Definitions” (2008)
http://www.who.int/nutrition/publications/infantfeeding/9789241596664/en/index.html
“Indicators for assessing infant and young child feeding practices: Part II Measurement” (2010)
Context Assessment and Implementation guidance:
A2Z: The USAID Micronutrient and Child Blindness Project

“Program Assessment Guide.” (Pelletier, D., Corsi, A., Hoey, L., Houston, R., Faillace, S.)
August 2010

http://www.a2zproject.org/pdf/PAG.pdf
FANTA
“Nutrition, Food Security and HIV: A Compendium of Promising Practices” (2008)
http://www.fantaproject.org/publications/fsHIVcompendium2008.shtml
FAO
“Improving nutrition programmes: an assessment tool for action” (2005)
ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/009/a0244e/a0244e00.pdf
IFAD
“Good practices in participatory mapping” (2009)
http://www.ifad.org/pub/map/PM_web.pdf
IPC (Integrated Food Security Phase Classification)

Standardized Tool for classifying food security (2011)
http://www.ipcinfo.org/index.php
WHO/UNICEF
“Planning guide for national implementation of the global strategy for infant and young child
feeding” (2007)
“Complementary feeding: family foods for breastfed children” (2000)
http://www.who.int/nutrition/publications/infantfeeding/WHO_NHD_00.1/en/index.html
Context assessment data sources:
DHS
http://www.measuredhs.com/
LSMS
http://go.worldbank.org/IPLXWMCNJ0
MICS
http://www.unicef.org/statistics/index_24302.html
FAO
Data
http://faostat.fao.org
Nutrition country profiles
http://www.fao.org/ag/agn/nutrition/profiles_en.stm
FIVIMS (Food Insecurity and Vulnerability Information and Mapping Systems) initiative
http://www.fivims.org/
UNICEF
Statistics and monitoring

http://www.unicef.org/statistics/index_24287.html
State of the World’s Children (2011)
http://www.unicef.org/publications/index_57468.html
“Tracking Progress on Child and Maternal Nutrition” (2009)
http://www.unicef.org/publications/index_51656.html
WHO
Nutrition databases
http://www.who.int/nutrition/databases/en/index.html
“Indicators for assessing infant and young child feeding practices: Part III Country Profiles”
Global Nutrition Policy Review (2010)
http://www.who.int/nutrition/EB128_18_Backgroundpaper1_A_review_of_nutritionpolicies.pdf
World Bank
Data
http://data.worldbank.org/
World Development Indicators
http://data.worldbank.org/data-catalog/world-development-indicators
Nutrition Country Profiles (2011)
http://www.worldbank.org/nutrition/profiles
Other:
IFPRI
“Understanding the Links between Agriculture and Health” (2006) (C Hawkes and M Ruel)
http://www.ifpri.org/publication/understanding-links-between-agriculture-and-health
“Working Multisectorally in Nutrition” (2011) (J Garrett and M Natalicchio)
http://www.ifpri.org/sites/default/files/publications/oc68.pdf
FAO
“Combating Micronutrient Deficiencies: Food-based approaches” (ed. B Thompson and L
Amoroso) 2010
http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/am027e/am027e00.pdf
“Impact of the Financial and Economic Crisis on Nutrition– Policy and Programme Responses”
(Brian Thompson)
http://www.fao.org/ag/agn/nutrition/docs/Impact%20of%20the%20financial%20and%20econom
ic%20crisis%20on%20nutrition.pdf
“The Contribution of Nutrition to Achieving the Millennium Development Goals”
http://www.fao.org/ag/agn/nutrition/Contribution%20of%20Nutrition%20to%20Achieving%20t
he%20Millennium%20Deve.pdf
Global Donor Platform for Rural Development

“Common Ground: A Joint Donor Concept on Rural Development” (2006)
http://www.donorplatform.org/resources/publications

SUN Framework for Action (2010) and Road Map (2011)
http://www.scalingupnutrition.org/key-documents/
UK Government Office of Science, Foresight Project on Global Food and Farming Futures,
London
“Understanding and improving the relationship between agriculture and health” 2010
(Wagge, J, Dangour, Al, Hawkesworth, S, Johnston, D, Lock, K, Poole, N, Rushton, J, Uauy, R)
http://www.bis.gov.uk/assets/bispartners/foresight/docs/food-and-farming/additional-reviews/11-
597-wp1-understanding-improving-agriculture-and-health
Future of Food and Farming Report (2011)
http://www.bis.gov.uk/assets/foresight/docs/food-and-farming/11-546-future-of-food-and-
farming-report.pdf
UNSCN (16th United Nations Conference of the Parties)

“Climate change and nutrition security” Dec 2010
http://www.unscn.org/files/Statements/Bdef_NutCC_2311_final.pdf
World Bank
“Prioritizing nutrition in agriculture and rural development projects: Guiding principles for
operational investments” (A Herforth, A Jones, P Pinstrup-Andersen)
To be released 2012
World Economic Forum

“New Vision for Agriculture” (2011)
http://www.weforum.org/issues/agriculture-and-food-security
There are many peer-reviewed scientific journal articles and books not listed here that
provide rich knowledge on the topic, and have informed the institutional publications
included.

ANNEX 3: quotes supporting each theme by organization
Bolding indicates a major point in the original document.
Nutrition Objectives
Organization Indicative quotes from guidance papers
ACF GUIDANCE 4 – AIM FOR IMPACT ON NUTRITIONAL STATUS
“4.1 Include a nutrition objective in the logical framework, when this is
attainable: The nutrition objective in the log frame refers to the direct or
indirect improvement of nutritional status by the project beneficiaries as a result
of utilising the services provided by the programme. This objective explicitly
demonstrates how the project contributes to improve the nutritional
status of the population. Make sure, however, that the objective is
attainable within the framework of the project.
4.2 Have at least one outcome or impact indicator related to improved
nutrition : The chosen nutrition outcome or impact indicators will vary
according to the nature and the duration of the intervention. They will reflect
changes either at the outcome or at the impact levels, based on the nutrition
objective as defined in the section above.
· Outcome refers to the short/medium term change induced by the project.
· Impact is the long-term benefit for targeted groups and the wider society.”
Bioversity “Basic principles in designing a successful intervention:
International  Make a clear plan. Thoroughly outlined objectives and expected outcomes
make the monitoring and evaluation process smoother.
 Design the intervention in stages, starting first with the smallest change
possible for the largest impact possible. Initial successes with project
recommendations will instill confidence in the community and make them
more likely to try higher risk changes.”
EC Possible entry points for [improving nutrition through agriculture] include:
“explicitly incorporating nutrition objectives in policies and programmes”
FANTA “Develop clear nutrition objectives that agriculture-based programs can
explicitly address. For example, reducing the incidence of stunting or improving
vitamin A status in a specified area are achievable, cross-sectoral objectives.”
“In the absence of an explicit nutrition goal, Agricultural and Health officers
may lack a clear understanding of priorities and opportunities related to nutrition
that could guide them in their efforts to improve consumption and nutrition and
to ensure integration and overlap with health programs. Absence of a strategy
may even lead to increased nutrition problems.”
FAO “[addressing nutrition security] requires explicit incorporation of nutrition
objectives into the design and implementation of agriculture development
initiatives to ensure they are i) not detrimental to nutrition and that ii) potential
opportunities to improve nutrition are identified and fully utilized.” (2009)
“In countries where it is appropriate to do so, incorporate clear nutrition goals
and components in national development policies and sectoral plans,

programmes and projects, particularly in the areas of food and agriculture,
livestock, fisheries, forestry, rural and urban development, commerce,
infrastructure, credit, water and sanitation, health, education, environmental and
social-welfare, and adopt benchmarks of success with clear time frames and
budget allocations, as appropriate.” (2004)
IFPRI “Design agriculture, nutrition, and health programs with cross-sectoral
benefits.”
IYCN “Incorporate household food security and/or nutrition objectives into project
design.18” (fact sheet)
Save the “Studies show that when improved nutrition is made an explicit objective of
Children UK agricultural programmes they can lead to increases in the quantity, nutritional
quality and affordability of the food families eat.” (2012)
“Ensure nutrition is an explicit objective of agricultural programmes:
National governments developing agricultural policies must ensure that nutrition
is an explicit objective of agricultural programmes. These programmes must
support small-scale farmers, who provide for families most vulnerable to
malnutrition, by helping them with the vital resources and knowledge they
require and ensuring agriculture nutrition interventions are suited to the land
they own.” (2012)
“ensure that making a positive impact on nutrition is an explicit objective of
agriculture policies, by focusing on projects that are designed to improve
children’s diet – for example, home gardening or education projects that focus
on nutrition.” (2012)
“…we cannot assume that increasing agricultural production will reduce
malnutrition. The growth of agricultural output at national and global levels tells
us nothing about whether or not poor people are food-secure and consuming a
nutritious diet. In Africa, agricultural production and food imports have been
gradually increasing over the past decade, and there is now sufficient food
energy available to provide everyone with an average of 2,500 kilocalories per
person per day, yet this is the region that has made the least progress in tackling
malnutrition.” (2009)
UN SCN “Although many of the actions cited above include inherent nutrition
components, often an explicit focus on nutrition security is required to “activate”
these aspects of the project or programme.”
World Vision “In order for agricultural and other food security interventions to
contribute to improved nutrition security, improved nutrition outcomes,
particularly for children, must be an explicit objective of agricultural policy
and programs.”
“Integrate nutrition outcomes into agriculture project programming
performance measurement systems. Recent reviews (Berti et al 2004; World
Bank 2007) present compelling evidence that unless improved nutritional status
18
The Infant & Young Child Nutrition (IYCN) Project has developed [The Nutritional Impact Assessment Tool] for
project designers seeking to build food security and nutrition objectives into agricultural projects. “[the tool]
operationalizes a process for considering the nutritional and food security impacts of proposed activities on these
groups, and helps designers to develop alternative sets of activities as well as a “do nothing” alternative.”

is an explicit objective of agricultural interventions, there is limited evidence
improved nutrition will occur. Agriculture interventions that have successfully
addressed child under-nutrition included nutritional objectives, implicitly
recognizing that there is not a direct line between investments in agricultural
production1 growth and improved nutrition.”
Context assessment
ACF “Guidance 1 – Identify the scale and determinants of undernutrition
 Collect information about the magnitude and severity of
undernutrition, its causes and its variation in time. Look at trends in
nutritional status over time rather than the prevalence of undernutrition at a
single point in time…Construct a multi-sectoral seasonal calendar…
Disaggregate data (e.g. age, gender, socio-economic status, livelihood
zones) when possible, as this will allow you to better identify and target the
most vulnerable groups…Collect secondary information on the potential
causes of undernutrition…
 Assess the level of commitment of the government in tackling
undernutrition.
 Collect information on existing direct and indirect nutrition
interventions to map and identify gaps
“Guidance 2 – Conduct a nutrition-sensitive assessment
 Conduct joint and multi-sectoral assessment or a Nutrition Causal
Analysis: Ideally, a joint team of FSL, nutrition, MHCP and WASH
practitioners will carry out the assessment, as a single sector assessment will
rarely provide all the required information…integrate some core questions
related to nutrition, care practices and WASH in a simple food security
assessment to assess nutrition security.
 Assess food consumption patterns and dietary intake: Make sure that the
assessment explores…Local perception of what constitutes a healthy diet
often differs substantially from a nutritionist perspective. Better
understanding of these concepts will aid in developing nutrition
promotion…Cultural and traditional beliefs around food are often strong and
very common.
 Assess care practices and capacities as well as health and environmental
conditions. Gender considerations, decision-making process, roles and
responsibilities of women in the household and in the community should
also be addressed.
 Explore local perceptions of malnutrition: Community-based nutrition-
sensitive programmes achieve greater impact on malnutrition.
Understanding and building on the local knowledge, experience and
perception regarding nutrition is the first step to ensure adequate and
successful interventions.

 Assess the risk of cyclical phenomena and disasters and their impact on
nutrition
 Explore the need to conduct an in-depth micronutrient assessment.”
“Consider socio-cultural and economic aspects of nutrition and food
systems. It is crucial to have a clear understanding of local traditions and habits
regarding nutrition and food systems, as socio-cultural factors greatly affect
the allocation and the consumption of foods produced at home or the use of
income. For example, in many cases livestock is slaughtered and consumed only
as a last resort even if malnutrition rates are alarmingly high or home grown
vegetables are only intended for sale. This is not a problem, but must be taken
into account in order to maximise the impact of the intervention – if vegetables
are systematically sold, sensitization should include aspects on how to construct
a healthy diet using foods available at markets, rather than solely focusing on the
consumption of home-grown produce.”
Bioversity “Project Facilitators use focus group and key informant interviewing to
International construct a broad view of community baseline circumstances and potentials
through collection of food culture, ethnofoods, and agroecosystem data sets…
Both qualitative and quantitative data should be systematized and visualized to
create a functional understanding of community food security, nutritional status,
and agrobiodiversity and their correlations to each other, if any. A set of
recommendations should be developed based on this data to use in the
intervention design phase. Additional information can also be collected if
deemed necessary to the development of a clear representation of community
circumstances.”
“Cropping systems, seasonality of production, and availability of resources all
interact with market and cultural structures within communities to affect food
security of the community. Creating a picture of agro-ecosystems at the village
level as well as the food-shed as a whole through mapping of farm systems and
market flows of agricultural products helps to correlate the landscape of food
production with food security perspectives.”
“Agroecosystems Analysis: FGD’s and Key Informant Interviews will be used
initially to collect data about the community’s resources, markets, production,
and power structures. The recommended data collection techniques [include]
community maps, soil samples, GPS climate info, market flow of goods (from
FGD), seasonal calendars.”
“Collecting Ethno-foods and Food Culture Data: …to record and obtain samples
of typical foods consumed in the area, as well as unique species available only in
the area of study. This data will capture seasonality, harvesting and processing
techniques of foods…an essential aspect of understanding food security because
it expresses how food is actually allotted in the home, as well as people’s beliefs
about who and when specific foods should be consumed.”
“The key to understanding potential for improving agrobiodiversity for health is
developing a complete picture of the nutritional value of available consumables
in the given community. This includes sets of questions related to cultural food
decision making and eating behavior in homes, as well as folk taxonomy and
growing season cataloguing of locally available traditional foods.”

“Basic principles in designing a successful intervention:
Utilize local capacity in new ways. Avoid designing a program that remains
depend on outside funding for the long-term and that over taxes existing social
servants.
Pay attention to local norms: Sensitivity to family decision making processes,
liquidity of income, festival and special occasion obligations and their costs, and
other nuances of household resources is essential.”
“Often both the capacity and the resources for positive sustainable change
already exist within the community. Data collected should be used to identify
‘positive deviants’, households in the community that are comparatively
nutritionally successful in spite of income and resource limitations, and discern
what behaviors could be making them more successful than other households in
the same situation. These behaviors should be used as a backbone for
intervention development.”
EC “[The need to assess potential negative side effects of interventions] highlights
the need for a robust situation analysis and on-going monitoring to make
informed decisions on interventions.”
FANTA “Conduct a review of local food security issues before drafting a strategy or
designing program interventions. In that way, the strategy and programs will
account for local macronutrient and micronutrient deficiencies and other health
and nutrition issues. Participation of local consultants and/or agencies is
desirable.” (2001)
“As a prerequisite to drafting a strategy, the Mission will need to review local
food security issues. This entails identifying and prioritizing nutrition problems
and agricultural constraints and opportunities, including important geographic
and seasonal variations, and the distribution of these problems and opportunities
among population groups. The review should also note strategic opportunities,
such as slack periods for labor, locally available pre-tested micronutrient-rich
varieties, and any comparative advantage in producing a certain high-value
commodity. It should capitalize on existing data and information available
through DHS surveys, World Bank poverty profiles, PVO household food
security and livelihood studies, PROFILES analysis and recommendations, crop
and labor calendars, and other means… The review process can also foster
collaboration with other local and international development agencies,
universities, institutes and non-governmental organizations. This process
requires that a wide range of agriculture, nutrition and health stakeholders
participate in the process of problem identification, strategy and program design,
implementation and evaluation of results. Close collaboration among
stakeholders is critical…” (2001)
“Program design decisions should be based on knowledge of local
macronutrient and micronutrient deficiencies or other nutrition issues.
Decisions should go beyond merely locating an activity in an area characterized
by a high incidence of poverty or selecting crops to be promoted strictly on the
basis of economic performance. Drawing up charts that match annual
fluctuations in malnutrition with crop calendars can help identify the array of
potentially appropriate agricultural interventions. Adding seasonal labor use to

the chart reveals project participants’ constraints and opportunities...” (1999)
FAO “FAO is committed to assisting countries…to support field interventions:
• understanding food consumption and dietary practices (in particular for mother
and child feeding) of key livelihood groups and their determinants;
• identifying gaps in food availability at local level in different seasons;
• identifying and designing realistic solutions to address constraints, together
with local institutions and communities, in particular women and members of
minority groups” (2010)
“In addition to being compatible with traditional development objectives, each
intervention category [inputs for diverse production, nutrition education,
biofortification, fertilizer&post-harvest handling] can be adapted to a wide range
of countries, agro-ecological zones and food typologies.” – the report then talks
about the most-needed interventions for three specific zones (warm arid and
semi-arid tropics, warm sub-humid tropics, warm humid tropics). (2009)
“Price is a major determinant of consumer choice in purchasing non-staple
foods. Therefore, an initial assessment to review how these [non-staple] foods
are processed, stored and marketed would be helpful.
Planners are also encouraged to assess the availability of commonly consumed
foods whose prices vary with increase or decrease in supply, and determine how
consumption of these foods is influenced by price changes and income levels.”
(2004)
“When introducing nutrition into the research agenda, the nutritional situations
of countries and communities will vary. Thus, it is necessary to recognize that
while there are certainly important agronomic factors involved, there are also
other factors such as gender issues, choice of approaches, policy directions and
institutional linkages to be considered.” (2001)
“Consider nutritional needs of local people, seasonal availability of food, level
of development, the economic situation (cost of farm inputs and labour
demands), and the environment, when developing production systems and
technologies for subsistence farmers.” (2001)
“The farming systems research approach, participatory rural appraisal (PRA),
research-extension-farmer linkages, participatory extension, and such concepts
as client-oriented, demand-driven research are all committed to the process of
involving major stakeholders (farmers, policy-makers, researchers,
extensionists)…By involving stake-holders, it becomes possible to take a
holistic approach to farmers' needs and to include their nutritional requirements
in the planning and implementation of agricultural research programmes. PRA
can be used to identify the basic needs, eating habits and appropriate cropping
systems of various communities, as well as to gather information on problems
and constraints related to environmental degradation and crop-livestock
production systems.” (2001)
“Build on the existing knowledge and skill of the local farming communities…
Indigenous technical knowledge and wisdom can complement formal scientific
knowledge in terms of location-specific classification of the biophysical
environment, and can supplement scientific explanation and prediction.”
“Consider local and/or regional cultural practices when formulating research

policies, priorities and projects.” (2001)
“Examine the suitability of currently recommended production and post-harvest
practices for small subsistence farmers and processors, with special attention to
the local environment, nutritional needs, labour demands, affordability and the
overall level of economic development.” (2001)
“Identify and define limiting nutrients in the diet of the target group. This should
be done prior to planning research projects and in collaboration with nutrition
and extension agents. It can be done by conducting nutrition status surveys and
food consumption studies.” (2001)
IFPRI “Civil society actors such as nongovernmental organizations can bring
indigenous knowledge about agriculture, nutrition, or health to bear on projects
in other sectors.”
IYCN “Ensure that vulnerable household members consume the foods produced.
Even when a household has access to adequate food, cultural norms sometimes
prevent the consumption of particular foods.” (fact sheet)
Save the “Context-specific strategies are needed that take into consideration local
Children UK variations in what families like to eat, how they share food, who produces, buys
and prepares food, and how much they know about nutrition.” (2012)
UN SCN
World Vision “Sustainability of agricultural programme interventions and the nutrition
benefits accruing from such interventions requires a sustained effort in nutrition
education and behavior change and reinforce positive nutrition practices
already existing in communities. These should be linked to existing community
and government capacity building and advocacy mechanisms.” (“Key lessons”)
Do No Harm
ACF “Do no harm!”
“As an absolute minimum, FSL interventions should not be harmful for the
nutritional status of the beneficiaries and mitigation measures (whether
preventive or corrective) should be properly implemented to this end.”
“FSL interventions have the potential to negatively impact on food security,
human health and the nutritional status of the beneficiaries, care practices45,
women’s and men’s status to name a few.To minimise this potential harm:
 Systematically identify potential unintended, negative nutritional effects
prior to the intervention and develop mitigation plans to control these….You
may consider doing this at the same time as you use the Programme Theory
to study the unexpected barriers and enhancers of your programme.
 Set up a continuous monitoring system that will ensure timely detection of
negative impacts, and implement corrective measures.”
“Refer to recent tools developed by USAID/IYCN help assessing the nutritional
impact of and mainstreaming nutrition into agricultural interventions. (ACF FSL
field workers are encouraged to use [the USAID/IYCN Nutritional Impact
Assessment Tool] although it is currently being field-tested)”

“Pay extra attention:
 When introducing new or improved agricultural technologies which
require additional workload and costs (e.g. improved seed varieties
requiring fertilizers and irrigation). Evidence suggests that smallholders may
not be able to participate as they lack the necessary means to use these new
technologies.
 When introducing cash crops (e.g. flower, tobacco or biofuel production) as
this may prevent farmers from working in their fields and negatively impact
household food production. Gains from cash crops do not automatically
cover this potential food gap. Reliance on cash crops also increases
dependence on external factors such as market variability. Encourage crop
diversification to reduce this risk.
 Provide protective clothes and/or equipment (e.g. gloves and mask) to
farmers when using dangerous chemicals including pesticides and
fertilizers. Note that ACF recommends an approach where the use of
agrochemicals remains minimal and is limited to specific circumstances.
Refer to ACF position paper on agrochemicals for detailed information.
 Provide protective clothes and/or equipment (e.g. impregnated bed net)
if the intervention involves irrigation schemes in areas with a high
prevalence of malaria or exposure to microbial and pollutants from
wastewater irrigation.”
 The main risk with livestock intervention is the spread of zoonotic disease.
 In addition to infectious diseases, parasites are also a concern for those who
have close contact with animals.
 Ensure appropriate consideration of natural resource availability (e.g.
pasture and water) as well as veterinary services, to avoid creating pressure
on the existing resources.
 Keep in mind that promoting ASF and, in particular, consumption of animal
milk may displace breastfeeding especially for children between 6 to 23
months.
 Remember that significant increases in ASF intake may put the individual at
risk of chronic disease. In undernourished populations, however, ASF
consumption is very low, in both absolute and relative terms. Moderate
increases in ASF consumption provide critical nutritional benefits that
outweigh the potential crossing of the threshold of significant risk for
chronic disease.”
 [Regarding food aid, ensure food safety standards, prevent market
distortions for local production, avoid gaps in aid because people rely on it,
avoid overdosing on micronutrients, protective gear for FFW programs.]
“…It is…crucial to avoid increasing the already heavy work burden of
women. Manual work in agro-sylvo-pastoral or in for-work activities is usually
time consuming and physically demanding, which may put strain on their
nutritional status and the time dedicated to childcare.”
Bioversity “Basic principles in designing a successful intervention: 1. First, Do No
International Harm. For each recommended intervention step devised, a clear list of both

benefits and risks for the step should be developed. Consideration of the risk
aspect of behavior change can make or break the acceptability of an intervention
recommendation.”
EC “Whatever strategy is chosen, attention needs to be paid to the potential negative
side effects of food security programmes on nutritional status — especially
where women are targeted and yet are also expected to be the primary carers for
young children. This highlights the need for a robust situation analysis and on-
going monitoring to make informed decisions on interventions. Corrective
measures can be incorporated to overcome obstacles, such as providing time and
space for breastfeeding in public works or agricultural programmes; or
distributing impregnated bed nets alongside surface irrigation schemes to
prevent increased malaria.”
FANTA “In the absence of an explicit nutrition goal, Agricultural and Health officers
may lack a clear understanding of priorities and opportunities related to nutrition
that could guide them in their efforts to improve consumption and nutrition and
to ensure integration and overlap with health programs. Absence of a strategy
may even lead to increased nutrition problems.” (2001)
“Governments and communities need to be sensitized to the dangers of chemical
inputs.” (1999)
FAO “[Addressing nutrition security] requires explicit incorporation of nutrition
objectives into the design and implementation of agriculture development
initiatives to ensure they are i) not detrimental to nutrition and that ii) potential
opportunities to improve nutrition are identified and fully utilized.” (2009)
“While cash cropping has the potential to improve nutritional status through
improved productivity and increased income, it may impact negatively if it
creates an imbalance or shift in the control of income between men and
women…Further, when people change from subsistence to cash cropping, they
may need to purchase most of the food they consume. This presents a likelihood
of replacing good-quality foods with less nutritious foods. Therefore:
■ It is advisable that, as a policy, strategies to monitor the effects of cash
cropping programmes on the nutritional and social welfare of communities be
appropriately integrated into programme activities.
■ Appropriate nutrition intervention programmes, such as nutrition education,
should be incorporated into those programmes as well.
“A decrease in food consumption due to higher food prices resulting from a rise
in producer prices can have a negative impact on food availability (particularly
for the poor) and nutritional status. Therefore, appropriate intervention strategies
that are targeted at the vulnerable need to be designed and put in place.” (2004)
“It is important to remember that new technologies and agricultural projects
could have a negative impact on family nutritional status if, for example, they
make greater demands on women's time, taking them away from their family
care activities.” (2001)
“Evaluate the potential gender impact of technology, ascertaining that new
technologies do not shift extra farm responsibilities to women, and thus interfere
with their childcare and family responsibilities. When possible, tasks of women
should be reduced to allow more time for childcare.” (2001)

“Develop safe and environmentally friendly technologies that do not threaten the
health of users and consumers.
Evaluate negative and positive effects of research recommendations by studying
how they effect the prices of farm produce.
Evaluate the production costs of promising new materials in comparison to
known and existing varieties.” (2001)
“Provisions to counteract or avoid any negative impact on the poor should be
addressed during the design or formulation phases of policy, projects and
programmes. For example, a pricing policy aimed at stimulating production by
the average farmer may increase the price of a food commodity, which can make
that food commodity inaccessible to low income groups and thus lead to
compromised food intake and nutritional status. Even if agricultural policies and
programmes are not directed specifically at the poor, they still may have an
impact on their lives, either positive or negative, especially concerning
nutritional status, food supply, shelter, clothing, fuel, drinking water, sanitation,
or availability of by-products from production activities.”
IFPRI “DO NO HARM
Mitigate the health risks posed by agriculture along the value chain.
 Agricultural strategies should seek to control the agriculture-associated
diseases and occupational hazards that are exacerbated by agricultural
intensification.
 New agricultural developments should be subject to health impact
assessment (HIA), which can identify health hazards and risks at the design
and construction phases when cost-effective safeguards can be incorporated.
 Also needed are improved production and processing practices, such as
better food safety practices and water management, as well as
 cost-effective risk-based technologies that are accessible to smallholder
farmers.
 Advances in health-risk assessment and management promote incremental
improvements through a multiple barrier approach. This provides a strong
basis for public health officials to participate in disseminating information
on health risks and solutions along the value chain.”
“Gender-sensitive programs that consider the synergies and trade-offs between
women’s roles in agricultural production and childcare can promote positive
nutrition and health outcomes.”
IYCN [The Nutrition Impact Assessment Tool focuses on avoiding harm. Key points
from this operational tool are listed below this table.]
“While the majority of agricultural projects result in improved lives and
livelihoods, some do just the opposite.”
“Modeling the expected impacts on vulnerable groups at the design phase helps
to ensure that they will benefit from the project.”
“Conduct a nutritional impact assessment during the project design phase.
When it is not possible to include nutrition objectives, incorporation of a
nutritional impact assessment in the planning process can help to avoid
unintended negative impacts. This process leads to more nutrition-friendly
programming by identifying vulnerable groups within food insecure populations

and estimating potential impacts based on expected shifts in land use, crop
prices, food crop availability, and labor utilization.”
“Achieving food security:
 Carefully watch the effect on food prices. …impact on food security…
depends on whether poor households are net sellers or net purchasers of
those commodities.
 Be particularly careful with projects that promote cash crop production.
Contrary to conventional wisdom, introduction of cash crops frequently has
a negative effect on household food security. Achieving positive effects
often depends on whether the land and labor used is in surplus and on the
variability in the supply prices of basic food crops.
 Encourage small-scale agricultural processes and beware of projects that
involve labor-displacing mechanization
Avoiding harm:
 Smallholders may not be able to participate in improvements.
 Mechanization may disproportionately favor larger farms
 Benefits of price supports can be unequally distributed. (In Honduras, price
supports for maize benefited larger, land-owning families, while smaller
farmers who were net purchasers suffered under the higher prices. Similarly,
sugar price supports in Jamaica increased employment, but the higher price
of consumption outweighed the economic benefits of increased
employment.)
 Without intentional support, the landless may not benefit.
 Time or physical constraints can limit women’s ability to feed their children
properly.”
Save the “When agricultural interventions fail to take nutrition into account, not only is
Children UK an opportunity lost to get the maximal return on investment but, surprisingly,
these interventions can actually have a negative impact on nutrition. To address
this, USAID is piloting a “do no harm” tool” (2012)
“Agricultural work can affect nutrition and health in three ways:
1. manual work is physically demanding, can require higher calorie intakes, and
can directly damage health
2. agricultural work exposes individuals to harmful germs, such as those found
in water-borne diseases or that come from animal sources
3. where agriculture production involves the use of chemical pesticides,
exposure to these can be a threat to health.
In many regions of the world the harmful impact of agricultural work on health
has contributed to a downward spiral of low agricultural productivity, low
income, poverty, and even worse nutrition and health. Agricultural programmes
that are seeking to improve nutrition must take account of the impact of
agricultural activity on the health of farmers and labourers, which can affect
nutrition, in order to ensure that these programmes do not inadvertently cause
harm. USAID’s new ‘do no harm’ tool is designed to ensure that agriculture-
related programming does not have a negative impact on the nutritional status of
communities. While the tool does not ensure a positive result for nutrition, it is a
first step in ensuring that programmes that increase food production do not cause

harm.” (2012)
“Policies must take specific account of the fact that the majority of small-scale
farmers are women, who are balancing childcare responsibilities and farming.
Agricultural policies that take women away from their children for long periods
may be detrimental to improvements in nutrition in the population.” (2009)
UN SCN
World Vision
From the IYCN Nutritional Impact Assessment Tool:

“Decades of project evaluations and research have shown that agricultural programs that focus
on increasing production, developing value chains and high-value crops, and increasing incomes
do not necessarily have positive nutritional and food security impacts on vulnerable populations.
Sometimes the impacts are even negative.”
“Much as environmental and gender impact assessments are now standard practice in project
planning to prompt consideration of the project’s likely impacts in those areas, a nutritional
impact assessment prompts consideration of a project’s impacts on the nutrition of vulnerable
groups…
“The Nutritional Impact Assessment Tool provides a simple process, guiding designers to collect
existing data on nutritionally vulnerable and food insecure groups in their project areas. The tool
further operationalizes a process for considering the nutritional and food security impacts of
proposed activities on these groups, and helps designers to develop alternative sets of activities
as well as a “do nothing” alternative.” The steps are as follows:
1. List project objectives.
2. Define food insecure population groups.
3. Determine the nutritional status of nutritionally vulnerable groups.
4. Create alternative approaches.
5. Estimate expected outcomes.
6. Modify the approach as needed.
7. Assess alternative approaches.
8. Design a mitigation plan.
9. Develop a review plan.

M&E
Organization Indicative quotes from guidance papers Recommended indicators
ACF GUIDANCE 4 – AIM FOR IMPACT ON meal frequency and
NUTRITIONAL STATUS dietary diversity patterns
“It is increasingly emphasized that FSL (or a FCS).
interventions must be able to demonstrate impact “Use dietary diversity
in terms of improving nutritional status… there is scores (DDS) to measure
no ready-to-use solution and the indicators to be the outcome of a short-
used will vary according to the nature and the term FSL intervention.
duration of the intervention. Once you have Dietary diversity scores are
conducted your nutrition-sensitive assessment easy-to-measure proxy
and identified the different pathways through indicator of food security
which your project may have an impact on and are cheap, quick and
nutrition, you will be well placed to determine easy to analyse. They also
the most pertinent indicators.” allow measuring trends and
4.1 Include a nutrition objective in the logical are sensitive to change…
framework, when this is attainable IDDS is also useful to
4.2 Have at least one outcome or impact determine the consumption
indicator related to improved nutrition of programme-promoted
“The chosen nutrition outcome or impact foods, if any.”
indicators will vary according to the nature and “Use the Household Dietary
the duration of the intervention. They will reflect Diversity Score (HDDS) as
changes either at the outcome or at the impact a proxy indicator of
levels, based on the nutrition objective as defined household access to food,
in the section above. In all cases, the indicators and Individual Dietary
have to be SMART (specific, measurable, Diversity Score (IDDS) as a
achievable, relevant and time-bound). proxy measure of the
· Outcome refers to the short/medium term nutritional quality of an
change induced by the project. individual’s diet.”
· Impact is the long-term benefit for targeted “Four core indicators of
groups and the wider society. IYCF:
The measurable effects of stand-alone FSL Exclusive breastfeeding of
interventions on the nutritional status are likely to children under 6 mos,
be less significant (with the potential exception of Early initiation of
food aid interventions) than multi-sectoral breastfeeding,
interventions, thus most changes will be detected Minimum acceptable diet
at outcome level.” for children 6–23 mos of
“Changes in nutrition practices and behaviour age (mix of meal frequency
may be accounted for through pre-post KAP and diet diversity),
surveys. It is however relatively easy to measure Consumption of iron-rich or
change in knowledge, but it is difficult to iron-fortified foods for
measure sustainable change in practices and children 6–23 mos of age.
behaviour.” “Use anthropometric
4.3 Consider the intervention as a flow with measurements to measure
unexpected barriers and enhancers, through the impact of long-term
Programme Theory FSL programming. The

Programme Theory is the pathway from an impact of an intervention on
intervention input through programmatic stunting (or chronic
delivery, household and individual utilisation to undernutrition measured by
its desired impact. The Programme Theory puts a height-for-age) may be
stronger focus on the intermediary outcomes and observed in some situations
problems that may arise alongside the where PLW and children
intervention to bridge the gap between the under two are direct
concept of an intervention and the reality of its beneficiaries, and the
impacts. intervention lasts a
4.4 Be clear on how data will be used in the minimum of 3 to 5 years.
project’s overall monitoring and evaluation plan Stunting is much slower to
“Too often the M&E component is incorporated change than wasting and is
into the proposal without proper analysis and less influenced by
without adequate funding and skills.” seasonality and disease
“As a minimum, each project should include a outbreaks. In addition,
Pre and Post survey, or baseline and endline stunting in children mainly
surveys, with regular measurements in between occurs during the window of
(monitoring)… More powerful types of opportunity (from
evaluation designs may be considered, such as conception to two years of
Pre and Post surveys with control groups or Pre age) and this is the time
and Post surveys with treatment of determinants when preventive actions
and known confounding factors, when the have the greatest impact on
intervention lasts several years and/or is its occurrence. Stunting in
integrated… Always seek professonal advice and children of 3 years or older
support for these kinds of evaluations as they usually reflect growth
require strong technical and statistical skills and retardation at an earlier age,
raise ethical issues.” and is often irreversible.”
“Experience suggests that 2% of the overall
budget should be allocated to M&E.”
Bioversity “In spite of excellent planning, an intervention Indicators that provide food
International can fail in the implementation stage due to security information:
unforeseen factors preventing acceptance of  Agroecosystems
recommendations or hindering expected results. visualizations
Because of this, regular evaluation of  Food culture data
intervention process should be undertaken both  Farming system
by the Project Facilitators assigned to a specific classification (e.g. soil
community, as well as by the PF Manager. An sampling, cropping
evaluation should return to the objectives and systems, elevation, water
expected outcomes of the intervention to assess resource availability)
the following:  Seasonal farming
1. Is the community accepting the intervention calendar
recommendations?  Household income
2. If not, why are they not accepting the  HDDS, MAHFP, 24-hr
recommendations? recall
3. If yes, are the recommendations having the
 Sanitation, health, and
desired effect? home facilities

4. If no, why not?  Nutritional status
5. What could be changed about the approach to (anthropometric
make the intervention more successful? measurements of all
Answering these questions systematically at family members)
regular intervals will ensure that time is not  General socio-
wasted demographics
emphasizing a faulty recommendation.  The Nutritional
Evaluation enables mistakes to be corrected Functional Diversity
rapidly before creating a long-term perception by Index, developed by the
the community that the project is ineffective.” Earth Institute at
“Regular reporting about project process lends Columbia University,
insight into the appropriate timings for staffing quantifies the depth and
phase-out at the local level, as well as the breadth of agro-
potential necessity for more permanent biodiversity according to
infrastructural support. Data about community dietary usage (Remans,
changes and improvements should be carefully Flynn, 2011).
documented and compiled into a final report,  …cost of food,
fully discussing successful approaches, failures, proximity of markets,
and challenges in the intervention process.” rates of self-production.”
“Document both successes and failures in
approach to inform future intervention design
decisions”
EC “Agriculture can and should be an effective “There are a great many
way to improve nutrition. The sector should possible indicators, too
therefore consistently incorporate nutrition many to list in this
indicators in programme design, and nutrition Reference Document.
criteria in evaluations.” ...boxes at the end of each
Possible entry points for [addressing nutrition section contain…indicators
through food security]: intended to complement the
“including nutrition objectives and indicators core/usual indicators for
(e.g. food intake/diet quality and anthropometry) each sector/thematic area.”
in monitoring and evaluation systems for Nutrition indicators listed in
policies, programmes and projects,…food Food security and
security information systems and early warning Agriculture sections:
systems.”  Minimum dietary
Possible entry points for [addressing nutrition diversity (6 – 23 mos)
through agriculture]:  Individual dietary
“designing strong monitoring and evaluation diversity score (women
systems and reporting on nutrition and food of reproductive age)
intake/diet quality indicators in addition to  Consumption of iron-
production figures and staple food availability.” rich or iron-fortified
foods (6 - 23 months)
 Minimum acceptable
diet (6 – 23 months)
 Iodisation of salt”
FANTA RECOMMENDATIONS FOR “Improvements in child

PERFORMANCE MONITORING nutritional status:
1. Ensure periodic measurement of child and weight for age, height for
maternal nutritional status to confirm that age, weight for height, and
agriculture-consumption-nutrition linkages are caloric adequacy of
being appropriately addressed. Missions should available food
be able to associate changes to the strategy (kcal\person\day); standard
interventions. measures of improved
2. Use an appropriate measure to monitor vitamin A, iron, and iodine
changes in food consumption if the agricultural status for women and
program has a food security objective. children’s micronutrient
3. Choose an indicator that the monitoring agent status.
can accurately measure. Indicators of food access:
4. Use simple, easy to administer indicators of number or type of foods
improved consumption and nutrition unless consumed, dependency
adequate resources and technical capacity are ratio, or incidence of
available. illness, and they can be used
5. Monitor program design characteristics that individually or in
promote consumption and suggest better nutrition combinations with other
such as the gender of project participants, simple indicators…Diet
innovators and income earners, the unevenness diversity is an indicator of
and seasonality of income, or the form (in-kind or household food security that
cash) of income earned. is easy to implement and
“Intermediate results are another logical avenue cost effective…Diet
for cross-sectoral integration since improved diversity of women as
health and nutritional status has a positive effect compared to men is more
on productivity and hence economic growth. strongly associated with
Intermediate results, together with the household food security...
corresponding performance indicators, trace out Another option is to monitor
the underlying conceptual framework of a the program characteristics
program and point to the type of design that have been found to
components that will likely encourage increased promote consumption and
food consumption and better health and suggest better nutrition.
nutrition.” (2001) Depending on the actual
“Missions should be able to associate changes program design, these
with the specific strategy or interventions” (2001) indicators could include the
“Where the Mission has developed an integrated gender of project
strategy for addressing nutrition concerns, many participant and
of the indicators for program performance may innovators, changing
be collected by health sector activities, and seasonality of income
adjusted to reflect interventions implemented by (access), labor use, and
the agriculture sector. It is likely that Missions food or micronutrient-rich
will have to provide additional technical support food availability.”
to agricultural programs if direct measurement of
nutritional status by those programs is required.”
(2001)
FAO “Assess the impact of new development

programmes and projects on nutrition to clearly
identify the potential benefits for or risk to
nutritional well-being among vulnerable
population groups.
Develop and use relevant indicators of nutritional
well-being to monitor progress in social and
economic development and establish appropriate
mechanisms to regularly provide information
on the population’s nutritional status and factors
affecting it, especially that of vulnerable
groups, to policy-makers and planners and all
interested sectors, both private and public.”
(2004)
“Conduct regular discussions, inspections, and
monitoring…in order to assess progress.” (2001)
IFPRI “We need to capture the lessons learned from
small-scale projects and encourage better
monitoring and evaluation so that the evidence
base is stronger and can be used by others.”
IYCN “Be intentional about measuring impacts on food For food security: HFIAS
security and nutrition. Assessing food security or HHS as a first choice
and nutritional status prior to an intervention (FANTA-2), and those
permits targeting of the most vulnerable. aren’t possible, monthly
Modeling the expected impacts on vulnerable income/expenditure and/or
groups at the design phase helps to ensure that dietary diversity.
they will benefit from the project. Assessment For nutritional status: at
during key points of implementation— including least one of the following
post-intervention—helps improve effectiveness for children < 3 years or
and avoid unintended negative effects.” (fact reproductive age women:
sheet) caloric intake, (individual)
“Indicators should be SMART (specific, dietary diversity scores,
measurable, attainable, relevant, time bound)” weight for age, height for
(illustrative guidance) age, vitamin A intake, iron
intake, hemoglobin levels,
serum retinol levels.
Save the “The litmus test for good agricultural investment Underweight prevalence of
Children UK should be whether or not it helps to lower the children <5 years
percentage of underweight children under five
years of age.” (2009)
“More rigorous, better designed impact studies,
which collect children’s height and weight data,
are needed to help identify interventions that will
improve a child’s nutritional status.” [with
reference to the DFID-financed review by
Massett et al.] (2012)
UN SCN “Monitoring and evaluation of food and nutrition Household dietary diversity

security projects and programmes improves scores
service delivery and increases government
accountability.”
“The data generated…can increase policy-
makers’ awareness of threats to food and
nutrition security, and may help raise nutrition’s
“profile” on national policy agendas, especially if
nutrition information is collected along with
other indicators. For example, vulnerability
assessments are often based primarily on
fluctuations in the market price of staple foods,
and current production and yield levels.
Supplementing these reports with information
from household dietary diversity scores can
increase awareness regarding the importance of
consuming a varied diet, and highlight the
distinction between the quantity and quality
aspects of consumption. Whenever possible,
surveillance data should be disaggregated by
income, demographic, ethnicity, gender and other
criteria relevant to food and nutrition security.”
World Vision “Integrate nutrition outcomes into agriculture “Promising household level
project/programming performance indicators are ‘children
measurement systems… There is an urgent need receiving minimum dietary
to develop a robust set of practical agriculture- diversity’ and ‘minimum
nutrition indicators and guidelines that will meal frequency’.” (“Key
support this important area of work.” lessons”)
“The ‘invisibility’ of malnutrition, particularly
the hidden hunger of micronutrient
deficiencies, is a major challenge for agriculture
programmes that seek to contribute to improving
child nutrition status. Increased investments in
qualified technical personnel and innovative
assessment methods appropriate to the rural
context in which most of the undernourished
children live are needed.” (“Key lessons”)
Multisectoral collaboration/coordination
ACF “Perhaps the greatest challenge for the implementation of the guidance given
throughout this manual is that no one can do it alone - it requires preparation,
action and collaboration across a variety of sectors and stakeholders. The
food security worker has to be aware of what is needed in order to maximise the
nutritional impact of the FSL intervention, but s/he does not have all the

required technical expertise. It is essential to consult with the nutrition, Mental
Health and Care Practices and WASH teams from the outset, and share tasks and
responsibilities according to the technical expertise of each sector. In some cases
only light guidance is needed, e.g. advice on the inclusion and analysis of some
questions in an assessment, whereas in other cases a more in-depth implication
is required, e.g. conducting a nutrition survey or setting up a Behaviour Change
Strategy (BCS).”
“Create linkages and synergies with other interventions: The nutritional
impact of FSL interventions can be further enhanced if the intervention is linked
to other relevant programmes…Synergies should be created with initiatives or
service provision from the Ministries (health, agriculture, etc.) and with other
large-scale programmes that are funded e.g. by the World Bank.”
Bioversity “Collaboration of agriculture, nutrition, and anthropology/sociology consultants
International along with the program director, manager and facilitators and the community
itself to craft a holistic approach to address gaps and promote successes in food
system development and usage. A variety of types of interventions that address
community needs from multiple perspectives can be combined to maximize
nutrition improvement potentials.”
EC “Although food security programmes can have significant nutritional benefits,
they usually achieve better results, in particular for children, when combined
with action addressing other determinants of child nutrition (like maternal health
and care-giving practices).”
“…increasing collaboration with other sectors and joint programming (e.g.
establishing links between agricultural extension and health services for
activities such as communication and information systems)…is especially
important in emergencies.”
FANTA “Agricultural interventions can make important contributions in the form of
increasing production and income and, often, household food consumption.
However, health and environmental conditions, health status, and childcare and
feeding practices will ultimately determine whether increased food access and
consumption has a positive effect on nutritional status.” (2001)
“Recommendations for improving cross-sectoral integration:
 Create a task force comprised of Mission staff and cooperating sponsors
working on agriculture, health, nutrition or food security issues. The task
force can review country strategies and programs with an aim to identify
and strengthen linkages and to encourage effective cross-fertilization of
agriculture, health and nutrition programs.
 Adopt some form of cross-sectoral integration: by implementing agriculture
and nutrition programs in the same geographical area, adding program
components to specifically address cross-sectoral issues, or fully integrating
programs.
 Request that responses to new agriculture-related proposals outline key
cross-sectoral issues and identify potential collaborators in the field who can
serve as resource in the area of health and nutrition.”
“A program design that effectively links agriculture, health and nutrition might
employ the following three-pronged approach:

1. The program has a well-designed agricultural component—effective at
generating output, income or added value, as well as at drawing in
smallholders, women and/or poorer households.
2. The program has a well-designed nutrition component—providing well-
tailored health and nutrition education to address specific local problems.
3. The agricultural, health, and nutrition components are mutually reinforcing.
Project staff collaborate to ensure appropriate health services and
complementary health and nutrition messages are provided, and that
beneficiary populations participating in the agricultural and health activities
overlap.”
“Greater interaction between agricultural and health sector managers could
promote better program integration, and should be encouraged.” (1999)
“Encourage complementary investments in community health service
infrastructure.” (1999)
FAO “At its High-level meeting in November 2009, the UN Standing Committee on
Nutrition acknowledged that the sustainable alleviation of malnutrition required
the integration of food security, social protection and health. The food and
agriculture sector therefore needs to join forces with other development sectors
to address malnutrition.” (2010)
“Encourage the private sector, including small-scale producers and processors,
industries and NGOs, to promote nutritional well-being by considering the
impact of its activities on the nutritional status of the people.” (2004)
“…the policy of the agriculture sector alone cannot successfully promote and
support sustainable strategies and programmes to improve nutritional status.
Policies in related sectors and disciplines with direct impacts on nutrition, such
as health, education, environment, rural development, poverty reduction and
gender, also should be addressed to exploit the synergy. Ideally, a holistic,
integrated approach should be employed by those developing policies. In
practice, the development and coordination of a holistic nutrition policy could be
done through nutrition coordinating bodies or similar intersectoral structures.…
Collaboration and cooperation among the responsible sectors is imperative to
improve nutritional status and ensure that the improved status is sustainable.
However, in practice, collaboration among the different sectors is often hindered
by the parallel sectoral administrative arrangements in many countries.
Commonly, sectors that carry out nutrition-related activities are agriculture,
health, rural development and education. It is mainly among these sectors that
linkages should be aggressively fostered to enhance nutritional status. However,
NGOs should also be involved, because they have potential to be strong
collaborators. Since there is a move towards privatization in many developing
countries, the private sector is also an important collaborator.
A mechanism for fostering linkages and coordinating nutrition-related activities
of the different sectors could be established by a multisectoral body such as a
national nutrition council. The leadership of this body could be in the planning
ministry, with the primary roles of coordinating national level activities relating
to nutrition and advising governmental bodies on nutrition policy.” (2001)
“Establish multidisciplinary departmental/ministerial extension teams, under the

guidance of competent team leaders, to coordinate and supervise regional
extension services. Provide opportunities for extension management to
communicate effectively with research, nutrition and crop production specialists
to increase the potential for successful project implementation.
Initiate joint trials with research institutes and farmers. This collaboration will
contribute to the multidisciplinary team perspective.
Establish closer liaison between departments of agriculture and of health.
Establish communication and collaboration among nutrition, home economics
and extension officers. This will facilitate the exchange of information and
provision of advice; and in the production of crops suitable for domestic
preservation and storage.
…Organize training sessions and workshops for nutritionists and agricultural
extension agents in which they become sensitized to each others needs, and
develop better understanding and respect for each other's disciplines.” (2001)
IFPRI “It is important to remember that agricultural growth alone will not eradicate
undernutrition and ill health—specific interventions such as nutrition programs
targeted at children under age two and improved healthcare services for
underserved populations are still needed. Moreover, these kinds of safety net
programs, as well as education and health services, infrastructure, trade policies,
and other factors, make up the larger context within which advances in
agriculture, nutrition, and health will take place. Changes in these factors will
also make a difference to how well the linkages among agriculture, nutrition,
and health operate.”
“Focus on partnerships among agriculture, nutrition, and health.
Professionals in agriculture, nutrition, and health speak different “languages,”
and efforts will be needed to overcome this barrier. These efforts will have to
start at the time of professional training, through, for example, interdisciplinary
problem-based learning approaches. National governments, farmers, healthcare
workers, nutritionists, environmental groups, civil society organizations,
educators, researchers, and the private sector all have important roles to play in
leveraging agriculture for improved nutrition and health and should work
together to achieve common goals. Special efforts should be made to ensure that
the nutrition sector, which is often given short shrift, is an equal partner. Global
and regional institutions that play important roles in the governance of the
agriculture, nutrition, and health sectors may need to be reformed for greater
effectiveness and integration of efforts.
Develop mutual accountability mechanisms among the three sectors. It is
important to promote openness and transparency and to develop clear guidelines
for stakeholder responsibilities and resource allocation in agriculture, nutrition,
and health. Leaders in the three sectors can create incentives that will make it
easier for people in those sectors to work together.”
“More remains to be learned about how to maximize the synergies among the
[agriculture, health, and nutrition] sectors using policies, investments,
regulations, and other tools of governance. In addition, it is important…to learn
more about how to prioritize and sequence actions and investments to link the
three sectors.”

IYCN “Improve health to ensure utilization of nutrients. Activities that improve
health include improving access to safe water, promoting hygiene and sanitation,
improving health services and access to them, and promoting timely care-
seeking for childhood illness.” (fact sheet)
Save the “COMPLEMENTING AGRICULTURAL INTERVENTIONS WITH
Children UK NUTRITION INTERVENTIONS
Agricultural interventions on their own are not enough. To be really effective in
improving child nutrition, they need to be complemented by other proven
programmes. These would include programmes that focus on healthcare, on
care-giving practices, and on access to water, sanitation and hygiene facilities, so
that high rates of infection can be overcome. Such a complementary, co-
ordinated approach has demonstrated positive results. For example, the Save the
Children Jibon-O-Jibika project in Bangladesh – which reduced malnutrition in
three districts in Bangladesh – integrated nutrition, home gardens and health
interventions. Investments should be made in similar multi-sectoral approaches
in order to identify best practice models that yield nutrition results.” (2012)
“In order to improve nutrition, agricultural interventions must be combined with
other activities that are shown to improve nutrition, including the direct
interventions.” (2012)
UN SCN “Solutions to the challenges to food and nutrition security are complex and not
the responsibility of agriculture alone.”
“Provision of livelihood support, creation of social safety-nets and an explicit
focus on maternal and child health are essential to improving the food and
nutrition security of [vulnerable] groups.”
“An integrated policy approach that combines social protection measures, such
as safety nets, with livelihood diversification strategies that broaden income
streams allows households in both rural and urban areas to manage risk, increase
resilience to shocks, and create opportunities for increased food and nutrition
security.”
World Vision “Contribute to coordinated country-led action on child under-nutrition.
Concerted multisectoral planning and action at the country level, led by national
governments, is widely recognized as critical vital to sustainably reducing
undernutrition .”
“Integrated approaches need strong coordination with shared funding and
monitoring between sectors. This is one of the major challenges facing
integration of nutrition and agriculture as most funding sources are sector-based.
Engaging government stakeholders from agriculture, health, and other key
sectors in nutrition programme design, training, implementation, and evaluation
contributes to improved approaches, broad dissemination of learning, and
enhanced impact.” (“Key lessons”)
Kioko Munyao, World Vision:

“The need for targeted attention to nutrition emerged when an extensive evaluation of World
Vision’s global programming clearly highlighted that conventional sector-based development
programming in agriculture and health were not fully meeting the nutritional needs of young
children, particularly those less than 2 years of age. During the same period, World Vision was

implementing a number of integrated agriculture, nutrition and health programmes which
provided a rich body of evidence for how to design and implement effective development
programmes that met the needs of young children…”
Household income
ACF “This manual also gives us the opportunity to dispel the myth that economic
growth and agricultural development in particular equals improved nutritional
status. Increasing agricultural productivity and/or increasing income do not
necessarily translate into improved nutrition.”
“Income generating activities (IGAs) have the potential to increase the
resources at the disposal of the household, and thereby improve access to
foods, health, and ultimately strengthen nutrition security.
6.5.1 Promote nutrition-sensitive IGAs
Prioritise IGAs that have a potential direct impact on nutrition, such as
livestock rearing, home gardens, processing of high nutritious food, production
of complementary foods, or healthy restaurants… Make sure however, that you
have done your market analysis and that the promoted IGA is viable.
6.5.2 Promote IGAs at home
Many types of IGA (e.g. sewing, food processing etc.) can be implemented from
home, allowing mothers to take care of their children while working. This is
especially relevant for mothers of infants and young children.”
Bioversity One of the main types of interventions:
International “Economic, Market-Based Income Generating Interventions: Aimed at
increasing availability and liquidity of financial resources, these interventions
should be designed keeping in mind the need to ensure that increases in income
will be coupled with increased spending on nutritionally rich foods.”
EC “Underlying causes operate at household and community levels. They comprise
three categories: household food security, care for children/women and health
environment/health services. Income poverty underpins all three.”
“Entry points for [improving nutrition through food security] are relevant in
emergency and development contexts and include: income generation and
improving access to financial services for the poor.”
“Agriculture can improve nutrition in several ways: …reduced income poverty
— by selling own produce or agricultural labour/employment — with a potential
knock-on effect on the quality of the diet, access to health services and care;
empowerment of women as income-earners, decision-makers and primary
childcare-providers…”
FANTA “Linkages can exist between agricultural production, income and consumption.
For example, increased production can improve income, which, in turn, can
improve consumption patterns. …Agricultural and Health Officers may
reasonably anticipate strong income-consumption linkages, but this outcome is
not inevitable. Evidence shows that additional agricultural income in the form of
one’s own production or cash earnings from crop or livestock sales is more

likely to be spent on food if four conditions are met:
• The incremental income is earned or controlled by women
• The stream of income is regular or frequent, even if the absolute amounts are
small
• The income is in-kind (i.e., in the form of food)
• Training in health and nutrition is provided.”
“Among the options to ensure steadier and more diverse income streams:
• Diversification of production systems. Diversification of the production
system can take the form of new intercropping schemes, introduction of high-
value crops or non-traditional agricultural exports, establishment of or
modifications to pre-existing home gardens, and introduction of micronutrient-
rich varieties and crops...
• Small-scale agro-processing. Agro-processing can improve the storability of a
product by preserving the quality and making it available over a longer portion
of the year, e.g., solar-drying fruits and vegetables, pressing sunflower oil or
processing palm oil. By processing and storing a commodity for later resale, the
producer can sell in smaller quantities over a longer period of time, achieving a
steadier flow of income and capturing a higher price later in the marketing
season.
• Improved storage and inventory credit schemes. Inventory credit programs
(ICP) increase access. Through participation in an ICP, farmers reduce storage
losses, capture higher prices later in the marketing season when supplies are
low, and guard against family members consuming reserved seed and
emergency food stocks.”
FAO “When designing policies, caution should be exercised not to deprive people of
income-earning opportunities: while some degree of mechanization will increase
production and free women’s time for family care activities, income earned from
providing farm labour may be more important for vulnerable households.”
(2004)
creates an imbalance or shift in the control of income between men and women.
Women are more likely than men to spend their income on food for feeding their
families. Hence, if women have control over some income, nutritional status is
likely to be improved.” (2004)
“Include nutrition issues in poverty reduction programmes. Since poverty
reduction and nutrition are inseparable, programmes and projects for reducing
poverty can be designed to address nutrition problems as well.” (2001)
IFPRI “Learn more about how different patterns of agricultural growth affect
nutrition and health.
What incentives need to be put in place to ensure that increased farmer income
translates into better health and nutrition?”
IYCN “Improvements in women’s income are more likely to translate into improved
food security than are improvements in men’s income—as long as women have
adequate time for child and family care.”
“In Bangladesh, an improved vegetable program increased vitamin A

consumption, decreased chronic malnutrition by 28 and 43 percentage points
among girls and boys, respectively, and improved women’s nutrition—all
despite failing to produce measurable effects on household income.”
“Evidence on tiller introduction for rice production from Bangladesh, the
Philippines, and West Java indicates a general displacement of labor and
benefits favoring larger farmers at the expense of smaller producers…” (fact
sheet)
Save the “Where local markets are functioning well and are accessible, smallholder
Children UK farmers may do better by selling their produce rather than eating it. In these
instances, smallholder farmers should be supported to maximise their income.
Education about nutrition should be prioritised to encourage farmers to spend
their increased income on more nutritious food.” (2012)
“Agricultural policies must be adopted that are designed specifically to increase
the incomes of the poorest sections of society and take into account the
difficulties they face in accessing land, inputs and labour.” (2009)
UN SCN “Increased purchasing power is a direct result of livelihood diversification,
which broadens household income sources thereby strengthening resilience to
the sorts of shocks experienced during the global downturn. Examples of
livelihood diversification for both rural and urban populations include
community-based, in-kind revolving funds and cottage industries that add value
to raw agricultural products, e.g. oil seed processing.”
“increases in purchasing power resulting from livelihood diversification do not
guarantee improved intake patterns. This is because direct reductions in income
poverty do not generally result in proportional reductions in malnutrition.”
World Vision “…our experience indicates that increased on-farm production of staple crops
and increased incomes are not synonymous with improved nutritional outcomes
at the household level, particularly for women and children.”
“Food security and other welfare gains such as improved nutrition are
strongly linked to the provision of greater economic opportunities and
increased decision-making power for women. Improving poor women's
access to income-earning opportunities and productive assets is vital, to
strengthen the ability of women to meet their household responsibilities for
children's health and nutrition.”

ACF “…the intervention should advocate for women’s access to land, livestock,
education, childcare, financial services, extension services, technology, markets
and employment.”
Bioversity
International
EC “Possible entry points for reducing undernutrition through [food security]
include:
“cash and other social transfers (including food) to increase access to food

including in emergencies”
“equitable access to labour opportunities for poor households (e.g. establishment
and enforcement of legal frameworks that protect the poor in labour markets,
support for alternative forms of employment)…and to productive assets (e.g.
livestock, means of transport)”
“Possible entry points for reducing undernutrition through [agriculture] include:
“securing access to land (e.g. land use rights) and other productive resources
(e.g. water) for poor or marginalized groups (e.g. ethnic minorities, emergency-
affected populations, pastoralists depending on the context)”
“facilitate equitable access to financial services for smallholders, including the
poor”
“Possible entry points for reducing undernutrition through [the environment and
sustainable management of natural resources] include:
securing ownership, access and management rights to land (e.g. forests,
rangelands) and other productive resources for poor or marginalised groups (e.g.
ethnic minorities, emergency-affected populations)”
FANTA “Credit and insurance schemes are critical to smallholders’ ability to
purchase improved inputs or diversify income sources. Smallholders
generally have excellent rates of loan repayment; particularly women. For very
poor households, credit is often the only avenue for investment and expansion.
Credit clubs can also be an excellent avenue for offering health and nutrition
education.” (1999)
“Land reform remains a pressing issue for women in particular, and the poor in
general.” (1999)
“Those working in the informal sector need business training and a network or
association to give them a voice.” (1999)
FAO “A large number of people who are prone to food insecurity and are nutritionally
vulnerable live in rural areas, where their occupation is mainly subsistence
agriculture. The majority are low-income groups, such as small-scale farmers
and pastoralists. Most of these people are unable to produce enough food to
meet their daily requirements. At the same time, they cannot afford to buy
enough food to supplement their needs. These people often lack required
farming inputs such as extension services, access to technology, land, storage
facilities and credit to increase their agricultural productivity.
In response, policies in agriculture need to encourage access to means of
production such as land, credit, improved seeds, water, extension services,
inputs and appropriate technology. Policies that provide support to food
production by small-scale farmers will enhance household food security and
increase the income of these farmers.” (2004)
“Access to credit by poor households will enable them to increase their income
through agriculture or self-employment. Policies that support financing or
small-scale financing programmes also promote equity and are therefore
encouraged.” (2004)
“Agricultural policies should be designed in such a way that they promote: the
right to access resources that can contribute to improved nutritional status (e.g.
land, credit, implements, skills training);” (2001)

“Include women's agricultural activities in extension programmes. This is an
important consideration for extension services in particular.” (2001)
“Consider the need for the multiplication, certification and maintenance of seeds
or other planting materials of new or improved varieties in terms of their
sustainability, and their availability for adoption and use by poor farmers…
Promote adoption of improved technologies, first ascertaining that they are
affordable to resource-poor farmers.” (2001)
IFPRI
IYCN
Save the “Agricultural programmes must also be improved to increase access to the vital
Children UK inputs poor people rely on to participate in agriculture – particularly land, tools,
fertilisers and seeds, credit, agricultural services, markets and water. This
chapter will discuss some of the barriers to participation that poor people –
particularly women – face, and will highlight the needs of agricultural labourers
who purchase rather than grow most of their food.” (2012)
“Barriers for women farmers created by any gender inequalities (eg, access to
land, credit, agriculture extension services, inputs, transportation) should be
identified and overcome. For example, women receive only 5% of agriculture
extension services worldwide.” (2012)
“Policy-makers should ensure poor, rural farmers such as smallholders,
sharecroppers and labourers will benefit from investments in agriculture. Any
improvements in the productivity of this group will depend on the quality of the
land they own – if they do indeed own any land – and their access to inputs,
such as fertilisers or tools. Poorer farmers, particularly women (see more
below), tend to have small plots of often poor-quality soil with little access to
water.” (2012)
“A wide range of strategies will be needed to deal with the securing of land
rights, crop diversification, effective regulation of informal labour markets,
improved access to markets and, where necessary, economic support for
agricultural inputs.” (2009)
UN SCN “Increasing smallholder production to improve food and nutrition security
requires investment in the following:
• improving availability of seeds and other inputs;
• developing water resources;
• strengthening and expanding agricultural cooperatives and farmers’
organizations;
“Strengthening and expanding agricultural cooperatives and farmers’
organizations is key to improving productivity as well as enhancing
smallholders’ livelihoods more generally. The former is achieved when
cooperatives and farmers’ groups are able to access credit, information and other
important goods and services better than individuals. The latter can occur in a
number of ways, including granting small farmers sufficient political power to
protect themselves and benefit from the long-term leasing of their agricultural
land by foreign investors, as well as increased opportunities for post-harvest
value addition, e.g. food processing. Both of these capacities are important in
developing countries where foreign direct investment poses a threat to

smallholders who may not have well-defined property rights, and who cannot on
their own afford the equipment and training required for food processing and
other activities that add value to their crops. Cooperatives and farmers’ groups
empower smallholders by creating informal “unions” which increase their
bargaining power as well as granting farmers a louder political voice. For
example, in Indonesia and Mexico the national plans for food security include
forming farmers’ groups that develop their own farmer group development
plans. Farmers learn how to prioritize, cost and manage their own activities. The
groups are financed via a revolving fund system, and although they are provided
with start-up capital, they become responsible for their own funding once the
initial financing is spent.”
“To lift themselves out of hunger, the food-insecure need control over resources,
access to opportunities and improved governance at the international, national
and local levels.”
“Land tenure is an issue throughout the developing world, and female
smallholders and urban farmers are two groups whose access to land is often
threatened, especially in situations where documentation of holdings is insuffi
cient or informal. Foreign direct assistance, for example, can threaten local
production systems in terms of ownership rights. Whenever possible, improving
vulnerable communities’ land tenure rights through statutory recognition and
recording of informal and tenure systems should be encouraged. However, in
situations where rules, procedures and registration fees may prove prohibitive,
recognizing temporary rights per cultivation season and/or recognizing and
administering – in an equitable way – rights of access to idle cultivable land are
alternatives.”
World Vision “Strengthening women's access to productive resources such as land, credit,
seed, fertilizer, and information, as well as improving market access should be
part of support to agricultural development.”
Targeting
ACF GUIDANCE 3 – IDENTIFY THE MOST NUTRITIONALLY VULNERABLE
“Interventions which aim to prevent undernutrition can be much more
effective than those that target children who are already undernourished.”
3.1 Collect data related to the nutritional status and needs of women of child
bearing age, pregnant and lactating women, and children under two
3.2 Identify food insecure households using various indicators
3.3 Prioritise children under two, pregnant and lactating women from food
insecure groups as direct or indirect beneficiaries of FSL interventions.”
“Restricted targeting may not always be feasible as this could be divisive
and create tensions between families. Ultimately, the target groups depend on
the context, outcomes of needs assessment and programme’s objectives and are
done on a case-by-case basis.”
Bioversity Geographic target area:

International “The target area is normally decided through rapid assessment, key informant
interviews, and visiting clinics and hospitals to determine areas of need…
Ideally, the area chosen should consist of a population with a similar nutritional
situation in order to obtain a reliable perspective.”
Target population:
“Different population groups could be used as targets for the study of nutrition
status within a wider population. The selection of appropriate target groups
depends on such factors as the purpose of the study, nutritional indicators of
interest, vulnerability of the target groups to nutritional deficiencies of interest,
how representative such groups are of the larger population, and accessibility of
such groups for assessment during the study period.”
“The following population groups have been selected as the targeted
communities in Bioversity’s nutrition strategy” women; rural smallholder
farmers; Populations living in urban and peri-urban settings without access to
diversity; Communities at risk of traditional food system loss.”
“Basic principles in designing a successful intervention: Be inclusive. Even
when targeting the intervention at a specific group within a community, care
should be taken to not alienate the non-target groups, potentially causing
complications for either the researchers or the recipients of intervention
attention. Think of creative ways to involve non-target groups in the roll-out of
the intervention.”
“Target early-adopters within the targeted community. Because of the risk
involved in adopting some intervention recommendations, the average
household will not be willing to buy in until they see successes in the
community.”
EC “Possible entry points for improving nutrition through agriculture include:
prioritising areas or groups (e.g. smallholders or agricultural labourers) worst
affected by undernutrition.”
FANTA “Projects…should develop special mechanisms for drawing women,
marginal farmers, and poorer households into the groups.” (1999)
FAO “Address the needs of small and poor farmers, including those dependent on
poor-quality or fragile land; develop technology and systems applicable to
small-scale agriculture.” (2004)
“Appropriate intervention strategies that are targeted at the vulnerable need to be
designed and put in place.” (2004)
“Available national data on poverty, food security and nutritional status should
be considered when prioritizing development programmes. In particular,
agricultural research and extension services should give special emphasis to the
needs of resource-poor farming communities.” (2001)
“Prioritize [extension] actions in various areas and focus initially on those high
priority areas that need urgent attention.” (2001)
“Expand the extension coverage of women farmers by developing a deliberate
policy to target women farmers…Be aware of household/family dynamics in
order to ensure relevant targeting of technologies.” (2001)
Target youths in all gender-related training to help change cultural stereotypes of
gender roles. Young people also can help improve the adoption rates of

technologies by influencing their parents.” (2001)
IFPRI
IYCN “Encourage small-scale agricultural processes and beware of projects that
involve labor-displacing mechanization.”
“Give priority to agricultural activities that generate employment.”
“Assessing food security and nutritional status prior to an intervention permits
targeting of the most vulnerable.” (fact sheet)
Save the “INVESTING IN SMALL FARMERS:
Children UK Half the world’s undernourished people – and three-quarters of Africa’s
malnourished children – can be found on small farms. Policy-makers should
ensure poor, rural farmers such as smallholders, sharecroppers and labourers
will benefit from investments in agriculture.” (2012)
“Targeting women through a combination of nutrition education and agricultural
support is an effective strategy for reducing malnutrition in the most vulnerable
communities, with the impact most pronounced among the lowest income
groups. These programmes should also target men, so both men and women
know the importance of nutrition, especially for pregnant women and young
children.” (2012)
“[agricultural] programmes must support small-scale farmers, who provide for
families most vulnerable to malnutrition, by helping them with the vital
resources and knowledge they require and ensuring agriculture nutrition
interventions are suited to the land they own.” (2012)
“ensure that making a positive impact on nutrition is an explicit objective of
agriculture policies, by focusing on projects that are designed to improve
children’s diet – for example, home gardening or education projects that focus
on nutrition.” (2012)
UN SCN “Improving the capacity of smallholder production systems should be a primary
goal in efforts to overcome these challenges. However, while many of the
world’s poorest people are smallholders, and while in a number of developing
countries domestic food production occurs predominately through small-scale
farming, promoting food and nutrition security requires looking beyond
smallholders to other vulnerable demographics such as landless labourers and
the urban poor.”
“Some of the most important emerging themes for nutrition-friendly agriculture,
essential as part of a broader nutrition-sensitive development framework,
include:
Pro-poor food production systems: Providing direct support to rural smallholder
production and urban and periurban food systems to expand, enhance and
sustain people’s ability to procure and use the amount and variety of food
required to be active and healthy.”
“[Micro-irrigation] systems [such as low-cost drip systems, rainwater harvesting
tanks, treadle pumps, rower pumps and dug wells, which irrigate up to 0.5
hectares of land] suit smallholders, whose productivity and cropping intensity
can be doubled if access to irrigation is assured.”
World Vision “World Vision programs that have resulted in significant decreases in
stunting…target interventions to mothers and children under five.”

Diversify production and livelihoods
Multiple purposes overlapping with other themes: income streams, food production and dietary
diversification, risk reduction, natural resource management, reducing seasonality
ACF “Promoting diversity will help maintain and rehabilitate productive ecosystems
to supply future generations with abundant food and agriculture.”
“Reliance on cash crops also increases dependence on external factors such as
market variability. Encourage crop diversification to reduce this risk.”
Bioversity One main type of intervention: “Agroecological Interventions: These
International interventions address issues of resource accessibility, market flows, agronomic
practice, and production decision making on both the household and local level.
Quality and quantity of products, as well as the capacity of the local
agroecosystem to meet nutritional needs can be improved through adjustments
in soil fertility, increased sharing of resources, creating new market
opportunities, promoting intensification and diversification in cropping, and
many other aspects of agroecological systems.”
EC “Agriculture can improve nutrition in several ways:
• improved diet (quantity and quality) — by increasing household consumption
of own food produced and diversifying production…”
FANTA “RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPROVING ACCESS AND
CONSUMPTION IMPACTS: Encourage diversification of production systems
through intercropping, home gardens, and introduction of high-value crops in a
manner that supplements, not substitutes, food crop production.” (2001)
“Introduction of new crops and post-harvest technologies extends production,
income-generating options, and food access over a greater portion of the year.
Not only does this promote a steadier stream of income, it reduces risk through
diversification. Cultivation of new micronutrient-rich foods adds diversity to the
diet, and labor saving post-harvest technologies grant women more time to
fulfill production and care-giving responsibilities.” (2001)
• Diversification of production systems. Diversification of the production
system can take the form of new intercropping schemes, introduction of high-
value crops or non-traditional agricultural exports, establishment of or
modifications to pre-existing home gardens, and introduction of micronutrient-
rich varieties and crops. One option is to build upon and improve traditional
intercropping systems. African farmers intercrop coarse grains in order to reduce
income risk and total crop failure. Another alternative is home gardens. There is
substantial evidence indicating that home gardens serve as an important source
of micronutrients. In some cases, particularly in urban areas, they make a
significant contribution to a household’s food supply and income.” (2001)
“Intensive gardening should be promoted with the aim of diversifying food
production and consumption as well as expanding the seasonal availability
of food.” (1999)

FAO “..Food-based interventions include diversification of homestead food
production…” (2010)
“What is needed: focus on nutritional quality of food in addition to energy
adequacy. How to get there: invest in crop and dietary diversity to narrow
the ‘nutrition gap.’” (2009)
“Agricultural extension services [should] offer communities information and
improved inputs, including seed and cultivars for better crop diversity, small
livestock and poultry ventures, marine fisheries and aquaculture for improved
dietary diversity.” (2009)
“address the problem of seasonality through diversification in food production,
including fruits and vegetables, livestock, fishery and aquaculture…” (2004)
“Strategies such as food crop diversification, cultivation of indigenous plants,
development of vegetable gardens and fruit crops, rearing of small livestock,
development of backyard fish ponds, and agroforestry can be employed to
increase the food base and supplement staple foods.” (2001)
“Agricultural policies should be designed in such a way that they promote:
gender considerations and food-crop diversification that promote equitable intra-
household food distribution;” (2001)
“Assist farmers and growers in planning and producing crops that offer
continuity of supply, with emphasis on a wider range of crops species and
varieties that can provide improved and balanced diets.” (2001)
“Develop and maintain demonstration gardens at village level that demonstrate
the concepts of continuity of supply and improved household food security by
producing a range of crop species that can enhance the nutritional status of
individuals in the community.” (2001)
IFPRI
IYCN
Save the “Benefits to children’s nutrition can be achieved by encouraging households to
Children UK grow more nutritious crops, including fruits and vegetables, or to rear animals
for meat, eggs or milk, in addition to the staple crops they tend to rely on.
Increased production also means they can sell more, generate more income and
afford to pay for foods that will make up a more nutritious and diverse diet.
…all too often the objective of agricultural improvement schemes has been to
increase the yield of a staple crop (quantity) or high-priced horticultural product
rather than to produce more diverse nutritious foods (quality); and the cost of a
nutritious diet (affordability) is overlooked.” (2012)
UN SCN “Ways in which agriculture can sustainably contribute to improving dietary
diversity and nutrition outcomes include support for agricultural extension
services that offer communities information and improved inputs such as seed
and cultivars for better crop diversity and biodiversity.”
“promotion of traditional cropping systems and crop diversification can protect
the natural resource base via decreased use of chemical fertilizers and improved

soil fertility. For example, reintroduction of the traditional milpa system –
intercropping of maize, beans and vegetables – in central America is gaining
increased attention as a sustainable alternative to maize monocropping ...
Diversity in food production is also important for adapting to climate change.
For example, many traditional but neglected “orphan” crops, e.g. sorghum and
millet, are resistant to drought and other stresses related to climate change.”
“Increased purchasing power is a direct result of livelihood diversification,
which broadens household income sources thereby strengthening resilience to
the sorts of shocks experienced during the global downturn. Examples of
livelihood diversification for both rural and urban populations include
community-based, in-kind revolving funds and cottage industries that add value
to raw agricultural products, e.g. oil seed processing. In addition to generating
income, food processing initiatives can help to meet urban food needs,
especially in areas where storage facilities are inadequate and where food safety
is an issue.”
World Vision “Support to agricultural and livelihoods diversification and local/community-
based food fortification (particularly with iron and zinc) are both important
strategies to increase the amount of nutrient-dense foods for household
consumption, particularly when those strategies seek a high degree of
involvement from women.”
“on and off-farm livelihoods diversification are all key to building resilience in
smallholder systems…”
What to produce (general)

ACF “Promote micronutrient-rich crop varieties.
Instead of basing your crop selection only on local climate (e.g. drought
tolerance, disease resistance), taste preference and cost, take into account the
nutritional content of the crop and the prevalence of micronutrient
deficiencies in the area. For instance, maize is a good source of energy but it
contains less protein, vitamins and minerals than e.g. millet or sorghum….
Pay attention to the following:
-Vegetables and fruits are the biggest sources of micronutrients, although their
energy content is often lower than that of staple foods.
· Promote legumes, such as beans and lentils, as they are rich in energy and a
good source of both macro and micronutrients (especially protein and iron).
Legumes also improve soil fertility.
· Prioritise local varieties and wild fruits and vegetables as much as possible, to
promote biodiversity. Revive nutrient-rich traditional crops that are currently
underused or neglected.
· Increase the production and consumption of foods high in vitamin A or vitamin
C (e.g. guava, wild fruit and berries).
· Don’t forget herbs.
· Promote foods that are favoured by children (e.g. yellow varieties of sweet

potato and pumpkin and green leafy vegetables).
· Avoid vegetables with high levels of tannins (e.g. many dark green leafy
vegetables and oregano) because tannin inhibits iron absorption.
· Acquire nutrient data on genetic diversity of plant species as different varieties
of the same crop can have very different nutritional properties (e.g. bananas and
plantains have differing levels of vitamin A).
· Look at additional substances such as antioxidant or soluble fibres. They play a
substantial role in body functioning. For instance, fibre (mainly in fresh fruit and
vegetable and whole grain) is important to digest food and remove waste.
· Investigate bio-fortified crops (e.g. at HarvestPlus). Note that ACF does not
promote genetically modified bio fortification. Refer to ACF position papers on
GMO, biotechnology and biofortification available soon.
· Include other factors such as cost of grinding and milling, cooking time, fuel
consumption, crop residues and farmer/consumer acceptance in the decision-
making process of crop selection.”
Bioversity “The key to understanding potential for improving agrobiodiversity for health is
International developing a complete picture of the nutritional value of available consumables
in the given community. This includes sets of questions related to cultural food
decision making and eating behavior in homes, as well as folk taxonomy and
growing season cataloguing of locally available traditional foods.”
EC
CONSUMPTION IMPACTS: ...Introduce micronutrient-rich varieties or crops
that address local nutrition issues.”
“Develop program-specific guidelines. A useful follow-on activity would be to
develop separate, program-specific (non-traditional agricultural export, oil
processing, marketing associations, etc) guidelines for project managers. The
review would combine these findings with insights derived from additional,
program-specific literature reviews and interviews with relevant program staff.
Additional briefs on program-specific literature for PVOs and other cooperating
sponsors would summarize how to incorporate the ideas into project designs.
These publications would be short with clear action points. In some cases, a
decision-tree model could be adopted.” (1999)
“More attention should be given to crops that can be vegetatively
propagated. (e.g., cassava, potatoes, sweet potatoes, cashew) because they are
easier and cheaper to multiply and distribute. Local seed multiplication brings
seed closer to farmers and creates employment, but managerial and quality
control can be problematic.” (1999)
FAO “Surplus homestead production can also be commercialised locally or bartered,
thus generating household income for additional food purchase on the one hand
and facilitating access of local consumers to nutritious foods on the other.
Micronutrient-rich foods, such as animal source foods, fruits and vegetables, and
also oils and fats in areas where the energy density of the food is insufficient, are
particularly important.” (2010)
“What is needed: focus on nutritional quality of food in addition to energy
adequacy. How to get there: invest in crop and dietary diversity to narrow

the “nutrition gap.”
“…the agricultural sector can contribute to nutrition security through small
livestock and poultry ventures, aquaculture and horticulture.”
“Narrowing this [nutrition] gap first requires increasing availability and access
to the foods necessary for a healthy diet and, second, ensuring that intake of
those foods actually increases. The following proposed investment options have
been developed with both yield and nutrition goals in mind. Each aims to boost
production or consumption of a diversity of high quality foods.”
“[In the warm humid tropics,] production may be sufficient in terms of calories
but diets often remain nutritionally deficient. In Ghana, for example, dietary
energy supply meets population energy requirements but shares of protein and
lipids are lower than recommended. This is the case for a number of reasons,
including challenges beyond the reach of direct agricultural interventions such as
constrained access to markets due to poor infrastructure. Yet there are many
agriculture-based interventions that could improve nutrition outcomes in this
zone, such as: small livestock production projects to provide an accessible
source of fat, protein and essential micronutrients, provision of dietary
diversification advice such as cereal-legume mixing to maximize protein
availability, and horticultural training to improve availability of micronutrient-
rich vegetables and fruit. Horticulture also has the potential to increase incomes
via produce sales if there is market access.” (2009)
“Governments are encouraged to adopt policies that promote the production and
availability of nutritionally adequate foods to all population groups.” (2004)
Design farming systems with sufficient variety in the crop mix to provide a
balanced diet and meet the nutrient requirements (energy, protein, vitamins and
mineral salts) of the target group, which includes resource-poor, small farmers
and their communities…Access by farmers to coordinated advice on nutrition
and production-related issues is essential at this point.” (2001)
“Agricultural research projects aimed at assisting resource-poor farmers in
increasing their crop yields also should consider whether these crops will offer
more nutritious foods for the family members' diets.” (2001)
IFPRI “Learn more about how different patterns of agricultural growth affect
nutrition and health. Should investments focus on staple crops, high-value
crops, or livestock?”
IYCN “[To achieve food security and maximize nutrition impact:]
 Increase production of foods that are eaten by at-risk population groups.
The poor tend to disproportionately consume specific foods—often less-
desirable crops. When the production of these crops decreases, poor
households must pay more for the foods, or may be forced to consume more
expensive crops.
 Introduce micronutrient-rich crop varieties. Agricultural projects that
utilize micronutrient-rich plant varieties have major potential for ensuring
needed nutrients and improving nutritional wellbeing.” (fact sheet)
Save the “Agricultural policies must be designed to increase the availability, and reduce
Children UK the cost of nutritious food – not simply staple foods or cereals. In Mali, for
example, children in villages that practise market gardening or irrigation are less

likely to be stunted than those in villages producing only the staple crop
(millet)… Likewise, in pastoral areas, increasing the availability and quality of
more nutritious foods, including meat and milk, is known to be closely linked to
children’s improved nutrition.” (2009)
UN SCN
World Vision “Increase household production and use of nutrient dense foods. In addition
to supporting increased production of staple crops, attention should be paid to
increasing production and consumption of nutrient-dense foods. …Examples of
nutrient-dense foods include animal-based foods (livestock, fish), protein-rich
plant foods (legumes), and vitamin and mineral-rich foods (e.g. leafy green
vegetables and fruits as well as new biofortified varieties of staple foods)…
“the…use of locally-adapted seed and livestock varieties…is key to building
resilience in smallholder systems…”
“Address child stunting through building better linkages between
complementary feeding requirements and agricultural production … The
most sustainable, cost-effective way to improve the complementary feeding of
children in poor, rural households is by ensuring that nutritionally-appropriate
foods are available and utilized at the household/community level… agriculture
remains an optimal sector of focus for ensuring that nutritionally-appropriate
complementary foods are available and contextually/culturally-appropriate.”
“Selecting nutrient-rich foods for promotion, such as the orange-fleshed sweet
potato…or animal-source foods, is an essential first step in achieving the goal of
improved child nutrition.” (“Key lessons”)
What to produce: Horticultural crops

ACF
 “Vegetables and fruits are the biggest sources of micronutrients, although
their energy content is often lower than that of staple foods.
 Promote foods that are favoured by children (e.g. yellow varieties of sweet
potato and pumpkin and green leafy vegetables).
 Avoid vegetables with high levels of tannins (e.g. many dark green leafy
vegetables and oregano) because tannin inhibits iron absorption.”
“Interventions promoting increased production of fruit and vegetables
(homestead gardens in particular) and animal food products have considerable
potential to address micronutrient deficiencies…evidence shows gains in
production, income, household food security, dietary intake and fewer
micronutrient deficiencies as a result of the interventions, especially when
combined with other components — education, behaviour change and women’s
empowerment. (see the Asia case study online — Diversifying diets through
homestead production)”
6.2.1 Promote homestead food production
“Increasing homestead food production (“kitchen gardening”) through vegetable
gardens, horticulture and/or animal husbandry carries great potential for
improving food intake while using household labour intensively on small

land surfaces within the homestead. It allows women to grow fruits and
vegetable and rear small animals while fulfilling their domestic and child care
responsibilities. It can be promoted both as a primary occupation and a means to
access diversified foods all year round, including during the counter
season… Homestead food production is a great way increase the
micronutrient contents of the diet.”
Bioversity “Non-staple minor crops as well as animal husbandry offer opportunities for
International value addition and can increase income security for women.”
increasing investment for the production and consumption of fruit and
vegetables (micronutrient-rich plants) alongside staple crops.”
FANTA “Intensive gardening should be promoted with the aim of diversifying food
production and consumption as well as expanding the seasonal availability
of food. Depending on the location, gardening can yield produce year round.
Horticultural crops are good sources of micronutrients and surplus production
can be sold. Since gardening is predominantly a woman’s activity in Africa, a
portion of the incremental income tends to go toward household food
consumption.” (1999)
FAO “…the agricultural sector can contribute to nutrition security through small
livestock and poultry ventures, aquaculture and horticulture.” (2009)
“…there are many agriculture-based interventions that could improve nutrition
outcomes in [the warm humid tropics], such as: …horticultural training to
improve availability of micronutrient-rich vegetables and fruit. Horticulture also
has the potential to increase incomes via produce sales if there is market access.”
(2009)
[To combat micronutrient deficiencies, one main strategy is:]
“Dietary diversification (availability and consumption of micronutrient-rich
foods) through: social marketing of micronutrient-rich foods; increasing
consumption of dark green leafy vegetables; small-scale and community
gardening; and solar drying technology for preserving micronutrient-rich foods.”
(2004)
“Vegetable gardens should be designed such that they provide the necessary
micronutrients and there is continuity of supply throughout all seasons.” (2001)
“Crops such as groundnuts, cowpeas and other vegetables and fruit that are
commonly grown by women need to be promoted. Such crops, especially
vegetables, are normally consumed by household members and therefore, should
be considered, first, as important sources of food and valuable nutrients and only
second as sources of income.” (2001)
IFPRI “Food-based approaches and horticultural remedies used to treat poor
nutrition can also do a great deal to improve health.”

“Nutrition interventions such as home-based gardens can both improve nutrition
and raise agricultural production.”
IYCN “Incorporate home gardens. Women are usually responsible for home gardens,
and therefore, have greater control over household food consumption decisions
than their husbands.” (fact sheet)
for meat, eggs or milk, in addition to the staple crops they tend to rely on.”
(2012)
“home gardening projects have increased the amount of fruits and vegetables
eaten as well as the amount of income generated…all too often the objective of
agricultural improvement schemes has been to increase the yield of a staple crop
(quantity) or high-priced horticultural product rather than to produce more
diverse nutritious foods (quality); and the cost of a nutritious diet (affordability)
is overlooked.” (2012)
“Agricultural policies must be designed to increase the availability, and reduce
the cost of nutritious food – not simply staple foods or cereals. In Mali, for
example, children in villages that practise market gardening or irrigation are
less likely to be stunted than those in villages producing only the staple crop
(millet)…” (2009)
UN SCN “Promotion of gardens in schools, communities or individual households
increases awareness regarding the importance of good nutrition, building local
capacity, and increasing the physical availability of fruits and vegetables (see
Box: Keyhole gardens for improved food and nutrition security: an example of
extension-based nutrition education).”
“Collective action by small food producers can also help to orient and shape
markets to better capture and increase the availability of nutritious local foods,
and can increase the availability of affordable fruits and vegetables for urban
consumers.”
increasing production and consumption of nutrient-dense foods. Examples of
vegetables and fruits as well as new biofortified varieties of staple foods.)”
What to produce: Animal-source foods

ACF “Interventions promoting increased production of fruit and vegetables
(homestead gardens in particular) and animal food products have considerable
potential to address micronutrient deficiencies…evidence shows gains in
production, income, household food security, dietary intake and fewer
micronutrient deficiencies as a result of the interventions, especially when
combined with other components — education, behaviour change and women’s
empowerment. (see the Asia case study online — Diversifying diets through

homestead production)”
“Scientific reviews suggest that livestock & fisheries interventions are
associated with marked improvement in dietary intake and income, but evidence
remains scant on their impact on nutritional status. The impact studies are
subject to similar types of constraints as the study of [other] agricultural
interventions…”
“Promote the consumption of animal-source foods through livestock
programmes & fisheries
“ASF such as meat, eggs, dairy products but also fish, are a good, sustainable
source of macro and micronutrients (e.g. iron, zinc and calcium, vitamin A,
the only source of vitamin B12 and riboflavin). Their promotion and
consumption hence constitute sustainable food-based approaches to reduce
micronutrient deficiencies.”
“Do no harm!
 The main risk with livestock intervention is the spread of zoonotic disease.
 In addition to infectious diseases, parasites are also a concern for those who
have close contact with animals.
 Ensure appropriate consideration of natural resource availability (e.g.
pasture and water) as well as veterinary services, to avoid creating pressure
on the existing resources.
 Keep in mind that promoting ASF and, in particular, consumption of animal
milk may displace breastfeeding especially for children between 6 to 23
months.
 Remember that significant increases in ASF intake may put the individual at
risk of chronic disease. In undernourished populations, however, ASF
consumption is very low, in both absolute and relative terms. Moderate
increases in ASF consumption provide critical nutritional benefits that
outweigh the potential crossing of the threshold of significant risk for
chronic disease.”
EC
FANTA
FAO “…the agricultural sector can contribute to nutrition security through small
livestock and poultry ventures, aquaculture and horticulture.” (2009)
outcomes in [the warm humid tropics], such as: small livestock production
projects to provide an accessible source of fat, protein and essential
micronutrients...” (2009)
IFPRI “Projections show rising trends in consumption of livestock, dairy, and other

foods that make intensive use of energy and cereals, with worrisome
implications for global food security and the environment. Thus it will also
be important to work with consumer, public health, and environmental groups to
find ways of encouraging people to adopt sustainable patterns of food
consumption.”
IYCN
for meat, eggs or milk, in addition to the staple crops they tend to rely on.”
…fishing projects increased the number of people eating fish. Livestock can
improve nutrition by providing meat or dairy products for families to eat, or as a
way of generating money through the sale of milk.” (2012)
the cost of nutritious food – not simply staple foods or cereals. …in pastoral
areas, increasing the availability and quality of more nutritious foods, including
meat and milk, is known to be closely linked to children’s improved nutrition…”
(2009)
UN SCN “aquaculture and small livestock ventures that include indigenous as well as
farmed species”
“Increasing smallholder production to improve food and nutrition security
requires investment in the following: programmes for animal production and
fisheries inputs;”
“Support to programmes for animal production and fisheries can be adapted to
smallholders, and provide important contributions to household food and
nutrition security. For example, in Tajikistan, home-based livestock husbandry,
including poultry, sheep and goats, is being promoted. The programme aims to
increase the purchasing power and food and nutrition security of some of the
most vulnerable and food-insecure households in rural areas. The main features
are distribution of improved laying hens, training on better poultry management,
improved veterinary services, and the rehabilitation of sheep and goat stocks
through improved management and husbandry practices (FAO, 2009j).”
include…environmental sustainability: Improving agricultural production
practices to address environmental concerns such as biodiversity, sustainable use
of resources, and livestock sector reform.”
What to produce: Underutilized crops


ACF “Promote micronutrient-rich crop varieties:
…Prioritise local varieties and wild fruits and vegetables as much as possible, to
promote biodiversity. Revive nutrient-rich traditional crops that are currently
underused or neglected.
Increase the production and consumption of foods high in vitamin A or vitamin
C (e.g. guava, wild fruit and berries).
Don’t forget herbs.
“Box: The advantages of perennial plants
Moringa is a tough, fast-growing tree that produces very nutritious edible leaves
and pods. It can also be used for live fencing. The seeds can be used to purify
water. Pigeon pea is a strong bush, which lives for about four years. It produces
nutritious seeds and the plant helps to improve the soil. Cassava is a nutritious,
tough bush, which can live for two to four years. Both the roots and the leaves
are edible.”
“[Beside promoting consumption of livestock and fisheries,] Promote other
local, cheap sources of proteins and micronutrients:
Insects, worms and termites are highly nutritious and often overlooked as a
source of food. Many insect species contain as much – or more – protein as meat
or fish. Some insects, especially in the larval stage, are also rich in fat and most
insects contain significant percentages of amino acids and essential vitamins and
minerals. They also offer particular benefits to those who want to reduce their
environmental footprint, because they are exceptionally efficient in converting
what they eat into tissue that can be consumed by others – about twice as
efficient as chickens and pigs, and more than five times as efficient as beef
cattle. In addition, consuming worms, termites or insects have the potential to
generate income and jobs for rural people who capture, rear, process, transport
and market them as food.”
EC
FANTA “Research should focus more closely on indigenous food crops. The adoption
rate for research-based innovations is bound to be higher when the innovation
addresses consumer tastes and preferences. Indigenous food crops also tend to
predominate in the diet of poor households, and participants know how to
cultivate them.” (1999)
FAO “[warm arid and semi-arid tropics] zones also are good candidates for
agricultural extension services that increase awareness and consumption of
existing local or indigenous plants and animals to improve nutrition.” (2009)
“Indigenous food crops are nutritious and need less inputs than other crops;
they are a good choice for farming families that are affected by HIV/AIDS.”
“Indigenous foods and foods consumed by the poorest of the poor are often
overlooked by agricultural research and extension programmes. As an example,
in some countries, research and extension have promoted single staple foods to
the exclusion of other local staples. In many cases, the excluded staples are
resistant to adverse local weather conditions and are therefore dependable in
terms of providing continuous food supply. Potentially, they can supplement

major staples by providing food during hunger periods, when supplies of major
staples have been depleted. In addition, in many countries, the food security
situation has deteriorated because of the HIV/AIDS pandemic. The young
productive age groups are killed by the disease, and food production is left for
the very young and the old. Therefore:
■ Through agriculture policies, ministries of agriculture can be encouraged to
improve the production and marketing of indigenous and low-cost foods through
their extension programmes.
■ Policies that foster close collaboration between nutrition and agricultural
research need to be developed. Foods consumed by the poor can be identified
through nutrition research. In collaboration with research, the nutrient content of
indigenous foods and foods consumed by the poor can be analyzed, in order to
enhance the production and consumption of these foods.
■ In view of HIV/AIDS, when giving advice to affected farming families, it
should be considered that family resources are usually depleted by medical care,
and as such, farm inputs are unaffordable; available labour is often engaged in
looking after the sick; therefore, crops that need less inputs and tending such as
indigenous crops could be promoted.” (2004)
“Regularly monitor the types of foods consumed by the poor. Often research
does not focus on traditional food crops if they are not export or cash crops.”
(2001)
“Include underexploited, non-conventional food plants and indigenous species in
research programmes, where plausible. This has the potential to diversify the
food base, improve household food security and enhance consumer nutritional
status.” (2001)
“Provide [extension] information and advice on the production, marketing,
processing and utilization of underexploited traditional food crops and
indigenous crop species.” (2001)
IFPRI “For underutilized crops rich in nutrients, value chains can be created to
promote their conservation, cultivation, marketing, and consumption.”
IYCN
Save the
Children UK
UN SCN “integrated agro-forestry systems that reduce deforestation and promote
harvesting of nutrient-rich forest products; aquaculture and small livestock
ventures that include indigenous as well as farmed species; education and social
marketing strategies that strengthen local food systems and promote cultivation
and consumption of local micronutrient rich foods;”
“Diversity in food production is also important for adapting to climate change.
For example, many traditional but neglected “orphan” crops, e.g. sorghum and
millet, are resistant to drought and other stresses related to climate change.”
World Vision

What to produce: Legumes
ACF “Promote legumes, such as beans and lentils, as they are rich in energy and a
Legumes also improve soil fertility.”
Bioversity
International
increasing investment for the production and consumption of fruit and
vegetables (micronutrient-rich plants) alongside staple crops (see the…Asia case
study — Counting on beans for nutrition).”
FANTA
FAO “[warm arid and semi-arid tropics] zones also are good candidates for
agricultural extension services that increase awareness and consumption of
existing local or indigenous plants and animals to improve nutrition. For
example, intercropping cereal crops with drought-resistant legumes such as
cowpea or pigeon pea improves both nutrition and food security, the former via
increased protein intake, the latter via increased nitrogen fixation and subsequent
increased yield.” (2009)
outcomes in [the warm humid tropics], such as: …provision of dietary
diversification advice such as cereal-legume mixing to maximize protein
availability...” (2009)
“Crops such as groundnuts, cowpeas and other vegetables and fruit that are
commonly grown by women need to be promoted. Such crops, especially
vegetables, are normally consumed by household members and therefore, should
be considered, first, as important sources of food and valuable nutrients and only
second as sources of income.” (2001)
IFPRI “increased intercropping with nitrogen-fixing crops such as lentils could
reduce agricultural inputs, restore soil fertility, and generate nutritional benefits
for people.”
IYCN
Save the
Children UK
UN SCN

What to produce: Biofortified crops
ACF “Investigate bio-fortified crops (e.g. at HarvestPlus). Note that ACF does not
promote genetically modified bio fortification.”
“…Biofortification…is not a panacea; it presents technical and ethical
challenges (some biofortified seeds are GMO) but has shown, up to now, modest
results in terms of impact on the nutritional status, though it also requires
acceptance from farmers and consumers.”
Bioversity
International
fortifying basic foods, including bio-fortification (e.g. bio-fortification of sweet
potatoes in vitamin A.)”
FANTA
FAO “Agriculture-based interventions to improve nutrition security : research
and development (R&D) programmes breed plants and livestock selectively to
enhance nutritional quality. […These efforts are particularly important in the
warm arid and semi-arid tropics]”
“Introduction of drought-tolerant cultivars that have been bred to include high
levels of micronutrients should be a priority.”
“Selective breeding to increase the protein content of cassava, a central
component of the food typology [of the warm humid tropics], could increase
macronutrient intake.” (2009)
“Encourage the development of safe biotechnology in animal and plant breeding
and facilitate the exchange of new advances in biotechnology that are related to
nutrition.” (2004)
(from the glossary): “Biofortification: a recently invented term to describe the
nutrient enrichment of basic food crops through modern plant breeding, both
traditional and molecular. Whilst many would argue that dietary diversification
is the best way to ensure an adequate intake of both macro- and micronutrients,
the grim reality is that a significant portion of the developing world's population
relies largely on one or more of the major cereals (rice, wheat, maize) for their
nutrition. As a result, deficiencies in essential micronutrients and vitamins are
endemic in Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America. Studies have shown
that modern plant breeding is one of the cheapest, most effective and sustainable
ways of supplying these needed nutrients through enrichment of staple food
grains. Biofortification is not a panacea in itself but a very important
complement to dietary variety and to supplementation.” (2004)
IFPRI “Biofortification of staple crops can significantly improve the nutrition and
health status of vulnerable groups, particularly women and children.”
IYCN
Save the
Children UK
diversity and nutrition outcomes include support for…biofortification via
research and development programmes that breed plants and livestock

selectively to enhance nutritional quality.”
What to produce: Staple crops

ACF “Existing evidence suggests that…even though the link between production and
nutritional outcome remains inconclusive, staple crop production plays a
significant role in energy intake of a household. Increasing yield has the
potential to significantly improve nutritional outcomes through both own
consumption and increased income, with potential indirect impacts through
agricultural growth and stabilised prices.”
“In many countries where ACF is working, micronutrient deficiencies result
from diets based mainly on cereals. These diets are not only often low in several
micronutrients, but they are also important sources of phytic acid and dietary
fibre, which inhibit the absorption and/or retention of nutrients such as iron and
zinc. Homestead food production is a great way increase the micronutrient
contents of the diet.”
Bioversity
International
EC “the potential benefits of agricultural programmes that focus on the production
of energy-rich staples are also very likely to help reduce undernutrition (such as
maternal undernutrition) although there is yet no evidence of this.”
FANTA
FAO “Agricultural development programmes that aim to increase production of staple
crops are essential for food security, yet they are insufficient for alleviating
hunger and malnutrition.” (2009)
“Evaluate all local staple foods and traditional food crops, in collaboration with
units responsible for nutrition, for possible inclusion in research programmes.
Determine whether the staple foods in current research programmes play major
roles in the diets and livelihoods of nutritionally vulnerable groups in terms of
contribution to nutritional status, income and food expenditure. One staple food
commonly consumed by the general population may be economically
inaccessible to people in the lowest income groups, while another staple food
may not be consumed by the majority of the population, but only by the poorest
of the poor.” (2001)
IFPRI
IYCN [In the Nutrition Impact Assessment Tool Guide, an illustrative example of
using the tool is given that outlines a hypothetical case in which a HYV maize
project would result in negative nutrition impacts for poor lowland households
who are net sellers of maize. In working through the likely impacts of each step

of the project, the case illustrates how poor households would be unlikely to
afford the inputs needed for the new variety, so wealthier farmers who could
afford them would produce more maize and the price would fall, reducing the
income for poor smallholders selling maize. For pastoralists (another population
group), the project could be likely to increase food availability, and therefore
increase calorie consumption and reduce child underweight, but would likely
have no impact on improved diet quality or vitamin A deficiency. In such a
case, the tool suggests that the proposed “approach should be abandoned in
favor of another” – and that adding project components such as nutrition
education and low-interest credit for poor households could mitigate negative
effects.]
Save the “all too often the objective of agricultural improvement schemes has been to
Children UK increase the yield of a staple crop (quantity) or high-priced horticultural product
the cost of nutritious food – not simply staple foods or cereals. In Mali, for
example, children in villages that practise market gardening or irrigation are less
likely to be stunted than those in villages producing only the staple crop
(millet)…” (2009)
UN SCN
World Vision “…our experience indicates that increased on-farm production of staple crops
and increased incomes are not synonymous with improved nutritional outcomes
at the household level, particularly for women and children.”
“Increase household production and use of nutrient dense foods. In addition
What to produce: Cash crops

ACF “Do no harm! Pay extra attention…when introducing cash crops (e.g. flower,
tobacco or biofuel production) as this may prevent farmers from working in their
fields and negatively impact household food production. Gains from cash crops
do not automatically cover this potential food gap. Reliance on cash crops also
increases dependence on external factors such as market variability. Encourage
crop diversification to reduce this risk.”
Bioversity
International
EC
FANTA “Nontraditional agricultural export (NTAE) promotion schemes should be
accompanied by extension and input access for traditional food crops as
well. Whenever possible, NTAE schemes should act as source of capital and

knowledge for domestic food production as well as export crops. International
markets can be fickle and volatile, and currencies of Sub-Saharan African
countries have been known to depreciate rapidly. Smallholders can hedge
against market risk by diversifying production, even into more lucrative NTAE
crops, but they should be cautious not to disrupt their local food supply.” (1999)
“In general, a greater proportion of additional income (cash and in-kind) is
consumed in the form of food when it is derived from food-crop production as
compared to when it results from an increase in commercial production. This is
particularly true if the commercial production takes the form of a newly
introduced farm enterprise (such as a high-value export crop) as opposed to
commercialization of a pre-existing subsistence activity (such as dairy
production).”
BOX 1: When to Introduce New Cash Crops
Critical questions can be posed to determine whether the introduction of a new
cash crop will reduce or increase food consumption. Affirmative responses
suggest a reduction in food consumption is unlikely. Negative responses signal
potential problems, and suggest the need to investigate further and correct
identified project design shortcomings.
 Is land in surplus?
 Is labor in surplus, especially female labor?
 Does the new crop (or production system) take advantage of slack labor
periods or periods when land is idle?
 Will the additional income be received or controlled by women?
 Is there strong seasonal variability in the supply/price of basic food crops?
FAO “Promotion of cash crops and non-traditional foods can affect production and
availability of food crops to the detriment of household consumption and
nutritional status.”
creates an imbalance or shift in the control of income between men and women.
Women are more likely than men to spend their income on food for feeding their
families. Hence, if women have control over some income, nutritional status is
likely to be improved. Further, when people change from subsistence to cash
cropping, they may need to purchase most of the food they consume. This
presents a likelihood of replacing good-quality foods with less nutritious foods.
Therefore:
■ It is advisable that, as a policy, strategies to monitor the effects of cash
cropping programmes on the nutritional and social welfare of communities be
appropriately integrated into programme activities.
■ Appropriate nutrition intervention programmes, such as nutrition education,
should be incorporated into those programmes as well.” (2004)’
“The focus of research and extension on male-dominated cash crops sometimes
marginalizes women's work.” (2001)
IFPRI
IYCN “Be particularly careful with projects that promote cash crop production.
Contrary to conventional wisdom, introduction of cash crops frequently has a

negative effect on household food security. Achieving positive effects often
depends on whether the land and labor used is in surplus and on the variability in
the supply prices of basic food crops.” (fact sheet)
Save the “all too often the objective of agricultural improvement schemes has been to
Children UK increase the yield of a staple crop (quantity) or high-priced horticultural product
UN SCN
World Vision
Reduce post-harvest losses and improve post-processing

ACF “Improve post-harvest handling: It is estimated that over 20% of the physical
harvest is lost due to bad storage and handling practices. In addition, inadequate
handling and storage causes the loss of valuable micronutrients. Maintaining
micronutrient levels in commonly eaten foods should become an objective per
se. Include “healthy harvesting” techniques and promotion sessions to
preserve the quality and nutrient contents of the crops. Good practices include:
· Crops, fruit and vegetables are harvested only when they are mature.
· The crop is handled as little as possible to avoid any damage.
· The harvested produce is gathered in the shade.
· Timing for harvesting is taken into account. For example early morning is the
best harvesting time for most fruits and vegetables as they contain the least
water at that stage. Midmorning is preferred for leafy vegetables.
· Ripe and unripe fruits or vegetables are separated.
· The harvest is carefully put into baskets, boxes or crates lined with soft
material such as dry grass, newspaper, banana leaves or dry sand.
· Crops, fruit and vegetables recently dosed with pesticides are not consumed or
sold in the market.
Promote optimal food processing techniques to preserve the quality and
nutrient contents of the crops, maximise shelf life and facilitate transportation
and sales…Good practices include:
· Crops should be processed within 48 hours of harvesting.
· Sun drying is avoided, as it increases the loss of nutrients (especially vitamin A
and Vitamin C). The produce is dried in the shade with homemade open-sided
drying shed.
· Green vegetables are blanched before drying them.
· Flour, porridges and milks keep longer if they are soured or fermented. This
also improves the digestion of these foods and increases the absorption of iron
from the food. Milk is not exposed to daylight as it decreases the amount of
riboflavin.
· Cereals are milled lightly as milling reduces the amount of protein, fibre,
vitamins and minerals. Alternatively, flour is fortified in case of heavy milling
process.

Encourage healthy storage practices. Good practices include:
· Fresh produce is washed in clean water and thoroughly dried before storing.
· Storage is cool, dark, well ventilated and protected from insects and mice.
· Improved storage facilities are promoted over traditional ones.
Consult local extension workers, farmers’ cooperatives, FAO, Ministry of
Agriculture and Health, universities, NGOs or specialised organisations to
identify potential problems, and find evidence-based or innovative solutions.”
“Box: Food processing
Making jam or sauce is a low-cost method of processing food that can be done
easily in households, and contributes to family food security by making fruits
and vegetables available in the off-season. In Zimbabwe, food processing has
been touted as having the potential to reduce poverty and improve the quality of
life of the poor through improved incomes, employment, food availability, and
nutrition. Dried fruits, jams and jellies produced by small-scale processors have
penetrated the formal market (supermarkets and general dealer shops), and are
considered a potential micro-enterprise for women.”
Bioversity
International
supporting storage and processing methods to reduce post-harvest losses and
increase profit margins;”
“fortifying basic foods… See the Nigeria case study online — Public–private
partnership in fortification programmes)”
CONSUMPTION IMPACTS: Promote small-scale agro-processing; Introduce
improved storage practices and technology.” (2001)
Small-scale agro-processing. Agro-processing can improve the storability of a
of the year, e.g., solardrying fruits and vegetables, pressing sunflower oil or
season.
Improved storage and inventory credit schemes. Inventory credit programs
emergency food stocks.” (2001)
“The feasibility of preserving, processing and fortifying local foods should
be studied further. These activities extend the seasonal availability of food and
generate employment.” “Where economically feasible, locally produced
products should be used in food fortification. A link between nutrition,
agricultural production and microenterprise and agribusiness development
can be forged through a food fortification program.” (1999)
FAO “food-based interventions include…improved food storage and processing to

increase the shelf life of foods produced and facilitate preparation and
consumption; reliable access to bio-energy for cooking;” (2010)
“FAO is committed to capacity building of local institutions or support to field
interventions [for] ensuring food safety and quality through the establishment of
effective quality control systems at all stages of the food chain.” (2010)
“Agriculture-based interventions to improve nutrition security: R&D
reduces post-harvest losses via improved handling, preservation, storage,
preparation and processing techniques.” (2009)
“…develop techniques that decrease post-harvest crop losses and improve food
processing, storage and marketing.” (2004)
[Main strategies to combat micronutrient deficiencies]: Dietary diversification
(availability and consumption of micronutrient-rich foods) through: …solar
drying technology for preserving micronutrient-rich foods.” (2004)
“Inadequate post-harvest technologies and practices contribute to unnecessary
nutrient and physical food losses.” (2001)
“Strengthen post-harvest research, processing and utilization activities in
agricultural research institutes to make them more demand-driven and
consumer-focused. Nutrition issues should be considered essential components
of post-harvest and food processing research.” (2001)
“Provide information and advice to farmers and growers regarding on-farm seed
production (to include vegetatively propagated material) and regarding secure,
on-farm storage of seed and planting materials. This can help ensure timely
sowing and planting, resulting in improved food security.” (2001)
“Involve women's groups that are concerned with food processing and other
post-harvest activities in the design and implementation of research
experiments.” (2001)
IFPRI “Incorporate nutrition into value chains for food products. Improved
nutrition results not only from greater volumes of food production on farms, but
also from the way food commodities are handled in the postfarm segments of
value chains.
 Processing can enhance year-round availability of products with high
nutrient value.
 Fortification during postharvest processing can improve nutrient content or
availability.
 Transport and storage improvements can reduce postharvest losses and
deterioration of the nutritional quality of foods.
 Efficiency in postfarm handling can reduce costs and retail prices, thus
increasing access for poor consumers.”
“Also needed are improved production and processing practices, such as better
food safety practices and water management.”
IYCN
Save the
Children UK
diversity and nutrition outcomes include support for reduction of post-harvest
losses via improved handling, preservation, storage, preparation and processing

techniques.”
requires investment in the following: reducing post-harvest losses;”
“Reduction of post-harvest losses contributes significantly to improved food and
nutrition security in many developing countries, and deserves more attention
from policymakers and government. Significant proportions of fresh produce,
animal-source foods and cereals are lost to spoilage and infestation on their
journey to the consumer…Reduction of post-harvest losses has great potential to
increase rural income and employment, reduce food prices in urban areas and
improve food safety. Although some measures require economies of scale and
are not adaptable to smallholder contexts e.g. large, refrigerated storage
facilities), others are quite simple and are appropriate for even very low-income
farmers. For example, a review of projects in the Dominican Republic, Haiti and
Niger concluded that solar drying of fruits and vegetables rich in beta-carotene
was an appropriate technology for preserving these sources of vitamin A. Solar
dried fruits and vegetables maintain high levels of beta-carotene for up to 6
months (FAO/ILSI, 1997)…”
“Examples of livelihood diversification include…industries that add value to
raw agricultural products, e.g. oil seed processing. In addition to generating
income, food processing initiatives can help to meet urban food needs,
especially in areas where storage facilities are inadequate and where food safety
is an issue.”
“Promotion of preservation techniques to maintain micronutrient levels in foods
not only reduces post-harvest losses but, when coupled with education services
that emphasize the importance of dietary diversity, may also improve intake
patterns.”
World Vision “Support to agricultural and livelihoods diversification and local/community-
based food fortification (particularly with iron and zinc) are both important
strategies to increase the amount of nutrient-dense foods for household
consumption, particularly when those strategies seek a high degree of
involvement from women.”
“Appropriate agriculture/livelihoods interventions should:
Be designed to smooth consumption in poor households throughout the year.
… This is particularly important for nutritionally vulnerable groups such as
children under 5, who have a very small window of time before reductions in
quantity and quality of food can cause severe and often irreversible health and
cognitive impacts… use of locally-adapted seed and livestock varieties,
improved farm management techniques (e.g. conservation farming, improved
post-harvest management, including preservation techniques such as solar
drying) and small-scale irrigation systems (such as drip irrigation) and on and
off- farm livelihoods diversification are all key to building resilience in

Increase marketing opportunities
ACF “As much as possible, the intervention should advocate for women’s access
to land…financial services…markets and employment.”
“…Dried fruits, jams and jellies produced by small-scale processors have
penetrated the formal market (supermarkets and general dealer shops), and are
considered a potential micro-enterprise for women.”
“…consuming worms, termites or insects have the potential to generate income
and jobs for rural people who capture, rear, process, transport and market them
as food.”
“[Fostering multisectoral linkages may involve] Linking various FSL
interventions with each other (e.g. homestead or community gardens, market
access, incomes generating activities, livestock rearing, cash transfers etc.).”
Bioversity
International
EC “Entry points for [improving nutrition through food security] are relevant in
emergency and development contexts and include:
facilitating physical and/or economic access [to markets] (including investments
in rural infrastructure such as feeder roads)”
CONSUMPTION IMPACTS: Help farmers secure better prices for their
produce, locate new markets, and control the stream of earning through
participation in marketing associations and inventory credit schemes.” (2001)
“Those working in the informal sector need business training and a network or
association to give them a voice.” (1999)
[Needed in further studies: Analysis of the nutritional impacts of agricultural
marketing interventions, such as reforming commerce regulations, supporting
agribusiness, NTAE promotion, and small-scale processing.] (1999)
FAO “Surplus homestead production can also be commercialised locally or bartered,
thus generating household income for additional food purchase on the one hand
and facilitating access of local consumers to nutritious foods on the other.
Micronutrient-rich foods, such as animal source foods, fruits and vegetables, and
also oils and fats in areas where the energy density of the food is insufficient, are
particularly important.” (2010)
“Horticulture also has the potential to increase incomes via produce sales if there
is market access.” (2009)
[Main strategies to combat micronutrient deficiencies]: Dietary diversification
(availability and consumption of micronutrient-rich foods) through: social
marketing of micronutrient-rich foods…and solar drying technology for
preserving micronutrient-rich foods.” (2004)
“Provide [extension] information and advice on the production, marketing,
processing and utilization of underexploited traditional food crops and
indigenous crop species.” (2001)
“Consider intra-household factors which influence the behaviour of resource-
poor farmers in relation to commodity prices when giving advice to farmers on
marketing strategies. For example, subsistence farmers often are forced sell their

farm produce when prices are low to obtain cash income for family use, and
later must purchase the same commodity at a higher price for family
consumption.” (2001)
IFPRI “For underutilized crops rich in nutrients, value chains can be created to
promote their conservation, cultivation, marketing, and consumption.”
“Consumer awareness campaigns, such as nutrition literacy programs in
villages, can increase poor people’s knowledge of and demand for nutritious
food. More consumption of nutritious foods can not only improve health,
but also open new markets for agricultural producers.”
IYCN
Save the “ACCESSIBILITY OF LOCAL MARKETS
Children UK A family’s decision on whether to sell or consume the food they grow is
influenced by market demand for their products as well as the availability of
market information. Any efforts to improve nutrition through agriculture should
assess how local markets are functioning and how different groups of producers
are able to make use of them. To be truly accessible, a market must be within
reach geographically with appropriate transportation, and also available for use
by smallholder farmers and particularly female farmers. Factors that limit
women’s access to markets can include local beliefs about women’s place being
confined to the home, their access to transportation and men’s role in controlling
income and vital market information.” (2012)
“Address local markets: Policies should be designed with the local markets in
mind and seek to improve accessibility for small-scale farmers to the markets for
producers, and availability and affordability of nutritious foods.” (2012)
UN SCN “Collective action by small food producers can also help to orient and shape
markets to better capture and increase the availability of nutritious local foods,
and can increase the availability of affordable fruits and vegetables for urban
consumers.”
World Vision “Poverty is a major driver of poor nutrition so addressing household livelihood
concerns is critical. Promotion of nutritious and marketable foods helps to
meet both economic as well as dietary needs of households.”
BI nutrition strategy:
Can agricultural biodiversity be scaled for commercial use while maintaining biodiversity and
ecosystems and improving human health?
What does agricultural biodiversity imply for periurban and urban markets, and what do trends in
urban markets imply for potential success of agricultural biodiversity?

Reduce seasonality
ACF “Address seasonality to ensure food and nutrition security all year round
Seasonality is a major-contributing factor to undernutrition. It is also one of
the leveraging points to reduce hunger. In the report ‘Seasons of Hunger:
Fighting Cycles of Quiet Starvation Among the World’s Rural Poor’, ACF
shows how the majority of programmes fail to address seasonality, and result in
inadequate answers to meet the household needs during critical periods of the
year.”
“The report advocates for the systematic adoption of three priority measures in
countries badly affected by the lean season:
 Pre-positioning of nutritional and health resources in the months before
and during the annual hunger period to reduce mortality and morbidity (e.g.
nutrient-rich therapeutic foods or food aid to prevent increase in acute
moderate malnutrition).
 Provision of predictable transfers of cash, food or employment during
the hunger season (e.g. income generating activities or cash transfers).
 Indexing cash transfers to price trends to buffer poor households against
the impacts of volatile markets.”
Bioversity “Basic principles in designing a successful intervention: …Recommend a
International system that will meet nutritional needs year round. Seasonality and improved
storage techniques and capacity can add longevity, improving food security.”
EC
FANTA “Close seasonal gaps in food access through production diversification,
improved storage, and agro-processing.”
“Small-scale agro-processing. Agro-processing can improve the storability of a
of the year, e.g., solar-drying fruits and vegetables, pressing sunflower oil or
season.” (2001)
“Improved storage and inventory credit schemes. Inventory credit programs
emergency food stocks. Even when the profit from hungry-season sales is small,
farmers still derive benefits from the more consistent flow of income over the
agricultural year.” (2001)
FAO “The food and agriculture sector therefore has a major role to play in:
ensuring year round availability at local level of the combination of safe and
affordable foods needed for a healthy and sustainable diet.” (2010)
including fruits and vegetables, livestock, fishery and aquaculture;” (2004)
“application of advanced food production technologies often can reduce

fluctuations in seasonal food availability, food prices and income.” (2001)
“Vegetable gardens should be designed such that they provide the necessary
micronutrients and there is continuity of supply throughout all seasons.” (2001)
“Assist farmers and growers in planning and producing crops that offer
continuity of supply, with emphasis on a wider range of crops species and
varieties that can provide improved and balanced diets.” (2001)
IFPRI
IYCN
Save the
Children UK
UN SCN
World Vision “Appropriate agriculture/livelihoods interventions should:
off- farm livelihoods diversification are all key to building resilience in
Women’s empowerment
ACF GUIDANCE 7 – EMPOWER WOMEN
“Women should directly benefit from the intervention as much as possible
because i) they already have less access to resources and opportunities than
men, and ii) they play a key role as the gatekeeper of household food
security, health and nutrition. Studies show that increases in women’s income
are more strongly associated with improvement in the health and nutritional
status of their children than increases in men’s income... It is however crucial
to avoid increasing the already heavy work burden of women. Manual work
in agro-sylvo-pastoral or in for-work activities is usually time consuming and
physically demanding, which may put strain on their nutritional status and the
time dedicated to childcare… dynamics in the household may manifest in
women reaping smaller benefits from the programme than intended. However,
pay particular attention to do no harm, by e.g. forcing a gender perspective
that is not accepted by the community or preventing women fulfilling their
social role…A project focusing on women does not alone empower women. It is
necessary to educate and empower men and boys to become more
supportive of women as they often are the decision makers in the communities
and within the households.”
7.1 Give women the means to empower themselves : …the intervention

should advocate for women’s access to land, livestock, education, childcare,
financial services, extension services, technology, markets and
employment.”
7.2 Evaluate time and labour resources required from the project
beneficiaries : …Keep in mind that individuals who are suffering from
undernutrition or micronutrient deficiencies (especially iron) will encounter
greater difficulties to do physical labour because they are weaker than
individuals in good health.”
7.3 Protect the nutritional status of women : [consider providing extra food
rations or vouchers, vouchers for services, multiple micronutrient sachets, low-
input gardening]
7.4 Encourage safe childcare initiatives : [Think about childcare during
training for women, breastfeeding spaces, engage fathers and mothers-in-law
and other authority figures, support day care centers or the like for working
women (especially urban women)]
Bioversity “Our Most Vital Asset: Women. Women are the keepers of food culture in
International their communities, and play a vital role in conserving and using biodiversity in
their farming systems … Non-staple minor crops as well as animal husbandry
offer opportunities for value addition and can increase income security for
women.”
EC “Entry points for [improving nutrition through food security] are relevant in
empowerment of women as key agents to improve household food security,
health and nutrition outcomes”
“Possible entry points for [improving nutrition through agriculture] include:
empowering women, strengthening their roles as economic actors and creating
an enabling environment for childcare”
FANTA “Interventions that aim to increase household income as a means of improving
household food security should target women, since women are the providers of
food, childcare, and health services.” (1999)
“Since gardening is predominantly a woman’s activity in Africa, a portion of the
incremental income tends to go toward household food consumption.” (1999)
“Evidence shows that additional agricultural income in the form of one’s own
production or cash earnings from crop or livestock sales is more likely to be
spent on food if …The incremental income is earned or controlled by
women…[and] training in health and nutrition is provided.” (2001)
“…labor saving post-harvest technologies grant women more time to fulfill
production and care-giving responsibilities.” (2001)
“RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPROVING ACCESS AND
CONSUMPTION IMPACTS
1. Target women, accounting for their specific objectives and constraints.”
“Historically, innovations in agricultural practices have centered on land
preparation and improved input application, both of which are men’s
responsibilities. Little emphasis has been placed on weeding and harvesting,
which are women’s responsibilities. Moreover, advances in processing,
preserving, and storing produce have been limited, especially for traditional

indigenous food crops – also, traditionally women’s responsibility.
Experience has shown that bringing women in at the design stage or working
directly with them on implementation issues greatly increases their active
participation and ultimately the achievement of program objectives. Women can
identify appropriate mechanisms for addressing labor and other time constraints.
Since women are an important source of agricultural labor as well as the
dominant primary care providers, it is important to account for women’s time so
that projects are not detrimental to food crop production or family care
responsibilities.” (2001)
“Constraints female farmers confront:
Since women account for a significant and growing proportion of Africa’s
farmers, agricultural program designs should take into consideration women’s
specific constraints. If programs are not designed to directly reduce or eliminate
these constraints, they need to operate effectively within them.
 Unclear or weak land rights.
 Limited access to common property resources.
 Limited access to cash for input purchases.
 Limited access to credit or microfinance.
 Limited access to extension and technology.
 Limited access to education.
 Triple burden (production, chores and childcare).” (2001)
FAO “food-based interventions include…time and labour-saving interventions to
allow women carry out both their productive and reproductive tasks.” (2010)
“These interventions all represent excellent investment options and have the
capacity to increase women’s roles in managing productive assets and their
access to services, technology and income generating opportunities. As shown
by the World Bank (2007), the resources and income flows that women control
wield disproportionately positive impacts on household health and nutrition.”
(2009)
“develop and disseminate technologies that respond to women’s needs and ease
the workload of women;”
“Generally, in developing countries, the agriculture sector employs a large
percentage of women as labourers (FAO, 1996d). Therefore:
■ When designing policies, caution should be exercised not to deprive people of
income-earning opportunities: while some degree of mechanization will increase
production and free women’s time for family care activities, income earned from
providing farm labour may be more important for vulnerable households.
■ A policy that is sensitive to women’s role as caregivers could enhance
nutritional status. For example, a policy that compels employers to allow
“breastfeeding breaks” would have a positive impact on young child nutritional
status and decrease morbidity and mortality rates.
“Women are more likely than men to spend their income on food for feeding
their families. Hence, if women have control over some income, nutritional
status is likely to be improved.” (2004)
“Recognize the enormous productive role of women in agriculture, especially in
food production. Women's contributions to food production are most evident in

the labour they provide in planting, crop management (e.g. weeding, stalking),
post-harvest activities, processing, storage and marketing. About 50 percent of
food crops in Asia are produced by women (FAO 1988). In many parts of
Africa, women provide about 60 percent of the agricultural labour force and up
to 80 percent of total food production labour force. In addition, women in many
developing countries are responsible for producing food consumed by their
families.
 Acknowledge and promote the importance of food crops that are normally
grown by women. The focus of research and extension on male-dominated
cash crops sometimes marginalizes women's work. Crops such as
groundnuts, cowpeas and other vegetables and fruit that are commonly
grown by women need to be promoted. Such crops, especially vegetables,
are normally consumed by household members and therefore, should be
considered, first, as important sources of food and valuable nutrients and
only second as sources of income.
 Include women's agricultural activities in extension programmes. This is an
important consideration for extension services in particular … studies show
that extension is cost effective and has a significant impact on farmers'
knowledge and successful adoption of new technologies, resulting in
increased productivity and rural incomes. This in turn impacts positively on
household food security and nutritional status. FAO estimates that women
receive only about one-twentieth (5 percent) of the extension services
received by men (1998).” (2001)
“Differences in physical capacities of women and men and their respective
social responsibilities should be considered when designing or introducing new
technologies.” (2001)
“Involve women in Participatory Rural Appraisals (PRA) at the village level, to
ensure that their needs and concerns are considered in any planning, and that
adoption of technologies does not become a burden to them.” (2001)
“In the developing world, women have significant roles in food production and
processing, and in providing for the nutritional needs of the family. It is
important therefore, that advanced technology is available and suitable for use
by women.
 Be aware of household/family dynamics in order to ensure relevant
targeting of technologies.
 Involve women's groups that are concerned with food processing and
other post-harvest activities in the design and implementation of research
experiments.
 Evaluate the potential gender impact of technology, ascertaining that
new technologies do not shift extra farm responsibilities to women, and
thus interfere with their childcare and family responsibilities. When
possible, tasks of women should be reduced to allow more time for
childcare.
 Include women extension officers in advisory teams, especially in areas
where women farmers play a role in crop production.
 Expand the extension coverage of women farmers by developing a

deliberate policy to target women farmers. Commonly, crops grown by
women are used for home consumption and, therefore, have a direct
impact on household food security and nutrition.
 Design extension programmes for women farmers that are relevant to
their production activities. Target youths in all gender-related training to
help change cultural stereotypes of gender roles. ” (2001)
IFPRI “Gender-sensitive programs that consider the synergies and trade-offs between
women’s roles in agricultural production and childcare can promote positive
nutrition and health outcomes.”
“Governance levers could include incentives and institutional arrangements, as
well as inclusion of marginalized and excluded groups—especially women, who
are at the nexus of the agriculture, nutrition, and health sectors.”
IYCN “Involve women. Improvements in women’s income are more likely to
translate into improved food security than are improvements in men’s income—
as long as women have adequate time for child and family care.”
“Incorporate home gardens. Women are usually responsible for home
gardens, and therefore, have greater control over household food consumption
decisions than their husbands.”
“Support agricultural tasks performed by women. These tasks include
weeding, harvesting, processing, and preservation. In general, nutritional
benefits increase when women can strike a balance between the time they give
to agricultural tasks and the time they give to child and family care.” (fact sheet)
Save the “SUPPORTING WOMEN FARMERS
Children UK Given their central role in food production, it is critical that any attempts to
improve nutrition through agriculture include women, and must improve their
access to key resources and inputs. Agricultural programmes must be designed
to take into account the different roles men and women play in agriculture, the
household and the community. Barriers for women farmers created by any
gender inequalities (eg, access to land, credit, agriculture extension services,
inputs, transportation) should be identified and overcome. For example, women
receive only 5% of agriculture extension services worldwide. Putting income in
the hands of women has been proven to yield beneficial results for child
nutrition, health and education. Investment in women farmers that increases
their income and decision-making power will therefore generate returns for the
women themselves and their children, as well as for the wider community.
In addition to being producers of food, women are predominantly responsible
for buying food, preparing meals and feeding children. These joint
responsibilities mean women are key to unlocking better nutrition. Programmes
must recognise the dual role that women play as food producers and food
providers. Targeting women through a combination of nutrition education and
agricultural support is an effective strategy for reducing malnutrition in the most
vulnerable communities, with the impact most pronounced among the lowest
income groups. These programmes should also target men, so both men and

women know the importance of nutrition, especially for pregnant women and
young children.
However, it is important not to overlook the impact that an increasing role in
agriculture can have on women’s other roles as care-givers. Strategies should be
identified that will increase opportunities for women to participate in agriculture
and that reduce burdens on their time. Time-saving investments – such as
processing equipment, access to water, or transportation – can be essential to
enable women to increase their incomes and serve as care-givers. Supporting
men to increase their participation in care-giving can also ease time pressures on
women, and transform unequal gender relations.” (2012)
“Support women farmers: Donors and governments must recognise the key
role of women as food producers and providers and ensure that they have equal
access to vital resources, knowledge and income. The wider community should
understand the value of producing and preparing nutritious food and the value in
using the income they have generated to purchase the right kinds of food.
Critical to success is that programmes are combined with other programmes,
that have a proven impact on nutrition outcomes.” (2012)
“Policies must take specific account of the fact that the majority of small-scale
farmers are women, who are balancing childcare responsibilities and farming.
Agricultural policies that take women away from their children for long periods
may be detrimental to improvements in nutrition in the population.” (2009)
UN SCN “Reducing gender inequity is an important part of the solution to global hunger.
Close associations exist between improved household welfare and empowering
women in terms of asset control, education and political participation. Within
the agricultural sector, marginalization of female farmers inhibits their economic
and political empowerment and is a serious constraint to improved food and
nutrition security.”
World Vision “Women are key actors in children's health and nutrition, as well as the
agriculture sector. Food security and other welfare gains such as improved
nutrition are strongly linked to the provision of greater economic
opportunities and increased decision-making power for women. Improving
poor women's access to income-earning opportunities and productive assets
is vital, to strengthen the ability of women to meet their household
responsibilities for children's health and nutrition.”
Appropriate agriculture/livelihoods interventions should:
Invest in poor women's leadership. …Strengthening women's access to
productive resources such as land, credit, seed, fertilizer, and information, as
well as improving market access should be part of support to agricultural
development. However, access to opportunities must be accompanied by
programs (such as PD/Hearth) that recognize and build on poor women's
priorities and knowledge; the purpose here is to support women's leadership and
confidence-building, so that they can translate opportunity into action.”
“Supporting poor women's leadership: Positive Deviance
(PD) Hearth. PD Hearth is a participatory, community-based program designed
to sustainably reduce child under-nutrition. The program identifies health-
promoting behaviour practiced by caretakers of well-nourished children from

poor families and brings communities together to discuss these positive
practices, with the objective of transferring such positive practices more widely
in the community. The PD/Hearth approach particularly recognizes the expertise
of women and strengthens their leadership role in addressing key development
challenges in their communities. [It can result in] Development of community
solidarity and leadership (particularly women's leadership and self-confidence)
to address malnutrition; Participation of the absolute poorest families within a
community (who are often excluded), with an active role for a family members.”
Nutrition education
ACF “Local perception of what constitutes a healthy diet often differs
substantially from a nutritionist perspective. Better understanding of these
concepts will aid in developing nutrition promotion and a behaviour change
strategy that is more likely to succeed.”
“Systematically account for nutrition promotion and changes in behavior:
To enhance the impact of the project, always include nutrition promotion in
projects that are shorter than one year and construct a comprehensive
behaviour change strategy (BCS), based on behaviour change communication,
for longer-term projects. The messages for nutrition promotion will be defined
in collaboration with the nutrition and MHCP teams and delivered by project
teams. Behaviour change strategy, on the contrary, is a long-term strategy that
aims at changing deeprooted behaviour and will be designed and piloted by the
MHCP teams38. This said, the country where you work may have already
developed its own nutrition agenda including national protocols for acute
malnutrition, food-based dietary guidelines, nutrition messages and IEC
material…. Changes in nutrition practices and behaviour may be accounted for
through pre-post KAP surveys. It is however relatively easy to measure change
in knowledge, but it is difficult to measure sustainable change in practices and
behaviour.”
GUIDANCE 8 – INCLUDE NUTRITION PROMOTION & BEHAVIOUR
CHANGE STRATEGY
nutrition promotion = “delivering simple and key messages to encourage good
nutrition practices.”
BCS = “a much longer-term strategy that seeks to change deep-rooted
behaviours and requires time and a thorough knowledge of the context you
work in.”
8.1 Conduct formative research to gain insight into the barriers and
opportunities to change behaviour and to define an appropriate BCS
“Importantly, people have to understand and agree with the benefits of adopting
a new behaviour. It is therefore crucial to have a thorough understanding of why
people behave the way they do and what they are willing to change, if you
intend to change their behaviour.” [lists some key questions in exploring
existing behaviours and factors influencing them]

8.2 Stick to a narrow set of well-tailored, actionable nutrition messages.
…FAO supports countries in developing their own food-based dietary
guidelines (FBDG). FBDG are the practical way to reach the nutritional goals
for a population and present several advantages…Check with FAO or relevant
national body if FBDG have been issued, as they are very helpful for nutrition
counselling. Find more at
http://www.fao.org/ag/humannutrition/nutritioneducation/fbdg/en/
8.3 Add participatory cooking demonstrations to the agenda
…help households to learn how to cook nutritious meals, handle food safely
and learn about the nutritional needs of family members. Promote the
adoption of fuel-efficient stoves as traditional open-air stoves are fuel
consuming and slow in reaching appropriate cooking temperatures.
8.4 Reach out through multiple means and channels. …it is preferable to
build on local capacity and traditions, and to use multiple delivery channels and
contact points. Support home visits: CHWs, auxiliary nurses, trained birth
attendants, agricultural extension agents or nutrition volunteers who are trained
in nutrition counselling can conduct home visits. Use existing, informal groups
such as women’s groups (savings groups, mother’s groups etc.)…Organise
community gatherings…Explore other opportunities to pass your messages, e.g.
market days, primary schools, religious centres etc., dramas, storytelling and
other performances…Mass media such as radio, television, billboards, and
posters also help create awareness of specific behaviours and complement
individual behaviour change programming.”
Bioversity “Basic principles in designing a successful intervention: 7. Make
International recommendations concise and actionable to improve usability and
understandability for the community. 9. Design appropriate communication
strategies. Evaluate what will make the information functionally available to the
greatest number of people.”
“The PD approach promotes behavior change that comes from within the
community, allowing it to be language and medium appropriate because it is
culturally relevant, based on preexisting strengths and assets within the
community, not expert driven, and “generative”, or having the ability to build
upon itself...”
“Awareness-based Interventions: Community based education is the basis of
these interventions where resources available are adequate, but access is
restricted functionally due to socio-cultural behavior patterns or public health
complications. Ensuring that families are not nutritionally compromised because
of unclean food handling, lack of understanding of the caloric needs of specific
individuals within the family, or other complications of understanding.”
EC “evidence shows gains in production, income, household food security, dietary
intake and fewer micronutrient deficiencies as a result of the [HFP]
interventions, especially when combined with other components — education,
behaviour change and women’s empowerment.”
FANTA “When agricultural programs are combined with well-designed health and
nutrition education, significant changes in participant consumption behaviors are
reported… Increased access enables participants to purchase or stock more and

better quality food. New health and nutrition knowledge and improved practices
create an extra incentive to produce more, diversify production, and retain more
food for household consumption.” (2001)
“Evidence shows that additional agricultural income in the form of one’s own
production or cash earnings from crop or livestock sales is more likely to be
spent on food if …The incremental income is earned or controlled by
women…[and] training in health and nutrition is provided. Similarly,
agricultural interventions can strengthen the link between consumption and
nutrition, such as by incorporating well-designed health and nutrition training
into agricultural programs.” (2001)
“RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPROVING NUTRITION IMPACTS
 Take advantage of group-based activities (e.g., marketing associations,
small-scale agroprocessing plants, and microfinance clubs) to convey
nutrition messages and lessons.
 Know the audience (women, men, different age or ethnic groups, etc.) to
understand the messages that will be most effective.” (2001)
“Nutrition messages need to be practical, reflecting local nutrition issues and
what is manageable within the clients’ resource constraints. If more frequent
breastfeeding is being promoted, for example, the project design needs to be
flexible enough to allow extra time for women to breastfeed. Messages designed
for men should mirror their unique responsibilities in providing good nutrition
for their families. Examples include educating men on which snack foods are
nutritious and how certain agricultural practices can increase health and
environmental risks.” (2001)
“Design the agricultural intervention to facilitate, and not inhibit, the adoption
of the nutrition messages and practices being promoted.” (2001)
“Education and behavior change communications can complement
agricultural interventions aimed at improving nutritional status. While
agricultural interventions increase the potential for improved nutritional
outcomes by increasing food availability and access, only when they are
combined with well-designed nutrition education have significant changes in the
participants behaviors and nutritional status consistently been recorded.
Agricultural interventions address the food access element, while nutrition
training addresses intake and utilization. Training can introduce new behaviors
and help break down stereotypes against low-status, but nutrient-dense foods.
Such education can be geared to both men and women, sensitizing men to the
importance of daily nutrition and childcare to the health and productivity of their
children. Based on these observations, one general recommendation is to factor
in education and communication about nutrition whenever possible, either as
part of an agriculture project or through collaboration with other development
activities. Health and nutrition messages should be limited to a manageable
number and well-tailored to the beneficiary community’s needs. These messages
should relate to the agricultural intervention as well (for example, introducing
improved crop varieties and cultural practices could be combined with nutrition
education and techniques of preserving and preparing foods using the new crop).
Education is most effective with groups that meet on a regular basis. Some have

argued that attendance for nutrition education is highest when it is attached to
another mandatory (credit repayment) or financially rewarding (agricultural
cooperative) meeting, but others have found that access to training is sometimes
an incentive for participating in a group.” (1999)
FAO “The food and agriculture sector therefore has a major role to play in…
providing appropriate information to consumers and in particular to poor
households so that they can make the best use of locally available foods and
cover their nutritional requirements, particularly of small children and women.”
“Food-based interventions must be systematically combined with appropriate
nutrition education at community level and capacity building of local
institutions, in order to improve dietary habits and feeding practices, especially
of infants and young children, and ensure appropriate and safe handling and
preparation of foods. This is also essential to influence local production systems
and enhance their contribution to sustainable diets. Schools are a key entry point
for improved food and nutrition at local level.” (2010)
“In addition, to maximize the efficiency of nutrition security initiatives,
agricultural interventions should include strategies to increase nutrition
education, empower women and optimize household use of resources.” (2009)
“Nutrition education programmes: One of the principal aims of nutrition
education is to provide people with adequate information, skills and motivation
to procure and to consume appropriate foods. Education programmes can focus
on strategies to improve family food supplies and efficient utilization of
available food and economic resources to provide well balanced diets and better
care for vulnerable groups. Nutrition education programmes should have at least
three components, which are directed at various social groups:
■ Increasing nutrition knowledge and awareness of the public and policymakers.
■ Promoting desirable healthy food choices and nutritional practices.
■ Increasing diversity and quantity of family food supplies.
Incorporating these three components into nutrition education and training
programmes in ministries of agriculture, education and health can help to
facilitate improvement in local food and nutrition conditions…Both traditional
and new methods are needed to reach large sections of the population, including
school children, youth, men and women in the workplace and at home.” (2004)
“In countries where the operation of the market as a mechanism for the
coordination of production and the consumption of food is relied upon,
[governments, in collaboration with all parties concerned and supported where
necessary by appropriate legislative measures should] develop education and
communication programmes so that nutrition objectives can be achieved through
appropriate consumer choice based on enhanced consumer awareness and
knowledge, and encourage the development of social welfare policies that will
enable the more vulnerable population groups to exercise informed dietary
choice…[and] incorporate appropriate and relevant elements of nutrition in
school curricula, starting from primary school.” (2004)
“Design farming systems with sufficient variety in the crop mix to provide a
balanced diet and meet the nutrient requirements (energy, protein, vitamins and
mineral salts) of the target group, which includes resource-poor, small farmers

and their communities…Access by farmers to coordinated advice on nutrition
and production-related issues is essential at this point.” (2001)
“Include, within extension policies, provision for disseminating research results,
information and advice to farmers. These provisions should cover all factors of
production including marketing, post harvest handling, processing, utilization
and nutritional qualities. Since many resource poor farmers may be illiterate,
wider use of mass media, such as radio and television, (where applicable) needs
to be considered.” (2001)
“Provide information and advice on appropriate food processing and utilization
methods that reduce nutrient losses, and on specific combinations of foods that
provide adequate nutrient balance…
“Provide farmers with information on reduction of post-harvest losses, handling,
and short-and long-term storage for preserving the nutritional quality of foods.
This is in addition to agronomic advice.” (2001)
“Establish local farmers’ associations that can organize educational activities for
farmers concerning various farming programmes.” (2001)
“Conduct on-farm trials and demonstrations with farmers and extension
workers.” (2001)
IFPRI “Projections show rising trends in consumption of livestock, dairy, and other
foods that make intensive use of energy and cereals, with worrisome
implications for global food security and the environment. Thus it will also be
important to work with consumer, public health, and environmental groups to
find ways of encouraging people to adopt sustainable patterns of food
consumption.”
IYCN “Integrate nutrition counseling. Including nutrition counseling through
agricultural extension can be highly useful, particularly when women are
counseled.” (fact sheet)
Save the “Education about nutrition should be prioritised to encourage farmers to spend
Children UK their increased income on more nutritious food.” (2012)
“NUTRITION EDUCATION
As discussed in chapter 2 and defined in the Lancet package, promoting the best
foods and best ways to feed children between the ages of 6 to 24 months is vital.
In many cases nutrition education should be provided at the same time as
agriculture projects, in order to maximise the benefits. For example, information
should be shared about the value of certain garden fruits and vegetables in
addressing vitamin A deficiency and how best to prepare food so that it is safe
and nutritious – for example, by adding green leaves to family dhal (lentils). In
developed countries, children are often taught about the value of good nutrition
both through health services and in schools, where subjects like food technology
are included on national curricula.”
“Targeting women through a combination of nutrition education and agricultural
support is an effective strategy for reducing malnutrition in the most vulnerable
communities, with the impact most pronounced among the lowest income
groups. These programmes should also target men, so both men and women
know the importance of nutrition, especially for pregnant women and young
children.” (2012)

diversity and nutrition outcomes include support for…education and social
marketing strategies that strengthen local food systems and promote cultivation
and consumption of local micronutrient rich foods…”
include…Community-based capacity building to improve nutrition:
Strengthening local food systems and promoting education and social marketing
efforts that encourage balanced diets.”
“Promotion of gardens in schools, communities or individual households
increases awareness regarding the importance of good nutrition, building local
capacity, and increasing the physical availability of fruits and vegetables.”
“As the double burden of malnutrition increases in developing countries,
educating consumers regarding the health risks of highly processed foods low in
micronutrient content is increasingly important. This type of nutrition education
is of particular relevance for low-income urban households consuming a high
percentage of their meals outside the home, and for those populations who are
exposed to and consume excessive amounts of processed foods of low nutrient
content.”
World Vision “Integrate nutrition education. …Behavior change strategies should
encourage women to: a) recognize the value of producing and/or purchasing a
variety of foods; and b) teach them how to store and prepare those foods to
preserve nutrient content. More recent work points to the importance of
involving fathers…”
“Sustainability of agricultural programme interventions and the nutrition
benefits accruing from such interventions requires a sustained effort in nutrition
education and behavior change and reinforce positive nutrition practices
already existing in communities. These should be linked to existing community
and government capacity building and advocacy mechanisms.” (“Key lessons”)
Nutrition Education: Agriculture staff

ACF “Existing evidence suggests that…interventions that include nutrition promotion
involving agricultural extension agents are the most effective.”
Bioversity
International
EC “Regardless of the specific entry point, nutrition training and awareness-
raising is necessary for agricultural workers and decision-makers to
understand the links and work towards achieving them.”
FANTA “RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPROVING NUTRITION IMPACTS
1. Develop a narrow set of well-tailored actionable nutrition messages and
lessons that extension agents can disseminate at farmer association meetings
and during the course of their regular extension activities.
2. Develop nutrition messages that are basic enough so that agricultural
extension agents can deliver them accurately and with confidence.” (2001)

“Extension agents should know more about, and provide information on,
gardening and nutrition, especially in relation to the crops, technologies,
and practices the agents are promoting. Health messages spread by extension
agents could be better focused by targeting specific health issues in the agent’s
jurisdiction. Nutrition education could be incorporated into projects that work
with traditional or nontraditional crops.” (1999)
FAO “Agriculture-based interventions to improve nutrition security : agricultural
extension services provide nutrition education at the community level” (2009)
“The extension service potentially plays the crucial role of mediator between
research institutions and farmers regarding issues of production, processing and
utilization. The involvement of extension services in incorporating nutrition into
agricultural research plans and programmes is therefore, crucial.” (2001)
“Include, within extension policies, provision for disseminating research results,
information and advice to farmers. These provisions should cover all factors of
production including marketing, post harvest handling, processing, utilization
and nutritional qualities.” (2001)
“Train extension and nutrition workers in the production and distribution of
training materials and information leaflets for nutrition education of the rural
poor.” (2001)
IFPRI
IYCN “Integrate nutrition counseling. Including nutrition counseling through
agricultural extension can be highly useful, particularly when women are
counseled.” (fact sheet)
Save the “…promoting the best foods and best ways to feed children between the ages of
Children UK 6 to 24 months is vital. In many cases nutrition education should be provided at
the same time as agriculture projects, in order to maximise the benefits. This
education can be provided by agriculture extension officers (who provide advice
and services to farmers), community health workers, public awareness
campaigns and nutrition education in schools.” (2012)
UN SCN “Extension advice, especially that geared towards women and school-based
nutrition services, is thus necessary to “activate” the latent nutrition aspects of
many agricultural development projects and programmes. For example,
promotion of traditional cropping systems should be accompanied by extension-
based education services stressing the importance not just of growing, but also
of consuming a diversity of foods. Extension services which encourage crop
diversification, for example via distribution of high-nutrient foods such as
orange-fleshed sweet potatoes, must be accompanied by education and social
marketing efforts to encourage increased intake of these foods (Low et al.,
2007)… Education programmes that are extension or school-based can also
promote food safety.”
World Vision

Manage natural resources
ACF “Promote legumes, such as beans and lentils, as they are rich in energy and a
Legumes also improve soil fertility.”
6.2.3 Promote biodiversity and sustainable agricultural practices
“The conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity for food and
agriculture play a critical role in the fight against undernutrition, by
ensuring environmental sustainability while increasing food and
agricultural production. Agricultural biodiversity is one sustainable way to
cope with the coming challenges and uncertainties, including the decreased
availability of natural resources. It helps to raise the productivity of small-scale
farmers and increase resilience to climate change (see Box 19 on conservation
agriculture and Box 20 on agricultural biodiversity). Promoting diversity will
help maintain and rehabilitate productive ecosystems to supply future
generations with abundant food and agriculture. For more guidance on low-input
and sustainable agricultural practices in general, refer to ACF position paper and
user’s manuals on pesticides, fertilisers and seeds as well as the manual on low
input agriculture. Encourage integrated farming systems where livestock and
crops coexist independently from each other but interact to create a synergy,
with recycling allowing the maximum use of available resources…”
“…[insects, worms, termites] also offer particular benefits to those who want to
reduce their environmental footprint, because they are exceptionally efficient in
converting what they eat into tissue that can be consumed by others – about
twice as efficient as chickens and pigs, and more than five times as efficient as
beef cattle.”
Bioversity “Agroecological Interventions…address issues of resource accessibility, market
International flows, agronomic practice, and production decision making on both the
household and local level. Quality and quantity of products, as well as the
capacity of the local agroecosystem to meet nutritional needs can be improved
through adjustments in soil fertility, increased sharing of resources, creating new
market opportunities, promoting intensification and diversification in cropping,
and many other aspects of agroecological systems.”
EC “Environmental changes (e.g. urbanisation, loss of natural resources and
biological diversity) affect key determinants of nutrition wellbeing. For instance,
climate change with its higher frequency and severity of extreme weather events
(e.g. droughts, floods) alters access to food which is imperilled by droughts,
water scarcity and floods; [and] health status with diarrhoeal diseases is
expected to increase and some infections likely to spread to new areas. These
changes will particularly affect those who are less able to adapt, threatening
already strained livelihoods, deepening poverty and increasing undernutrition. It
is essential that action prioritises those most affected by undernutrition: women,
young children and the poorest households.
Possible entry points for [improving nutrition through agriculture] include:
Conducive investments and services:
increasing the productivity of small-scale farming through good agricultural

practice (e.g. improving soil fertility, control of soil erosion, water conservation)
Conducive natural resource management:
• securing access to land (e.g. land use rights) and other productive resources
(e.g. water) for poor or marginalized groups (e.g. ethnic minorities, emergency-
affected populations, pastoralists depending on the context);
• adaptation to the effects of climate change (e.g. to the foreseen reduction in
water availability in sub-Saharan Africa);
• risk mitigation and management of climatic shocks and natural hazards (e.g.
droughts, floods, pests).
Possible entry points for [improving nutrition through the environment and
sustainable management of natural resources] include:
“restoring or enhancing natural resources (e.g. rangeland rehabilitation, re-
vegetation of stream banks)
pro-poor, efficient and integrated management of water resources including
controlling for potential negative impacts, such as an increase in water-borne
diseases.”
FANTA
FAO “Agriculture-based interventions to improve nutrition security: subsidy
programmes increase availability of fertilizers supplemented with
micronutrients” [– then the brief notes that this approach may be particularly
important in the warm sub-humid tropics –] “a common problem in this zone is
inability of farmers to invest in fertilizers needed to overcome soil acidity, due
to both lack of availability and purchasing power. Although fertilizer use is
typically associated with production potential and food security, enhancing the
micronutrient and trace element (iodine, zinc, iron) content of crops by applying
enriched fertilizers to the soil also may improve nutrition security. Although this
measure alone is insufficient to address dietary deficiencies, it can be used in
conjunction with other nutrition-based interventions to maximize efficacy.
Micronutrient-enriched fertilizers have particular potential where input subsidy
schemes already reach large numbers of farmers.” (2009)
“…promote environmentally sound and economically viable farming systems to
increase crop production and maintain soil quality to encourage resource
management and resource recycling; encourage intensive food production at the
farm and household levels, taking account of prevailing local conditions; and
develop more effective techniques for the traditional production of food at the
household and community levels.” (2004)
“…policies in agriculture need to encourage access to means of production such
as land, credit, improved seeds, water, extension services, inputs and appropriate
technology [for small-scale farmers].” (2004)
“Agricultural policies should be designed in such a way that they promote: cost-
effective and environmentally friendly poverty reduction programmes that
ensure increased productivity;” (2001)
“Collaborate with extension services and agents in order to ensure the adoption
of environmentally friendly crop protection methods and continued availability
of key inputs, such as fertilizers, irrigation, machinery, equipment, and
appropriate seed and planting materials, which are necessary for farmers to

adopt research findings and recommendations effectively.” (2001)
“Assist farmers with information on proper and efficient use of irrigation
systems, especially in those situations where available irrigation water is scarce.
Advise on timing of irrigation activities that will conserve the supply.” (2001)
“Promote the adoption of integrated pest and crop production management
practices for environmentally safe crop production and utilization.” (2001)
IFPRI “Stress on natural resources, especially water resources—exacerbated by climate
change—and rising costs of inputs such as fertilizers and pesticides may cause
farmers to adopt farming practices that are harmful to their own health and to the
health of consumers and that are ultimately not sustainable.”
IYCN
Save the “A global commission – featuring experts on agriculture, nutrition, climate and
Children UK economics – recently recommended: “Investment, innovation and deliberate
efforts to empower the world’s most vulnerable populations will be required to
construct a global food system that adapts to climate change and ensures food
security while minimising greenhouse gas emissions and sustaining our natural
resource base.” (2012)
diversity and nutrition outcomes include support for… integrated agro-forestry
systems that reduce deforestation and promote harvesting of nutrient-rich forest
products.”
include…environmental sustainability: Improving agricultural production
practices to address environmental concerns such as biodiversity, sustainable use
of resources, and livestock sector reform. …Intercropping, integrated agro-
forestry systems and cultivation of locally adapted varieties are examples.”
requires investment in the following: improving availability of seeds and other
inputs; developing water resources; strengthening and expanding agricultural
cooperatives and farmers’ organizations; measures for sustainable resource
management and conservation of biodiversity…”
“One of the primary constraints smallholders face is access to seeds and other
inputs. Subsidy schemes, programmes that promote soil fertility and sustainable
land management, input market development, and support for farm equipment
and structures can increase access to inputs for small farmers. For seeds, early
generation multiplication and strengthened distribution systems are measures
that can be taken at municipal and district level, while seed production can be
undertaken by farmers’ organizations at village level. Bangladesh, Lao People’s
Democratic Republic, Lesotho and Uganda are examples of countries working to
strengthen the capacity of farmers’ organizations for seed production (FAO,
2009j). When community seed production is working well, it can facilitate the

adoption of improved and locally adapted varieties, reduce transaction and
transport costs, and reach even the smallest and most vulnerable smallholders.”
“In Nepal, farmers are encouraged to invest in micro-irrigation, comprising low-
cost drip systems, rainwater harvesting tanks, treadle pumps, rower pumps and
dug wells, which irrigate up to 0.5 hectares of land (FAO, 2009j). These systems
suit smallholders, whose productivity and cropping intensity can be doubled if
access to irrigation is assured.”
“Strategies aimed at boosting production should include actions that protect
natural resources. Integrated pest management attempts to control pests through
the influence of natural predators and parasites, thereby reducing the need for
pesticides. Integrated soil fertility management combines the use of both
inorganic and organic fertilizers, such as composts, manures and nitrogen-fixing
plants, to increase yields, rebuild depleted soils, improve moisture retention and
protect the natural resource base (FAO, 2009j). In addition, promotion of
traditional cropping systems and crop diversification can protect the natural
resource base via decreased use of chemical fertilizers and improved soil
fertility.”
“In addition to country-level recommendations, regulatory frameworks and
agreements should support standard-setting initiatives that promote food and
nutrition security within a global context. Areas of focus should include…
preservation of biodiversity, and conservation, sound management and
sustainable use of natural resources, e.g. promotion of integrated agro-forestry
systems…”
World Vision “Appropriate agriculture/livelihoods interventions should:
off-farm livelihoods diversification are all key to building resilience in
Policy coherence
ACF “The promotion of nutritionally orientated interventions is expected to achieve
greater results, especially if interventions from different sectors include an
indicator of undernutrition to judge overall progress … this requires increasing
policy coherence and collaboration between sectors. Although progress has been
made, countries and donors need to put nutrition on the forefront of the agenda
and make sure that policies complement each other rather than contradict.”
“Cash-based interventions are recognised as having great potential for

improving nutrition and preventing the deterioration of the nutritional
status… Various experiences show that cash transfers are consistently found to
augment household food consumption and dietary diversity, irrespective of their
main objective.”
Bioversity
International
EC “A basic starting point is having nutrition-sensitive national policies that
encourage a multi-sectoral approach to addressing chronic and acute
undernutrition.”
“Entry points for [improving nutrition through food security] are relevant in
-promoting comprehensive policy frameworks to tackle undernutrition and
hunger;…food policy reforms (subsidies, prices, trade, agriculture-sector
investments) and pro-poor policies designed to address disparities in a
sustainable manner.
-facilitating physical and/or economic access [to markets] (including
investments in rural infrastructure such as feeder roads)”
“Social transfer schemes can help reduce undernutrition in several ways.
First, they can be a tool to reduce inequalities and address economic income
poverty at household level. This is of paramount importance as undernutrition
and poverty tend to be closely interrelated. By addressing income poverty and
the economic determinants of undernutrition, social transfers can have an impact
on the three underlying causes: increasing access to food and dietary diversity,
improving quality of care for women and children, and increasing access to
healthcare.”
FANTA “Design the agricultural intervention to facilitate, and not inhibit, the adoption of
the nutrition messages and practices being promoted.” (2001)
“Become more involved in policy issues directly affecting the poor…Small-
scale rural microenterprises, traders, cooperatives, associations, and farmers
would benefit from decentralization of licensing processes. Land reform remains
a pressing issue for women in particular, and the poor in general. Legal codes
and regulations for cooperatives and marketing associations have to be drafted.”
(1999)
“Encourage complementary investments in community health service
infrastructure.” (1999)
FAO “FAO is committed to assisting countries [in]…mainstreaming nutrition
considerations into relevant policies and programmes, thus contributing to long-
term nutrition-sensitive development.” (2010)
“Policy-makers need to be aware of potential effects that various
development policies can have on the poor and nutritionally vulnerable.”
(2004)
“Macro-economic policies can directly and indirectly impact on the
socioeconomic status of all population groups, and hence nutritional status. For
example, if macro-economic policies do not support the agriculture sector, the
impact on the rural poor is negative since they depend on agriculture for their
livelihood; economic growth decreases; there are fewer employment

opportunities; and income distribution is skewed against the poor, thereby
affecting their nutritional status. In addition, macro-economic policies can
impact negatively on nutritional status if there is reduced national expenditure
on social services…Therefore, policies need to be designed such that their
negative impact on the economic and social lives of the poor is minimized.
Alternatively, population groups that are most negatively affected need to be
identified and targeted with compensatory programmes such as school or
supplementary feeding programmes; subsidies or price moderation; and
provision of health services.” (2004)
“Policies that lead to improvement of infrastructure such as roads, transportation
and communication will enhance improvement of nutritional status through
employment (particularly of unskilled labour), improved food distribution and
decreased food prices…Policies that support financing or small-scale financing
programmes also promote equity and are therefore encouraged...In low-income,
food-deficit countries, population and environmental policies are essential for
sustainable economic growth and improved nutritional status to be realized...”
(2004)
“It would…be helpful to review relevant food laws and regulations. Factors
related to import and export policies, as well as to informal border trade, can
have a great impact not only on diet and food availability, but also on the
outcome of food pricing and subsidy policies.” (2004)
“Price fluctuations of foods consumed primarily by nutritionally vulnerable
groups need to be closely monitored for affordability. When the need arises,
targeted interventions that guarantee and protect access by the vulnerable to
sufficient quantity and quality of food should be put in place.”
“Other conditions within [the agriculture] sector that affect nutrition indirectly
are marketing, pricing, non-release of buffer stocks and absence of land
reforms…Sound environmental policies are encouraged for those who live in
environmentally fragile areas to support their farming activities… Governments
are encouraged to adopt policies that promote the production and availability of
nutritionally adequate foods to all population groups. In most countries where
malnutrition is a public health problem, policy changes relating to export crops
and staples, which could improve availability of domestic food supplies, need to
be assessed.”
“Improve nutrition by directing additional investment into agricultural research
where necessary.” (2004)
“Developing a food security and nutrition policy within the agricultural sector
also requires a strategy for its implementation. The following points offer some
suggestions and supporting information that can facilitate the incorporation of
this strategy into a national development plan
 National agricultural policy needs to support and promote food security
of nutritionally vulnerable groups.
 National governments and international agricultural research centres can
encourage their scientists to include goals of enhanced nutrition in their
research proposal objectives at both programme and project levels. Goals
of national agricultural policies may go beyond increasing agricultural

production to include food security, income generation, equity and
improved nutritional status - particularly as pertains to resource poor
smallholder farmers.
 Include nutrition considerations in agriculture sectoral policies, as well
as in policies of other collaborating sectors such as health, education,
finance, economic planning, trade, industry and NGOs. Ultimately,
nutrition needs and considerations should be explicitly elaborated in the
development policy. This could be achieved by establishing a board to
coordinate all activities relating to nutrition.” (2001)
IFPRI “Correct market failures. Markets alone cannot achieve socially optimal
agriculture, nutrition, and health outcomes. It is increasingly clear that
agricultural and other policies have a range of benefits and costs for health,
nutrition, and the environment that market prices do not reflect, especially given
people’s lack of information and knowledge. We need to do a better job of
taking into account the true value— positive and negative—of nutritious foods,
health services, and environmentally beneficial agricultural practices.
Policymakers should use public policies— such as investments, subsidies,
education, trade, and tax policies— to help correct these market failures and
promote policy coherence at all levels.”
“Financial incentives to promote multidisciplinary research should take into
account policy relevance in more than one sector.”
“Look carefully at the downstream effects of subsidies for production or
consumption on consumers’ nutrition and health. Although policymakers
often use nutrition to justify agricultural subsidies, in some cases subsidies may
result in patterns of agricultural production and distribution that ultimately hurt
people’s nutrition and health. Across-the-board, untargeted consumer subsidies,
for example, may help hungry people to acquire more food but, over time, may
distort their consumption choices and crowd out public investments that would
do more to boost nutrition and health.”
“Price policies can be used to promote consumption of more nutritious foods.”
“safety net programs, as well as education and health services, infrastructure,
trade policies, and other factors, make up the larger context within which
advances in agriculture, nutrition, and health will take place. Changes in these
factors will also make a difference to how well the linkages among agriculture,
nutrition, and health operate.”
IYCN
Save the “Projects that support farmers to diversify or increase their production can only
Children UK simultaneously improve nutrition results if policy-makers recognise the myriad
of factors influencing the diets of children and their families.” (2012)
“the often high cost of a locally available nutritious diet is therefore a huge
barrier to nutrition. Addressing this must be prioritised for interventions to
benefit the poorest. Social protection plays an important role in assisting poor
and particularly vulnerable groups to purchase more nutritious foods.” (2012)
“A global commission – featuring experts on agriculture, nutrition, climate and
economics – recently recommended: “Investment, innovation and deliberate
efforts to empower the world’s most vulnerable populations will be required to

construct a global food system that adapts to climate change and ensures food
security while minimising greenhouse gas emissions and sustaining our natural
resource base.” (2012)
“Identify and address the threats to nutrition from climate change and non-
food land use: The global community, including the G8, the G20 and
international nutrition governance structures, must identify and address the
potential impact of climate change and increasing non-food land use on hunger
and malnutrition, and must ensure that global and national approaches to the
food system integrate nutrition.” (2012)
“Protect families from poverty: Many of the best examples of progress in
tackling malnutrition have come from countries that have invested in effective
social protection policies that reach vulnerable families. Countries should work
towards establishing systems that reach pregnant and breastfeeding women, and
children under two.” (2012)
UN SCN “At the policy level, making improved nutrition outcomes central to national
development, protecting and expanding smallholder rights, increasing incentives
to produce and market micronutrient-rich foods, prioritizing the needs of poor
net consumers, and mainstreaming food and nutrition security concerns into
policy frameworks and development agendas increase programme efficacy as
well as chances for scaling-up. Regional and international policies, regulatory
frameworks and agreements should support standard-setting initiatives that
promote food and nutrition security within a global context.”
*
“promotion of pro-poor food and agricultural development policies that support
low-income groups and are conducive to nutrition security and encourage
positive spillovers, e.g. responsible foreign direct investment that includes
smallholders and leads to improvements in local food processing technologies;
promotion of fair and transparent global markets, e.g. border policies that do not
restrict developing countries’ access to global markets.”
World Vision “Investments in building the interest and capacity of national agricultural
systems to integrate nutrition outcomes in their planning and policy processes
would make a significant contribution to sustainable improvements in child
nutrition over the long term.”
Good governance for nutrition

ACF “Assess the level of commitment of the government in tackling
undernutrition. You will find information by looking at:
· National nutrition strategy and policy framework and the level of
current/planned budget to roll out the nutrition strategy.

· Institutional structures and capacity regarding nutrition, including local
representation and extension services.
· Poverty and social policies and legislature (e.g. signature of International Code
of Marketing of Breast Milk Substitutes).
· Involvement of civil society in nutrition issues.
· Nutrition surveillance
· Food security & livelihoods, health, MHCP & water and sanitation
interventions in the targeted areas.”
Bioversity
International
EC “Improving nutrition through governance: Regarding nutrition, the power
and voice of poor people, and the state’s accountability towards them, are
important aspects of the environment where nutrition improvements are being
sought…Poor governance is often associated with a state’s failure to meet the
fundamental rights of its citizens, including nutrition. It constitutes a major
impediment to development, as it limits the choice of aid modalities that donors
can responsibly apply…”
“Entry points for this aspect of undernutrition include:
• information and transparency — ensuring access to nutrition information in
public affairs, strengthening food and nutrition surveillance systems;
• civil society inclusion — participation of civil society in planning nutrition
strategies;
• budget — monitoring expenditure likely to yield nutrition benefits;
• national policies — including nutrition objectives and indicators in national
strategies and policies, developing national action plans on nutrition, nutrition
incorporated in national emergency plans, attention to governance, government
leadership and institutional arrangements concerning nutrition strategies/plans;
• international instruments establishing the right to adequate nutrition as a basic
human right;
• accountability of the state to fulfill their responsibilities and promises…”
“Key indicators for nutrition benefits through governance:
• Inclusion/prioritisation of nutrition in national framework (e.g. poverty
reduction strategy papers)
• Nutrition objectives included in sector policies/strategies/plans (e.g. health,
contingency plan)
• Nutrition governance (including a system for inter-sectoral and stakeholder
coordination, existence and status of nutrition strategy/policy/plan)
• Availability of training in nutrition for government workers (beyond health)
• Violations of the code on marketing of breast-milk substitutes monitored and
reported
• Human rights indicators (e.g. Right to food included in the scope of the work
of human rights offices).”
FANTA “One approach to cross-sectoral integration at the Mission level is to draft a food
security strategy with improved nutritional status as a goal.” (2001)
“Develop nutrition strategies that can be explicitly addressed by agricultural
interventions.” (1999)

FAO “Good governance is essential to ensure policy guidance and accountability. The
reform of the Committee on World Food Security (CFS) will be essential in
strengthening its role in monitoring the global food security and nutrition
situation and progress towards achieving the MDGs, in exchanging experiences
and good practices, and in ensuring accountability.” (2010)
“Establish a flexible national mechanism with strong technical support to
promote effective intersectoral co-operation, to keep the nutrition situation in the
country under continuous review and to facilitate the development of national
nutrition policies and programmes.” (2004)
“…policies that support research programmes in addressing the food security
situation of the poor and undernourished… should be developed at both national
and international levels, the national level is more strategic since concerns and
problems of resource poor farmers can be addressed most effectively and
efficiently at the grassroots level.” (2001)
“Good progress in extension will only be achieved with strong top management
and ministerial support to encourage real commitment of front line staff.” (2001)
“Developing a food security and nutrition policy within the agricultural sector
also requires a strategy for its implementation. The following points offer some
suggestions and supporting information that can facilitate the incorporation of
this strategy into a national development plan.
 National governments should consider support for household food
security a development priority if poverty, food insecurity and
malnutrition are to be overcome in a sustainable manner.
 Available national data on poverty, food security and nutritional status
should be considered when prioritizing development programmes. In
particular, agricultural research and extension services should give
special emphasis to the needs of resource-poor farming communities.
 Consolidate information/data systems to improve information
accessibility and dissemination to researchers, extensionists and other
stakeholders.
 Develop action plans on the basis of policies and national development
plans in consultation with all key stakeholders in order to identify broad
priority areas and build consensus; identify human and financial
resources to implement the priority areas; and develop monitoring and
evaluation plans.
 Promote operational and problem-driven research.
 Policy-makers should review and streamline agricultural research
objectives and ensure that they are sensitive to nutrition issues.
 Consider local and/or regional cultural practices when formulating
research policies, priorities and projects.
 Establish a national multidisciplinary and multisectoral body for food
security and nutrition.
 Establish linkages between agricultural research
organizations/institutions and farmers organizations; between agriculture
and nutrition extension services and farmers' organizations; and between
research institutions and extension services. At the same time, strengthen

existing networks within sub-regions
 Include nutrition considerations in agriculture sectoral policies, as well
as in policies of other collaborating sectors such as health, education,
finance, economic planning, trade, industry and NGOs. Ultimately,
nutrition needs and considerations should be explicitly elaborated in the
development policy. This could be achieved by establishing a board to
coordinate all activities relating to nutrition.” (2001)
IFPRI “Fill the gap in governance knowledge at the global, national, and
community levels. More remains to be learned about how to maximize the
synergies among the [agriculture, health, and nutrition] sectors using policies,
investments, regulations, and other tools of governance. In addition, it is
important to generate effective leadership to galvanize different sectors to work
together effectively and to learn more about how to prioritize and sequence
actions and investments to link the three sectors.”
“Global and regional institutions that play important roles in the governance of
the agriculture, nutrition, and health sectors may need to be reformed for greater
effectiveness and integration of efforts.”
IYCN
Save the “The strategies for integrating health, nutrition and agriculture are gaining
Children UK momentum, but more must be done at the global and national levels. Donors and
governments must prioritise nutrition to alleviate poverty and drive growth….
The US G8 and the Mexican G20 in 2012, and the UK G8 in 2013 all offer
major opportunities for progress as food, nutrition and social protection are
likely to be on the agenda. These countries should work together to ensure an
ambitious action plan that aligns institutional reform with clear delivery of new
resources. With support from the international community, countries with high
malnutrition burdens should exhibit the leadership and commitment needed to
eliminate malnutrition.” (2012)
“Support nutrition-friendly agriculture: Donors must support national
governments and civil society to increase the potential for famers and
communities to improve nutrition through agriculture.” (2012)
UN SCN “Poverty reduction strategy papers, United Nations development assistance
frameworks, and five- or ten-year plans are all examples of national policy
frameworks into which food and nutrition security objectives need to be
incorporated. Mainstreaming requires convincing policymakers that reduction in
income poverty and yield gaps do not guarantee proportional reductions in
malnutrition, and that specific policies and targeted interventions for improving
nutrition outcomes are therefore necessary if the Millennium Development
Goals are to be achieved. Promotion of social protection, equitable land tenure
regulations, national food fortification programmes, monitoring and evaluation
of food and nutrition situations, and capacity-building measures are some of the
most important aspects of [national policy] frameworks.”
“To lift themselves out of hunger, the food-insecure need control over resources,
access to opportunities and improved governance at the international, national
and local levels.”
World Vision “Contribute to coordinated country-led action on child under-nutrition.

…Three steps common to countries who have made substantial inroads in
addressing child undernutrition are: 1) government stock-taking of the national
nutrition situation and existing responses; 2) development of national plans of
action for scaling up nutrition; and, 3) rapid implementation of plans through
both internal and external funding. (SUN Roadmap)” (2011)
Capacity building
ACF
Bioversity
EC
FANTA
FAO “FAO assists member states at all levels [in]…strengthening the capacity of
institutions at all levels to address food and nutrition issues.” (2010)
“Increasing nutrition knowledge and awareness of the public and policymakers
[should be a component of nutrition education programs].” (2004)
“Develop or strengthen the technical capacities of, and institutional mechanism
with, each relevant ministry and at intermediate levels of government to identify
nutritional problems and their causes, and to improve the planning, management
and evaluation of programmes and development projects that affect nutrition.
Links with appropriate research and training institutions should be strengthened
as well.” (2004)
“Encourage and support the full involvement of communities and the
participation of the people therein in the identification of their own nutritional
problems as well as in the implementation, monitoring and evaluation of
development programmes.” (2004)
“A major function of the extension service is to provide farmers with
information on all aspects of production, processing, utilization and nutrition, as
well as to foster linkages among farming communities, service providers,
extension workers and consumers. However, a general limitation of the
extension service in developing countries is that the ratio of extension workers
to farmers is very low, limiting the coverage of extension services. Resources at
the disposal of extension services are limited as well. And, because information,
technology and services are not always tailored for small, resource-poor farmers,
extension intervention is necessary to ensure that these farmers are given the
specific types of attention and assistance they need... In order to enhance their
effectiveness and efficiency, extension programmes need to be strategically
planned, needs-based (including nutritional needs) and strongly participatory,
with a bottom-up, problem-solving orientation.” (2001)
“Employ qualified nutrition/home economics officers in extension teams if the
expertise is not already available in the extension service. Nutrition experts can
collaborate with agronomists and contribute to the planning, implementation and
evaluation of community-level agricultural projects, based on the food needs and
nutritional requirements of community members. Provide agricultural and
horticultural extension officers with access to nutrition specialists if it is not

possible to employ the specialists in the extension service. Employ subject
matter extension officers who are specialists in the areas of marketing and post-
harvest handling, processing and utilization. Employ enough extension
personnel to cover farming communities and provide adequate resources for
staff members to perform their duties.” (2001)
“Include capacity-building for re-orientation of agricultural research workers
and nutrition researchers in institutional policy…
Introduce nutrition topics into the curricula of agricultural colleges and into non-
formal education training sessions…
Prepare suitable training materials that support research recommendations, for
use by extension officers, other rural development workers and farmers…
“Strengthen the nutrition component in home economics courses and incorporate
nutrition into all agriculture-related training programmes, so that the linkages
between nutrition and development can be understood and reinforced through
training.” (2001)
“Organize workshops and/or short-term training activities, in order to provide
research managers with information on how their agricultural research relates to
linkages between food and nutrition situations within communities. If research
managers are made aware of community nutritional needs and seasonal
fluctuations in availability of appropriate foods, they will be in a position to plan
appropriate research interventions.” (2001)
IFPRI “Donors and governments need to invest in reducing critical gaps in human and
institutional capacity while stepping up investments in projects and evaluations.”
“Invest in research, evaluation, and education systems capable of integrating
information from all three sectors (agriculture, health, and nutrition).”
IYCN
Save UK
UN SCN “Lack of technical and institutional capacity in assessing the local food and
nutrition situation, prioritizing needs, designing intervention strategies, and
providing operational and managerial support is a serious constraint to achieving
food and nutrition security in many developing countries. There is a shortage of
qualified personnel at every level – national, district, municipal and local.
Community nutrition workers are often limited or non-existent. Agricultural
extension workers and health staff receive either basic or no training in nutrition,
and have weak skills in communicating nutrition information to specific
population groups. Procuring funding for training nutrition specialists at all
levels of government should thus be a priority.”
“Strengthening national, municipal and community capacities to support local
food systems and promote nutrition education and social marketing efforts is
imperative to reducing all forms of malnutrition.”
World Vision “Investments in building the interest and capacity of national agricultural
systems to integrate nutrition outcomes in their planning and policy processes
would make a significant contribution to sustainable improvements in child
nutrition over the long term.”

Advocacy and communication
ACF ”The low commitment of some countries may be the opportunity to set up and
roll out an Advocacy Plan in collaboration with other sectors/partners to raise
the nutrition agenda as the international community and donors in particular are
eager to fund nutrition-related interventions in the light of the 2015 MDGs.”
Bioversity “Design appropriate communication strategies. Evaluate what will make the
International information functionally available to the greatest number of people.”
EC “Entry points for [improving nutrition through governance] include:
coordination with civil society, international and private sector organisations
(e.g. assess the private partners’ comparative advantage and make it available to
local actors, identify effective nutrition champions in different stakeholder
groups).”
FANTA “Support efforts to broaden access to and use of data relevant to food
security monitoring and planning. This would include standard data on health
and agricultural production and prices collected by ministries, nongovernmental
organizations, and UN agencies. More in-depth and integrated analyses,
accompanied by wider dissemination of results, should be encouraged.
Information from this analyses needs to feed into policy formation and program
design. This could be achieved through distribution of paper and electronic
bulletins, regular working groups, mini-workshops, or more frequent
interagency meetings, as well as through policy dialogue.” (2001)
FAO “Increase awareness among policy-makers and planners of the extent and
severity of nutritional problems and their causes, of the economic benefits, the
activity status of interventions and of activity status of different socio-economic
groups.” (2004)
“Provide feedback on the farming community's nutritional status for
consideration by policy-makers and research managers…
Open communication lines among extensionists and home economics, health
and nutrition workers regarding on-going demonstrations of research results…
Ensure that the products of research are presented in a format that will be
understandable, applicable and acceptable to the target groups…
Provide feedback of research findings relating to nutrition for research planners,
policy-makers and community workers, in order to make future research more
relevant to community needs.” (2001)
IFPRI “To have the greatest impact on policy, research results should be communicated
across sectoral boundaries.”
“Use communication and advocacy to bring about change. Although there is
wide interest in reducing undernutrition, converting good will into action can be
difficult. Communication and advocacy can play an important role in increasing
the visibility of nutrition issues, generating interest among agriculture and health
professionals, stimulating action at all levels—global, regional, national, and
local—and highlighting the important and interlinked roles played by all three
sectors.”
IYCN
Save the “Galvanise political leadership: Raising the profile of malnutrition requires a

Children UK build-up of political momentum to galvanise change. The US G8 and the
Mexican G20 in 2012, and the UK G8 in 2013 all offer major opportunities for
progress as food, nutrition and social protection are likely to be on the agenda.”
(2012)
UN SCN
World Vision “Translating nutrition evaluation results for effective decision making is very
important for institutional change and learning. National policy makers, senior
organizational leadership, and field level staff (particularly non-nutrition
specialists) require information in a form they can act on to make appropriate
programming and policy changes.” (“Key lessons”)

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Synthesis of Guiding Principles on

Agriculture Programming for Nutrition

Final Draft for Consultation

Final Draft for Consultation

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Selection Criteria of Resources Reviewed:

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The complete list of documents identified is found in Annex 1. A total of 43 publications

 Guidance notes. The characteristic feature of a document categorized as a “guidance

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An analysis of the overall alignment of recommendations between institutions follows the

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Doing: Main Activities

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Impact of income Nutrition Education

Policy coherence, Governance and Capacity-building, Communication and Advocacy

Current guidance shows a high degree of alignment between institutions

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Monitoring & Evaluation

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Sickness and health

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Four notes gave examples of how multisectoral linkages could occur:

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Maximize impact of household income

All 10 organizations discussed household income as an important mechanism for agriculture to

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Equitable access to resources

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Programmatic approaches to improved equity included:

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As for which groups to target:

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Diversify production and livelihoods

Several development organizations consider off-farm employment as an important activity to

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Horticultural crops comprised the most commonly-suggested type of production to maximize

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Reduce post-harvest loss and improve post-processing

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Increase marketing opportunities

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What: Important topics education or training could address included:

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Management of natural resources

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