Automatic Voltage

Regulation

Ref. Power System Analysis by Hadi Saadat

Reactive Power and Voltage
Control

• The generator excitation system maintains generator

voltage and controls the reactive power flow, which
is provided by automatic voltage control (AVR).
• The role of an AVR is to hold the terminal voltage
magnitude of a synchronous generator at a specified
level.
The schematic diagram of a simplified AVR is shown below:
• The increase in the reactive power load of the
generator is accompanied by a drop in the terminal
voltage magnitude.
• The voltage magnitude is sensed through a potential
transformer on one phase.
• This voltage is rectified and compared to a dc set
point signal.
• The amplified error signal controls the exciter field
and increase the exciter terminal voltage.
• Thus generator field current is increased, which
results in increase in the generator emf.
• The reactive power generation is increased to a new
equilibrium, raising the terminal voltage to the
desired value.
Amplifier Model
• The excitation system amplifier may be magnetic
amplifier, rotating amplifier, or modern electronic
amplifier.
• The amplifier is represented by a gain KA and a time
a time constant 𝜏𝐴 , and the transfer function is
𝑉𝑅 (𝑠) 𝐾𝐴
=
𝑉𝑒 (𝑠) 1 + 𝜏𝐴 𝑠
Typical values of KA are in the range of 10 to 400.
The amplifier time constant is very small, in the range
of 0.02 to 0.1 second, and often is neglected.
Exciter Model
• There is variety of different excitation types. However,
modern excitation system uses ac power source through
solid-state rectifiers.
• The output voltage of the exciter is a non-linear function
of the field voltage because of the saturation effects in
the magnetic circuit. Thus there is no simple
relationship between the terminal voltage and the field
voltage of the exciter.
• A reasonable model of a modern exciter is a linearized
model, which takes into account the major time constant
and ignores saturation or other non-lierarities.
• In the simplest form, the transfer function of a
modern exciter may be represented by a single time
constant 𝜏𝐴 and a gain KE, i.e.,
𝑉𝐹 (𝑠) 𝐾𝐸
=
𝑉𝑅 (𝑠) 1 + 𝜏𝐸 𝑠
The time constant of modern exciters are very small.
Generator Model
• The synchronous machine generated emf is a
function of the machine magnetization curve, and its
terminal voltage is dependent on the generator load.
• In the linearized model, the transfer function
relating the generator terminal voltage to its filed
voltage can be represented by a gain KG and a time
constant 𝜏𝐺 , and the transfer function is
𝑉𝑡 (𝑠) 𝐾𝐺
=
𝑉𝐹 (𝑠) 1 + 𝜏𝐺 𝑠
These constants are load dependent, KG may vary
from 0.7 to 1 and 𝜏𝐺 between 1.0-2.0 seconds from
full-load to no-load.
Sensor Model
The voltage is sensed through a potential transformer
and in one form, it is rectified through a bridge
rectifier. The sensor is modeled by a first order
transfer function, given by
𝑉𝑆 (𝑠) 𝐾𝑅
=
𝑉𝑡 (𝑠) 1+𝜏𝑅 𝑠
𝜏𝑅 is very small (0.01 to 0.06)
Combining the above models results in the AVR block diagram
shown below:

The open loop transfer function of the block diagram is

𝐾𝐴 𝐾𝐸 𝐾𝐺 𝐾𝑅
𝐾𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠) =
1 + 𝜏𝐴 𝑠 1 + 𝜏𝐸 𝑠 1 + 𝜏𝐺 𝑠 1 + 𝜏𝑅 𝑠
and the closed-loop transfer function is
𝑉𝑡 (𝑠) 𝐾𝐴 𝐾𝐸 𝐾𝐺 𝐾𝑅 1 + 𝜏𝑅 𝑠
=
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 (𝑠) 1 + 𝜏𝐴 𝑠 1 + 𝜏𝐸 𝑠 1 + 𝜏𝐺 𝑠 1 + 𝜏𝑅 𝑠 + 𝐾𝐴 𝐾𝐸 𝐾𝐺 𝐾𝑅
For a step input, 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 (𝑠)=1/s, using the final value theorem, the
steady-state response is
𝐾𝐴
𝑉𝑡𝑠𝑠 = lim 𝑠𝑉𝑡 𝑠 =
𝑠→0 1 + 𝐾𝐴
Example 1:
The AVR system of a generator has the following parameters:

Gain Time Constant

Amplifier KA 𝜏𝐴 =0.1
Exciter KE 𝜏𝐸 =0.4
Generator KG 𝜏𝐺 =1.0
Sensor KR 𝜏𝑅 =0.05
(a) Use the Routh-Hurwitz array to find the range of KA for control
system stability.
(b) Obtain the root-locus plot.
(c) The amplifier gain is set to KA =10
(a) Find the steady-state step response.
(b) Use MATLAB to obtain the step response and time-domain
performance specifications.
(d) Construct SIMULINK block diagram and obtain the step response.
Fig. Root locus plot of the above example 1
Fig. Terminal voltage step response for the above example 1
10
𝑉𝑡𝑠𝑠 = = 0.909
1 + 10
Excitation System Stabilizer-
Rate Feedback
• As we have seen in the above example 1, even for
an small amplifier gain of KA = 10, AVR step
response is not satisfactory, and a value exceeding
12.16 results in an unbounded response.
• Thus, we must increase the relative stability by
introducing a controller, which would add a zero to
the AVR open loop transfer function.
• One way to do this is to add a rate feedback to the
control system as shown in the following figure. By
proper adjustment of KF and 𝜏𝐹 , a satisfactory
response can be obtained.
Fig. Block diagram of the compensated AVR system
Example 2:
A rate feedback stabilizer is added to the AVR system of example
1. The stabilizer time constant 𝜏𝐹 =0.04 and derivative gain is
adjusted to KF = 2.
(a) Obtain the step response and the time domain performance
specifications.
(b) Construct SIMULINK model and obtain the step response.
Excitation System Stabilizer-
PID Controller
• One of the most common controller available
commercially is the proportional integral derivative
(PID) controller.
• The PID controller is used to improve the dynamic
response as well as to reduce or eliminate the
steady-state error.
• The derivative controller adds a finite zero to the
open loop plant transfer function and improve the
transient response.
• The integral controller adds a pole at origin and
increase the system type by one and reduce steady-
state error due to step function to zero.
The PID controller transfer function is
𝐾𝐼
𝐺𝐶 𝑠 = 𝐾𝑃 + + 𝐾𝐷 𝑠
𝑠

Fig. AVR system with PID controller

Example 3:
A PID controller is in the forward path of the AVR system of
example 2 as shown in the figure below. Construct the Simulink
model. Set the proportional gain KP to 1.0 and adjust KI and KD
until a step response with a minimum overshoot and a very small
settling time is obtained.
Fig. Terminal voltage step response for Example 3