Topic.4 Chemical Bonding and Catalysis

CO.
4 Apply the process of catalysis in industries
Topic-4
Chemical Bonding and Catalysis (09 Marks)
Prerequisites
Atomic Structure:
Introduction: The word Atom in Greek means invisible. Decartes in Greece and
MaharshiKanad in India was first philosopher who discovers Atom. John Daltonan English
school teacher was the first give his famous atomic theory in 1808.
The smallest particle of element was called them as an Atom. The study of the fundamental
particle of an element and the type of bonding between different element help us to understand
the physical, mechanical and chemical properties of the element.
Atom:“The smallest indivisible particle of an element is known as atom.Which cannot be further

sub divided and taking part in all chemical changes.”
It is extremely small in size having radius 1x10-8 cm.
Molecule:The smallest particle of an element or a compound that can exist in the free State and
retain all its properties.
Atomic structure: Atom is made up of three fundamental particles i.e. electrons, protons, and
neutrons .The arrangement of these three types of fundamental particles with in the atom of an
element is known as atomic structure.
Diagram:
Electron (negative)
Nucleus(Positive)
No. of proton and neutron
Fig. Atomic structure
Sub-atomic particles of the atom

Sr. Characteristics Electron Proton Neutron
No.
1 Discovery J.J.Thomson Goldstein Chadwick
2 Symbol e- P N
3 Nature Negatively Positively Neutral
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Charged Charged
4 Location in atom Outside the Inside the Nucleus Inside the Nucleus
nucleus
5 Relative charge -1 1 0
6 Relative mass in 0.0005466 amu 1.007825 amu 1.008665 amu
amu
Atomicity of an Element:
The number of atom of an element present in the molecule known as atomicity.
Molecule of an element may have only one atom or many atoms in it.
E.g. He, Ne,Ar, Kr X having only one atom hence these are monatomic.
Most of the metals and non metals are monoatomic.
The gases like H2, N2 ,O2,Cl2are diatomic.
Ozone is (O3) is triatomic.
Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) is polyatomic.
Bohr’s Atomic Model
1) Bohr’s atomic theory an atom contains positive charged central part

called as Nucleus. It contains protons and neutrons called as nucleons.
2) The electron revolve around the nucleus in fixed circular path are called orbit or shell.
3) Electrons in the shell nearest to the nucleus have lower energy while those
are greater distance from the nucleus have higher energy.
4) Orbits and shell are denoted by letters K,L,M,N for n=1,2,3,4 orbits starting from nucleus. The
energy associated with K level is less than the energy associated with L level. K<L<M<N<O<P.

Fig. Representation of Bohr’s atom

Atomic Number (Z):
“It is the number of protons present in the nucleus which is exactly balanced with the number of
electrons”.
Atomic Number (Z) = Number of protons = Number of electrons.
Z=P=e
The elements are arranged in the periodic table according to their atomic number.
2) Atomic Mass Number (A) :
The total number of protons and neutrons present together into the nucleus of an atom is known
as atomic mass number.
Atomic Mass Number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons
A=P+n
Number of neutrons can be calculated with the help of atomic number and atomic mass number.
n = A -Z
Maximum number of electrons in each shell can be calculated by 2n2.
Shell No. of Maximum number Name of the

Shell of electron in shell sub-shells
(n) (2n2)
K 1 2×12 = 2 s
L 2 2×22 = 8 s, p
M 3 2×32 = 18 s, p, d
N 4 2×42 = 32 s, p, d, f

Topic-4
Chemical Bonding and Catalysis(09 Marks)
CO.1 Apply the process of catalysis in industries.
Electronic theory of Valency(basic terms)

*Valence electrons:
Electrons present in the last shell of an atom are called valence electrons
*Valency:
Valency may be defined as the number of electrons an atom can lose or gain or
share so as to complete its last shell and become stable.
*Octet rule:
“The electronic arrangement in which 8 electrons are present in the outer most orbitis called
stable configuration or octet rule.”
Electronic theory of Valency

1. If the last orbit is removed then the rest of the atom is called ‘Kernel’ (or core) of the atom.
2. Atoms of elements containing 8 electrons in the outermost orbit or shell (or 2 electrons in
case of Helium) are stable. The electronic configuration in which 8 electrons (octet) or 2
electrons (duplet) are present in the outermost shell of an atom is known as stable
electronic configuration.
3. Only those elements having less than 8 electrons in the outermost shell are capable of
chemical combination. These elements have tendency to take part in chemical
combinations in such a way so as to acquire stable electronic configuration of the
nearest noble/inert gas element.
4. The atom of an element tends to achieve an octet by the smallest possible change.
Therefore, the elements having less than 4 electrons lose electrons and the elements
having more than 4 electrons gains electrons to complete octet.
Types of chemical bonds (Types of valency) :-

There are 5 types of bonds or valency:
1) Electrovalent/Ionic bond
“A bond formed when an atom of an element losses or gains electron to another reacting
atom to complete its last shell is called electrovalent or ionic bond”. OR
“A bond established between two dissimilar atoms or ions due to electrostatic force of attraction is
called electrovalent or ionic bond”.

(Electrovalency:-“The number of electrons that atom of an element losses or gains to complete

its last shell is called electrovalency”.
There are two types of electrovalency: -
a) Positive electrovalency: - “The valency obtained by loss of valency electrons from the
metallic atom of an element so as to complete its last orbit (octet) is known as positive
electrovalency”.
E.gi) Sodium atom losses one valency electron to complete its octet. Hence, positive
electrovalency of sodium is +1.
Na Na+ + e-
(2,8,1) (2,8)
E.gii) Magnesium atom losses two valency electrons to complete its octet. Hence, positive
electrovalency of magnesium is +2.
Mg Mg+++ + 2e-
(2,8,2) (2,8)
E.g. iii) Aluminium atom losses three valency electrons to complete its octet. Hence, positive
electrovalency of Al is +3.
Al Al+++ + 3e-
(2,8,3) (2,8)
b) Negative electrovalency: - “The valency obtained by gain of valency electrons by the
non-metallic atom of an element so as to complete its last orbit (octet) is known as negative
electrovalency”.
E.gi) Chlorine atom gains one valency electron from other atom to complete its octet.
Hence, negative electrovalency of chlorine is -1.
Cl+ e-Cl-
(2,8,7) (2,8,8)
E.g ii) Sulphur atom gains two electrons from from other atom to complete its octet. Hence,
the electrovalency of sulphur is -2.
S + 2e-S-2
(2,6) (2,8)
E.g iii) Phosphorus atom gains three valency electrons from other atom to complete its octet.
Hence, the negative electrovalency of phosphorus is -3.
P + 3e- P-3
(2,8,5) (2,8,8)

Examples of ionic or electrovalent bond formation:-

*Formation of Sodium chloride molecule (NaCl)
a) It contains one atom of sodium and one atom of chlorine.
b) The electronic configurations : 11 Na – (2,8,1) 17 Cl – (2,8,7)
c) During formation of NaCl molecule, Na atom losses its 1 electron and acquire +1 charge
i.e. Na+ and attains the stable configuration.
d) Cl atoms gains 1 electron and acquire -1 charge i.e. Cl - and attains the stable
configuration.
e) The Na+ and Cl– combines together by the force of electrostatic attraction to form NaCl
molecule.
Fig. Formation of NaCl molecule
*Formation of Calcium chloride molecule (CaCl2)

a) It contains one atom of calcium and two atoms of chlorine.
b) The electronic configurations: - 20Ca – (2,8,8,2) 17 Cl – (2,8,7)
c) During formation of CaCl2 molecule, Ca atom lossesits 2 electrons and acquire +2 charge i.e.
Ca++ and attains the stable configuration.
d) Two Cl atoms gain 1 electron each and acquire -1 charge i.e. Cl- and attains the stable
configuration.
4. The Ca++ and 2 Cl– combines together by the force of electrostatic attraction to form
CaCl2molecule.
Fig. Formation of CaCl2

*Formation of MagnesiumOxide (MgO)

a) It contains one atom of Magnesium and one atom of oxygen.
b) The electronic configurations: -12 Mg – (2, 8, 2) 8O–( 2, 6)
c) During formation of MgO molecule, Mg atom loss its 2 electrons and acquire +2 charge i.e.
Mg++ and attains the stable configuration.
d) One oxygen atom gain 2 electrons and acquire -2 charge i.e. O- - and attains the stable
configuration.
e) The Mg++ and O - - combines together by the force of electrostatic attraction to form
MgOmolecule.
Fig. Formation of MgO molecule
*Other examples of ionic/electrovalent compound are KCl, CaO, MgCl2, AlCl3,etc.
Characteristics of ionic/electrovalent compounds

a) Ionic compounds (electrovalent compounds) are crystalline in nature.
b) They are soluble in polar solvents like water.
c) They are insoluble in non-polar solvents (like benzene, carbon tetrachloride, acetone,
etc.)
d) They ionize (split) in water and hence they are good conductors of electricity.
e) They are non-directional in nature hence, do not show isomerism.
f) They show high meltingand boiling points.
g) They are non-volatile.
h) Binding energy in ionic compounds (electrovalent compounds) is very high.
2) Covalent bond
“A bond formed by sharing of electrons by the reacting atoms is called covalent bond”.
(Covalency:- “The number of electrons that the reacting atoms share so as to complete its last shell
is called covalency”.)
Examples of covalent bond:-
*Formation of hydrogen molecule (H2)
a) It is covalent compound with single covalent bond.
b) In formation of hydrogen molecule, one atom of hydrogen combines with other
atom of hydrogen. It is diatomic.

c) Each hydrogen atom has electronic configuration (1)i.e. it contains 1 electron. So it needs 1
electron to complete the duplet.
d) So each hydrogen atom shares 1 electron with another hydrogen atom to complete the duplet
and both attain stable configuration.
e) H2 molecule is formed by sharing 1 pair of electron(2 electrons)between two hydrogen
atoms. Hence single covalent bond is formed between two hydrogen atoms.
Fig. Formation of hydrogen (H2) molecule
Formation of oxygen molecule (O2)

a) It is covalent compound with double covalent bond.
b) In formation of oxygen molecule, one atom of oxygen atom combines with other atom of
oxygen. It is diatomic.
c) Each oxygen atom has electronic configuration (2,6),i.e it contains 6 valence electrons.
Soeach oxygen atom needs 2 electrons to complete the octet.
d) Hence, each oxygen atom shares 2 electrons with another oxygen atom to complete the octet
and both attain stable configuration.
e) O2 molecules is formed by sharing 2 pair of electrons (4 electrons) between two oxygen
atoms. Hence double covalent bond is formed between two oxygen atoms.
Formation of oxygen molecule (O2)
Formation of nitrogen molecule (N2)

a) It is covalent compound with triple covalent bond.
b) In formation of nitrogen molecule one atom of nitrogen combines with other
atom of nitrogen. It is diatomic.

c) Each nitrogen atom has electronic configuration (2 5). i.e. it contains 5 valence
d) So each nitrogen atom shares 3 electrons with other nitrogen atom to complete the octet and
both attain stable configuration.
e) N2 molecules is formed by sharing three pairs of electrons(6 electrons) between two
nitrogen atoms. Hence triple covalent bond between two nitrogen atoms.
Fig. Formation of nitrogen (N2) molecule
Other examples of covalent bond

Formation of carbon dioxide molecule (CO2)
Formation of water (H2O) molecule
Characteristics of covalent compounds: -

a) Covalent compounds are present in all states solid, liquid and gaseous.
b) They are insoluble in polar solvents like water.

c) They are soluble in non-polar solvents (like benzene, carbon tetrachloride, acetone, etc.)
d) They do not ionize (split) in water and hence they are non conductors of electricity.
e) They are directional in nature and hence show isomerism.
f) They show high melting and boiling points.
g) They are volatile.
h) Binding energy in covalent compounds is low.
3) Coordinate bond (Dative bond)
“It is a special type of covalent bond in which both the electrons (lone pair electrons) are
shared by one atom only while the other atom accepts the electrons”.
*Atom which shares the electron pair (lone pair) is electron rich species and is called as
electron donor.
*Atom which accepts the electron pair (lone pair) is electron deficient species and is
called as electron acceptor.
*This bond is represented by an arrow ( ) pointing from donor atom to the acceptor
atom.
Example of coordinate compound: - Ammonium ion (NH4)+
*Other examples of coordinate bond

N2O, HNO3, SO2, SO3, O3, etc.

Characteristics of coordinate compounds: -

a) The bond present in coordinate compounds is rigid and non-directional and hence shows
isomerism.
b) Coordinate compounds are insoluble in polar solvents like water.
c) They are soluble in non-polar solvents (like benzene, carbon tetrachloride, acetone, etc.)
d) They do not ionize (split) in water and hence they are poor conductors of electricity.
e) They show high melting and boiling points relatively higher than covalent compounds
but lower than those of ionic/electrovalent compounds.
4) Hydrogen bond
“A hydrogen bond is a type of attractive force which binds hydrogen atom of one
molecule with electronegative atom(like O, N, S, Cl, F, etc.) of the other molecule”.
(Electronegative atom: - An atom which has tendency to gain (accept) electrons.)
Example of hydrogen bonding (H2O molecule)

*Hydrogen atom acquires partial positive (∂+) charge and oxygen atom gains partial negative
(∂-) charge.
*When two H2O molecules approach each other an electrostatic force of attraction takes place
between in hydrogen atom of one molecule and oxygen atom of another molecule.
*This attractive force between opposite charges leads to form a weak bond called as hydrogen
bond.
Characteristics of hydrogen bond: -

a) Hydrogen bond is weaker than ionic and covalent bond but stronger than Van der Waal’s
forces.
b) Compounds containing hydrogen bonding are partially polar.
c) They have higher melting and boiling points.
d) It always contains a hydrogen atom.
e) Hydrogen bond can be formed between different molecules (intermolecular hydrogen
bonding) or within the same molecule (intramolecular hydrogen bonding).
f) Hydrogen bonding can happen only in between two atoms, one which is small in size (H
atom) and another a highly electronegative atom (like O, N, S, Cl, F, etc.)
5) Metallic bond
“Metallic bond is an electrostatic force of attraction between valency electrons (sea of
delocalized electrons or electron cloud) and the positively charged metal atom (kernel) in
a metal element”.
Fig. Metallic bond
*When two metals atoms come closer then the valence electrons in the atom get delocalized (free
to move).
* Hence, all electrons belong to the lattice as a whole.
* These electrons are free to move throughout the crystal lattice and thus gives rise to high
electrical conductivity to the metals.
Examples of Metallic bonds

All pure metals like sodium (Na), aluminium (Al), copper (Cu), silver (Ag), gold (Au), etc
Characteristics of metallic bond: -

a) Metallic bond is non-directional.
b) Metals have moderate to high melting and boiling points.
c) They are good conductors of heat and electricity.
d) Metallic bond shows properties like metallic luster, electrical and thermal conductivity,
malleability, ductility, high tensile strength, hardness, opacity, high melting and boiling
points.
Intermolecular forces of attraction (Van der Waal’s forces)

“The weak force of attraction between the molecules when they are very close to one
another is called as Van der Waal’s force”.
There are three types of Van der Waal’s forces: -
Molecular arrangement in solids, liquids and gases

BASIS FOR
SOLID LIQUID GAS
COMPARISON
Meaning Solid refers to a Liquid is a Gas refers to a state

form of matter substance that of matter, do not
which has flows freely, have any shape but
structural rigidity having a definite conform to the shape
and has a firm volume but no of the container,
shape which permanent completely, in which
cannot be changed shape. it is put in.
easily.
Shape and Fixed shape and No fixed shape Neither definite

Volume volume. but has volume. shape nor volume.
Energy Lowest Medium Highest
Compressibility Difficult Nearly difficult Easy
Arrangement of Regular and closely Random and Random and more

molecules arranged. little sparsely sparsely arranged.
arranged.
Fluidity Cannot flow Flows from Flows in all

higher to lower directions.
level.
Intermolecular Very less More Large

space
Intermolecular Maximum Medium Minimum

attraction

BASIS FOR
SOLID LIQUID GAS
COMPARISON
Storage Don't need Cannot be stored Needs closed

container, for without container for storage.
storage. container.
Structure of solids
“Solids are substances having definite shape, definite volume, non-compressibility, rigidity and
mechanical strength”.
*The atoms, ions and molecules in solids are closely packed and they are held together by
strong forces.
Solids are of two types: -
a) Cryatalline solids: -
*Crystalline solids are the solids which are present in a well defined crystalline form, with their
particles arranged in a definite geometrical pattern, throughout the three dimensional network.
*They have a long range order.
*They are rigid.
E.g. Sugar, sodium chloride (salt), diamond, sulphur, etc.
(b) Amorphous solids:-

* Amorphous solids are the solids having random arrangement of particles and thus they lack a
definite geometrical pattern in their structure.
*They have a short range order.
*They are rigid.
Crystalline solids are further classified as follows:-

a) Ionic solids:-These solids consists of an array of positive and negative ions arranged in a
characteristic pattern, throughout the crystal lattice.
E.g. NaCl, CaO, CuSO4, etc.
b) Covalent solids:-These solids consists of an array of atomsthat share electrons with
neighbouring atom. E.g. Diamond, graphite, silicon, etc.
c) Molecular solids:-These solids involve weak Van der Waal’s bonding strong enough to
hold the particles together.E.g. Iodine, solid CO2, solid N2, etc.
d) Metallic solids:-These solids contain metallic bonding between positive metal ions
(kernel) and sea of delocalized electrons (electron cloud).
Crystal lattice and unit cell

“Crystal lattice is a highly ordered three dimensional structure, formed by its constituent
atoms, ions and molecules”.
“Unit cell is the smallest portion of the crystal lattice which when repeated in different
directions gives the entire crystal lattice”.
The unit cell is simply a box with an atom at each corner.
Types of crystal lattice

Name of Simple cubic Body centered Face centered Hexagonal close
crystal lattice cubic (BCC) cubic (FCC) pack (HCP)
Structure
Lengths of
the sides of a=b=c a=b=c a=b=c a=b≠c
unit cell
Angles α=β=γ=90o α=β=γ=90o α=β=γ=90o α=β=90oγ=120o
Coordination 6 8 12 12
number
Examples NaCl (sodium Na( sodium), Li, Al (aluminium), Mg (magnesium, Zn
chloride), KCl, K, Cr, Ba, V, α- Cu (copper), Au (zinc), Ti (titanium),
Polonium, etc Fe, W, etc. (gold), Ag Zr (zirconium), etc.
(silver), PT
(platinum), Pb
(lead), etc.

Physical properties of metallic solids (metals)

Metallic solids (metals) show physical properties like:
a) Luster
b) Rigidity (i.e. solidness)
c) Malleability and ductility.
d) Electrical and thermal conductivity.
e) High melting and boiling points.
f)
Catalysis
“Catalyst is a substance which alters (increases or decreases) the rate of chemical reaction,
without taking part in the chemical reaction and the phenomenon is called as catalysis”.
Types of catalyst:-
a) Positive catalyst: - The catalyst which increases the rate of chemical reaction is called as
positive catalyst.
E.g. i) Combination of hydrogen and oxygen in presence of spongy platinum.
ii) Conversion of starch into sugar in presence of acids.
b) Negative catalyst: - The catalyst which decreases the rate of chemical reaction is called
as negative catalyst.
E.g. i) Decomposition of H2O2 is suppressed by adding a small amount of glycerin or
urea.
ii) Decomposition of chloroform is suppressed by adding small amount of ethyl
alcohol.
c) Auto-catalyst: - When one of the products itself act as catalyst then it is called as auto-
catalyst.
E.g. i) Decomposition of explosives.
ii) Combustion reactions.
iii) Polymerization reactions.

Types of catalysis: -
a) Homogeneous catalysis: - When reactants and catalyst are in the same phase then it is
called as homogeneous catalysis.
b) Heterogeneous catalysis: - When reactants and catalyst are in the different phase then it
is called as heterogeneous catalysis.

Catalytic promoter (activator): -

Catalytic promoter is defined as substance which when added in small quantities promotes
the activity (effectiveness) of catalyst.
Catalytic inhibitor: - Catalytic inhibitor is defined as substance which when added in small
quantities inhibits the activity (effectiveness) of catalyst.
Industrial applications of catalysis: -
Process Catalyst Equation
Making ammonia Iron
Making synthesis gas (carbon

Nickel
monoxide and hydrogen)
Produces:
a gas (e.g. ethene, propene)
Catalytic cracking of crude oil Zeolite
a liquid (e.g.petrol)
a residue (e.g. fuel oil)
Platinum and
Reforming of naphtha rhenium on
alumina
Making epoxyethane Silver on alumina
Vanadium(V)
Making sulfuric acid
oxide on silica
Platinum and
Making nitric acid
rhodium
Catalytic converter in I.C

engines
Manufacturing plastics
Production of bio fuels
In batteries and fuel cells to

improve durability.

Topic.4 Chemical Bonding and Catalysis

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CO.

4 Apply the process of catalysis in industries

Atom:“The smallest indivisible particle of an element is known as atom.Which cannot be further

No. of proton and neutron

Fig. Atomic structure

Sub-atomic particles of the atom

Bohr’s Atomic Model

1) Bohr’s atomic theory an atom contains positive charged central part

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Fig. Representation of Bohr’s atom

Maximum number of electrons in each shell can be calculated by 2n2.

Shell No. of Maximum number Name of the

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Electronic theory of Valency(basic terms)

Electronic theory of Valency

Types of chemical bonds (Types of valency) :-

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(Electrovalency:-“The number of electrons that atom of an element losses or gains to complete

CO.4 Apply the process of catalysis in industries

Examples of ionic or electrovalent bond formation:-

Fig. Formation of NaCl molecule

*Formation of Calcium chloride molecule (CaCl2)

Fig. Formation of CaCl2

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*Formation of MagnesiumOxide (MgO)

Fig. Formation of MgO molecule

*Other examples of ionic/electrovalent compound are KCl, CaO, MgCl2, AlCl3,etc.

Characteristics of ionic/electrovalent compounds

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Fig. Formation of hydrogen (H2) molecule

Formation of oxygen molecule (O2)

Formation of oxygen molecule (O2)

Formation of nitrogen molecule (N2)

atom of nitrogen. It is diatomic.

Fig. Formation of nitrogen (N2) molecule

Other examples of covalent bond

Formation of water (H2O) molecule

Characteristics of covalent compounds: -

b) They are insoluble in polar solvents like water.

*Other examples of coordinate bond

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Characteristics of coordinate compounds: -

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Characteristics of hydrogen bond: -

Fig. Metallic bond

Examples of Metallic bonds

Characteristics of metallic bond: -

Intermolecular forces of attraction (Van der Waal’s forces)

There are three types of Van der Waal’s forces: -

Molecular arrangement in solids, liquids and gases

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Meaning Solid refers to a Liquid is a Gas refers to a state

Shape and Fixed shape and No fixed shape Neither definite

Energy Lowest Medium Highest

Compressibility Difficult Nearly difficult Easy

Arrangement of Regular and closely Random and Random and more

Fluidity Cannot flow Flows from Flows in all

Intermolecular Very less More Large

Intermolecular Maximum Medium Minimum

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Storage Don't need Cannot be stored Needs closed

(b) Amorphous solids:-