chem·is·try

/ˈkeməstrē/

Learn to pronounce

noun
1. 1.
the branch of science that deals with the identification of the substances of which matter is
composed; the investigation of their properties and the ways in which they interact, combine, and
change; and the use of these processes to form new substances.
o
2. 2.
the complex emotional or psychological interaction between two people.
"their affair was triggered by intense sexual chemistry"

Chemistry is the study of matter, its properties, how and why substances combine or separate to
form other substances, and how substances interact with energy. Many people think of chemists
as being white-coated scientists mixing strange liquids in a laboratory, but the truth is we are all
chemists. Understanding basic chemistry concepts is important for almost every profession.
Chemistry is part of everything in our lives.

Every material in existence is made up of matter — even our own bodies. Chemistry is involved
in everything we do, from growing and cooking food to cleaning our homes and bodies to
launching a space shuttle. Chemistry is one of the physical sciences that help us to describe and
explain our world.

Five branches

There are five main branches of chemistry, each of which has many areas of study.

Analytical chemistry uses qualitative and quantitative observation to identify and measure the
physical and chemical properties of substances. In a sense, all chemistry is analytical.

Physical chemistry combines chemistry with physics. Physical chemists study how matter and
energy interact. Thermodynamics and quantum mechanics are two of the important branches of
physical chemistry.
Organic chemistry specifically studies compounds that contain the element carbon. Carbon has
many unique properties that allow it to form complex chemical bonds and very large molecules.
Organic chemistry is known as the “Chemistry of Life” because all of the molecules that make
up living tissue have carbon as part of their makeup.
Inorganic chemistry studies materials such as metals and gases that do not have carbon as part
of their makeup.
Biochemistry is the study of chemical processes that occur within living organisms.

Fields of study

Within these broad categories are countless fields of study, many of which have important
effects on our daily life. Chemists improve many products, from the food we eat and the clothing
we wear to the materials with which we build our homes. Chemistry helps to protect our
environment and searches for new sources of energy.

There are many possible definitions of matter. In science, matter is the term for any type of
material. Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space. At a minimum, matter requires at
least one subatomic particle, although most matter consists of atoms. The word matter is
sometimes used to refer to a pure substance.

Examples of Matter

Matter can include any of the following (and more, of course):

 Proton
 Atoms (e.g., a helium atom)
 Molecules (e.g., water, sugar)
 Compounds (e.g., table salt, silicon dioxide)
 Cat
 Tree
 House
 Computer

Examples That Are Not Matter

Not everything we can perceive consists of matter. Examples of things that aren't matter include:

 Photons (light)
 Heat
 Thoughts
 Microwaves (the radiation, not the appliance)

Chemists study the structures, physical properties, and chemical properties of material
substances. These consist of matter, which is anything that occupies space and has mass. Gold
and iridium are matter, as are peanuts, people, and postage stamps. Smoke, smog, and laughing
gas are matter. Energy, light, and sound, however, are not matter; ideas and emotions are also not
matter.
The mass of an object is the quantity of matter it contains. Do not confuse an object’s mass with
its weight, which is a force caused by the gravitational attraction that operates on the object.
Mass is a fundamental property of an object that does not depend on its location.In physical
terms, the mass of an object is directly proportional to the force required to change its speed or
direction. A more detailed discussion of the differences between weight and mass and the units
used to measure them is included in Essential Skills 1 (Section 1.9). Weight, on the other hand,
depends on the location of an object. An astronaut whose mass is 95 kg weighs about 210 lb on
Earth but only about 35 lb on the moon because the gravitational force he or she experiences on
the moon is approximately one-sixth the force experienced on Earth. For practical purposes,
weight and mass are often used interchangeably in laboratories. Because the force of gravity is
considered to be the same everywhere on Earth’s surface, 2.2 lb (a weight) equals 1.0 kg (a
mass), regardless of the location of the laboratory on Earth.
Under normal conditions, there are three distinct states of matter: solids, liquids, and
gases. Solids are relatively rigid and have fixed shapes and volumes. A rock, for example, is a
solid. In contrast, liquids have fixed volumes but flow to assume the shape of their containers,
such as a beverage in a can. Gases, such as air in an automobile tire, have neither fixed shapes
nor fixed volumes and expand to completely fill their containers. Whereas the volume of gases
strongly depends on their temperature and pressure (the amount of force exerted on a given
area), the volumes of liquids and solids are virtually independent of temperature and pressure.
Matter can often change from one physical state to another in a process called a physical
change. For example, liquid water can be heated to form a gas called steam, or steam can be
cooled to form liquid water. However, such changes of state do not affect the chemical
composition of the substance.

Figure 1.2.11.2.1: The Three States of Matter. Solids have a defined shape and volume. Liquids
have a fixed volume but flow to assume the shape of their containers. Gases completely fill their
containers, regardless of volume. Figure used with permission from Wikipedia
Pure Substances and Mixtures

A pure chemical substance is any matter that has a fixed chemical composition and characteristic
properties. Oxygen, for example, is a pure chemical substance that is a colorless, odorless gas at
25°C. Very few samples of matter consist of pure substances; instead, most are mixtures, which
are combinations of two or more pure substances in variable proportions in which the individual
substances retain their identity. Air, tap water, milk, blue cheese, bread, and dirt are all mixtures.
If all portions of a material are in the same state, have no visible boundaries, and are uniform
throughout, then the material is homogeneous. Examples of homogeneous mixtures are the air
we breathe and the tap water we drink. Homogeneous mixtures are also called solutions. Thus air
is a solution of nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor, carbon dioxide, and several other gases; tap water
is a solution of small amounts of several substances in water. The specific compositions of both
of these solutions are not fixed, however, but depend on both source and location; for example,
the composition of tap water in Boise, Idaho, is not the same as the composition of tap water in
Buffalo, New York. Although most solutions we encounter are liquid, solutions can also be solid.
The gray substance still used by some dentists to fill tooth cavities is a complex solid solution
that contains 50% mercury and 50% of a powder that contains mostly silver, tin, and copper,
with small amounts of zinc and mercury. Solid solutions of two or more metals are commonly
called alloys.
If the composition of a material is not completely uniform, then it is heterogeneous (e.g.,
chocolate chip cookie dough, blue cheese, and dirt). Mixtures that appear to be homogeneous are
often found to be heterogeneous after microscopic examination. Milk, for example, appears to be
homogeneous, but when examined under a microscope, it clearly consists of tiny globules of fat
and protein dispersed in water. The components of heterogeneous mixtures can usually be
separated by simple means. Solid-liquid mixtures such as sand in water or tea leaves in tea are
readily separated by filtration, which consists of passing the mixture through a barrier, such as a
strainer, with holes or pores that are smaller than the solid particles. In principle, mixtures of two
or more solids, such as sugar and salt, can be separated by microscopic inspection and sorting.
More complex operations are usually necessary, though, such as when separating gold nuggets
from river gravel by panning. First solid material is filtered from river water; then the solids are
separated by inspection. If gold is embedded in rock, it may have to be isolated using chemical
methods.
 Figure 1.2.21.2.2: A
Heterogeneous Mixture. Under a microscope, whole milk is actually a heterogeneous mixture
composed of globules of fat and protein dispersed in water. Figure used with permission from
Wikipedia
Homogeneous mixtures (solutions) can be separated into their component substances by physical
processes that rely on differences in some physical property, such as differences in their boiling
points. Two of these separation methods are distillation and crystallization. Distillation makes
use of differences in volatility, a measure of how easily a substance is converted to a gas at a
given temperature. A simple distillation apparatus for separating a mixture of substances, at least
one of which is a liquid. The most volatile component boils first and is condensed back to a
liquid in the water-cooled condenser, from which it flows into the receiving flask. If a solution of
salt and water is distilled, for example, the more volatile component, pure water, collects in the
receiving flask, while the salt remains in the distillation flask.
Figure 1.2.31.2.3: The Distillation of a Solution of Table Salt in Water. The solution of salt in
water is heated in the distilling flask until it boils. The resulting vapor is enriched in the more
volatile component (water), which condenses to a liquid in the cold condenser and is then
collected in the receiving flask.
Mixtures of two or more liquids with different boiling points can be separated with a more
complex distillation apparatus. One example is the refining of crude petroleum into a range of
useful products: aviation fuel, gasoline, kerosene, diesel fuel, and lubricating oil (in the
approximate order of decreasing volatility). Another example is the distillation of alcoholic
spirits such as brandy or whiskey. (This relatively simple procedure caused more than a few
headaches for federal authorities in the 1920s during the era of Prohibition, when illegal stills
proliferated in remote regions of the United States!)
Crystallization separates mixtures based on differences in solubility, a measure of how much
solid substance remains dissolved in a given amount of a specified liquid. Most substances are
more soluble at higher temperatures, so a mixture of two or more substances can be dissolved at
an elevated temperature and then allowed to cool slowly. Alternatively, the liquid, called the
solvent, may be allowed to evaporate. In either case, the least soluble of the dissolved
substances, the one that is least likely to remain in solution, usually forms crystals first, and these
crystals can be removed from the remaining solution by filtration.
Figure 1.2.41.2.4: The Crystallization of Sodium Acetate from a Concentrated Solution of
Sodium Acetate in Water. The addition of a small “seed” crystal (a) causes the compound to
form white crystals, which grow and eventually occupy most of the flask. Video can be found
here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BLq5NibwV5g
Most mixtures can be separated into pure substances, which may be either elements or
compounds. An element, such as gray, metallic sodium, is a substance that cannot be broken
down into simpler ones by chemical changes; a compound, such as white, crystalline sodium
chloride, contains two or more elements and has chemical and physical properties that are
usually different from those of the elements of which it is composed. With only a few
exceptions, a particular compound has the same elemental composition (the same elements in the
same proportions) regardless of its source or history. The chemical composition of a substance is
altered in a process called a chemical change. The conversion of two or more elements, such as
sodium and chlorine, to a chemical compound, sodium chloride, is an example of a chemical
change, often called a chemical reaction. Currently, about 118 elements are known, but millions
of chemical compounds have been prepared from these 118 elements. The known elements are
listed in the periodic table.
Figure 1.2.51.2.5: The Decomposition of Water to Hydrogen and Oxygen by Electrolysis. Water
is a chemical compound; hydrogen and oxygen are elements.
In general, a reverse chemical process breaks down compounds into their elements. For example,
water (a compound) can be decomposed into hydrogen and oxygen (both elements) by a process
called electrolysis. In electrolysis, electricity provides the energy needed to separate a compound
into its constituent elements (Figure 1.2.51.2.5). A similar technique is used on a vast scale to
obtain pure aluminum, an element, from its ores, which are mixtures of compounds. Because a
great deal of energy is required for electrolysis, the cost of electricity is by far the greatest
expense incurred in manufacturing pure aluminum. Thus recycling aluminum is both cost-
effective and ecologically sound.
The overall organization of matter and the methods used to separate mixtures are summarized
in Figure 1.2.61.2.6.
Summary

Matter can be classified according to physical and chemical properties. Matter is anything that
occupies space and has mass. The three states of matter are solid, liquid, and gas. A physical
change involves the conversion of a substance from one state of matter to another, without
changing its chemical composition. Most matter consists of mixtures of pure substances, which
can be homogeneous (uniform in composition) or heterogeneous (different regions possess
different compositions and properties). Pure substances can be either chemical compounds or
elements. Compounds can be broken down into elements by chemical reactions, but elements
cannot be separated into simpler substances by chemical means. The properties of substances can
be classified as either physical or chemical. Scientists can observe physical properties without
changing the composition of the substance, whereas chemical properties describe the tendency of
a substance to undergo chemical changes (chemical reactions) that change its chemical
composition. Physical properties can be intensive or extensive. Intensive properties are the same
for all samples; do not depend on sample size; and include, for example, color, physical state,
and melting and boiling points. Extensive properties depend on the amount of material and
include mass and volume. The ratio of two extensive properties, mass and volume, is an
important intensive property called density.

What is matter in basic science?

A glass holds H20 in three states of matter: ice
(solid), water (liquid) and vapor (gas). ... Matter is
the “stuff” of the universe — the atoms, molecules
and ions that make up all physical
substances. Matter is anything that has mass and
takes up space. Energy is the capacity to cause
change

Matter is the “stuff” of the universe — the atoms,

molecules and ions that make up all physical
substances. Matter is anything that has mass and
takes up space. Energy is the capacity to cause
change. ... Kinetic energy can be converted into
other forms ofenergy, such as electrical energy and
thermal energy.

What is Matter?[edit]

Matter has mass and volume, as exemplified by this concrete block.

Matter is defined as anything that occupies space and
has mass.
Mass is a measure of an object's inertia. It is proportional to
weight: the more mass an object has, the more weight it
has. However, mass is not the same as weight. Weight is a
force created by the action of gravity on a substance while
mass is a measure of an object's resistance to change in
motion. Mass is measured by comparing the substance of
interest to a standard kilogram called the International
Prototype Kilogram (IPK). The IPK is a metal cylinder for
which the height and diameter both equal 39.17 millimeters
and is made of an alloy of 90% platinum and 10% iridium.
Thus, the standard kilogram is defined and all other masses
are a comparison to this kilogram. When atom masses are
measured in a mass spectrometer, a different internal
standard is used. Your take home lesson with regard to
mass is that mass is a relative term judged by a
comparison.

Volume is a measure of the amount of space occupied by

an object. Volume can be measured directly with equipment
designed using graduations marks or indirectly using length
measurements depending on the state (gas, liquid, or solid)
of the material. A graduated cylinder, for example, is a tube
that can hold a liquid which is marked and labeled at regular
intervals, usually every 1 or 10 mL. Once a liquid is placed
in the cylinder, one can read the graduation marks and
record the volume measurement. Since volume changes
with temperature, graduated equipment has limits to the
precision with which one can read the measurement. Solid
objects that have regular shape can have their volume
calculated by measuring their dimensions. In the case of a
box, its volume equals length times width times height.
It is particularly interesting to note that measuring is different
from calculating a specific value. While mass and volume
can both be determined directly relative to either a defined
standard or line marks on glass, calculating other values
from measurements is not considered measuring. For
example, once you have measured the mass and volume of
a liquid directly, one can then calculate the density of a
substance by dividing the mass by the volume. This is
considered indirectly determining density. Interestingly
enough, one can also measure density directly if an
experiment which allows the comparison of density to a
standard is set up.
Another quantity of matter directly or indirectly determined is
the amount of substance. This can either represent a
counted quantity of objects (e.g. three mice or a dozen
bagels) or the indirectly determined number of particles of a
substance being dealt with such as how many atoms are
contained in a sample of a pure substance. The latter
quantity is described in terms of moles. One mole is
specifically defined as the number of particles in 12 grams
of the isotope Carbon-12. This number is 6.02214078(18)x
1023 particles.
Units of Measure

 Mass: the kilogram (kg). Also, the gram (g) and milligram
(mg).
o 1 kg = 1000 g

o 1000 mg = 1 g.

 Volume: the liter (L), milliliter (mL). Also, cubic

centimeters (cc) and cubic meters (m3).
o 1 cc = 1 mL

o 1000 mL = 1 L
3
o 1000 L = 1 m

 Amount: the mole (mol).

23
o 1 mol = 6.02214078(18)x 10 particles

Atoms, Elements, and Compounds[edit]

The fundamental building block of matter is the atom.
The red dots are protons, the black dots are neutrons, and the blue
dots are electrons.
Any atom is composed of a little nucleus surrounded by a
"cloud" of electrons. In the nucleus there are protons and
neutrons.
However, the term "atom" just refers to a building block of
matter; it doesn't specify the identity of the atom. It could be
an atom of carbon, or an atom of hydrogen, or any other
kind of atom.
This is where the term "element" comes into play. When an
atom is defined by the number of protons contained in its
nucleus, chemists refer to it as an element. All elements
have a very specific identity that makes them unique from
other elements. For example, an atom with 6 protons in its
nucleus is known as the element carbon. When speaking of
the element fluorine, chemists mean an atom that contains 9
protons in its nucleus.
 Atom: A fundamental building block of matter composed
of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
 Element: A uniquely identifiable atom recognized by the
number of protons in the nucleus.
Despite the fact that we define an element as a unique
identifiable atom, when we speak, for example, 5 elements,
we don't usually mean those 5 atoms are of the same type
(having the same number of protons in their nucleus). We
mean 5 'types' of atoms. It is not necessary there are only 5
atoms. There may be 10, or 100, etc. atoms, but those
atoms belong to one of 5 types of atoms. I'd rather define
'element' as 'type of atom'. I think it is more precise. If we'd
like to refer to 5 atoms having the same 6 protons in their
nucleus, I'd say '5 carbon atoms' or '5 atoms of carbon'.
It is important to note that if the number of protons in the
nucleus of an atom changes, so does the identity of that
element. If we could remove a proton from nitrogen (7
protons), it is no longer nitrogen. We would, in fact, have to
identify the atom as carbon (6 protons). Remember,
elements are unique and are always defined by the number
of protons in the nucleus. The Periodic Table of the
Elements shows all known elements organized by the
number of protons they have.
An element is composed of the same type of
atom; elemental carbon contains any number of atoms, all
having 6 protons in their nuclei. In contrast, compounds are
composed of different type of atoms. More precisely, a
compound is a chemical substance that consists of two or
more elements. A carbon compound contains some carbon
atoms (with 6 protons each) and some other atoms with
different numbers of protons.
Compounds have properties different from the elements that
created them. Water, for example, is composed of hydrogen
and oxygen. Hydrogen is an explosive gas and oxygen is a
gas that fuels fire. Water has completely different properties,
being a liquid that is used to extinguish fires.
The smallest representative for a compound (which means it
retains characteristics of the compound) is called
a molecule. Molecules are composed of atoms that have
"bonded" together. As an example, the formula of a water
molecule is "H2O": two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen
atom.
Properties of Matter[edit]
Properties of matter can be divided in two ways:
extensive/intensive, or physical/chemical.
 Physical properties can be
measured without changing
the chemical's identity. The
 Intensive properties do not
freezing point of a substance
depend on the amount of
is physical. When water
matter. These include boiling
freezes, it's still H2O.
point and color.
 Chemical properties deal
 Extensive properties depend
with how one chemical
on the amount of matter
reacts with another. We
that is being measured.
know that wood is
These include mass and
flammable because it
volume.
becomes heat, ash, and
carbon dioxide when heated
in the presence of oxygen.

States of Matter[edit]
One important physical property is the state of matter. Three
are common in everyday life: solid, liquid, and gas. The
fourth, plasma, is observed in special conditions such as the
ones found in the sun and fluorescent lamps. Substances
can exist in any of the states. Water is a compound that can
be liquid, solid (ice), or gas (steam).

The ice in this picture is a solid. The water in the picture is a liquid.
In the air there is water vapor, which is a gas.

The states of matter depend on the bonding between molecules.

Solids[edit]
Solids have a definite shape and a definite volume. Most
everyday objects are solids: rocks, chairs, ice, and anything
with a specific shape and size. The molecules in a solid are
close together and connected by intermolecular bonds.
Solids can be amorphous, meaning that they have no
particular structure, or they can be arranged into crystalline
structures or networks. For instance, soot, graphite, and
diamond are all made of elemental carbon, and they are all
solids. What makes them so different? Soot is amorphous,
so the atoms are randomly stuck together. Graphite forms
parallel layers that can slip past each other. Diamond,
however, forms a crystal structure that makes it very strong.
Liquids[edit]
Liquids have a definite volume, but they do not have a
definite shape. Instead, they take the shape of their
container to the extent they are indeed "contained" by
something such as beaker or a cupped hand or even a
puddle. If not "contained" by a formal or informal vessel, the
shape is determined by other internal (e.g. intermolecular)
and external (e.g. gravity, wind, inertial) forces. The
molecules are close, but not as close as a solid. The
intermolecular bonds are weak, so the molecules are free to
slip past each other, flowing smoothly. A property of liquids
is viscosity, the measure of "thickness" when flowing. Water
is not nearly as viscous as molasses, for example.
Gases[edit]
Gases have no definite volume and no definite shape. They
expand to fill the size and shape of their container. The
oxygen that we breathe and steam from a pot are both
examples of gases. The molecules are very far apart in a
gas, and there are minimal intermolecular forces. Each atom
is free to move in any direction. Gases undergo effusion and
diffusion. Effusion occurs when a gas seeps through a small
hole, and diffusion occurs when a gas spreads out across a
room. If someone leaves a bottle of ammonia on a desk,
and there is a hole in it, eventually the entire room will reek
of ammonia gas. That is due to the diffusion and effusion.
These properties of gas occur because the molecules are
not bonded to each other.
{{Info|Technically, a gas is called a vapor if it does not occur
at standard temperature and pres
 In gases, intermolecular forces are very weak, hence
molecules move randomly colliding with themselves, and
with the wall of their container, thus exerting pressure on
their container. When heat is given out by gases, the
internal molecular energy decreases; eventually, the point
is reached when the gas liquifies

What is the relationship between matter and

energy?
Energy is a property that matter has.
The same amount matter can have different
amounts of energy and so represent different states
of matter. For example, if you add energy to an ice
cube made of water, it becomes liquid water, and if
you add even more energy, it becomes steam.
 Energy and Matter

Chemistry is a science that concerns matter and the changes of matter that result
from the interaction of matter and energy. The terms matter and energy are familiar
to all of us but their definitions, at least within chemistry, are not simple.

What is Energy?
We talk about energy all the time. You could be feeling particularly energetic (or not)
as you read this page. We also talk about energy contained in things: energy in a
battery, in the sun, or in gasoline.

A good definition is that energy is the ability to do work or give off heat.

The definition leads to more questions than it answers. What is this ability? How do
we measure it? First, let's go over some of the common types of energy.

joule, J

Work, one of the 2 types mentioned in the definition, is force on an work done
object applied over a distance. Throwing a ball is work because you apply by
work
force from your arm to the ball to overcome forces of gravity and accelerating
resistance of the air as the ball travels some distance. 1 g at 1
cm/sec2 for 1
m

Heat, the other of the 2 types mentioned in the definition, is related to calorie, cal
heat the movement of atoms or molecules within a substance, its kinetic
energy. As heat energy is added to a gas, the molecules of the gas heat needed
increase their velocity. Individual gas molecules have different velocities, to raise the
 though. The average kinetic energy determines the temperature. temperature
Temperature is not the same as heat. of 1 g of H2O
by 1 deg C

1 cal = 4.184
J

kilowatt
We typically measure electricity in watts. This the rate at which electrical
hours, kWh
electrical energy is delivered. A watt is 1 joule per second. The energy must include
energy a time unit so we typically use kilowatt hours (1 kilowatt or 1 kW = 1000
1 kWh = 3.6
W).
x 106 J

reciprocal
centimeter,
Light is one form of electromagnetic radiation. It has the properties of a
cm-1
light wave and can be characterized by its wavelength. The energy of
electromagnetic radiation is inversely proportional to its wavelength.
1 cm-1 =
1.196 x 10-2 J

Potential energy is energy that is due to the position or composition of an object.

Water behind the dam of a mountain stream has potential energy. As it is released
through the dam, the potential energy is converted into kinetic energy.Kinetic
energy is the energy of motion.

We can express all of the different types of energy in units of joules.

Matter and Mass

Matter has mass and occupies space. Mass, but not weight, is a fundamental
property of the matter. We typically measure mass in grams, g, or in some multiple
of that. Weight is a force, the force of gravity acting on the matter.
A collection of 6.0 x 1023 atoms of hydrogen has a mass of 1.0 gram. On Earth, the
weight of that collection of atoms would be 2.3 x 10-3 lbs. On the moon, with 1/6
Earth's gravity, the collection of atoms would still have a mass of 1.0 g but its weight
would be 3.7 x 10-4 lbs.

That number of atoms, more

precisely 6.02214 x 1023, is called
a mole. A collection of that
number of atoms has a mass in
grams equal to the average atomic mass in atomic mass units(amu) of the atoms.

Interconverting Mass and Energy

Alfred Einstein gave us an equation showing that energy and mass can
interconvert.

A small amount of mass is the same as a very large amount of energy. The
proportionality constant is the square of the speed of light, (3.0 x
108 m/s)2 or 9.0 x 1016 m2/s2.

Only in nuclear reactions can mass and energy interconvert. Both energy and mass
are separately conserved in ordinary chemical reactions.

Fusion in Stars
Swirls of hydrogen and helium gas condensed into huge clouds. The gravitational
force at the core brought the matter closer and closer together until some of the
nuclei coalesced. This produced energy, the heat and light of the stars.

What is Fusion?
Fusion a type of nuclear reaction where two nuclei come together to form the
nucleus of a different element. Each element has a particular number of protons in
the nucleus. Isotopes of an element all have the same number of protons but
different numbers of neutrons.

In the core of a star, gravity produces high density and high temperature. The density
of gas in the core of our sun is 160 g/cm3, much higher than the densest metal, and
the temperature is 15,000,000 K (27 million degrees Fahrenheit). At this
temperature, the hydrogen and helium gases become a plasma. That is, the
electrons separate from the nuclei to give a mix of positively charged ions and
electrons.

Under these conditions protons (H-1) react with other protons to make deuterium
nuclei (H-2) and positrons. The deuterium nuclei can merge to form a helium nuclei
(He-4), or they can interact with other protons to make another isotope of helium
(He-3). Two He-3 nuclei can fuse to make a nucleus of an unstable beryllium nucleus
(Be-6) that breaks apart to give He-4 and two protons. Energy is released at each
step.
The fusion of hydrogen nuclei uses up hydrogen to produce helium and energy.
Hydrogen is the fuel for the process. As the hydrogen is used up, the core of the star
condenses and heats up even more. This promotes the fusion of heavier and heavier
elements, ultimately forming all the elements up to iron.
Energy from Hydrogen Fusion
In going from hydrogen to iron, energy is released as nuclei fuse to make bigger
ones. Why?

The protons and

neutrons are held
together through a
type of energy called
nuclear binding
energy. The nuclear
binding energy for H-
1, a proton, is zero
because there is only
one particle in the
nucleus.

As the number of
particles in the
nucleus increases,
energy is released.
This is the same
amount of energy
that is required to
break them apart.

Energy in this table is From Hyperphysics: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/nucene/nucbin.html

reported in units of
MeV or mega-
electron volts. A MeV
is equal to 1.602 x 10-
13
joules.

Another way to think of the energy released by fusion is to look at the change in
mass. The total mass of the helium nucleus is less than the sum of the mass of the 4
particles that make it up.
Why stop at Iron?
Adding additional protons and neutrons to iron doesn't release
energy because the binding energy peaks at this element. For
element heavier than iron, fusion requiresenergy.

How did the heavier elements form?

It was from the energy of other explosions. A large, exploding star

or supernova releases the energy needed to fuse all of the heavier
elements.

The Earth and all of the material on it were formed from stardust!