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Abstract:
The inverse kinematics of redundant manipulators has infinite solutions by using
conventional methods, so that, this work presents applicability of intelligent tool (artificial neural
network ANN) for finding one desired solution from these solutions. The inverse analysis and
trajectory planning of a three link redundant planar robot have been studied in this work using a
proposed dual neural networks model (DNNM), which shows a predictable time decreasing in the
training session. The effect of the number of the training sets on the DNNM output and the number
of NN layers have been studied. Several trajectories have been implemented using point to point
trajectory planning algorithm with DNNM and the result shows good accuracy of the end effector
position for the desired trajectory.
Keywords: inverse kinematics, robotics, neural network
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Dr. Bahaa Ibraheem Kazem /Al-khwarizmi Engineering Journal ,Vol.3, No.1, PP 1-11 (2007)
redundant. However it is also possible for robots the inverse kinematics problem for the sub-
with fewer axes to be redundant if the robot located in the lowest virtual layer. The
dimension of the tool-configuration space is data obtained from the solution of this sub-
restricted [4]. robot are used to solve the inverse kinematics
Dexterity has been interpreted to mean different equations for the sub-robots located in the
physical concepts such as a measure of upper virtual layers. The data obtained by
kinematics feature over which a manipulator can solving the equations of the sub-robots located
kinematically reach all orientations, the in each virtual layer affect the solutions of the
operation of manipulators with multiple, equations of the sub-robots located in both the
actively powered fingers, and a global measure upper and lower virtual layers.
applied over a complete end-effecter trajectory. By J. Somlo, A. Sokolov, and V. Lukanyin
In one way or another, the aim of considering [8] carried out an attempt in order to develop
dexterity is to lead to robots which are similar to an automatic trajectory planning. It is shown
the human arm since many desirable features are that different approaches to trajectory
ingeniously integrated in it and apparently planning are possible. These are 1. Time
constitutes the ultimate model of a dexterous optimal 2. Process optimal 3. Force effective
robot. A dexterous device would have many 4.Optimal trapezoidal trajectory planning.
sensors since a high level understanding of the Realization of all these trajectory-planning
situations is of the extreme importance to principles can be automatized.
achieve complex tasks. It would have many S. Yue and D. Henrich [9] focused on the
degrees of freedom (DOF), may be more than problem of point-to-point trajectory planning
a complete human arm [5]. for flexible redundant robot manipulators
There are many references that deal with (FRM) in joint space. Compared with
robot kinematics and trajectory planning; some irredundant flexible manipulators, a FRM
of them are mentioned below: possesses additional possibilities during point-
Robot kinematics generally includes forward to-point trajectory planning due to its
and inverse kinematics at the position, velocity, kinematics redundancy. A trajectory planning
and acceleration level. These constructs are method to minimize vibration and/or
essential for the cartesian control of serial executing time of a point-to-point motion is
manipulators. C. Kapoor and D. Tesar [6] presented for FRM based on Genetic
presented the development of a C++ class Algorithms (GAs). Kinematics redundancy is
library that supports the forward and inverse integrated into the presented method as
kinematics of all possible geometries of serial planning variables. Quadrinomial and quintic
manipulators. Object-oriented analysis and polynomial are used to describe the segments
design are the primary software development that connect the initial, intermediate, and final
methodology used. Application of this points in joint space. The trajectory planning
methodology led to the sub-division of the of FRM is formulated as a problem of
kinematics domain into forward and inverse optimization with constraints.
kinematics. Analysis of these sub-domains A method for solving the inverse kinematics
resulted in their further sub-division, of a humanoid robot based on artificial neural
identification of abstract components, networks is presented by J. De lope, T.
development of classes, interface specifications, Zarraonandia and D. Maravall [10]. The inputs
and finally implementation and testing. of the network are the desired positions and
An approach to solve the inverse kinematics
problem for hyper-redundant planar
manipulators following any desired path was
presented by F. M. Asi [7], his approach is
based on defining virtual layers and dividing
them into virtual/real three-link or four-link
sub-robots. This approach starts by solving for Fig.1. Intermediate point on the point-to-point
path.
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Dr. Bahaa Ibraheem Kazem /Al-khwarizmi Engineering Journal ,Vol.3, No.1, PP 1-11 (2007)
orientations of one foot with respect to the other where Ti is the executing time from point i to
foot. The output is the joint coordinates that point i +1. The five unknowns can be solved
make it possible to reach the goal configuration as:
of the robot leg.
a i 0 = xi (8)
Trajectory planning
Trajectory refers to a time history of ai1 = x&i (9)
position, velocity and acceleration. Suppose
a i 2 = &x&i / 2 (10)
that the point-to-point trajectory is connected
by several segments with continuous
acceleration at the intermediate via point (as ⎛ 4 x i + 1 − x& i + 1T i − 4 x i ⎞ (11)
⎜ ⎟ 3
shown in figure 1). The intermediate points a i3 = ⎜ ⎟/ Ti
− 3 x& i T i − &x&i T i2
can be given as particular points that should be ⎝ ⎠
passed through.
This is useful especially when there are ⎛ x& i + 1T i − 3 xi + 1 + 3 xi ⎞ (12)
⎜ ⎟
obstacles in the working area. If one wishes to ai 4 = ⎜ 2 ⎟ / T i4
+ +
be able to specify the position, velocity, and ⎝ 2 x& i T i &x&i T i / 2 ⎠
acceleration at the beginning and the end of a
The intermediate point i +1’s acceleration can
path segment, a quadrinomial and a quintic
be obtained as:
polynomial are required. Let us assume that
there are pm intermediate via points between &x&i + 1 = 2 a i 2 + 6 a i3 T i + 12 a i 4 T i2
the initial and the final points. Between the (13)
initial points to pm intermediate via points, a The segment between the number pm of
quadrinomial is used to describe these segments intermediate points and the final point can be
as [9]; described by quitic polynomial as:
xi, i +1( t ) = ai0 + ai1ti + ai2ti2 + ai3ti3 + ai4 (1)
x i, i + 1( t ) = b i 0 + b i1t i + b i 2 t i2 + b i3
(14)
+ b i 4 t i4 + b i5 t 5i
(i=0,…. pm-1) (2)
where (i= pm) and the constraints are given as:
(ai0,…,ai4) are constants and ti is the time from x i = b i0 (15)
the last intermediate point to the moment. The
(16)
constrains are given as: x i + 1 = b i0 + b i1T i + b i 2 T i2 + b i3T 3i
xi = a i 0 (3)
+ b i 4 T i4 + b i5 T 5i
x& i + 1 = a i1 + 2 a i 2 T i + 3 a i3 T i2 + 4 a i 4 T 3i (6) 4 b i 4 T i3 + 5 b i5 T i4
&x&i = 2 bi 2 (19)
(7)
&x& i = 2 a I2
&x&i + 1 = 2 b i 2 + 6 b i3 T i + (20)
12 b i 4 T i2 + 20 b i5 T 3i
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Dr. Bahaa Ibraheem Kazem /Al-khwarizmi Engineering Journal ,Vol.3, No.1, PP 1-11 (2007)
and these constraints specify a linear set of six reach the desired point when it located in the
equations with six unknowns whose solution is: circular work area with a maximum radius
equal to (rmax/2) or (maximum reach/2). The
b i0 = x i (21)
second network is used to find the joint angles
associated with remaining points in the robot
b i1 = x& i (22)
work area, that means
(maximum reach/2) ≤ r ≤ (maximum reach).
b i 2 = &x&i / 2 (23)
Each of these two networks has three layers.
There are nineteen input vectors with two
⎛ 20 x i + 1 − 20 x i − ⎞ (24) elements, and there are ten neurons in the first
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎛ 8 x& i 1⎞ ⎟ hidden layer, twenty five neurons in the
b i3 = ⎜ ⎜ + ⎟ ⎛
T −⎜
3 &
x& i ⎞ 2 ⎟
⎟T second hidden layer and three neurons in the
⎜ ⎜ + 12 x& i ⎟ i ⎝ − &x&i + 1 ⎠ i ⎟
⎜ ⎝ ⎠ i⎟ third (output) layer. The transfer functions in
⎜ ⎟ the input and output layers are (purelin) and
⎝ ⎠
3 the hidden layer transfer functions are
/ 2 Ti
(logsig).
Case studies
⎛ 30 x i − 30 x i + 1 + ⎞ (25) A planar articulated robot with three links is
( )
⎜ ⎟
bi4 = ⎜ ⎛ x& i + 1 ⎞
14 3 &x&i − ⎟ used in the following case studies. The robot
⎜ ⎜⎜ ⎟T i + 2 ⎟
⎜ ⎝ + 16 x& i ⎟⎠ T
2 &x&i + 1 i i ⎟⎠ has one redundant freedom in terms of
⎝ positioning. The first link has the length of
/ 2 T i4 (L1=4 unit), the second link has the length of
(L3=3 unit), and the third link has the length
⎛ 12 x i + 1 − 12 x i ⎞ (26) of (L2=2 unit). All the cases are simulated in
⎜ ⎟
( )
⎜ ⎟ the horizontal plane.
b i 5 = ⎜ ⎛⎜ 6 x& i + 1⎞⎟ &x&i − 2 ⎟ Inverse Kinematics
− T − T
⎜ ⎜ + 6 x& i ⎟ i &x&i + 1 i ⎟ If the global angle (q3) which is equal to the
⎝ ⎝ ⎠ i⎠
summation of the three local angles (θ1,θ2,θ3)
/ 2 T 5i
takes any random value then the x and y
coordinates of the end of second link can be
Using neural networks in robot kinematics easily found by using the conventional inverse
From above, it is clear that in order to solution[1], where
perform end effecter position control of a r (27)
robotic manipulator, two problems need to be θ 2 = tan − 1
± 1− r2
solved [11]:
1. Inverse kinematics problem: Given Where r can be found from:
the Cartesian coordinates of the end effecter,
specified either as a single point or as a set of
2
dx 2 + dy − L 12 − L 2 (28)
2
r2 =
points on a trajectory, joint angles need to be 2 L 12 L 2
2
found.
2. Target position control: Given the dy L2 s2 (29)
final end effecter position, a joint angles θ 1 = tan − 1 − tan − 1
dx L1 + L 2 c 2
sequence suitable for achieving the final
position needs to be found. q3= θ1+θ2+θ3 (30)
In this work a dual NN model has been
designed in order to find the inverse solution then
for three degrees of freedom redundant planner θ3= q3- θ1-θ2
robot. Each architecture of these NN exist of
three layers backpropagation networks. The
first network is used to find the joint angles to
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Dr. Bahaa Ibraheem Kazem /Al-khwarizmi Engineering Journal ,Vol.3, No.1, PP 1-11 (2007)
Where dx & dy are the x and y coordinates of yd : the desired y-coordinate of target
the end of the second link. It is clear from the point.
previous equations that there are two solutions yNN : the y-coordinate of the target point
for any value of q3, but there are infinite from the neural networks.
possibilities for the value of q3, hence there are
infinite solutions to the three links arm to reach Table (1) error by using two hidden layers
any point inside the work space, therefore the N.N.
neural network is used to find one desired no.of
θ1(deg) θ2(deg) θ3(deg)
solution. t.s.
To find the joint angles of the articulated robot 19 49.6488 118.0402 -12.1608
in order to reach the point of (x = -2.2 unit) and 37 50.0103 117.2505 -12.4518
(y = 4.6 unit), figure (2) shows the solution of xd
yd(unit) xNN (unit) yNN(unit)
Error
(unit) (unit)
this case. 0.090
-2.2 4.6 -2.1608 4.5180
9
0.041
-2.2 4.6 -2.1653 4.5770
4
T h e Y -c o o rd ina te o f ta rg e t p o in t
3.5 3.5
1
3 3
-2.2 4.6 -2.1940 4.5703 0.030
2.5 2.5
3
2 2
1.5 1.5
1 1
Point To Point Trajectory Planning
In first case study the training sets are
0.5 0.5
0 0
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
The X-coordinate of target point The X-coordinate of target point
(19) and the network used is a two hidden
(c) (d) layers N.N., where the end effector is moved
from the start point (x=-3, y=-5, vx=1, vy=2,
Fig. 2 .The end effecter at point (x=-2.2 unit) ax=1, ay=0) to the target point (x=5, y=2,
and (y=4.6 unit) vx=0, vy=0, ax=0, ay=0) but the end effector
(a) two hidden layers N.N. and (19) training sets is passing through the intermediate point (x=-
(b) two hidden layers N.N. and (37) training sets 1, y=-2, vx=2, vy=1) and the desired time for
(c) single layer N.N. and (19) training sets
moving the end effector from the first point to
(d) single layer N.N. and (37) training sets
The tables (1) & (2) show the value of error by the intermediate point is (2 second), and the
using the N.N. technique: time for moving the end effector from the
Where the error was found by using the intermediate point to the target point is (3
following equation: second).By using the equations of the
trajectory planning, the (x) and (y)
⎛ 2 2⎞ coordinates, and their first and second
e = ⎜( xd − xnn) + ( yd − ynn) ⎟
⎝ ⎠ derivatives with time can be found.
The desired path of the end effecter
where xd : the desired x-coordinate of target from the first point to the target point passing
point. through the intermediate point is shown in
xNN : the x-coordinate of the target point figure (3)
from the neural networks.
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Dr. Bahaa Ibraheem Kazem /Al-khwarizmi Engineering Journal ,Vol.3, No.1, PP 1-11 (2007)
ax(unit /s2)
x(unit)
ay(unit /s2)
Fig. 3. The desired point-to-point path
θ2(deg)
y(unit)
x(unit)
θ3(deg)
θ1(deg)
y(unit)
0
-1
vx(unit /s) x(unit)
-2
Vx(unit/s) N.N. path
-3
desired path
-4
-5
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
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Dr. Bahaa Ibraheem Kazem /Al-khwarizmi Engineering Journal ,Vol.3, No.1, PP 1-11 (2007)
The configuration of the three links planar the intermediate point (x=-1, y=-2, vx=2,
articulated robot is shown in figure (9). vy=1) and the desired time for moving the end
effector from the first point to the intermediate
100
θ2(deg)
50
x(unit) 0
Fig. 9. The configuration of the arm θ3(deg)
-50
-100
points along the desired trajectory and neural Fig. 11. θ1, θ2 & θ3 versus time
network trajectory which are used to find the
error, where the error in each point is found by Figure (12) shows both of the real and desired
using the equation (31).Figure (10) shows the paths of the arm.
error versus the distance of the end effector
from the base. 3
0.7
2
0.6
1
0.5
0
0.4
Error -1
0.3 y(unit)
-2
0.2
-3 N.N. path
0.1
desired path
-4
0
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6
-5
r(unit) -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
x(unit)
Fig.10 .The error versus the distance from the base
The second case is similar to the Fig. 12. The real and desired paths of the arm
previous case but the training sets are (37) and
the network used has a two hidden layers N.N.,
where the end effector is moved from the start The configuration of the robot is
point (x=-3, y=-5, vx=1, vy=2, ax=1, ay=0) to shown in figure (13); Figure (14) shows the
the target point (x=5, y=2, vx=0, vy=0, ax=0, error versus the distance of the end effector
ay=0) but the end effector is passing through from the base.
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Dr. Bahaa Ibraheem Kazem /Al-khwarizmi Engineering Journal ,Vol.3, No.1, PP 1-11 (2007)
150
θ2(deg)
100
50
θ 3(deg)
0
a n g le s (d e g )
y(unit) -50
-100
θ1(deg)
-150
-200
-250
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
x(unit) time(s)
2
0.35
1
0.3
0.25 0
0.2 -1
y(unit)
0.15 -2
N.N. path
0.1
-3 desired path
0.05
-4
0
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 -5
r(unit) -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
x(unit)
base
2
0
The same case is studied by using the single
y (unit)
-5
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
x(unit)
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Dr. Bahaa Ibraheem Kazem /Al-khwarizmi Engineering Journal ,Vol.3, No.1, PP 1-11 (2007)
0.35
when using the neural network method
there is only one desired solution from these
0.3
infinite
0.25 solutions, since the training session is
done using the non-singular set of solution.
0.2
error(unit)
3
0.15
2
0.1
1
0.05
0
0
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 -1
y (unit)
r(unit)
base -3
-4
150
100 θ2(deg) -5
-6
50 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
x(unit)
0
Fig. 21. The configuration of the arm
angles(deg)
-50 θ3(deg)
0.25
-100
-200
0.15
error(unit)
-250
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
time(s)
0.1
1
0
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6
r(unit)
0
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Dr. Bahaa Ibraheem Kazem /Al-khwarizmi Engineering Journal ,Vol.3, No.1, PP 1-11 (2007)
REFERENCES
[8] J.Somlo, A.Sokolov, V.Lukanyin
[1] John J. Craig "Introduction to Robotics "Intelligent Robot Control. The Automation
Mechanics and Control",1986. Trajectory Planning", Department of
[2] Mark W. Spong and M. Vidyasagar, Manufacturing Engineering, Budabist,
"Robot Dynamic and Control", John Wiley and University of Technology and Economics,
Sons, Inc., 1989. 2002.
[3] Alain Liegeois "Robot Technology: [9] Shigang Yue and Dominik Henrich
Performance and computer-Aided Design", "Point-to-Point Trajectory Planning of
Volume 7, Prentice-Hall, 1985 . Flexible Redundant Robot Manipulators Using
[4] Jacobsen, S.C., Iversen, E.K., Knutti, D.F., Genetic Algorithms", Embedded Systems and
Johnson, R.T., and Biggers, K.B., "Design of Robotics (RESY), Informatics Faculty,
the Utah/MIT Dexterous Hand," in Proc. IEEE University of Kaiserslautern, D-67653
Int. Conf. Robotics and Automation, San Kaiserslautern, Germany, 2001.
Francisco, pp. 1520-1532, April 7-10, 1986. [10] Javier de Lope, Telmo Zarraonandia,
[5] E. S. Conkur "Real Time Path Planning and Rafaela Gonzalez-Careaga, and Dario
Obstacle Avoidance Algorithms for Redundant Maravall "Solving the Inverse Kinematics in
Manipulators", Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Humanoid Robots: A Neural Approach",
Mechanical Engineering, University of Bristol, Department of artificial Intelligence, Faculty
September 1997. of Computer Science, University of
[6] Chetan Kapoor and Delbert Tesar Politecnica de Madrid, Campus de
"Kinematics Abstraction for General Montegancedo, 28660 Madrid, Spain, 2004.
Manipulator Control", Robotics Research [11] Jack M. Zurada "Introduction to
Group, The University of Texas at Austin, Artificial Neural systems", Jaico Publishing
JJPRC/MERB 1.206, mail Code R9925, Austin, house, 1996.
Texas 78712-1100, 1990.
[7] Farshid Magami Asi "Analysis of Hyper
Redundant Manipulators", M.Sc. Thesis,
Mechanical Engineering Department, Villanova
University, August 1998.
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Dr. Bahaa Ibraheem Kazem )/Al-khwarizmi Engineering Journal ,Vol.3, No.1, PP 1-11 (2007
اﻟﺤﻞ اﻟﻌﻜﺴﻲ ﻟﺬراع اﻧﺴﺎن اﻟﻲ ﻣﺘﻌﺪد زواﻳﺎ اﻟﻮﺻﻮل ﺑﺄﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻟﺸﺒﻜﺎت اﻟﻌﺼﺒﻴﺔ
اﻟﺒﺎﺣﺚ ﺳﺎﻣﺮ ﻳﺤﻴﻰ هﺎدي اﻟﺪآﺘﻮر ﺑﻬﺎء اﺑﺮاهﻴﻢ آﺎﻇﻢ
ﻗﺴﻢ هﻨﺪﺳﺔ اﻟﺴﻴﻄﺮة واﻟﻨﻈﻢ ﻗﺴﻢ هﻨﺪﺳﺔ اﻟﻤﻴﻜﺎﺗﺮوﻧﻜﺲ
اﻟﺠﺎﻣﻌﺔ اﻟﺘﻜﻨﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺔ آﻠﻴﺔ هﻨﺪﺳﺔ اﻟﺨﻮارزﻣﻲ – ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﺑﻐﺪاد
اﻟﺨﻼﺻﺔ:
ﻟ ﺬراع اﻟﻴ ﺔ هﻨﺎﻟ ﻚ ﻋ ﺪد ﻏﻴ ﺮ ﻣﻨﺘ ﻪ ) (infinityﻣ ﻦ اﻟﺤﻠ ﻮل اﻟﻌﻜ ﺴﻴﺔ )(inverse kinematics solutions
ﻣﻄﻮﻟﺔ ) (redundant armﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻟﻄﺮق اﻟﺘﻘﻠﻴﺪﻳﻪ ) ، (conventional methodsﻟﺬﻟﻚ اﺳﺘﺨﺪﻣﺖ ﻃﺮﻳﻘﺔ اﻟﺸﺒﻜﻪ اﻟﻌﺼﺒﻴﻪ
) (neural network techniqueﻹﻳﺠﺎد ﺣﻞ واﺣﺪ ﻣﺮﻏﻮب ﺑﻪ ) (one desired solutionﻣﻦ هﺬﻩ اﻟﺤﻠﻮل.
) inverse kinematics ﺣﻴ ﺚ اﺳ ﺘﺨﺪم ﻓ ﻲ ه ﺬﻩ اﻟﺒﺤ ﺚ ﺷ ﺒﻜﻪ ﻋ ﺼﺒﻴﻪ ﻣﺰدوﺟ ﺔ ) (DNNMﻹﻳﺠ ﺎد اﻟﺤﻠ ﻮل اﻟﻌﻜ ﺴﻴﺔ
(solutionsﻟ ﺬراع ﺗﺘﻜ ﻮن ﻣ ﻦ ﺛﻼﺛ ﺔ ﻗﻄ ﻊ ﺗﺘﺤ ﺮك ﺟﻤﻴﻌﻬ ﺎ ﻓ ﻲ ﺳ ﻄﺢ واﺣ ﺪ ) .(three links redundant planar robotإن
أﻟﺸﺒﻜﻪ اﻟﻌﺼﺒﻴﺔ اﻟﻤﺰدوﺟﺔ ) (DNNMاﻟﻤﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣﺔ ﻓﻲ ه ﺬا اﻟﻌﻤ ﻞ أﻇﻬ ﺮت آﻔ ﺎءة ﻋﺎﻟﻴ ﺔ ﻓ ﻲ ﺗﻘﻠﻴ ﻞ اﻟﻮﻗ ﺖ اﻟ ﻼزم ﻟﻤﺮﺣﻠ ﺔ اﻟﺘ ﺪرﻳﺐ
).( training
إن ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﻋﺪد ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺎت اﻟﺘﺪرﻳﺐ ) (training setsﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺨ ﺎرج ) (outputsأﻟ ﺸﺒﻜﻪ اﻟﻌ ﺼﺒﻴﺔ اﻟﻤﺰدوﺟ ﺔ ) (DNNMﻗ ﺪ
ﺗﻢ دراﺳﺘﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ هﺬا اﻟﻌﻤﻞ ،و أﻇﻬﺮت اﻟﻨﺘﺎﺋﺞ ﺑﺄن اﻟﺪﻗﺔ ﻓﻲ إﻳﺠﺎد ﻣﻮﻗ ﻊ ﻧﻬﺎﻳ ﺔ اﻟ ﺬراع ) (end effectorﻗ ﺪ ﺗﺰﻳ ﺪ ﻋﻨ ﺪﻣﺎ ﻳ ﻀﺎﻋﻒ
). (training sets ﻋﺪد ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺎت اﻟﺘﺪرﻳﺐ
إن ﻃﺮﻳﻘﺔ إﻳﺠﺎد اﻟﻤﺴﺎر ﺑﻴﻦ ﻧﻘﻄﺘﻴﻦ ) (point-to-point trajectory planning methodﻗ ﺪ ﺗ ﻢ دراﺳ ﺘﻬﺎ ﻓ ﻲ ه ﺬا اﻟﻌﻤ ﻞ
) (training setsﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺪﻗﺔ. آﺬﻟﻚ ﺗﻢ دراﺳﺔ ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﺗﻐﻴﺮ ﻋﺪد ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺎت اﻟﺘﺪرﻳﺐ
11