The advantages and disadvantages of

preventing students in engaging

relationship at SFES

A senior high school research paper presented to

Ms. Irene P. Casada

In partial fulfillment of the requirement for practical

research 2 by:

Bonggo, Knth Arhnfold U.

Leon, Baby girl
Bilual, Rosemarie
Mobato, Sunshine Carol
Lozada, John Zedrick
 Chapter I
INTRODUCTION
This study represents the advantages and dis advantages of preventing
students in engaging at SFES.

BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY:

The relationship is the state of being related or interrelated the relation connecting
or binding participants in a relationship such as the state of being connected by blood or
marriage and it is a relation between two persons who have dealing with one another. In
having a relationship in school are it gives motivation and interest in studying your
lesson and go to school early. Meanwhile the disadvantages in student in engaging a
relationship in school of SFEH. Students may not joint and experience junior and senior
promenade, graduation ball, and even intramural games and recreation. Having a
relationship, it will lead them destructions and early pregnancy., and you should
discipline yourself, we should act like a good student, we are not in school to have a
relationship. We are here to study and learn more, it is difficult to you as student in
getting involve in relationship because this school and institution, having a relationship
is constrict prohibited.
Statement of the Problem
These are the following problems that you can found on this research that
may need to be answered.

1. Why some student need a relationship in life?

2.
3. Why do students involve in relationship?
4.
5. Can relationship affect the students?
6.
7. Is relationship helps the students’ performance in school?
8.
9. How do the students avoid involving in relationship?

Conceptual framework
The conceptual framework of this study is prevent below showing the relationship
of independent variables and dependent variables. Independent variables include
engaging relationship while the dependent variables is concerned to preventing.

Independent Dependent

Engaging Relationship Preventing

Scope and Delimitation:

This study focused on the behavior of the students of Saint Francis Episcopal School
that presented what are the most that giving behavior inside and outside the campus
he\she are in relationship.
Significance of the study:
The study would help the students to know what will be important reason why students
are engaging to a relationship in school. This study the students in Saint Francis
Episcopal School that experience in a relationship in their life because having relationship
can affect o the students especially on their studies and most of the students now a day
are rare being involved.
Definition of Terms:
Is the state of being related or interrelated the relation connecting or binding
participants in a relationship such as the state of being connected by blood or marriage.

Relationship- The mutual exchange between two people or groups who have dealing
with one another.
Marriage- The social institution under which a man and woman establish their decision
to live as husband and wife by legal commitments religion ceremonies, etc.
Constrict- To become tighter and narrower, or to make something become tighter
and narrower.
Prohibit- To officially stop something from being done by making rules or laws that do
not allow it.
Prevent- To stop something from happening or someone from doing something.
 CHAPTER II
Review of Related Literature
Teen Relationship
According to Marian Baleros, study used the propensity score method to
investigate the effects of early teenage relationships on academic performance to high
school students. Frequent dating behaviors and early sexual experiences showed
significant negative impacts on both academic outcomes; moderate dating activities had
an estimated positive impact. Implications from this study may help inform educators
and families in developing appropriate policies and educational conversations to guide
youth toward a moderate, timely manner of dating. Humans, particularly adolescents get
involve in romantic relationships with variety of reasons. According to Aristotle, humans
are
“social

animals”
which made them long to form an intimate relationship in which love can be given and
received freely which the psychologists called
“the
need to
belong”
(Myers, 2010). Rest assured of the love and care given by the persons close to them,
they are secured with the trust and confidence that they are acceptable to individuals
whom they can depend on for the satisfaction of their needs. Raman (2010) stated that
being in romantic relationship involves physical contact which causes chemical arousal
to the persons involved and at the same time gain love and confidence in which they
are longing for. (Kobo & Bloom 1982) also explained this by stating that the individuals
who are in love release a number of chemicals within the brain such as oxytocin,
vasopressin and endorphins which cause
“short
-term
”
joy and pleasure. On the other hand, according to Aren’t (as cited in Finch am& Cui,
2011) "late adolescents" is the stage where teenagers experienced how to be totally
and socially independent. This is the time for curiosity & explorations in choosing and
having a partner, and explores this kind of curiosity that somehow leads to romantic
relationship. However, this kind of relationship may not lead to a pleasant and intense
love affair. This is just a result of their inquisitive mind and a sort of finding on how to fit
into the world.
“What
is life all
about?”
Questions such as these assume special significance during teenage years, as
adolescents seek to find their place in broader and social world. This quest takes
adolescents along several routes. Luqman (2009) said that an adolescent relationship
plays an important role to adolescents as it develops the ability for committed
relationships. Additionally, Pelt (2004) stated that those relationships help develop
personality. She also added that it is a way of knowing
one’s
unique qualities of opposite sex and at the same time choosing the right life partner.
Moreover, researchers theorized that romantic relationship is essential to the
development of adolescent’s in

different aspects such as

“transformation
of family relationships, close relationships with peers, sexuality, and career
planning” (Furman,
2002). According to Lucas & Corpus (2007),
“quality
personal relationships that provide stability, trust, and caring such as romantic
relationships can increase
learners’
sense of belonging, self-respect and self- acceptance, and provide a positive climate for
learning”
(p. 16) and thus increase academic performance. According to the theory of incentive
approach of motivation, the desirable properties of external stimuli
–
whether grades, money, affection, food, or sex
–
account for
person’s
motivation. Moreover, theorists suggested that romantic relationship has a great role in
the academic performance of adolescents.
Vygotsky’s
theory states that social interaction plays a very important role in the cognitive
development of an individual and could not be understood without looking into the social
and cultural context. Furthermore,
Vygotsky’s
ideas about
“cognitive

development”
have become major influences in psychology and education today (Lucas & Corpus,
2007). Theorists suggested that romantic relationship has a great role in the academic
performance of adolescents. Parents, peers, and partners, on the other
hand, cooperate, collaborate and enrich the learning experience (Lucas &Corpus,
2007). In this way, adolescents who are more knowledgeable can help in the cognitive
development of their partner. In another way, romantic relationship gives more negative
effects on the academic performance of adolescents. Teens nowadays consider
romantic relationship as the number one source of stress (Manning et al.,2009). It
results from the break-ups or conflicts with partner. Even those who give more
importance on academics, spending time with
one’s
partner may also serve as a distraction. Myers (2010) also said that: For university
students, relationships consume much of life. How much of your waking life is spent
talking with people? One sampling of 10,000 tape recordings of half-minute slices of
students’
waking hours (using belt-worn recorders) found them talking to someone 28% of the
time
–
and that
doesn’t
count the time theyspent to someone (Mehl&Pennebaker, 2003). In 2008, the average
American 13-17 year-old sent or received1742 text messages per month (pp. 393-394)
(Furman, 2002) Young people spend a great deal of time thinking about, talking about,
and being in romantic relationships, yet adults typically dismiss teenage
dating relationships as superficial. Young people do not agree: half of all teens report
having been in a dating relationship and nearly one-third of all teens said they have
been in a serious relationship. Although most adolescent relationships last for only a
few weeks or months, these early relationships play a pivotal role in the lives of
the teens and are important to developing the capacity for long-term, committed
relationships in adulthood. (Teenage Research Unlimited,2006) (Barber & Eccles, 2003)
The quality of adolescent romantic relationships can have long lasting effects on self-
esteem and shape personal values regarding romance, intimate relationships, and
sexuality. This article discusses the importance of romantic relationships to youth
and youth development, including the benefits of healthy relationships, the risks
romantic relationships may

pose to adolescents, and the need for adults to support young people in developing
healthy relationships.
Healthy Romantic Relationships
Healthy teenage romantic relationships are characterized by open communication,
high levels of trust, and partners who are relatively close in age. Healthy relationships
help youth refine their sense of identity and develop interpersonal skills, and also
provide emotional support.
Identity.
One of the key developmental tasks of adolescence is forming a sense of identity.
Young people are in the process of refining their personal values and determining future
goals. Just like relationships with family and friends, romantic relationships can facilitate
the process of youth gaining a greater understanding of who they are and what they
value.
Interpersonal Skills.
Adolescent romantic relationships can also provide a training ground for youth to
develop interpersonal skills. Through their dating relationships, adolescents often refine
their communication and negotiation skills, develop empathy, and learn how to maintain
intimate relationships. The emotional ups and downs associated with getting together
and breaking up may also help youth develop important skills. While breakups may put
some young people at risk for depression, they may also help youth develop emotional
resiliency and coping skills needed to handle difficulties later in life (Barber &
Eccles, 2003).
Emotional Support.
As adolescents become more autonomous from their parents, their romantic
relationships increasingly become a source of emotional support. One study found that,
among tenth graders, only close friends provide more support than romantic partners
(Furman, 2002). The role of romantic relationships as a source of support and identity
formation may be especially important for sexual minority youth who are often
compelled by social norms to keep their sexual orientation secret from family and
friends. For sexual minority youth, their romantic partners may be the only people with
whom they feel comfortable (and safe) sharing their thoughts and feelings about their
sexual identity (Barber & Eccles, 2003).
Risks of Adolescent Romantic Relationships
While healthy romantic relationships have many potential benefits for youth,
unhealthy relationships pose risks that may have long-lasting impact. Youth are
particularly vulnerable to becoming involved in relationships that include dating violence
and risky sexual activity. In fact, teens report dating abuse more often than any other
age group (National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, 2006).
Abuse
. Adolescents in dating relationships are at great risk for experiencing verbal, emotional,
and physical abuse from their partners. A majority of teens (61 percent) who have been
in relationships report that a partner has made them feel bad or embarrassed about
themselves. More than one fourth (27 percent) of dating teens said that they have a
partner call them names
or put them down. Nearly one third (30 percent) of teens who have been in relationships
said that they have worried about being physically hurt by a partner and 15 percent said
they have been hit, slapped, or pushed by a partner (Teenage Research Unlimited,
2006). Dating violence is not limited to heterosexual youth. One study found that sexual
minority youth are more likely to have experienced dating violence than other
students (Massachusetts Department of Education, 2003). Involvement in abusive
relationships can have lasting consequences for youth. Teens that have experienced
physical dating abuse are more likely to be involved in intimate partner violence as
adults (National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, 2006).
STDs and Premature Pregnancy
. Dating relationships also put teens at risk of sexually transmitted infections and
pregnancy (Furman, 2002). The strongest predictor for having sexual intercourse is
recent involvement in a romantic relationship (Boucher & Furman, 2003). Significant
minority of teens in romantic relationships report feeling pressure to engage in sexual
activity. One out of four teens report that having sex is expected if you are in a
relationship and almost one-third of teen girls who had been in a relationship said that
they have been pressured to have sex or engage in sexual acts when they did not want
to. Additionally, nearly one-fourth of teen girls reported that they have gone further
sexually in a relationship then they wanted to (Teenage Research Unlimited, 2006).
Sexual activity can, of course, have long-term consequences. Almost one-third of
sexually active girls report having been pregnant (Suellentrop & Flannigan, 2006) and
one out of two sexually active young people can expect to become infected with an STD
by age 25 (Center for Health and Healthcare in Schools, 2004).
Acceptance of Unhealthy Relationships.
Research suggests that some teens are accepting of unhealthy relationships. Over one
out of four youth say that it is okay for a significant other to be
“really jealous” at times (Teenage Research Unlimited, 2006). One study found
significant
tolerance for sexual coercion among young teens (ages 12-14) with 34% of boys
reporting that it was okay to pressure a girl to have sex if they had previously had sex
(Albert, Brown, &Flannigan, 2003).
Effect on Academic Performance.
Being
in love with somebody has an effect in teenagers’
studies. It does occupy their minds. Students can't focus on the lecture because they
keep on thinking about their boyfriend or girlfriend especially when they have a lover's
quarrel. *Students being involved in a relationship spend most of their time texting and
writing their partner's name during class time * It is hard for them to concentrate.
Promoting Healthy Relationships
The risks associated with adolescent romantic relationships can be minimized
by helping young people develop skills that support healthy relationships. Sexually
active youth in healthy

relationships are more likely to engage in behaviors that minimize their risk of
pregnancy and STDs, can motivate in academic performance, including more consistent
contraceptive use, greater disclosure of sexual histories, and more sexual exclusivity
(Manning, Giordano,Longmore, & Flanigan, 2006).Additionally, school and community-
based programs that help youth recognize gender based stereotypes, improve conflict-
management and communication skills, and decrease acceptance of partner violence
have been shown to be effective in reducing dating violence in adolescent relationships
(Foshee, Bauman, Arriaga, Helms, Koch, & Linder, 1998).Young people do not
automatically know what constitutes right and wrong behavior in dating relationships.
Without a clear understanding of what a makes a healthy relationship, youth are likely to
tolerate relationships that put them at risk. For example, it may be easy for a teen to
interpret jealousy or constant text messaging as a sign of love rather than seeing the
behavior as awarning sign of abuse. Youth must be taught the characteristics of healthy
relationships, how to differentiate a healthy relationship from an unhealthy one, and how
to seek help if they find themselves in unhealthy relationships.

The Effects of Romantic Relationships on the Academic Performance of

University of the Philippines
–
Cebu College Students (A.Y. 2011-2012)
A Research Paper Submitted to the Humanities Division University of the
Philippines Cebu CollegeLahug, Cebu City in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
the Course Communication IIResearchers: Alma Mae J. BernalesFretzy Colonia
Adviser: Ms. Crina TanongonOctober 2011

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We, researchers would like to express our sincere appreciation to the following
people who offered their untiring support and help to make this research complete. To,
Ms. Crina Tanongon, for her constructive criticism, patience in checking the
grammatical errors, untiring effort in sharing us new ideas, and encouragement which
inspired us to make this study a success. To our parents, Mr. & Mrs. Alberto Bernales
and Mr. & Mrs. Efren Colonia who sustained and motivated us throughout this whole
semester, for willingly giving us the moral and financial support for this study, and for
the patience in understanding us when we have our sleepless nights while making this
study. To our fiends, who were really there to make us smile when things gone wrong,
and for their cheers and inspirational comments when we were so down. To our
respondents, the BSCS-II students, for their participation in this study and for their time
and effort in answering the questionnaires sincerely. Most of all, to the Almighty God
who gives us the strength to do this research, forgiving us the enlightenment to pursue
this course. It was really wonderful to have all your support during the process of
completing this study. Thank you so much.

RESEARCHERS’ PROFILE

Name: Alma Mae, BernalesAge: 18Sex: Female Civil Status: Single Date of Birth: June
2, 1993Place of Birth: Poblacion, Jagna, Bohol Religion: Roman Catholic Nationality:
Filipino
Educational Background
Elementary: Tugas Elementary School High School: Holy Name UniversityCandijay
High School College: University of the Philippines Cebu College BS COMPUTER
SCIENCE II
Name: Fretzy ColoniaAge: 17Sex: FemaleCivil Status: SingleDate of Birth: July 16,
1994Place of Birth: Macaas, Catmon, Cebu Religion: Roman Catholic Nationality:
Filipino
Educational Background
Elementary: Macaas Elementary School High School: Gabriel Jurado Foundation
School, Inc. College: University of the Philippines Cebu College BS COMPUTER
SCIENCE II

ABSTRACT
The study aimed to determine the effects of romantic relationship to the academic
performance of UP Cebu BS Computer Science 2 students. The study was conducted
to determine whether or not there is a relationship between academic performance and
motivation as well as association with anxiety, time management in studying and time
spent with their partners. The variables were investigated using a descriptive survey
method by the aid of researcher made questionnaire. Descriptive and inferential
statistics were used in analyzing the relationship between variables. The data were
subjected with Pearson Product Moment Correlation and T-testis was found out that the
time management of the respondents was imbalanced which entails that they were
more focused in their romantic relationship than in studying. Anxiety and the time spent
with the partner were found to be significantly related to academic performance.
However, since the results revealed that UP BS Computer Science 2 students who
were involved in a relationship (during the academic year 2010-2011) have lower
anxiety level as students, the researchers concluded that the time spent with the partner
have the most significant effect to their academic performance. It was also found that
the level of motivation has no significant relationship with the academic achievement of
the respondents. It is recommended that a parallel study will be conducted with larger
samples since the study is limited to ten (10) respondents only

education and romance, there was a negative outcome on the academic performance
especially when they take too much concern on their romantic relationships. This
situation occurs mostly on girls because of the “school romantic climate where romance
is more valued. On the other hand, t
he studies showed that boys’ “academic well
-
being”
is being slightly affected. The increased risk of sexual activity mainly affects this
situation (Crissey, 2006). However, data from the National Longitudinal Study of
Adolescent Health (as cited in Allen, 20
10) revealed a different result in which males’
academic performance is negatively affected by the romantic climate.

A dissertation of Stefan (2006) which is a qualitative study on the impact ofromantic

relationship on the academic performance of high school girls applies merely
on the western culture. Results of the study showed that there is really a “social
pressure” for teenage girls who are involved in dating. She also found out this societal
pressure means that girls are engaged in this kind of datin
g situation merely “because
of some influences peers,
magazines, televisions”, etc. Sometimes, if a girl doesn’t
engage herself in dating, some may have considered her as "weird", maybe because in
the western society today, there's no more thing such as Maria Clara's, which refers to
those who are a little bit conscious in dating as well as engaging in romantic
relationships. She said that majority of the people would expect girls to already have
adapting partner especially when girls reach into their adolescent stage. She also added
that this dating is usually considered as a threshold or the first step towards romantic
relationships. After conducting her study, she concluded that dating/romantic
relationships have "negative and positive" outcomes into the academic performance of
someone involved
–
positive in the sense that dating gives inspiration/motivation for

girls to do well in their academic works, if and only if girls will know how to manage time
wisely and properly and that girls will not take dating seriously. However, it is negative
on the other hand because it will just cause "distraction".

The findings of the study made by Phelps (2007) noted that the influence of partners,
parents and peers of African American Youth to their school achievement. He
considered dividing the samples by race and he found some difference that each
variable influence to the romantic relationship for the Anglo and African American sub-
samples. He concluded that effects of academic achievement vary on race. Part of the
result of his study is that peers also affect to the academic performance of the
respondents. For the African American, it is their peers’ academic orientation that
affects the academic performance while for Anglo Americans, both peers’ academic
orientation and behaviors towards romantic relationship affects their academic
performance.

The result of the study of Phelps (2007) implies that factors assumed to affect academic
performance of students such as personal relationships vary in each race.
Moreover, Furman (2002) stated that there has still been a great interest of romantic
relationships because this interest sparks from the observation that these relationships
are significant to adolescent
ents’ lives. A lot of research has
been made about this topic but most of these studies center on Euro-American youths
or mostly Western societies. Western culture has differences to Asian culture especially
on the social aspects. Example would be perceptions on dating.

Western culture has differences to Asian culture especially on the social aspects.
Example would be perceptions on dating. To the researchers’ knowledge, we haven’t
found some studies focusing on the Asian’s romantic relationships.

In connection with this, our study will focus on the effects of romantic relationship on the
academic performance of Filipino students particularly, in the University of the
Philippines. Since we have known that teachers in UP Cebu have higher expectations
of their students, increased workloads, challenging exercises, projects and assignments
are given to the students. This notion is also supported by Manning, Giordano, Long
more, & Hocevar (cited in Cui & Fincham, 2011) which state that college is the time
when studies are more stressful than before. It is also characterized by a shift of
sleeping and eating habits, more school-related works and new responsibilities
(Umar,Shaib, Aituisi, Yakubu, &Bada, 2010). Additionally, Checkering (as cited in
Pham, n.d) states that serious development stage for young adults is signified by
college life. Considering the romantic relationships involved and the amount of pressure
given to the students by their teachers, we assume that there will be an effect of
romantic relationship on the academic performance of the students.
 CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE INTRODUCTION
According to Veronica Caparino, in order to understand the research problem, it is
imperative to undertake a survey of earlier studies. This would enable the researcher to
fill the gaps in research and extend it further. This chapter focuses on romantic
relationship among unmarried youth as the present study aims to understand the
psychosocial determinants of romantic inclination among them. In this chapter studies
done on the development of romantic relationship attachment style, interpersonal
attraction, media and peer influence on romantic relationships are presented. A few
studies on romantic relationship among youth conducted in Indian context is also
presented. The studies are presented in the chronological order. While the main focus is
on the studies done in the last decade, significant earlier studies are also included in the
review. At the end of the chapter a summary of the review is presented. STUDIES ON
ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIP Developing a romantic relationship is considered as an
elating experience by many youths. Pre-marital romantic relationships develop through
the course of adolescence and young adolescents can characterize romantic
relationships with passion and commitment which were consistent with adult’s view of
love (Connolly, Craig, Goldberg & Pepler, 1999). Over a period of time 34 they develop
strong beliefs about love and they endorse that involvement in romantic relationship
conquers all aspects of life (Knox, Marty, Schacht & Zusman, 1999). During teenage
years there was a significant increase in behaviors related to romantic interests and
analyzing from a lifespan perspective, romantic experiences could represent a singular
phase of meaningful development spanning across periods (Collins, Hennighawen,
Schrnit & Sroufe, 1997). It was also understood that adolescents functioning in teenage
romantic relationships were contributed by caregiver-child and peer relationships from
early stages including preschool and middle adulthood. Shulman and Scharf (2000)
studied adolescent romantic behaviors and perceptions by examining demographic
variables and dating experience. Furthermore, associations between the quality of
relationships with parents and peers, and affective intensity with a romantic partner
were investigated. One hundred and eight Israeli adolescents were interviewed and
assessed. The results of the study suggested that older adolescents had more romantic
partners and also showed fewer romantic perceptions pertaining to companionship and
excitement. Nevertheless, across adolescent’s intimacy and level of emotional
involvement were alike. Moreover, adolescents who were currently dating perceived
romantic relations more in terms of emotional involvement. 35 Connolly, Craig,
Goldberg and Pepler (2004) conducted a study on mixed-gender groups, dating and
relationships in early adolescence. In this study 1,284 adolescents from diverse ethno
cultural backgrounds participated. The results revealed that dating practices were
included in mixed-gender affiliations. Additionally, more stability was visible in group
based romantic stages than the other stages and that romantic timing was influenced by
ethno cultural background. Finally, the outcome suggested that involvement in romantic
activities amplified adolescents’ potential interest in having a romantic relationship.
Crissey (2005) used a sample of 12,973 adolescents to explain the perception of the
likelihood of marriage and the role of heterosexual romantic relationship with regard to
race or ethnicity. When studying expectation of marriage, race or ethnicity and romantic
relationship history, results indicated that there was more probability for white
adolescents to date than black adolescents to engage in serious romantic relationships
that elevate marital expectations. Furthermore, it was concluded that these adolescent
romantic experiences play only a small part in formulating differential marital
expectations. Finkel, Eastwick and Matthews (2007) published an article about speed-
dating procedures. The participants had to attend dates with a series of potential
romantic partners. This method allowed for testing of many basic hypotheses related to
attraction, 36 and also could combine the fields of initial romantic attraction and close
relationships. This article addressed the methodological and logistical issues that the
investigators and researchers would face while conducting speed-dating studies and
also provided an illustration of a speed-dating procedure with a portrayal of speed
dating study. The progression of social, romantic and sexual events was studied by
Sullivan, Cheng, Harris and Brooks-Gunn (2007). The data consisted of 8438
adolescents aged 12-21 years. On analyzing the results, it was concluded that social
and romantic events were more common than sexual events when considering the
course of events in the relationship. Asian and Hispanic respondents had a lower share
of reporting sexual events when compared with white respondents. Talking about
prevention of pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases preceding sexual events
was exclusive only to black adolescents, whereas both genders reported the same.
Solomon and Thesis (2008) conducted a longitudinal study to evaluate the associations
between intimacy and relational uncertainty. On a web based study 315 undergraduates
completed a survey on weekly basis for 6 weeks. A positive association was found
between the partner’s influence and facilitation of activities. The relationship between
intimacy and a partner’s influence were calculated by the partner’s interference. 37 To
examine the gender variation and correlates of relationship qualities in parents’
management of adolescents’ romantic relationships, Madsen (2008) examined 165
parents and their 103 children (17-19 years) from a European-American background.
The parents answered scales on parental comfort, romantic relations and dating rules
whilst the adolescences answered on psychological control used by parents and
romantic relationship qualities. It was seen that dating rules, when provided by the
parents was different between the adolescents and parents’ gender. Qualities of parents
and adolescents’ relationships were associated differently when rule types were
considered. Dulmen, Goncy, Haydon and Collins (2008) investigated the processes of
romantic relationship in predicting externalizing behavior problems during adolescence.
Data from 143 parents and children was collected from Minnesota Longitudinal Study.
Results showed that during adolescence and early adulthood relationship security can
be associated with lower levels of externalizing behavior problems where this inverse
relation was found to be stronger for early adults. This relation was not attributable
neither to earlier quality of family and peer relationships nor emerging adulthood
competence. When individuals transcend from adolescence to emerging adulthood,
security of romantic relations could become predictive of individual differences in
externalizing behavior. 38 A review of taxonomies by Acevedo and Aron (2009)
examined theories and research to assess long-term relationships with the possibility of
romantic love throughout the course of the relationship. The review suggested that
romantic love in long-term marriages could exist without the obsession and was linked
to marital satisfaction, well-being and high self-esteem. Analysis suggested that
community couples recognized autonomous latent factors for romantic love and
obsession that support separate roles of romantic love and obsession in long-term
relationships. Even when social desirability was controlled few individuals reported very
high levels of romantic love. Barry et al., (2009) examined the facets of identity
development and achievement and its relation to friendship and romantic relationships
in emerging adults. The data set comprised of 710 adults (18-26 years). It was found
that four romantic relationship qualities were positively associated with identity
achievement and not with friendship qualities. Numerous individuals who attained
adulthood criteria were interrelated positively to romantic relationship qualities.
However, achieved adulthood criteria were linked negatively to friendship qualities. The
analysis suggested that developmental tasks of adulthood could carry vital implications
for adults’ social relationships. Sophia et al. (2009) investigated personality factors
related to romantic relationships in a population with pathological love. The 39 data set
consisted of 89 individuals including 50 people with pathological love and 39 people
with no psychiatric disorder. It was found that high levels of impulsivity and higher-
transcendence was relatively higher in individuals with pathological love. This suggests
that such individuals are unconventional and hold a sense of unity with broad facets of
reality and maintain dissatisfactory romantic relationships. Harris and Kalbfleisch (2010)
conducted a study on interracial dating. The study suggested that participants defied the
idea of dating a person from another race. They implied to external factors like family
and society to be reasons to curb interracial romantic relationships. Moreover, social
distancing strategies were used to initiate interracial dating relationships than same-
race dating relationships. A meta-analytic synthesis was done by Le, Dove, Agnew,
Korn and Mutso (2010) on the predictors of non-marital romantic relationship
dissolution. This meta-analysis used 137 studies including data from 37,761 participants
from over 33 years. This study investigated individual, relationship, and external
variables. Results implied that the strongest predictors of dissolution were commitment,
love, inclusion of other in the self, and dependence. Personality measures were found
to have limited predictive utility of dissolution. 40 DeLemus, Moya and Glick (2010)
researched on adolescent’s romantic relationship predictors where they measured the
sexist beliefs and romantic relationship occurrence in Spanish adolescents. Their
findings revealed that age predicted less sexist beliefs. Also when age was controlled,
amplified hostile sexism in girls and benevolent sexism in boys can be predicted with
their relationship experience. Moreover, younger boys aged 12-14 years who had a
relationship experience tended to display excessive hostile sexism. It was found that
contrasting effect of romantic experience and the general decline in sexism over the
course of adolescence indicating that an adolescent’s interest to attract romantic
partners could foster sexism than reduce this phenomenon. STUDIES ON
ATTACHMENT FRAMEWORK Attachment has long been studied in the context of
close relationship. Hazan and Shaver (1987) were the pioneers in relating attachment
paradigm to romantic relationship and conceptualized romantic love as an attachment
process. According to them romantic love is a “biosocial process by which affectional
bonds are formed between adult lovers, just as affectional bonds are formed earlier in
life between human infants and their parents”. They empirically tested these
conceptualizations and found that relatively in adulthood and in infancy three similar
attachment styles prevailed namely secure, avoidant and anxious-ambivalent styles. 41
Those adults with these three styles of attachment differed in the way they experienced
romantic love. Studies linking these three attachments with family relationships revealed
that those individuals with secure attachment styles reported considerable positive
perceptions of their family in the early ages. Childhood separation from their mother and
mistrust of others was mostly expressed by avoidant. Subjects with anxious-ambivalent
attachment style than avoidant were less expected to acknowledge their parents as
supportive and also they displayed lack of independence and a desire for deep
committed relationship. Moreover, attachment style could be strongly associated with
various form of love (Feeney & Noller, 1990). Studies examining transfer of attachment
among youth identified that parents are the primary attachment figures but were later in
the course of shifting attachment related functions to their peers that included best
friends and romantic partners. This shift increased with the duration of the relationship
(Fraley, Davis & Shaver, 1997). Roisman, Madsen, Hennighausen, Oufe and Collins
(2001) in a longitudinal study involving adolescents (age 19) studied their attachment
using Adult Attachment Interview. The results showed significant relations between
adolescents’ representations of their relationships with parents and the quality of their
interactions with romantic partners. Finally, mediational analyses results 42 implied that
experiences between the parent and child are internalized and transcends into those
relationships held in adulthood. Bogaert and Sadava (2002) studied 792 Canadian
young adults on the associations between adult attachment processes and sexuality.
Individuals filled questionnaires on adult attachment, erotophilia, physical attractiveness,
and sexual behavior. Associations can be found between secure attachment and
perceptions of physically attractiveness, and an inverse association between anxious
attachment and perception of physical attractiveness. Stronger results were generally
seen in women especially with associations to sexuality or attachment. Moore and
Leung (2002) studied the associations between romantic attachment styles, romantic
attitudes and well-being among 461 tertiary students, aged 17–21 years. Results
suggested that those students with secure romantic attachment styles displayed higher
academic satisfaction. Moreover, they were less stressed and less lonely as opposed to
those with clingy or casual styles and independent of current relationship status. Collins,
Cooper, Albino and Allard (2002) analyzed of attachment style during adolescence and
predicting the nature and quality of romantic relationships in early adulthood. The
adolescents were interviewed and completed a questionnaire on 43 attachment style.
Roughly after 6 years later, a follow-up interview was taken with the 224 participants on
their current romantic partners. Results indicated a risk factor for adverse relationship
when the individuals held insecure attachment style in adulthood, even though these
effects were more prominent in avoidant attachment. Those adolescents with avoidant
style reported relationships to be less satisfying. This provides proof that avoidant
attachment exposes individuals to a risk of adverse relationship outcomes. Ditommaso,
McNulty, Ross and Burgess (2003) examined in a sample of 183 university students the
association between attachment, social and emotional loneliness, and social skills. The
data set consisted of 183 university students. Analysis showed multiple important
dimensions on the relation between secure attachment and social skills. Also,
attachment security and social skills were significantly related to loneliness. Further
results indicated the link between secure and fearful attachment, and the mediation of
social skills on social loneliness. Tracy, Shaver, Albino and Cooper (2003) examined
the link between the attachment style and adolescent sexuality drawing 41 participants
(aged 13-19) from a longitudinal study on psychosocial factors affecting health risk
behavior. Participants completed the attachment style measure and participated in in-
person interviews using a structured interview schedule. The results showed that 44
avoidant adolescents were least likely to be currently involved in a romantic relationship.
Anxious adolescents were frequently been in love. Among dating adolescents secures
reported most frequent dating, a consequence of their being more likely to be in a long-
term relationship. Anxious adolescents showed fears of rejection and abandonment in
dating. Anxiously attached girls had the most sexual experience and securely attached
boys had the most sexual experience. Roisman, Collins, Srofe and England (2005)
involving data from a longitudinal cohort examined correlates, antecedents and
behaviors of young adults in romantic relationships. Results suggested that individuals
with secure attachment showed higher quality of romantic relationship. Individuals’ self-
reports about their romantic experiences was mediated by the relation between infant
and romantic experiences. One plausible mechanism to explain this result could be that
early experiences with caregivers model young adults’ depiction of their attachments
with romantic partners, and this through the expectations adults’ hold with their
perceptions of love relationships. Birnbaum, Reis, Mikulincer, Gillath and Orpaz (2006)
in two studies examined individual differences in attachment orientations and sexual
intercourse. In the first study 500 participants were asked to complete self-report scales
on attachment orientations and sexual experience and in the second study 41 couples
for a period 45 of 42 days had to report on their attachment orientation, sexual
experiences and relationship interactions. The analysis for study 1 implied the
associations between anxiety attachment and sexual experience that is ambivalent and
between attachment avoidance which was related with added aversive sexual feelings
and cognitions. Results from study 2 revealed that anxiety attachment increased the
effects of positive and negative sexual experiences on relationship interactions and an
inverse relationship avoidance attachment and the positive effect of having sex and
damaging effects of sexual interactions that was negative. Lehnart and Neyer (2006)
conducted a longitudinal study on 253 young adults age ranging from 18-29 years to
explore the link between attachment, relationship satisfaction and personality at three
time lines. In two groups namely stable continuers and relationship changers the
dynamics between personality and relationship development were examined.
Partnership satisfaction but not personality predicted relationship stability. Continuers
exhibited more stable neuroticism and attachment than in changers. Cross-lagged
analyses revealed a more consistent pattern of reciprocal influences of personality and
relationship quality in stable relationships. Noftle and Shaver (2006) conducted two
studies to explore the associations between attachment style and personality traits and
also the comparative abilities to predict relationship quality. Study 46 1 involved 8318
university students who filled the Big Five Inventory and Close Relationships scale and
in study 2,285 students filled the 240-item NEO-PI-R. Results in study 1 revealed that
attachment anxiety was related to neuroticism and conscientiousness, whereas
avoidance was related to low sociability and warmth of introversion and depression
aspect of neuroticism. Regression analysis showed that anxious attachment was most
strongly related to neuroticism, avoidance was related to both agreeableness and
extraversion, and both attachment dimensions were relatively uncorrelated with
openness. Results of study 2 suggested that people currently in a relationship tended to
be lower in attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance and rated their relationship
quality higher. Neuroticism and attachment anxiety were highly correlated. Neuroticism
was modestly correlated with avoidance. Extraversion was correlated moderately
negatively with avoidance and slightly negatively with attachment anxiety. Openness
was modestly correlated with avoidance but not significantly with attachment anxiety.
Neither attachment anxiety nor avoidance was correlated significantly with
agreeableness. Both attachment anxiety and avoidance correlated moderately
negatively with conscientiousness. Simpson, Collins, Tran, and Haydon (2007) in a
longitudinal study examined 78 individuals from infancy to their mid-20’s involving 78
individuals. They tested the interference of 47 interpersonal experiences in three pivotal
target points. This predicted the state of emotions whether positive or negative
countered with their current romantic partner. Analyzing the results of a double-
mediation model revealed that individuals who had secure attachment at 12 months old
were later rated as socially competent during early elementary school. Social
competence for targets predicted them with more secure relationships with close friends
at age 16. This later forecasted more positive emotional experiences in their adult
romantic relationships. Also, with their romantic partners they exhibited less negative
effect in conflict resolution and collaborative tasks. Schindler, Fagundes and Murdock
(2010) in a prospective study involving 90 students (18-27 years) aimed to test on
general attachment and process of dating. Results showed that avoidance attachment
style predicted not entering committed dating relationship. The shift in dating status was
from not dating to casual or committed dating was foretold by prior dating experience
with the desire for a committed relationship. In a cross cultural study conducted among
Australian and Japanese university students, Joel, MacDonald and Shimotomai (2011)
aimed at establishing the association between anxious attachment and romantic
commitment. Individuals completed questionnaires of attachment style, felt security,
satisfaction and commitment. In the Australian sample, an association existed 48
between satisfaction and felt security which in turn acted as mediating variables
between anxious attachment and commitment. Data from Japan imitated the same
suppression effect and also displayed the underlying residual positive relation between
anxious attachment and commitment. These results suggested ambivalence about
commitment among the anxiously attached. Downward pressure on commitment was
exerted by dissatisfaction and worries about negative evaluation. Jones and Furman
(2011) conducted a study on adolescents to explore the associations between romantic
representations and sexual behaviour. Two hundred adolescents were asked to
complete Behavioral Systems Questionnaire, Romantic Interview, Sexual Attitudes and
Behavior Survey and Dating History Questionnaire. Analysis indicated an inverse
relationship between avoidant styles and frequencies of genital sexual behaviour. Low
levels of associations could be found between avoidant working models and heavy/ light
non genital frequency. Nevertheless, low level of significant difference was found
between the time of onset and avoidant working models. Karandashev, Benton,
Edwards and Wolters (2012) examined the development of attachment in romantic
relationship with regard to their love styles. Two hundred and ninety undergraduate
students recalled their stories of love relationships that occurred approximately between
ages 15-19 and filled in the Love Attitude 49 Scale. It was found that avoidance feelings
natural for partners not well acquainted but romantically attracted to each other
significantly decreased during first encounters when partners knew each other better.
Eros, Storge, and Agape love styles shared their features in attachment progression,
although Eros being more passionate decreased avoidance faster but unstable while
Storge and Agape were more precautious in this respect. Ludus was not avoidant but
painfully controversial and demonstrated great fluctuation from low to high avoidance
and back. Pragma seemed to display uncertainty in the ability to be close to a partner,
but events played a significant role in such fluctuation. Avoidance progression of Mania
love style demonstrated small but stable turbulence characterized by emotional ups and
downs. Anxiety did not decrease as expected and remained moderately high in the
relationships with some fluctuations depending on events. The study showed that
neither general nor typological tendencies, but rather specific events played the most
important role in determining attachment progression through early romantic
relationships. STUDIES ON INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION Interpersonal attraction
may be viewed as a precursor of romantic interests in a partner. Physical attraction
towards the partner provides the first step in developing interest and attraction towards
the partner and the other aspects such as social 50 functioning, attraction towards style
of functioning and perceived power and prestige of the partner develops in due course
of time. Gender differences in romantic attraction have been examined by many studies.
Studies revealed that men perceived physical characteristics to be more important,
whereas women laid emphasis on personal qualities. But, when the choice came down
to a meaningful relationship, both men and women stressed on personal qualities
(Nevid, 1984). Pierce (1996) studied body height and romantic attraction and it was
found that females showed greater effect of body height when it came to dating or
mating preferences. The study also supported the male-taller norm in romantic
attraction. On priorities on romantic attraction, men emphasized on physical
attractiveness while women on sense of humor with physically attractiveness (Lundy,
Tan & Cunningham, 1998). Regan, Levin, Sprecher, Christopher and Gate (2000)
conducted a study on 561 college students, where they were randomly assigned to
examine traits that were favored in a short-term sexual relationship against a long-term
relationship. Individuals gave preferences for 23 traits in a “short-term sexual” or a
“long-term romantic” relationship partner. Results indicated that higher preference was
given to internal qualities than external qualities. With regard to gender differences men
valued attributes of sexual desirability and woman emphasized on social status. Also,
51 when short term sexual relationships were considered both sexes focused on sexual
desirability, and when long-term relationships were considered emphasis was laid on
similarity and personality characteristics that was found to be socially appealing. Hoyt
and Kogan (2001) examined 101 men and 187 women in a college setting on their body
image and peer relationships. Results suggested that women were unhappy with their
appearance if they weighed under or above average weight. Also, men as opposed to
women found their relationships and sex more dissatisfactory. Both men and women
suggested their dissatisfaction on those body parts that were considered ideal in the
respective gender. Lisa (2003) conducted a study on sexual orientation among the
youth. The hypothesis of the study was based on bio behavioral model which
distinguished romantic love and sexual desire. It was revealed that sexual desire and
affectional bonding followed independent evolutionary processes. Also, the processes
underlying affectional bonding were not intrinsically oriented toward other gender or
same-gender partners. It was concluded that for women the bio-behavioral links
between love and desire are bidirectional. Kniffin and Wilson (2004) conducted a study
on the effect of nonphysical traits on the perception of physical attractiveness. The
results of the study based on known social partners indicated that judgments of physical
attractiveness are strongly influenced by nonphysical factors. It was also found that
women are more 52 strongly influenced by nonphysical factors than men and there
were individual differences within each sex. Sheets and Ajmere (2005) conducted a
study to explore the paradigm of weight-related concerns in romantic relations using a
sample of 554 undergraduates (17-50 years). Results indicated that women who were
overweight were less probable to be dating. Also a positive association was found
between satisfaction in the relationship and weight among men, whereas an inverse
correlation was found in women. In relationships men were generally asked to gain
weight and women were asked to lose weight and these individuals reported lower
satisfaction in their relationships. Another study relating body image dissatisfaction and
romantic partner support styles, done by Weller and Dziegielewski (2005) examined 117
participants. Results showed that there existed an inverse relationship between body
dissatisfaction and perception of support from romantic partners. Findings suggested
that support from a romantic partner and general support could be associated to
disturbance of body image, associated anxiety and physical characteristics. Another
finding was that higher levels of disturbance in body image and associated anxiety
regarding appearance were reported when individuals received support from their
partners or others in general. Markey and Markey (2006) examined the associations
between young woman’s romantic relationships and their body 53 image. Ninety-five
heterosexual couples participated in the study where they filled questionnaires on self-
perception of body image and significant others perception of body image. Results
suggested that high dissatisfaction in women regarding their bodies lead to the belief
that their partners were unhappy than the actual scenario. Further analysis showed that
those in the relationship for a longer period of time believed that their partners had a
desire for them to look thinner. Barelds and Dijkstra (2007) studied love at first sight or
friends first. Data set consisted of 137 married or cohabiting couples who were
assessed on various aspects of a relationship. Results indicated that those individuals
who fell in love at first sight tended to involve themselves romantically swiftly and
showed dissimilar personalities. They also didn’t show lower relationship quality. Finally,
an association between personality trait of the partner and quality of the relationship
was found. Li (2007) chose 61 individuals to study mate preferences in short term and
long term mating. Individuals were asked to allot mate dollars to mark attributes to their
ideal partners and selves for both short and long term mating. Men preferred physical
attractiveness and women opted social status in a long term mating ideal. Physical
attractiveness was favoured when it came to short-term mates with both men and
women. Individuals, preference of 54 their ideal selves reflected what the opposite sex
preferably lookedfor in their mates Sanchez and Kiefer (2007) designed a study on body
shame and its links to problems of sex and pleasure. The study was conducted on 320
adults (male and female). Concerns on appearance were reported alike among men
and women across both sexual and non-sexual connotations. Body shame among both
genders was associated to sexual self-consciousness, which lead to lower sexual
pleasure and arousability. Finally, less sexual selfconsciousness and less orgasm
difficulty were found to be associated with individuals being in a relationship for both
genders. Sanchez and Broccoli (2008) conducted a study on Objectification theory.
They tried to study among 86 women how contexts and thoughts influenced self-
objectification. In this study they tried to examine if there existed a link between
selfobjectification and romantic relationships. Women had a task to make decisions
when exposed to neutral words or relationshiprelated words. Results showed that
women displayed higher sense of self-objectification as opposed to women in
relationships who displayed this quality in lower proportions. STUDIES ON
PERSONALITY The relationship between antecedent personality traits and different
aspects of romantic relationship has been recorded in the previous studies. Pines
(1998) examined personality characteristics 55 preferred by couples in a romantic
relationship and the results revealed that men were more attracted to the physical
appearance whilst higher levels of security, intimacy and commitment were preferred by
women. Asendorpf and Wilsper (1998) did a study on personality effects on social
relationships using a longitudinal design, for a period of 18 months and it was revealed
that personality affected social relationship but not vice versa indicating that personality
factors had an influential role in determining relationship. In a study to understand the
role of pathological aspects of personality Daley, Burge and Hammen (2000) conducted
a study on 142 late adolescent women with borderline personality disorder in the
context of romantic relationship dysfunction. The results showed an association
between BPD and dysfunction in romantic relationship relationships indicating the
importance of subclinical psychopathology in early intimate relationships. Robins, Caspi
and Moffitt (2002) did a study on personality and experiences in relationships such as
quality of the relationship, relationship conflicts and abuse in a relationship. It was found
that these experiences showed relatively smaller changes over time and relative priority
also changed during the course of the relationship. Antecedent personality traits
assessed at age 18 predicted relationship experiences at the age 26 and change in
relationship experiences. 56 White, Hendrick and Hendrick (2004) carried out a study
on relationship constructs and big five personality traits using a sample of 196 students.
Results suggested an inverse association between prediction of satisfaction and
intimacy. Among females possessiveness and dependent love were predominant and
among men there seems to a positive relationship between extraversion and
agreeableness which mediates neuroticism and satisfaction in a relationship. A positive
relationship was shown between conscientiousness and intimacy for males. Donnellan,
Rife and Conger (2005) conducted a study on early adult romantic relationships by
analyzing family history, personality, and competence. The results suggested that
variations in personality in an individual and developmental experiences lead to
romantic relationships. Demir (2008) investigated the romantic relationship quality
among emerging adults on a sample of 221 students in study 1, and 187 in study two.
Of the many facets of romantic relationship quality, emotional security and
companionship significantly predicted happiness. Also the association between quality
of relationships and happiness was influenced by identity formation. 57 SOCIAL
INFLUENCE ON ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIP a. Media Influence Exposure to
entertainment and social media might influence the interests and attitude of youth
towards romantic relationship. Bachen and Illouz (1996) analyzed various cognitive
facets to understand children’s idea of romance and the results suggested that a child’s
imagination that had a romantic connotation could be shaped by an associated line of
events from the media, whose behaviour need not be evident. This study explained how
a child’s vision about romance shifts from ideas of leisure and luxury undermined by
strain to understanding the intricacies of love. Studies have shown that romantic love
had been significantly influenced by the exposure to westernized mass media and the
conceptualization about love among youth is shaped by media representations (Illouz,
1998). With CMC (Computer Mediated Communication) on the rise, Cornwell and
Lundgren (2001) compared of chat room users to face-to-face relationships. The
researcher gathered data by collect messages from the 36 men and 44 women users in
a chat room over the weekdays and weekends for two and a half weeks, among which a
section of users were questioned on virtual romantic relationships and romantic
relationships outside the cyber world. Results suggested low level of seriousness and
commitment in 58 virtual relationships. Also, falsification of characteristics like age and
physical characteristics were high in cyberspace relationships. Donn and Sherman
(2002) conducted a study to probe into young adults’ attitudes and practices about
virtual relationships. The data set consisted of 235 undergraduates and 76 doctoral
students who were either asked to fill in surveys on dating sites that they were permitted
to explore or only answer questions without exploring the site. Results suggested that
progress in the relationship or an initiative to meet the person whom they met on the
site was taken by more graduates than undergraduates and also had a positive opinion
on virtual relationships. There was an overall concern about false information and
apprehension on meeting people without visual cues. Aubrey, Harrison, Kramer and
Yellin (2003) studied the differences in gender in sexual expectations when previously
exposed to sexual content in television, which included 202 undergraduates as
participants. Results suggested that men when previously exposed to sexual content,
they also expected variation in sexual activities from their partners and women expected
the same as pervious relationships. Song, Larose, Eastin and Lin (2004) conducted a
study to understand conceptualizations of gratifications specific to the internet to explore
into different types of gratifications. Virtual community was identified as a new
gratification. Results showed 59 that virtual community, monetary compensation,
diversion and personal status gratifications accounted for 28% of the variance in
internet addiction tendency. The study also threw light on internet addiction in the
context of media habit formation and the distinction between content and process
gratifications. Eggermont (2004) aimed to explore the relationships between overall and
romantically themed television viewing and adolescents’ expectations of a romantic
partner. He found moderate but significant associations for overall television viewing,
after background variables and the quality of other relationships were accounted for in
the 428 adolescence aged between 15- and 16- year-old, who rated the importance of
physical attractiveness and a pleasant personality in a romantic partner. These
associations are unrelated to direct experience and the perceived similarity of televised
portrayals. Huang (2004) considering arousal and pleasure to be two mediating
mechanisms of romantic love in media, he studied its impact on advertisements
attitudes. In this study spiritual compassionate love and sexual passionate love were
considered as types of romantic love. He used 60 separate but homogenous
manipulation samples to conduct the study where four colorful print ads similar in format
were used. Also, 256 participants assigned randomly were measured on pleasure and
attitudes. Results suggested that passionate love has an impact on 60 advertisement
attitudes that resembled sex than compassionate love and also that arousal and
pleasure had distinctive pathways of effect. Anderson (2005) investigated on the
perception of virtual romantic relationships. The data set consisted of 177 individuals
who never had a relationship online. These individuals had to finish a survey on various
views of virtual relationships. The results suggested that there existed a positive
relationship between affinity of spending time online with perceptions supporting virtual
relations, while no association was found between perceived realism, romantic beliefs
and were not related to perceptions of virtual relationships. Henceforth, conventional
ideas of relationships were lead by beliefs in romance. Maddox (2006) examined how a
difference in appearance that was similar to the ideologies publicized by the media
would change the daily living of women. The data set consisted of 109 participants who
had to respond to questions that pertain to how life style changes would affect their
chance and positive outcomes. Results indicated that there existed an association
between fitting in with ideals from the media and dissatisfaction in appearance with both
positive outcomes and expectations in life. Nevertheless, the association between life
outcomes and dissatisfaction in their appearance was moderated by internalization. 61
L’Engle, Brown and Kenneavy (2006) in their study included 1011 adolescents who
were asked to complete questionnaires on sexual intentions and behaviors in order to
monitor the influences from the media in multiple social situations. The key influences
included sexual content, sexual behaviour and perceived social support from the media
world. The results inferred that 13% of behaviors sexual in nature can be attributed to,
across several contexts. Intentions and behaviors showed significant relationship when
several other factors were measured. Those adolescents with high exposure to content
sexual in nature, perceived support and influenced by sexual behaviour in teenage
displayed intentions to partake in sexual activity. Anderson and Emmers-Sommer
(2006) conducted a study to examine the factors in online romantic relationships that
predicted satisfaction in relationship. The data set consisted of 114 individuals involved
in virtual relationships. The strongest predictive factors of virtual relationships were
satisfaction in communication, intimacy, and trust. Moreover, length of the relationship
and number of hours of communication altered their perceptions of the relationship.
Pauley and Sommer (2007) studied the after effects of technological changes from the
internet on romantic relationships. The data set consisted of 36 participants who
responded to a questionnaire on virtual relationships who were later segregated 62 into
three different groups. Participants who were using virtual modalities to manage a
secondary relationship showed more satisfaction and better plans for the future as
opposed to those in exclusive relationships on the internet. Shapiro, Kroeger and Madd
(2007) explored the association that lied between attitudes about close relationships
and media that was popular. The data set consisted of 109 adults. Results suggested
that people with an unrealistic belief system regarding close relationships would have
been exposed to media that was romantic in nature, more than the normal. Holmes
(2007) looked for evidences for a relationship between media linked with romance and
beliefs about destiny in romantic relationship destiny. The participants for the study
included 294 undergraduates. The results suggested that there was a relationship
between preference for media with romantic content and beliefs in soul mates and mind
reading in relationships. When gender influences were analyzed these association were
found to be pronounced among both genders. Peter and Valkenburg (2007) conducted
an online survey with 745 adolescents to examine if the exposure to media that was
sexual in nature will influence their ideologies into viewing women as sex objects. It was
found that exposure to sexualized media environment and notions as women as sex
objects had been transformed from semi-explicit to explicit sexual content and from 63
visual and audio-visual formats. On analyzing for gender differences, the association
between media with a sexual content and ideas of women as a sex object did not vary
among both boys and girls. Subrahmanyam and Greenfield (2008) studied adolescents’
relationships with their social support system in the perspective of virtual
communication. The study suggested that adolescents use virtual communications
methods as a primary means to foster or maintain active relationships. Such means of
communication might have certain benefits such as to build confidence to face social
situations, or alleviate anxiety in social situations. Also content available online could
have both positive and negative effects. Online interaction, though, built communication
among the peers, it might cost interaction with parents. Whitty (2008) in his study
showed the positive effects of relationships formed online while taking into account the
characteristics of an individual ,time spent online and the length of online relationship
with regard to its effect on relationships from outside the internet and their activities. The
results suggested that numerous individuals could be benefitted from the environment
offered in cyberspace as they learn about relationships and sexuality. Bleakly,
Hennessy, Fishbein and Jordan (2008) conducted a longitudinal study with 547
adolescents aged 14-16 years to find 64 associations between viewing media that had a
sexual content and sexual behaviour among adolescents. Results suggested that
sexually active adolescents who had engaged in a sexual activity were probable in
viewing media that contains sex whereas those adolescents who view such content was
to progress to an active sexual life. Billedo (2009) studied the development of
interpersonal attraction and intimate relationships on online chatting forums. Survey and
in-depth interview were used, where the participants were selected using purposive and
convenience sampling method. Results suggested that interpersonal attraction in face-
to-face, online and intimate relationships developed in a similar fashion in the initial
stages, however when people meet online they will have to take initiative to meet face-
to-face. The results also suggested that attraction cues were significant in both forms of
the relationship but looking deeply, it might vary in quality and prominence. Bridges and
Morokoff (2011) conducted a study among couples the use of sex in media and
relational satisfaction in couples. A sample of 217 couples was studied. Results
indicated that when men were highly exposed to sexual content in media, it lead to
lower satisfaction, whilst among women when the frequency increased it was linked to
high satisfaction among their partners. Sexual media among men was used for
masturbation, while among women as a part of sex. 65 Coyne et al. (2011) carried out a
study on the depictions in media regarding relational and physical aggression. A sample
size of 369 young adults was studied. It was found when men were exposed to media
that contained physical violence it could be associated to the display of physical
aggression against their partners. Nevertheless, both genders when they viewed media
that contained relational aggression, it leads to the same in their romantic relationships.
Coyne, Stockdale, Busby, Iverson and Grant (2011) in an article discussed the usage of
media in romantic relationships among individuals. In the study numerous participants
communicated with their partner through mobile phones and messaging. Different forms
of media were utilized by the younger participants as opposed to older individuals.
Multiple reasons to use media were practiced by relationship satisfaction and exclusive
use of media. Further analyses stated that positive and negative communication in
romantic relationships was highly related to text messaging. Greenwood and Long
(2011) conducted a study to predict imagined intimacy with media figure. A sample size
of 173 undergraduates was taken for the study. Results suggested that there existed a
positive correlation between a friend and intimacy that was imagined with a figure in the
media of the same gender as the friend. Nonetheless, those who were single said that
they had 66 strong intimacy that they imagined with the media figures of the opposite
sex. Also, single individuals showed a positive prediction for anxious attachment and
the need to belong with imagined intimacy with opposite gender media figures. Thieme
et al. (2011) conducted a study on “Lovers' Box” to understand the intimacy and
communication among couples. It was found that the communication of messages in
the digital artifact served as both mirrors and sources for reflection of couples'
relationships. The Lovers' box became a keepsake or digital storybook of their
meaningful experiences and an enjoyable hobby shared with their partner. It also
provided them a snapshot into the loved one’s mind and thoughts. Zurbriggen, Ramsey
and Jaworski (2011) investigated on self and partner objectification in romantic
relationships. The data set consisted of 91 women and 68 men. Results suggested that
among men, a low level of sexual satisfaction was associated with self- and partner-
objectification. From this study one could determine that the ill effects of objectification
among young adults in the framework of romantic relationships. Coyne, Busby,
Bushman and Douglas (2012) conducted a study on love and conflict. The data set
consisted of 1,333 heterosexual couples. Results showed that among males, time spent
playing video games was associated with increased conflict over the amount of time
spent using media, as well as the content 67 of those media. An association was seen
between conflict over the media and increased physical and relational aggression in the
relationship. Thus, conflict over the media offers one explanation for why video game
play might increase aggression in romantic relationships. Hernandez (2012) conducted
a communication study using cultivation theory to analyze college student attitudes
about the dating process following exposure to romantic films. Results showed that
female students as opposed to their male counterpart were inclined to be more
romantic, and view romantic films more frequently. No significant correlation was
established for the thought that beauty is a form of power. b. Peer Influence Peer
network involving same sex and heterosexual group exerts a major influence on
romantic interests of youth. In fact, western studies have revealed that romantic
relationships begin from late childhood and such early involvement in romantic
relationships might be both deviant and have pro social pathways (Neemann, Hubbard
& Masten, 1995). However it was also reported that relationships in late adolescents
could lose its negative effects to give way to normative development. Studies exploring
friendship networks and the progress of romantic relationships found that the
development of qualities of affiliation could be associated to a huge network of opposite
sex friendship in early adolescence. Also, 68 maintaining long romantic relationships
was more a feature of middle and late adolescence (Feiring, 1999). Connolly, Furman
and Konarski (2000) conducted a longitudinal study on adolescents on the role of peers
in relationships. The data set consisted of 180 high school students (grade 9 to grade
11 was studied) for a period of 3 years. Results indicated that opposite sex network of
friends and the emergence of romantic relationships could be foretold by a small group
of close friends. Groups of close friends of the same gender and same gender networks
caused indirect effects on romantic relations. Scharf and Mayseless (2001) did a study
on romantic intimacy. The data set consisted of 84 Israelites adolescents of age 17
years and their parents were studied. The results showed that potential for intimacy was
associated to higher relational qualities while there also was an association with all
relational contexts. Effect on the relationship between a parent and child was allied to
the association between marital relationship and intimacy. Adolescents’ potential for
socio-emotionality was mediated by the same factors as mentioned above. Zimmer-
Gembeck (2002) examined the progress of romantic relationships and adaptations in
peer relationships. It was found that the initiation and growth of any romantic
relationships usually happened in the context of existing peer relationship and close 69
friendship. Keeping friendships that were close aid adolescents to develop romantic
relationships. Brendgen, Vitaro, Doyle and Markiewicz (2002) studied peer relations and
romantic relationships. The data set consisted of 312 students. It was found that
unpopular adolescents showed poor emotional and behavioral adjustment if they had a
romantic relationship while popular kids did not exhibit the same. Negative association
found between performance in academics and acceptance of same sex peers and
romantic involvement. Bearman, Moody and Stovel (2004) explored among
adolescents, romantic relationship and sexual networks. The sample consisted of 800
adolescents. Reports and images of network structure and relationships were taken into
account for a period of 18 months. Comparisons were drawn on the characteristics of
the network that was observed to initiate ties that were conditioned to the network. The
observed structure revealed networks characterized by longer contact chains and fewer
cycles than expected. The analysis also revealed the micro mechanisms that generated
networks with structural features similar to the observed network. The results had
implications for disease transmission dynamics and social policy. Gembeck,
Sienbenbruner and Collins (2004) studied peer influences on adolescents’ romantic and
sexual behaviour. They identified a model to understand the developmental pathways to
70 adolescent sexual behavior which included individual early adolescence experiences
dyadic experiences in adolescence. The analysis showed that the pathway to greater
sexual involvement was marked by some desired personal attributes and peer
experiences. Earlier initiation of romantic relationships and alcohol use in adolescence
mediated these associations. Together they predicted greater sociability and less
impulsivity in childhood, higher quality friendships and greater peer acceptance in early
adolescence. The model explained the complex association between early, middle and
late adolescence experiences which predict sexual relationship Kuttler and Greca
(2004) examined the linkages among adolescent girls’ romantic relationships, best
friendships, and peer networks. A sample of 446 students was selected for the study.
This study implied that dating was associated with more optimistic and less depressing
interactions with friends, trust came on romantic partners if the age was more, romantic
relations had high negative reciprocal action than friendships and the size of the
network of peer and system was connected with dating. From mid till late adolescence
was the time where girls move away from friends and go in search of romantic partners.
Greca and Harrison (2005) conducted a study on adolescent peer relations, friendships,
and romantic relationships. It was found that peer crowd affiliations, positive qualities in
best friendships and 71 the current existence of a relationship helped adolescents to
come out of anxiety, but relational persecution and negative connections in friendships
which were most predicted elevated social anxiousness. In difference, relationship with
peers who were high in status was able to provide shield in opposition to depressive
influence, though, relative persecution and unconstructive qualities in both friendships
and romance lead to depression. Findings indicated that multiple aspects of
adolescents’ social relations uniquely contributed to feelings of internal distress.
Through thorough examination it was clear that adolescents’ internal stress contributed
to social affiliation. Lehmiller and Agnew (2007) in a longitudinal study analyzed how
perceived marginalization of one’s romantic relationship was associated with level of
future commitment to and stability of that involvement. This longitudinal study took for a
period of seven months and 215 romantically involved individuals participated in the
study. Results revealed that perceived social network marginalization at Time 1
predicted breakup status at Time 2, with commitment level at Time 1 fully mediating this
association. Among those individuals whose relationships remained intact, social
network marginalization predicted Time 2 commitment above and beyond satisfaction,
alternatives, and investments. It was also found that perceived general societal
marginalization was a less 72 robust predictor of relationship commitment and stability
compared to social network marginalization. Etcheverry, Le and Charania (2008)
examined the influence of social network on romantic relationship. The data set
consisted of 254 college students who had a relationship. Along with them a male and
female friend finished a survey concerning the participants’ relationship. The results
showed that belief of social network members mediated social network approval on
relationship commitment. There was a mediating effect between participants’ reports of
relationship commitment and effect of certain norms in the persistence of the
relationship. It was also found that participants’ normative beliefs could be foretold by
peer’s approval of the relationships and the individuals’ satisfaction. Schad, Szwedo,
Antonishak, Hare and Allen (2008) examined the broader context of relational
aggression in adolescent romantic relationships. With 97 adolescents as participants it
was seen that pressure from peers lead to more romantic affiliation which lead
comparative hostility and persecution. ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIP IN INDIAN
CONTEXT Very few studies have been reported in India on romantic relationships, that
too, with the limited scope of understanding it from the perspective of premarital sex.
These threw light on the 73 association of romantic relationship with socio-demographic
characteristics of Indian youth. Abraham and Kumar (1999) conducted a study on
college students in Mumbai. It was found that 47% of boys and 13% of girls had some
form of premarital sexual experience. Amongst them 26% boys and 3% girls,
respectively, had sexual intercourse. Age and personal income were two factors that
had an effect on the sexual behaviour of students. Students' knowledge about
sexualityrelated issues, attitudes toward sex, and levels of social interaction and
exposure to erotic materials emerged as stronger predictors In another study using
focus group discussions, survey and in-depth interviews among college students from
Mumbai, Abraham (2002), studied three typologies of heterosexual peer networks
identified namely ' bhai-behen ' ('brother sister like'), romantic 'true love', and transitory
and sexual 'time pass' relationships. The three typologies were the outcome of strong
cultural norms of heterosexuality and they define the boundaries of sexual behaviour for
unmarried youth. The bhai-behen category distinguished the tabooed true love
heterosexual relationship and time pass friendships from a more socially acceptable
brother sister like relationships. It was also found that boys took advantage of the fluidity
in the categorization as they wished to engage in multiple relationships, while girls
mainly engaged in single, true love relationships. These findings contribute to an
understanding of 74 premarital relationship culture among college youth in metropolitan
India. Dhal, Bhatia, Sharma and Gupta (2007) intended to study the association
between self-esteem, loneliness and attachment styles with their age and gender in a
sample of 110 adolescents aged 10-13 years. Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory
(School Form), Attachment Scale and UCLA Loneliness Scale were administered to the
participants. Results showed that early adolescents aged 10-11 years showed higher
self-esteem as compared to older adolescents. Among the adolescents, level of
loneliness was associated with global, general and home-parents self-esteem. High
self-esteem adolescents were found to be securely attached and low self esteem was
associated to preoccupied and fearful attachment. Students who were from public
school showed higher levels of self-esteem, moderate level of loneliness and a secure
attachment style. The study also recommended psychological intervention for self
esteem related issues. Alexander, Garda, Kanade, Jejeebhoy and Ganatra (2007)
conducted a study using a qualitative and survey design among youth in rural and an
urban slum setting in Pune district, India. It was found that 25-40% of young men and
14-17% of young women reported opposite-sex friends in spite of strict social norms
against gender mix. Youth had such friends from their neighborhood using different
strategies. Boys and girls differed with regard to their 75 initiations in romantic
relationship, proposal and partners. They also differed in terms of physical intimacy
such as hand-holding, kissing and sexual relations. Onset of sexual relations was
shorter for those who involved in sexual intimacy. Sexual intercourse happened without
protection or communication and for women only after persuasion or without consent.
Among unmarried youth, a majority of them had expected to marry their romantic
partner, but for one third of girls and a half of boys the relationship had been
discontinued. Similar study focusing on premarital romantic relationship by the same
researchers (Alexander, Garda, Kanade, Jejeebhoy & Ganatra, 2007) revealed that
among boys, 17–24% had a romantic relationship and 20–26% had engaged in some
form of physical intimacy. Also, and 16–18% of boys had completed sexual intercourse.
The proportions among girls on the same parameters were found to be 5–8%, 4–6%
and 1–2%, respectively. Usage of alcohol, watching pornographic films, frequent
interaction with peer group and usage of drugs were positively associated with romantic
and sexual relationships for both genders. Educational qualification was negatively
associated with both types of relationships for girls, but only with sexual relationships for
boys. Closeness to parents had a negative relationship with such relationships. For girls
whose father beat their mother were more likely than other young women to form
romantic partnerships, and those youth who were beaten by 76 their family were
vulnerable to romantic and sexual partnerships. Strict parental supervision was not
related to formation of such relationship significantly. A more representative study done
by International Institute of Population Sciences (IIPS, 2010) involving students from
five states in India namely, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Rajasthan
and Tamil Nadu reported that despite the fact that youth tended to report relatively
traditional attitudes, opportunities to form romantic relationships did exist for some of
them, irrespective of rural-urban residence or sex. Among youth 23% of boys and 21%
of girls had experienced romance either by initiating or accepting a proposal.
SUMMARY The above mentioned studies on romantic relationship examined various
aspects of development of romantic relationship among youth. They also studied the
differences among youth in terms of age, gender and race/ethnicity in romantic
relationship. It was found that older youth were more likely to have romantic
relationship. Girls give more value to intimacy, attachment and care than boys. Racial
and ethnic group differences were established by some studies. It was found that
romantic events were more common among all youth belonging to different ethnic
group, however, Asian and Hispanic youth tend to be relatively 77 conservative in
sexual events. Studies have explored that romantic relationship qualities were positively
related to identity achievement among emerging adults. Also several achieved
adulthood criteria were related positive to romantic relationship qualities. Studies on
attachment in romantic relationship showed that youth transfer their attachment from
parenthood to romantic partners and best friends. Secure attachment was related to
commitment, trust, satisfaction and interdependence. Insecure attachment in
adolescence was a risk factor for adverse relationship outcomes and less satisfaction.
Cross cultural studies showed that relationship satisfaction and felt security suppressed
anxious attachment among Australian youth. For Japanese youth the suppression effect
and anxious attachment could be partly explained by dependence of the partner. Study
examining attachment and love styles showed that specific events played an important
role in determining attachment progression than typological tendencies in love. Studies
linking attachment and personality revealed that anxious and avoidance attachment was
correlated to neuroticism. Extraversion was negatively correlated with avoidance and
anxious attachment. Both anxious and avoidance attachment negatively correlated with
conscientiousness but not related to agreeableness. Studies linking attachment and
sexuality in romantic relationship showed that avoidant youth were least likely to have a
romantic relationship and more aversive for 78 sexual feelings. Anxious and secured
youth tend to have more dating and sexual experiences. Youth scoring higher on secure
attachment perceived themselves as more physically attractive compared to youth with
anxious attachment. Anxiously attached youth had an early first intercourse, more
infidelity and took more sexual precautions. Studies reviewed above on interpersonal
attraction revealed that men lay more emphasis on physical characteristics and sexual
desirability on a romantic partner where as women look for personal qualities, social
status and compatibility. However both genders placed importance on socially
appealing personality characteristics while considering long term relationships. Studies
focusing on reasons for attraction found that warmth and kindness, desirable
personality, something specific about other and reciprocal liking were found to be most
rated reasons. Studies on body image and attraction suggested that overweight women
were less likely to date and less satisfied in relationship. Male partners were told to gain
weight while females were asked to lose weight suggesting that weight is differentially
important for men and women in romantic relationship. Studies based on objectification
theory showed that men and women’s body shame was related to greater sexual
selfconsciousness which in turn reduces sexual pleasure and arousability. It was also
shown that higher body dissatisfaction is inversely related to perception of romantic
partner support. 79 Studies on the role of personality on romantic relationship showed
that personality factors influenced social relationship but not vice-versa. Antecedent
personality traits predicted relationship experiences. Neuroticism is negatively
associated with satisfaction in relationship. Extraversion and agreeableness were
positively associated with satisfaction and intimacy in a romantic relationship.
Personality disorders among youth predicted relationship dysfunction and also
subclinical psychopathology in an intimate relationship. The above mentioned studies
on media influence on romantic relationship demonstrated that children’s romantic
imagination is largely shaped by the content and forms of romance portrayed in media
associating romance with luxury and leisure. Studies also suggested that exposure to
media influenced the intentions and behaviour of youth towards romantic and sexual
activity. Studies indicated that exposure to popular romantic media would create more
dysfunctional and unrealistic beliefs about intimate relationships. Studies demonstrated
that higher frequency of men’s sexual media use related to negative satisfaction and
men primarily use sexual media for masturbation whereas women use as part of love-
making with their partners. Studies on computer mediated communication among
romantic couples found that intimacy, trust and communication satisfaction predict
relationship satisfaction. Online romantic partners had higher levels on relational 80
expectation. Further studies showed that youth use cell phones and text messaging to
communicate with their partner. Exposure to mass media leads to higher level of partner
objectification in men than women. For men, spending more time on video games,
conflict over the media was associated with physical and relational aggression in
relationship. Studies on the role of peer group on romantic relationship showed that
small groups of close friends predicted other sex peer networks and future romantic
relationships. Initiation and development of any romantic relationships usually took
place in the context of existing peer relationship and maintaining close friendship help in
development of romantic relationship. Experiencing peer pressure from friends and
larger peer group influenced involvement in romantic relationship in future. It was also
found that peer crowd affiliations, positive qualities in best friendship and the presence
of a dating relationship protected youth against social anxiety where as negative
interactions in friendship predicated high social anxiety. An examination of the above
studies done among Indian youth indicates that prevalence of premarital romantic
relationship with or without sexual contact is on the rise and the attitude of youth
towards such relationships are fast changing. Individual level factors such as attitude
and knowledge on premarital sex, exposure to alcohol, watching pornographic films and
self efficacy were 81 related to premarital relationship. Opportunities to interact with
peer group, peer pressure, family environment, strict parental supervision and
educational attainment also do play a role in development of such relationship. More
men reported to have such relationship than women, though, the possibility of
underreporting from both genders couldn’t be ruled out.
 CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

According to Mary-joyce-Trajano (2018 Feb. 1) As the teacher-researcher and the

classroom teacher, of great importance was the connection between my case study and
the related literature. My search of the related literature highlighted three groups of
individuals: (a) the teacher with his or her roles in the classroom, (b) the students and
their roles as learners, and (c) the community of scholars who conducted research on
learning contracts. In this chapter, I connect my case study with each of the three
groups. The Teacher’s Roles in the Learning Process The classroom teacher has a
variety of roles and responsibilities that change according to the students he or she
instructs. Teaching the life science curriculum encompasses a broad spectrum of
choices with respect to delivery strategies and hands-on activities that enhance
instruction. In this next section, the teacher’s roles include individualizing and
differentiating instruction, selecting age-appropriate teaching strategies, and acting as
the facilitator of learning. Individualized Instruction According to Dunn and Dunn (1972),
a student contract “should be a part of every dynamic educational program,” and as a
powerful teaching tool it should stimulate individualized learning (p. 31). They also
stated that “individualized instruction is the one-onone relationship between a student
and what he learns” (Dunn & Dunn, 1975, p. 5). One of my reasons for selecting the
Dunn and Dunn model for the learning contract used in my case study was their idea of
individualized instruction. This instructional tool gave the students more opportunities to
be actively involved in the educational process, and it enabled the teacher to offer a
variety of learning opportunities for the mixed-ability students. The learning
opportunities changed with the types of assignments, the availability of resources for
hands-on activities, enrichment activities, and review activities for reinforcing curriculum
concepts. Differentiating Instruction, The challenge for the middle school teacher is to
differentiate or to adapt instruction to respond to the diverse student needs found in
inclusive, mixed-ability classrooms (Tomlinson, 1995c). A differentiated classroom
offers a variety of learning options designed to tap into different readiness levels,
interests, and learning profiles. According to Tomlinson (1995c), 18 “Teachers utilize (a)
a variety of ways for students to explore curriculum content, (b) a variety of sense-
making activities or processes through which students can come to understand and
‘own’ information and ideas, and (c) a variety of options through which students can
demonstrate or exhibit what they have learned” (p. 1). After I read the different articles
by Dr. Carol Tomlinson, I went back to the lessons that had already occurred to check
and see if I had utilized variety in my daily instruction. As the classroom teacher, I did
use several different instructional strategies in the learning contract to promote learning
and an understanding of the material being taught in the seventh-grade life science
classroom. I introduced and reinforced curricular content using a computer with
CDROM, filmstrips, laser disc, and videos. “Sense-making activities” included hands-on
activities, lab exercises, Power Point exercises in the computer lab, and group projects,
for example building a cell using candy as inclusion bodies or organelles. Students had
a variety of options to demonstrate what they had learned through class discussions,
tests, lab exercises, projects, and additional activities. Because of the mixed-ability
students in my classroom and their need to understand the science concepts being
taught, differentiating instruction became important to me. The teacher uses four
strategies to shape teaching and learning in an effective, differentiated classroom
(Tomlinson, 1995a): (1) “Instruction is concept focused and principle driven.” All
students come to understand the key principles. Such instruction enables struggling
learners to grasp and use powerful ideas and at the same time, encourages advanced
learners to expand their understanding and application of the key concepts and
principles. This type of instruction stresses understanding rather than retention of
fragmented bits of information. (2) “On-going assessment of student readiness and
growth are built into the curriculum.” Teachers do not assume that all students need the
same segment of study, but continuously assess student interest and provide
assistance when needed. (3) “Flexible grouping is consistently used.” It encourages
students to work in many patterns, whether in-groups or individually, or as one large
group. (4) “Students are active explorers,” and “teachers guide the exploration.” (p. 1) In
the differentiated classroom the teacher works as a guide or facilitator of learning.
Students learn to be responsible for their work and develop ownership of their learning
(p. 1). The students’ learning contract is one of many strategies that offers the
foundation necessary for the learners to assume the responsibility for their individual
learning journey. 19 The learning contract used for my case study contained activities
that promoted flexible grouping for daily seating and lab activities. Students participated
in self-evaluation at the end of each grading period, and they were actively engaged as
they searched through the reference materials in the life science classroom or in the
computer lab. The students assumed responsibility for their learning by completing
assignments listed in the learning contract. According to Tomlinson (1995b), there must
be a reason to differentiate instruction. To be successful, the teacher must draw on
classroom management and routines, prepare both students and parents for a
differentiated approach to learning, and work with other faculty members to coordinate a
team approach to learning. These considerations move the students toward student-
centered learning, or self-directed learning, and help prepare them as they start their
journey as life-long learners. Strategies for Learning Teachers plan strategies to
differentiate instruction to help students find a good learning plan. The following list of
strategies help: “(a) multiple texts and supplementary materials; (b) computer programs;
(c) interest centers; (d) compacting; (e) tiered sense-making activities and tiered
products; (f) tasks and products designed with a multiple intelligence orientation; (g)
independent learning contracts; (h) complex group investigation; (i) product criteria
negotiated jointly by students and teachers; (j) graduated task and product rubrics; and
(k) learning contracts” (Tomlinson, 1995c, p. 2). At the University of Connecticut, Joe
Renzulli developed curriculum compacting as a strategy to help advanced learners
maximize their time for learning. The process contains three stages. In stage 1, the
teacher identifies the students and assesses their knowledge about a particular topic.
With stage 2, the teacher notes those concepts that the students did not show mastery,
and he or she develops a plan for the students to learn those concepts. In stage 3, the
students and teacher design a project that the students can work on while the other
students work with general studies. According to Tomlinson (1995a) “advanced learners
gain little by continuing to relearn the known, but they gain much from the expectation
that they will continually engage in challenging and productive learning in school.
Compacting helps eliminate the former and facilitate the latter” (p. 49). 20 Tiered
lessons are a way of “taking the same concepts and essential understanding of a lesson
and adapting them to the various ability levels, interests, and learning profiles of
students” (C. A. Tomlinson, personal communication, September 8, 2000). Both of
these strategies, compacting and tiered-sense-making activities, while new to me as the
teacher-researcher, could be used within the guidelines of a learning contract in the
future. Thompson and Poppen (1972) stated that learning contracts allow the teacher to
initiate a number of learning strategies. These learning strategies focus on the students
as the individuals responsible for: “(a) making choices about meeting learning
objectives; (b) making commitments to complete personal learning goals; (c) learning
through independent learning activities; (d) using learning styles to develop alternatives
to learning; (e) working cooperatively with peers; (f) sensing a freedom from threat of
failure; (g) identifying the area where the task is challenging; (h) finding the opportunity
for stimulating learning experiences; (i) completing course objectives; and (k)
connecting the learning process to real-life encounters” (p. 118). Thompson and
Poppen’s strategy list helped in planning activities for curriculum development and
concept mastery using a learning contract. These strategies added more variety to
instructional methods, and they allowed students to use what they learned in the
classroom and then apply it to real-life situations. Students made choices about which
additional activities they wanted to complete, and they worked cooperatively with their
classmates. There was a sense of freedom from the threat of failure because the
students worked cooperatively within their teams as they completed course objectives.
When the students signed up for a grade, they identified personal learning goals. The
opportunities for stimulating learning experiences occurred with class discussions, lab
activities, modeling, computer lab exercises, and group projects. Facilitators of Learning
The traditional instructor accepts the responsibility for what and how students learn. To
achieve the goal of teaching students how to learn, instructors should become
facilitators of learning (Cristiano, 1993). “Knowing how to learn is the most basic of all
skills because it is the key that unlocks future success. Individuals who know how to
learn can more easily acquire other skills. Without this essential skill however, one’s
learning is not as rapid or as comprehensive and long lasting” (Carnevale, Gainer, &
Meltzer, 1990, p. 37). 21 Carl Rogers (1983) wrote about the role of the teacher as
facilitator, and he suggested that the instructor ask the following questions: Now how
can I help him or her find the resources-the people, the experiences, the learning
facilities, the books, the knowledge in myself-which will help them in ways that will
provide answers to the things that concern them, the things they are eager to learn?
And, then later, how can I help them evaluate their own progress and set future learning
goals based on this self-evaluation? (p. 136) Instructors feel a sense of accomplishment
by helping students achieve course competencies by serving as motivators, coaches,
and resource persons. Students achieve course competencies by developing,
implementing, and evaluating their own learning plans (Cristiano, 1993). Malcolm
Knowles (1986) summarized these feelings when he said: Faculty members must
change their psychic reward system from valuing the extent to which the learners
conform to their direction to valuing the extent to which the learners take the initiative in
directing their own learning. Traditional teachers tend to get satisfaction from controlling
the energy of learners; facilitators get their satisfaction from releasing the energy of
learners. (p. 246) Perhaps a better way of saying this is that “creative leadership is that
form of leadership that releases the creative energy of the people being led” (Knowles,
1990, p. 183). The learning contract used for my research enabled me to become the
facilitator of learning with my students. By planning activities that engaged the students,
by providing a variety of choices through the additional activities, and by rotating the
students through cooperative learning teams, I better facilitated their learning. Through
the pages of the learning contract, the instructional concepts allowed the students to
take charge of their learning plan. As the facilitator of learning, I witnessed the students’
energy at its highest each time I distributed a new learning contract. Rogers (1969)
stated that the critical element in performing the role as facilitator is “the personal
relationship between the facilitator and the learner, which in turn depends on the
facilitator’s possessing three attitudinal qualities: (1) realness or 22 genuineness, (2)
nonpossessive caring, prizing, trust, and respect, and (3) empathic understanding and
sensitive and accurate listening” (pp. 106-126). Malcolm Knowles (1990) in his transition
from teacher to facilitator of learning recalled: I saw my role shifting from content-
transmitter to process manager and only secondarily-content resources. …I found
myself performing a different set of functions that required a different set of skills.
Instead of performing the functions of content planner and transmitter, which required
primarily presentation skills, I was performing the function of process designer and
manager, which required relationship building, needs assessment, involvement of
students in planning, linking students to learning resources, and encouraging student
initiative. I have never been tempted since then to revert to the role of teacher. (p. 181)
The Student’s Role in the Learning Process “Much of the emphasis in individual
differences research is on how learning professionals should alter their learning
facilitation and leadership to make learning more meaningful to learners. A
complementary response has been an emphasis on helping learners expand their
learning abilities through ‘learning-how-to-learn’ interventions.” (Knowles, et. al., 1998,
p. 166). A learning contract is just one of these interventions for the student learner.
Education needs to be an active rather than a passive process (Codde, 1996). The
students’ roles include participating in their own learning and developing the skills of
selfdirected inquiry. The learning contracts allow students to structure their own learning
and to be active participants (Codde). White and Greenwood (1992) explained, “the
learning contract allows the students to have a say in what and how they will learn” (p.
20). Student choice is a democratic process for making assignments. The students
assume more responsibility for their learning plan when given choices. Learning
contracts empower the students as learners to be in control. They establish a climate in
the classroom that signals, “students are valued, respected, and capable of assuming
responsibility for a large portion of their learning” (p. 20). The learning contract enabled
students to identify their learning objectives within the parameters of the course
objectives and served as a means for students to learn how to learn in their subject area
(Cristiano, 1993). 23 The seventh-grade students actively participated while using
learning contracts to plan for learning throughout the school year. With each new
learning contract, the students selected activities from a menu of available assignments.
They took charge of their learning on a daily basis, and they developed the skills
needed to be successful learners. Students and Diversity When I began to teach in
January 1997, I discovered big differences between the high school students I had
recently instructed and the seventh-grade middle school students I now called my
students. Diversity, not uniformity, is the norm for the students in the seventh-grade.
This diversity manifests itself in physical, social, emotional, and intellectual stages of
development. Each of these stages can have a direct influence on the students’ learning
ability. In grades 7 and 8, there can be great disparity with respect to physical growth.
Girls may be taller than boys in the 10-to-15-year-old age group, and the uneven
development of bone and muscle structure results in a lack of coordination (McKay,
1995). Students’ development ranges from a strong dependence on the home and
family to peers as a source of standards and models of behavior. “Group membership is
a strong social need, and the student will go to great lengths to acquire it and respond
readily to what they see as peer pressure” (McKay, 1995, p. 20). Adolescents
demonstrate feelings of inadequacy, superiority or inferiority, and independence from
parents. They struggle with self-concept and sex-role identification. They have a short
attention span and relatively shallow thinking powers (McKay, 1995). The
developmental stage ranges from limited thinking and reasoning skills to formal abstract
thinking. “The right and left brain development and growth periods lead to a wide range
of academic ability among these students” (McKay, 1995, p. 20). In 1989, the Carnegie
Council on Adolescent Development, addressed the mismatch between schooling and
the adolescent learner as follows: The world is being rapidly transformed by science
and technology in ways that have profound significance for our economic well being and
for a democratic society. Work will require much more technical competence and a
great deal of flexibility. In the years immediately ahead, the national cohort of young
people will be smaller than in recent decades. Fewer college-age students will enter the
work force. We need to 24 develop the talent of all our people if this nation is to be
economically competitive and socially cohesive in the different world of the next century.
To do so, we must take advantage of the neglected opportunity provided by the
fascinating period of early adolescence, ages 10 to 15 years. This is a time not only of
inordinate vulnerability, but an exceptional chance for constructive interventions that can
have life-long influence. (p. 12-13) Through learning contract activities, the adolescent
learners develop their talents to be self-directed learners. If in fact fewer college-age
students enter the work force, then the need to give our students an immediate goal and
a future aim for success in the work force falls on the shoulders of the classroom
teacher. He or she accepts the challenge to reach out to this mismatched group and
provide an instructional foundation on which their pupils can go forward and meet the
challenges of the future. Students and Ability Grouping Johnston and Markle (1983)
reported that although a majority of teachers believe that ability grouping improves
effectiveness, the practice has a deleterious effect on teacher expectations and
instructional practices, especially for low-ability students. This affects students in the
areas of perceptions of self, of others, and of academic performance. Furthermore,
“ability grouping limits opportunities for students to learn from and accept peers of
different social and economic backgrounds. It may perpetuate the notions of superior
and inferior classes of persons” (McKay, 1995, p. 19). However, despite the
recommendation of the Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development to allow all
students to enter advanced courses, the universal practice in today’s middle schools
remains tracking students by academic achievement (Ames & Miller, 1994). It is further
believed that tracking has a negative impact on low achieving students’ aspirations and
self-esteem, while denying them access to the advanced courses that they need to get
into college and find rewarding careers (Oakes, 1985; Wheelock, 1992). The school in
my case study did not use ability tracking to schedule seventh-grade students for
science classes. Therefore, the learning contract, as a learn-how-to-learn intervention,
had meaningful effects for mixed-ability students. The gifted students, the students with
special needs, and the average achievers had the opportunity to attain high grades
through the learning contract’s activities. 25 Students and Learning Processes
According to Knowles (1986) a learning contract typically specifies five major themes:
(a) how the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values are to be acquired by the learner
(learning objectives); (b) how the learning objectives are to be accomplished, (learning
resources and strategies); (c) how to assign a target date for their accomplishment; (d)
how the evidence to be presented will demonstrate that the objectives have been
accomplished; and (e) how the evidence will be judged, or validated, or how much credit
will be awarded to the learner, or what grade. With a learning contract, students use a
variety of assignments to achieve a final grade. However, in the situation where a class
uses a midterm and a final examination to arrive at a grade, a student’s grade is based
on a very narrow sampling of his performance capability (Newcomb & Warmbrod,
1974). “But sampling behavior by testing in education is like standing by a river with a
cup, dipping into the stream as it moves by. In assessing learning, like dipping the cup
into the river, one seldom gets an adequate sample” (Frymier, 1965, p. 235). Allowing
students to decide which grades they wish to strive for, which activities they will engage
in, and how they will demonstrate that they have satisfactorily completed their studies
permits a teacher to seize upon powerful motivating forces within individual students.
These student-centered choices “shifts responsibility for learning from the teacher to the
student, but at the same time offers an incentive by insuring success under known
conditions. Students are challenged without being threatened. Students are almost
never dissatisfied with grades, whatever they may be” (Frymier, 1965, p. 263-264).
Students identified problems or issues imperative to them and also relevant to the
course at hand. They then identified the learning objectives and learning resources.
Course objectives may address attaining knowledge or developing a skill. “The result of
the learning contract is some kind of evidence of the achievement of the learning
objectives” (Cristiano, 1993, p. 1). Carl Rogers (1983) stated his purpose for learning
contracts as follows: We are, in my view, faced with an entirely new situation in
education where the goal of education, if we are to survive, is the facilitation of change
and learning. The only man who is educated is the man who has learned how to learn;
the man who has learned how to adapt and change; the man who has realized that no
knowledge is secure, that only the process of seeking knowledge gives a basis for
security. Changingness, 26 reliance on process rather than upon static knowledge, is
the only thing that makes any sense as a goal for education in the modern world. (p.
120) Using the learning contract as a means to accomplish the curriculum goals as well
as to set the foundation for future learning experiences enables the students to keep
abreast of a changing environment. “An understanding of the ways students learn is the
door to educational improvement. And learning style diagnosis is the key to an
understanding of student learning” (Keefe, 1987, p. 32). “No educational program can
be successful without attention to the personal learning needs of the individual learner”
(Keefe, 1987, p. 34). It is important to know what helps students learn and then adjust
teaching strategies to enhance the method of instruction. Students can learn from a
combination of modalities, hands-on activities, oral and visual instruction and a
combination of these methods. The learning contract activities use these methods to
optimize learning for the seventh-grade, life science student. A Community of Scholars
Several researchers and their contributions to the topic of learning contracts provided a
foundation for my case study. On the national level, Rita and Kenneth Dunn (1972)
documented all the steps for setting up a student-learning contract and proposed the
objectives that supported its implementation. Later, in 1975, they authored another book
in which they continued to give information about the learning contract’s practical
application, design, objectives, and implementation (Dunn & Dunn, 1975). Rita Dunn
(1995) continues to research individualized instruction and learning styles. William D.
Romey (1968) devoted a chapter in his book to a completed learning contract with
requirements, grade stipulations, and activities. His work focused on the inquiry
approach to science instruction. Thompson and Poppen (1972) listed the strategies that
can be used with a learning contract so that learning becomes the individual
responsibility of the student. Carl Rogers (1983) developed the theoretical foundation
for contract learning. Malcolm Knowles (1986, 1990, 1998) expressed a keen interest in
learning contracts, and he reported his findings in several articles and books. His
definition of learning contracts appeared in several subsequent articles. He presented a
collection of learning contracts, the rationale behind contract 27 learning, and
suggestions for achieving success with contracted learning. He is sometimes called the
“Father of Adult Learning Theory.” In the 1990’s, several individuals addressed the
learning contract as a means to differentiate instruction. Marilyn J. Cristiano (1993) used
learning contracts at the postsecondary level. Debra R. Dew and Jan E. Waggoner
(1993) conducted a study on six instructional models, including learning contracts. Carol
Ann Tomlinson (1995a, 1995b, 1995c) used the learning contract to differentiate
instruction with gifted learners in a middle school. She listed strategies for managing a
differentiated classroom. Joseph Codde (1996) explored the use of learning contracts
and the benefits they offered students at the community college level. Geoff Anderson,
David Boud, and Jane Sampson (1996) published their findings on learning contracts
based on over twenty years of experience with this instructional tool. Their research and
practical experiences lend support to using learning contracts. Research with Learning
Contracts and the Reported Outcomes Several individuals have conducted research
using learning contracts. The terms learning contracts, grade contracts, contract
learning, contract grading, and Contract Activity Packages (CAP) connect a learner to a
learning experience. In 1973, Lawrence H. Newcomb, under the direction of J. Robert
Warmbrod, completed a doctoral dissertation by conducting research using a learning
contract. His quasi-experimental research focused on the effect of contract grading on
the following six variables: (1) The performance of students on a cognitive post test. (2)
The final grade received by the student in the course. (3) The attitude of the students
towards the course. (4) The amount of assigned reading completed by the students. (5)
The amount of time students devoted to the course. (6) The degree to which students
perceived their individual needs to be met by the course. (p. 4) The study used students
in two sections of Introduction to Agricultural Education, Fall Quarter, 1972, and Winter
Quarter, 1973. The study used intact groups for each quarter since it was not possible
to randomly assign students to the two classes. The researcher randomly 28 assigned
contract grading to one section and conventional grading to the other section each
quarter. The same instructor, also the experimenter, taught both sections. The instructor
taught the course the preceding three quarters (Newcomb & Warmbrod, 1974).
Newcomb (1973) used the non-equivalent control group study design for his research.
The two levels of the independent variable (contract grading versus conventional
grading) were randomly assigned to the two sections each quarter. He defined
conventional grading for this study as a system of assigning final grades for the course
based on quizzes, midterms, papers, and final examinations. Since the instructor might
have intentionally or unintentionally favored the experimental section, independent
raters monitored his teaching of both sections. They used the Observation System for
Instructional Analysis to determine if the teaching-learning interactions differed in either
section. The results of this monitoring clearly demonstrated that he taught each section
in an almost identical fashion (Newcomb & Warmbrod, 1974). The researcher assessed
both groups of students at the beginning of each quarter with a cognitive pretest to
determine if either group entered the course with more knowledge pertinent to the
content of the course than the other group. The results showed that each group
performed essentially the same on the pretest both quarters. Also, both groups’
cumulative grade point averages were compared for both quarters and “there were no
significant differences between the mean grade point averages for either group either
quarter” (p. 7). Newcomb’s (1973) contract had similarities to the grade contract
proposed by Frymier (1965). The contract contained the following conditions: (1) It is a
written agreement negotiated between the instructor and each student that specifies
some experiences required by all students as well as some experiences unique to
individual students. (2) It includes dates when products are due, when tests are to be
given, etc. (3) It requires specific interaction between the instructor and each student in
order for the student to propose products and for the instructor to react to such
proposals. (4) It provides for all work to be graded as satisfactory or unsatisfactory. All
unsatisfactory work is returned and resubmitted by the student until it is satisfactory.
(Newcomb & Warmbrod, 1974, p. 6) 29 The results showed no significant difference
between the students’ performance in the contract group and the conventional group.
During the Fall Quarter, students contracting for grades received final grades in the
course not significantly differing from students conventionally graded. However, during
the Winter Quarter study, the contract-graded students received significantly higher final
grades in the course than the grades received by the students conventionally-graded.
The researcher further reported no significant differences between the other variables
measured in the experiment. The researcher proposed a future study to specify a more
accurate definition of conventional grading since both groups received the same
treatment and no differences could have been expected (Newcomb & Warmbrod,
1974). Brown (1991) compared the math achievement of students taught with traditional
instructional methods and students taught with Contract Activity Packages. Brown found
no significant differences between the total math scores and problem solving math
scores of the students taught by Contract Activity Packages and those students taught
by traditional methods. As compared to those students taught by traditional methods,
the students taught by the Contract Activity Packages earned significantly higher
achievement scores in math computation. Santano (1996) explored the effects of the
Contract Activity Package on achievement in social studies and the attitudes of fourth-
grade gifted students. She looked into the differences in attitude and achievement
through the use of traditional instructional methods and Contract Activity Packages. The
data analysis utilized multivariate analysis of variance employing a repeated measures
(counterbalanced) design and showed a significant difference between Contract Activity
Packages and traditional instruction. Her research also employed the Dunn, Dunn, and
Price Learning Style Inventory (LSI) to measure the attitude of the student learners. This
research and the research done by White (1981) formed the link between learning
contracts (Contract Activity Package) and learning styles upon student achievement.
White (1981) used two learning style instruments, the Dunn, Dunn, and Price Learning
Style Inventory (LSI) and the California Psychological Inventory (CPI) to measure the
elements of emotions of learners in seventh-grade social studies. She tested 161
seventh-grade adolescent learners and used a pretest, post-test experimental design.
The dependent variable was grade scores on a test of specific behavioral objectives,
and the independent variables were learning style and teaching methods. She used a
split-plot analysis of variance to analyze the data. The 30 researcher concluded that the
findings did not support the hypothesis of an interaction between learning styles and the
selected teaching methods. She had to reject the hypothesis that there would be no
difference in mean achievement scores for students classified as more persistent and
responsible and those classified as less persistent and responsible. Those students
identified as more persistent and responsible scored significantly higher on the test of
specific behavioral objectives. Harris (1994) determined the effects of student learning
contracts on specified final grade goals and point-earning activities. He designed the
study around two demographically similar groups: a control group of 72 students, which
used a learning contract, and an experimental group of 51 students, which did not use a
learning contract. Only 25% of the control group completed their contracts; 72.55% of
the experimental group completed at least one book report or term paper as compared
to 69.44% of the control group; the control group achieved a total point earned mean of
86.07, while the experimental group mean was 94.50. An independent ttest showed the
difference in total mean points to be significant (p < .01). The research (Newcomb,
1973; Brown, 1991; Harris, 1994) on learning contracts showed that they significantly
affected student achievement. When using the learning contract with the learning style
inventories, White (1981) reported on the emotions of the seventh-grade learners while
Santano (1996) researched the students’ attitudes with student achievement. Santano
(1996) recognized a significant difference between learning contracts (CAP) and the
traditional methods of instruction upon student achievement.
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