Proceedings of 14" International Conference on Dielectric Liquids (ICDL 2003, Graz (Austria), July 7-12,2002
PHYSICALCHEMICAL OIL TESTS,
MONITORING AND DIAGNOSTICS OF OIL-FILLED TRANSFORMERS
Maja KonEan Gradnk
ElektroinStitut Milan Vidmar (Milan Vidmar Electric Power Research Institute)
Chemism Department
Hajdrihova 2, Ljubljana, Slovenia
Absfraet: This paper presents physical-chemical testing methods as
used today worldwide and at the Institute Chemistry Department.
Investigation results obtained by means of various physical-chemical
tests of transformer oil samples provide not only the liquid
dielectrics quality; they also enable diagnosis of the current
operational capability, estimating reliability and assessment of the
residual technical lifetime of power, insmment and furnace
transformers.
Findings based on experimental research and experience of the
Institute's Chemistry Department in the furanic-in-oil HPLC analysis
of transformers in.service are presented. They enable diagnosis of the
degradation degree of paper insulation in oil-filled paper-insulated
Hv transformers.
This paper advises Hv transformer owners or supervisors which oil
tests should'be made to get the right or expected informalion about
transformers in their different lifetime situations. Various Institute
programs in compliance with which transformer preventive
diagnostics are being pursued are discussed.
The described efforts laid in practicing regular preventive diagnostics
have enabled appropriate transformer maintenance whenever
practicable. This means that transformers are serviced in time,
efficientlyand at the minimum cost, thus providing the basis for their
reliable long-term operation.
INTRODUCTION
Oil-tilled transformer technology has been around for more
than 100 years. We have been studying transformer mineral oil
at the Milan Vidmar Electroinstitute since 1953. A great
poition of ow activities are dedicated to the area of
transformer monitoring.and diagnostics. In last ten years
estimating the remaining life span of transformers has been o w
main topic of research.
The aim of OUT physical-chemical transformers diagnostics is
to enable appropriate transformer maintenance whenever
practicable. This means that transformers are serviced in time,
efficiently and at the minimum cost, thus providing the basis
for their reliable long-term operation.
TRANSFORMER OIL FUNCTIONS AND PHYSICAL
CHEMICAL DIAGNOSTICS
Transformer insulating system consists of transformer oil and
paper insulation. Both being organic materials, they are the
0-7803-7350-2/02/$17,00 0 2002 IEEE 242
most susceptible parts of a transformer to aging i.e.
irreversible changes of chemical propefties over time.
Temperature, humidity, oxygen, copper, electrical field and
discharges accelerate various decomposition processes of the
oil and paper which can be monitored by physical-chemical
tests performed on oil samples extracted f?om an operating
transformer without outage. In this view we may conclude that
oil his a triple role in a aansformer:
-
cooling heat transfer and humidity protection function
-
insulating paper impregnation and dielectric function
-
on-lime informative function early detection of incipient
faults and functioning of Buchholz safely relay, monitoring
degradation of paper
It is hard to define which of its three functions is the most
important. In a short term it is of course the dielectric
insulating function. Still, a transformer has an expected
lifetime of 40 years and none of these functions should be
regarded as less important. Insufficient cooling of core and
windme can lead to premature paper and oil aging or even
transformer thermal runaway with catastrophic failure.
The absence of the possibility to collect and/or analyse
gaseous oil degradation and liquid paper degradation products
would reduce the reliability of transformer operation obviously
and many transformer failures and electricity supply
interruptions could not be prevented, with unpredictable
financial consequences.
The physical chemical transformer diagnostics should provide
the transformer owner andlor supervisor staff with complete
information on transformer oil functioning in all three
respects. The basic elements for such diagnostics are the
results of various standardised test methods for determining
different properties or constituents of transformer oil and their
proprer interpretation.
Transformer oil test methods
According to the different IEC Publications and other sources
[1,2,3] the most important and commonly analysed oil
parameters all over the world are the following::
Kinematic viscosity, flash point, pour point, appearance,
colour, density, interfacial tension, neutralization value,
sludge, corrosive sulphure, water content, IR-spectral analysis
with inhibitor content, contamination by PCBs, oxidation
stability, breakdown voltage, dissipation factor, resistivity,
dissolved gases in oil and furanic compounds (two furfural and
related compounds) in oil.
There are also some other IEC standardised test methods
which are intended for deeper research into transformer oil
such as: gassing tendency, partial discharge inception voltage,
lightning impulse breakdown voltage, low temperature flow
properties affer ageing, oxygen index and counting and sizing
particles in oil.
We may conclude that modem analytical tools and testing
methods provide us with quite sufficient information on
transformer oil components and properties for today used
transformer oils.
Transformer oil tests interpretation methods
In transformer oil chemistq we use to say that any result
must be properly interpreted to get applicable value. And the
general interpretation is mainly performed in accordance with
some standardised guidelines. Expert knowledge built in
various research centers all over the world, CIGRE and IEC
working groups and task forces were incorporated in the most
widely used IEC specifications or guidelines like publications
60296, 60422 and 60599 [1,2,3]. All of these standards are
being revised thiiyear.
The common problem in preparing and updating these
documents is that the consensus between many experts, kom
different countries with different experience and interest,
should be reached, if they are to be accepted as the IEC
standard. That is the main reason that they always include only
the most general acceptable criterium and values or
procedures (general common sense) which often do not assure
the best quality of a product or best interpretation of oil or
transformer condition. For this reason expert knowledge is
still needed for the reliable interpretation of many test and
measurements.
Transformer oil diagnostics
We are dealing or talking about transformer oil diagnostics
only: when periodical information on: transformer owner, oil
sampling, oil testing results, transformer technical and
operational datas and history of oil maintenance actions, are
gathered periodically with expert opinion about suitability of
the tested transformer oil filling together with quidelines for
any needed corrective actions (filtering, adding inhibitor,
exchange or reclaiming).
For the optimal transformer oil diagnostics, the expert opinion
should take into account also the owners strategic lifetime of
transformer and his maintenance and investment strategy, as
243
critical values of specific test results (degree of degradation),
at which some actions should be done, depend on these
parameters. Having all cited informaton the diagnostic expert
should also advise the techno-financial optimal frequency and
type of oil testings.
The highly experienced expert having enough information can
reduce expenses for transformer supervision, maintenance
and refurbishment.
Oil-illled transformer monitoring and
diagnostics
The thud function of transformer oil is used for on line
monitoring and diagnostics of a transformer operational
capability and reliability but not transformer oil quality. Only
certain analysis performed on transformer oil are used for this
purpose which are presented hereafter.
Dissolved gas in oil analysis and gas sensorhg
For nearly 30 years dissolved gas in oil analysis P G A ) by gas
chromatography method [4] has been the main on-line
transformer diagnostical (chemical) test preformed on
transformer oil sample. Modem analytical tools allow us to
detect small quantities, in ppm range, of specific gases,
which are products of oil degradation because of different
thermal or electrical incipent faults or normal aging in an oil
filled transformer. The interpretation method for DGA has
been the main topic of CIGRE SCl5[5] and IEC TC IO
working groups [ 31 for many years.
Taking active part in these expert groups and performing DGA
diagnostics for all HV transformers in Slovenia for 15 years, 1
came to the conclusion that the main goal, which is widely
-
searched for to standardise or define the general applicable
limit values of gas concentrations in oil, at which any action
should be done on a tested Sransformer - will never be reached
[ 61.
There are so many factors which may affect the concentrations
of gases in a certain transformer that a complex review should
always be performed when preparing the reliable DGA
diagnosis for a transformer. Some general transformer
knowledge and specialization in DGA analitical and
interpretation field should always be connected as well as
looking for the similar datas as needed for oil diagnostics.
Only when concentrations of gases, found in oil, are very low
or very high, and knowing the history of operating transformer
for at least 1 year, one can make rather reliable diagnosis on
one DGA test. In most cases this is not so, and at least a few
periodically performed DGA test should be done, before a
reliable diagnosis can be made.
In the last twenty years numerous papers were published in
electrical reviews, dealing with DGA diagnostics in countries
all over the world. Reading them is the best way to enlarge
ones own experience, which is the right way to make reliable
DGA transformer diagnostics.
 Searching for the day-to-day checking of transformer operation
reliability has led to the development and use of several
computerised monitors with special gas sensors built to the
transformer oil duct. When using such a controliig device
between periodical DGA tests, we found it usefull for
transformer diagnostics [ 7.81.
Furanics in oil HPLC ana&& - ZFAL content in oil
Only in the year 1993 a new test method [ 91 was standardised
by IEC TClO for measuring two-furfural (2FAL)content in
transformer mineral oil, which we often call furans or furanics
-
in oil HPLC analysis as the testing is done by the High
Performanc Liquid Chromatography method which detects 5
different furanic compounds, among them 2FAL., the most
stable and consequently, found in operating transformers, in
the highest concentrations.
ZFAL and some other furanic compounds are the typical paper
aging or thermal fault degradation products (liquids), which
are partially dissolved 'in bansforiner oil and can be measured
in a ppb range by the HPLC test method. A lot of fundamental
research was made on laboratory artificial aging of paper in oil
samples in the CIGRE TF 15.01.03 in the ninties to get
information on correlations between degradation of
polimerizhion degree @P value) of paper insulation and
furanics in oil. [lo]. Research in this field is going on in our
institute, in CIGRE and other research centers. A big aging
project was been started in SINTEF, Norway two years ago
and we are expecting reports to be published shortly.
Milan Vidmar Institute's erperience onfurans
Given the age structure of transformers in the Slovene power
system, the question of aging and evaluation of the remaining
life span of transformers arose in nineties. Three big research
projects were s t q e d in 1996, 1997 and 1998 [11,12,13].
Through our laboratory research, a review of foreign literature
and especially collection and processing of data from sample
analyses (of oil and paper) from transformers, we studied the
influence of various factors on the concentration of furans in
oil, such as temperature, oxygen, light, copper catalyst, DICY,
age, power, voltage and types of transformers, maintenance
actions on transformers, as well as the type and quality of
transformer oils.
In our early research [ I l l it was established that, with
artificially aged paper samples, and with rather large
concentrations of ZFAL in oil, in con&ct with paper, when
aged, produced a certain degree of degradation (DP). It was
found that concentrations are higher than those which can be
measured in transformer oils from transformers in operation,
whose paper insulation is equally aged.
The kev task of following this studv was to answer the
following nuestions: whv do these differences arise and how
do thev influence the reliabilitv of age diagnosis of oaoer
insulation of transformers aided bv HF'LC analvsis of furans in
-
oil?
In the fmt part of this study we explored the stability and
solubility of furans in various conditions and io the presence of
244
different components of transformer oil. As the nature of
investigations of artificial aging makes them very time-
consuming, we attempted to collect as much data as possible
from investigations carried out abroad. However, research in
this area is not common, nor are results published. From our
experimental results, we can make the following summary: the
concentration of furans in oil is not influenced solely by the
speed of aging, or by reduction in the age'of paper insulation,
but also by their stability and solubility in oil, which in turn
depends on the type and quality of oil and its components. We
found that, under the influence of oxygen dissolved in oil,
furans degrade; the process depends mostly on the temperature
and is not very distinctive until the temperature rises above
100°C. Degradation is enhanced by copper and dicyandiamide
(from thermal upgraded papers).
As we did not find any studies covering the stability and
solubility of furans in various oils in the literature, the
experiments represent a novelty in Slovenia and around the
world. From the experiments of aging of paper insulation in
different inhibited and uninhibited oils [12], we reached the
unequivocal conclusion that the type and quality of oil not only
influenced the speed of aging and production of furans, but
also heir quantity, stability and solubility in oil. Thus with
equally aged paper we found different concentrations of 2FAL
in different oils. Paper insulation aged in uninhibited oil with
more degradation by-products of a polar nature (aldehydes,
ketones, acids, water), when at a certain degree of age, created
a more balanced concentration of furans 'in oil than equally
aged paper insulation in inhibited oil without degradation by-
products. A lower concentration of furans in such oil is the
result of lower solubility of polar substances (such as furans)
in a non-polar or less polar medium, such as a good inhibited
oil.
The influence of the polarity of oil on increased solubility of
furans is by all means important after all, this is confirmed by
the observation that in aged inhibited oil containing mpre
water (and whose character is polar) concentrations of furans
increase. We also estimate that there is a possibility that the
concentration of fiuans is lowered by the presence of the
DBPC inhibitor, but this hypothesis requires further study.
In the last study [ 131 we have been dealing with the &dts of
HPLC tests performed on transformers in operation.. We
reached a conclusion which confirms OUT earlier explanation.
Comparison of the statistical results of investigations into
typical concentrations of furans in oils of transformers at the
same DP of paper insulation, shows that the correlation of
concentration of 2FAL in oil and DP of paper depends on the
type and quality of oil. Higher concentrations of 2FAL are also
found in cases where the old uninhibited oil in a transformer
was replaced with a new, inhibited one. Since each oil
replacement leads to contamination of the new oil filling with
the remnants of the old oil, these inhibited oils are a little bit
more polar, and dissolve more furans. The same effect can be
detected in 'chemically regenerated oils which had been
purified with fuller earth and, reinhibited for improved
oxidation stability.
From a statistical analysis of the results h m transformers in
Slovenia, we found that the power and voltage do not have any
influence on the concentration of furans; the only very
significant influence was that of age structure which, fo;
diagnostic purposes of furan analysis, is desirable, necessary,
and expected.
Statistical analysis of the results from a large number of
transformers in Europe showed that the frequency of low
concentrations of ZFAL in the oil of transformers with greater-
power and higher voltagagdis bigger. We cannot determine the
extent to which this result was influenced by the age structure
(unknown to us); however, we feel that greater care is usually
taken of bigger units. Also,the better the quality of oil and the
drier the oil, the lower the concentration of 2FAL.
Comparison of the statisticalresults in Europe, USA, Slovenia
calculated from [14,15,16] presented in Chart1 also reveals
that our transformers, from all age groups, have considerably
lower concentrations of ZEAL in oil. It is known that the
majority of European transformers are filled with uninhibited
oils of lower oxidation stability (which are often replaced or
regenerated). In contrast, Slovenia has traditionally used
Techno1 high-quality oils, and in the last 25 years for the most
part inhibited oils; thus it is more likely than not that the
differences detected in the concentration of 2FAL in oils of
European and Slovene transformers is primarily a result of the
different furans solubility in these oils.
From the experiments of laboratory aging and the results of
analyses of oils from transformers in operation, we concluded
that there are quite a few factors influencing the correlation of
the concentration of 2FAL in oil and the DP of paper. When
performing a diagnosis of a transformer with the HPLC test, it
is of the utmost importance that we know not only the
concentration of 2FAL in oil, but also the type, humidity and
quality of oil. For greater reliability of assessment of the age of
paper, we gathered data to make two different correlation
lines (for inhibited and non-inhibited oils) for the calculation
of which the data will have to be complemented with a greater
number of results.
Chart I: Comparison of 90% Normal Values of Concentration
of 2FAL in Different Age Groups of Transformers
I replaced by new ones and quite often monitoring and oil
I TRAge
(years)
90% (*) normal value
@pm 2FAL in oil)
5 European Slovenia
WUntrieS
0 - 5 os 0.05
-
6 10 , 05 0,05
-
11 15 1,o 5(97%) 0.05 (84%) 0.1 (100%)
-
16 20 1,O (85%)5 (95%) 0.05 (83%)0.1 ( 95%)
-
21 30 1,O (87%) 5 (98%) 0,10 (84%) OS ( 94%)
> 30 1,O (81%)5 (98%) 1.00 (889b)S.O (100%)
USA 0 - 7 0 y e a r ~ o,os (82wai(w%)
*Where it was impossible from published data to directly
establish 90% normal value, the nearest possible values are
stated.
245
The applicability of HF'LC analysis of furans in oil to the
diagnosis
- of highly
_ . damaged - transformers requires further
investigation, since it is not yet clear how the concentrations of
furans in oil are affected by electrical discharge in transformer.
TRANFORMER DIAGNOSTIC PROBLEMS
For many decades of oil-filled transformer use, a lot of
hdamental and application research bas been performed in
the field of hllnsformer oil quality and diagnostic testing
methods, and all over the world especially in IEC, IEEE and
CIGRE organisations. Good quality transformer oils and
properly monitored and maintained transformer oil fillings
together with advanced transformer oil diagnostics has played
an important role in the high average age of the HV
transformer population all over the world today.
What can we expect in the future?
At &e beginning of the third millenium the deregulation and
open market in the electricity production, transmission and
distribution has pushed transformers owners to reduce costs for
investments and for .maintenance. At the same time the
reliability of operating transformer units has become far more
important for fmancial reasons.
Transformer industly is facing the global market demand for
reduced price of transformers, many factories even did not
survive. Consequently new range of transformers are build
with high or medium quality materials and in a different way.
The voltage and thermal stresses, causing aging changes,
which can bi monitored at up to 10 years old transformers, are
quite different as within the group of 25 to 50 years old units.
The usual consequence of reducing maintenance costs in
utilities is disbandment of transformer research and testing
centers, which used to manage transformer oil diagnostics in
the big national electricity companies and transformer
factories, until deregulation.
Transformer oil experts with many years of experience in
transformer diagnostics has been retired, without being
testing of transformer units is performed by outsourcing or
only some kind of on-line computer monitoring. The
outsourcing can even be very successful but only if there
exists a good cooperation between managing transformer
maintenance/investments staff and qualified transformer
diagnostic laboratory [17].
From these facts problems arise which may affect
transformers quality, operation reliability and its lifetime.
That is the reason we should look into the following chapter.
APPLICABILITY OF PHYSICAL-CHEMICAL
DIAGNOSTICS
Physical-chemical diagnostics of transformers enables the
evaluation of the state of transformers with regard to the
degree of degradation of insulation materials as well as
possible intemal electrical and thermal faults.
 Preventive physical-chemical diagnostics for
regular preventive maintenance of oil-filled HV
transformers
Under this term we understand the pedorming of selected
physical-chemical analyses on oil samples from operating
transformers in. predetermined time intervals. Physical-
chemical monitoring (collecting results of tests), which we link
with data on transformers, its operation, specific problems,
maintenance or repair actions and exper diagnosis, represents
physical-chemical diagnostics of transformers, due to the
possibility of considering specific normal values for each
individual transformer. We have to be aware of the fact that
transformers vary considerably in age, construktion and the
manner of operation, and for some tests there are no uniform
criteria of what is a normal state.
Around the world, the use of some monitors with sensors is
becoming very popular, however, most of their measuring
results are only used as an additional source of information to
laboratory diagnostic results, as they usually do not provide
data with a clear physical background which should always be
properly interpreted.
With regard to our many years experience we give advice
about the following frequency of different oil tests in order to
reach various degrees of efficiency of diagnostics:
"A h g m m m e "
for optimally ejjicknl physical-chemical diagnostics
for preventive maintenance of 1lOkVand higher voltage and'
for important power transformers regardless of their voltage
DGA test Ix per a year for all transformers
HPLC test Ix per a year for all transformers
Chem oil test Ix per 6 years for units less than 12 years old
Ix per 3 years for units more than 12 years old
Breakdown voltage + water content every year when Chem
~
test is not performed
"B h g m m m e 'I
for mknl physical-chemicaldiagnostic
for preventive maintenance of 1lOkV or more important
transformers regardless of their voltage
DGA test lx per a year for all transformers
HPLC test Ix per 2years for all transformers
Chem oil test lx per 6 y& for units less than 12 years old
lx per 3 years for units more than 12 years old
'
Breakdown voltage + water content - every year when Chem
test is not performed
"CPmgmmme "
for a minimal but still e&ient physical-chemical diagnostic
for preventive maintenance of 1lOkV or more important
transformers regardless of their voltage
DGA test Ix per 2 year for all transformers
HPLC test l x per Zyears for all transformers
Chem oil test Ix-per 6 years for units less than 12 years old
Ix per 3 years for units more than 12 years old
Breakdown voltage + water content - every year when Chem
test is not performed
246
Where the meaning of expressions is following:
DGA test: Oil sampling and analysis acc. IEC 60567 with the
expert opinion-diagnosis based on all previous results and
transformer data and EIMV expert knowledge
HpLC test: Oil sampling and analysis acc.to E C 61 198 with
the expert opinion-diagnosis based on all previous results and
transformer data and EIMV expert knowledge
Chem oil test: Oil sampling and a set of analysis acc.to
IEC60422: colour, appearance, density, water content, acidity,
flash pont, interfacial tension, IR spectral analysis (for
degradation degree, idhibitor content, type of oil). The expert
opinion and instructions for transformer maintenance is
provided.
Selection of programme of preventive diagnostics
The aim of preventive diagnostics is gathering information on
the state and events in transformers that enables:
a timely application of transformer oil maintenance
measures for reaching the maximum life span of a
transformer, and
detection of electrical and thermal faults in a
transformer and degradation of paper insulation, which
- without timely corrective measures -can lead to rapid
paper insulation aging or severe and unexpected damage
faults or even unexpected failure,
with the goal to achieve reliable, uninterrupted operation
of a transformer and of the electricity or industrial
production which depends on this transformer unit.
Maintenance measures are, in particular; drying then adding
antioxidant-inhibitor or exchange of transformer oil filling.
Slovene HV transformers are mostly filled with high quality
inhibited oils, which most often are not changed until a
transformer is 12 years old. This is why in this age group we
recommend the Chem test of oil every 6 years. With these oil
analyses at ages 0-6-1Zyears we check the type and quality of
oil, a proper functioning of the drying system, and
compatibility of construction materials, which are important
for the functional capability and the intensity of aging of oil.
After year 12 we usually start to see the first signs of the aging
process or inhibitor depletion. which are inevitable and depend
on the type of oil, oxygen concentration in oil, contamination,
humidity, and operational temperature of a transformer. With
the Chem test performed every 3 years we can establish the
degree of aging at which it is still possible to prevent tinther
degradation of oil with adding inhibitor. However, if this time
has already been lost, it is necessary to exchange or reclaim oil
in time to prevent contamination of paper insulation of
windings with oil degradation products. Otherwise the effect of
the oil-filling exchange is not a very long one as the acidic and
polar degradation products begin to accelerate the aging of
new oil filling. Prolonging time between tests makes it
impossible to reach the aforementioned basic aims of
maintenance, and therefore the fresuency of the Chem test is
the same in all of the three programs.
Detection of electrical and thermal faults in a transformer
and degradation of paper insulation in a transformer is
performed by periodical DGA and HPLC tests of a ,
transformer. With DGA testing we analyse gases, which are
formed and dissolved in oil as the result of thermal and
elecmcal saesses. In the beginning, most incipient faults in
transformers (loose contacts, eddy currents, partial discharges
in wet, poor impregnated or contaminated windings, faults of
cooling system, over-heating of paper. . insulation, broken
COM&O&, etc.) develop relatively slowly and can be
.REFERENCES
detected in one-year spans. Later a quick development of
larger quantities of gases or damage of-greaterdimensions with
the sudden Buchholz signal or even a transformer tripping is
possible.
Optimal diagnostics ought to prevent any sudden non'planned
tripping of transformer resulting from incipient internal faults
with the exception of a~tmosphericdischarges and severe
overlohing of the network. It also ought to prevent,long-
lasting hidden faults in cooling systems, as well as draw our
attention in due time to a critical decrease of mechanical
strength of paper insulation, and the necessity of an exchange
of a transformer or renovation of its windings.
with the HPLC test we are following ZFAL concentration
increases in tiamformer oil which allow us to estimate the
normal aging rate or abnormal or faulty decomposition of
paper. Fast faults and damages involving paper insulation are
less frequent than others, and this is why, it is possible to
prolong the time between with HPLC tests in programme B.
Frequency and types of faults do not depend on the age,
voltage or power of a transformer; we have experienced that
some faults are more fresuent in newer transformers, which are
increasingly more rationally sized and more stressed or even
have design or construction deficiencies. By prolonging the
period between DGA and HPLC tests the likelyhood of
detecting any fault at an early stage is diminished. It also
becomes more difficult to make a reliable diagnosis, as we
cannot follow the usual oscillation of gases and furans, which
is always present in an operating transformer and decisive for
the detection of slight anomalies of individual transformersh
cases where a test warned of a suspicion or rapid changes were
observed in a transformer, we suggested more frequent tests
and discussion with the transformer maintenance manager.
The selection of a preventive diagnostic program A, B, C is
therefore mainly a principal decision on the importance of
ensuring reliable and uninterrupted operation and techno-
economic optimisation of maintenance.
Estimation of the remaining l i e span of a
transformer
For the evaluation of the remaining life span of a transformer
we perform the HPLC test and the DP of samples of paper
insulation, but we also analyse results of all other oil tests and
transformer data to derive the factors and the extent t o which
they influence the degradation of paper insulation, causing
locally lower ,DP values which are critical for the whole
transformer insulating system and transformer reliability.
241
Mechanical strength of paper insulation, intensively degraded
in'aged oil, cannot be. improved. Drying in an oven or with
special solvents only removes humidity or degradation
products; mechanical strength even can be additionally
weakened during a thermal treatment.
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and other oil-filled electrical equipment in service, 1999
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