Conic Sections

Definition
Conic sections can be defined as the locus of point that moves so that the ratio of its
distance from a fixed point called the focus to its distance from a fixed line called
the directrix is constant. The constant ratio is called the eccentricity of the conic.

Conic sections are obtained by passing a cutting plane to a right circular cone. If the
cutting plane is parallel to the base of the cone (or perpendicular to the axis of the cone),
a circle is defined. If the cutting plane is parallel to lateral side (or generator) of the
cone, parabola is defined. For a cutting plane that is oblique to the cone (not parallel nor
perpendicular to any element), ellipse is defined. For a cutting plane parallel to the axis
of the cone not passing through the vertex, the section formed is hyperbola. These were
characterized by the Greek mathematician Apollonius (262 B.C. – 200 B.C.).

Equation of Conic Sections

The equation of general conic-sections is in second-degree,

Ax2+Bxy+Cy2+Dx+Ey+F=0.Ax2+Bxy+Cy2+Dx+Ey+F=0.

The quantity B2 - 4AC is called discriminant and its value will determine the shape of the
conic.
 If C = A and B = 0, the conic is a circle.
 If B2 - 4AC = 0, the conic is a parabola.
 If B2 - 4AC < 0, the conic is an ellipse.
 If B2 - 4AC > 0, the conic is a hyperbola.

The product xy would have a conic with axis oblique to the coordinate axes. If B = 0, the
axis of the conic is parallel to one of the coordinate axes. As of now, our concern are for
conics with axis parallel to one of the coordinate axes, thus B = 0. The equation then
becomes

Ax2+Cy2+Dx+Ey+F=0Ax2+Cy2+Dx+Ey+F=0.

Eccentricity of Conic
Eccentricity is a measure of how much a conic deviate from being circular, making the
eccentricity of the circle obviously equal to zero. It is the ratio of focal distance to
directrix distance of the conic section.

eccentricity, e=distance from focus to conicdistance from conic to

directrixeccentricity, e=distance from focus to conicdistance from conic to directrix
 If e = 0, the conic is a circle.
 If e = 1, the conic is a parabola.
 If e < 1, the conic is an ellipse.
 If e > 1, the conic is a hyperbola.

The Circle
Definition of circle
The locus of point that moves such that its distance from a fixed point called the center
is constant. The constant distance is called the radius, r of the circle.

General Equation (C = A)
From the general equation of conic sections, C = A. Hence, the equation of the circle is
Ax2+Ay2+Dx+Ey+F=0Ax2+Ay2+Dx+Ey+F=0
or
x2+y2+Dx+Ey+F=0x2+y2+Dx+Ey+F=0
Standard Equations
Circle with center at any point (h, k)
Apply Pythagorean Theorem to the figure shown below.
(x−h)2+(y−k)2=r2(x−h)2+(y−k)2=r2

Circle with center at the origin

If the center is at the origin, (h, k) = (0, 0), hence,
x2+y2=r2
The Parabola
Definition of Parabola

Parabola is the locus of point that moves such that it is always equidistant from a fixed
point and a fixed line. The fixed point is called focus and the fixed line is called directrix.

General Equations of Parabola

From the general equation of all conic sections, either AA or CC is zero to form a
parabolic section.
For A=0A=0, the equation will reduce to Cy2+Dx+Ey+F=0Cy2+Dx+Ey+F=0 or
y2+Dx+Ey+F=0y2+Dx+Ey+F=0
It is a parabola with axis horizontal, e.g., open to the right or open to the left.
For C=0C=0, the equation will reduce to Ax2+Dx+Ey+F=0Ax2+Dx+Ey+F=0 or
x2+Dx+Ey+F=0x2+Dx+Ey+F=0
It is a parabola with axis vertical, e.g., open upward or open downward.

Standard Equations of Parabola

From the definition

d1=d2d1=d2
d12=d22d12=d22
(x−a)2+(y−0)2=(x+a)2(x−a)2+(y−0)2=(x+a)2
(x2−2ax+a2)+y2=x2+2ax+a2(x2−2ax+a2)+y2=x2+2ax+a2
−2ax+y2=2ax−2ax+y2=2ax
y2=4axy2=4ax
The equation we just derived was with reference to the figure shown above, thus, it is a
parabola with vertex at the origin and open to the right.

Parabola with vertex at the origin

Parabola with vertex at the origin and open to the right.
y2=4axy2=4ax

Parabola with vertex at the origin and open to the left.

 y2=−4axy2=−4ax

Parabola with vertex at the origin and open upward.

x2=4ayx2=4ay
Hint: To avoid memorizing the eight (8)
standard equations of parabola, we will
Parabola with vertex at the origin and open downward.
x2=−4ayx2=−4ay reduce it to only two (2) as follows:
(y−k)2=±4a(x−h)(y−k)2=±4a(x−h)
(x−h)2=±4a(y−k)(x−h)2=±4a(y−k)
Parabola with vertex at any point (h, k)
Note that (h, k) is (0, 0) at the origin. Use
Parabola with vertex at (h, k) and open to the right.
(y−k)2=4a(x−h)(y−k)2=4a(x−h) positive (+) for open upward and
rightward parabolas, negative (-) for open
downward and leftward parabolas.
Parabola with vertex at (h, k) and open to the left.
(y−k)2=−4a(x−h)(y−k)2=−4a(x−h)
Elements of Parabola
Parabola with vertex at (h, k) and open upward.
1. Focus is located at distance aa from
(x−h)2=4a(y−k)(x−h)2=4a(y−k)
vertex in the direction of parabola’s
Parabola with vertex at (h, k) and open downward. opening.
(x−h)2the
=−4a(y−k) 2. Directrix is at distance aa from the
Hint: To avoid memorizing eight (8)(x−h)2=−4a(y−k)
vertex. It is a straight line located at the
standard equations of parabola, we will
Hint: To avoid memorizing the eight (8) opposite side of parabola’s opening.
reduce it to only two (2) as follows:
standard equations of parabola, we will 3. Vertex is the point extremity of
(y−k)it2=±4a(x−h)
reduce to only two (y−k)2=±4a(x−h)
(2) as follows: parabola, i.e. highest point for open
(x−h) 2=±4a(y−k)(x−h)2=±4a(y−k)
(y−k)2=±4a(x−h)(y−k)2=±4a(x−h) downward, lowest point for open
Note(x−h)
that (h, k) is (0, 0) at the origin. Use
2=±4a(y−k)(x−h)2=±4a(y−k) upward, rightmost point for leftward,
positive (+) for open upward and
Note that (h, k) is (0, 0) at the origin. Use and leftmost point for rightward. The
rightward parabolas, negative (-) for open
positive (+) for open upward and coordinates of vertex is denoted as (h, k).
downward and leftward parabolas.
rightward parabolas, negative (-) for open 4. Axis is the line of symmetry of parabola.
downward and leftward parabolas. It contains both the focus and the vertex
Elements of Parabola and always perpendicular to the directrix.
5. Latus Rectum, denoted by LRLR, is a
Elements of Parabola
1. Focus is located at distance aa from line perpendicular to the axis, passing
1. vertex
Focus inis
the direction
located of parabola’s
at distance aa from through the focus and terminates on the
opening.
vertex in the direction of parabola’s parabola itself. The total length
2. Directrix is at distance aa from the of LRLR is 4a4a (LR=4aLR=4a),
opening.
vertex. It is aisstraight
2. Directrix line located
at distance aa fromat the
the where aa stands for the distance from
opposite side
vertex. It is aofstraight
parabola’s
line opening.
located at the focus to vertex.
3. Vertex is the point extremity
opposite side of parabola’s opening.of
The Ellipse
Definition of Ellipse
Ellipse is the locus of point that moves such that the sum of its distances from two fixed
points called the foci is constant. The constant sum is the length of the major axis, 2a.

General Equation of the Ellipse

From the general equation of all conic sections, A and C are not equal but of the same
sign. Thus, the general equation of the ellipse is Ax2 + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 or

x2+Cy2+Dx+Ey+F=0x2+Cy2+Dx+Ey+F=0

Standard Equations of Ellipse

The above equation is the standard equation of the ellipse with center at the origin and
major axis on the x-axis as shown in the figure above. Below are the four standard
equations of the ellipse. The first equation is the one we derived above.
Ellipse with center at the origin
Ellipse with center at the origin and major axis on the x-axis.
x2a2+y2b2=1x2a2+y2b2=1

Ellipse with center at the origin and major axis on the y-axis.
 x2b2+y2a2=1x2b2+y2a2=1

Ellipse with center at (h, k)

Ellipse with center at (h, k) and major axis parallel to the x-axis.
(x−h)2a2+(y−k)2b2=1(x−h)2a2+(y−k)2b2=1

Ellipse with center at (h, k) and major axis parallel to the y-axis.
(x−h)2b2+(y−k)2a2=1
Elements of Ellipse
Elements of the ellipse are shown in the figure below.

1. Center (h, k). At the origin, (h, k) is (0, 0).

2. Semi-major axis = a and semi-minor axis = b.
3. Location of foci c, with respect to the center of ellipse. c=a2−b2−−−−−−√c=a2−b2.
4. Length latus rectum, LR
Consider the right triangle F1QF2:
Based on the definition of ellipse
z+12LR=2az+12LR=2a
z=2a−12LRz=2a−12LR
z=4a−LR2z=4a−LR2
5. Eccentricity, e
e=distance from focus to ellipsedistance from ellipse to directrixe=distance
from focus to ellipsedistance from ellipse to directrix

From the figure of the ellipse above,

e=d3d4=ad=a−cd−ae=d3d4=ad=a−cd−a
From
ad=a−cd−aad=a−cd−a
ad−a2=ad−cdad−a2=ad−cd
d=a2/cd=a2/c

Thus,
e=ad=aa2/ce=ad=aa2/c
e=ca<1.0e=ca<1.0
6. Location of directrix d, with respect to the center of ellipse.
From the derivation of eccentricity,
d=ae or d=a2c
The Hyperbola
Definition
Hyperbola can be defined as the locus of point that moves such that the difference of its
distances from two fixed points called the foci is constant. The constant difference is the
length of the transverse axis, 2a.

General Equation
From the general equation of any conic (A and C have opposite sign, and can be A > C, A
= C, or A
Ax2−Cy2+Dx+Ey+F=0Ax2−Cy2+Dx+Ey+F=0 or

x2−Cy2+Dx+Ey+F=0x2−Cy2+Dx+Ey+F=0
Standard Equations

The equation we just derived above is the standard equation of hyperbola with center at
the origin and transverse axis on the x-axis (see figure above). Below are the four
standard equations of hyperbola. The first equation is the one we derived just derived.

Hyperbola with center at the origin

Hyperbola with center at the origin and transverse axis on the x-axis.

x2a2−y2b2=1x2a2−y2b2=1

Hyperbola with center at the origin and transverse axis on the y-axis.

y2a2−x2b2=1y2a2−x2b2=1

Hyperbola with center at any point (h, k)

Hyperbola with center at (h, k) and transverse axis parallel to the x-axis.

(x−h)2a2−(y−k)2b2=1(x−h)2a2−(y−k)2b2=1
Hyperbola with center at (h, k) and transverse axis parallel to the y-axis.

(y−k)2a2−(x−h)2b2=1(y−k)2a2−(x−h)2b2=1

Elements of Hyperbola
1. Center (h, k). At the origin, (h, k) is (0, 0).
2. Transverse axis = 2a and conjugate axis = 2b

3. Location of foci c, relative to the center of hyperbola.

c=a2+b2−−−−−−√c=a2+b2
4. Latus rectum, LR

LR=2b2aLR=2b2a
5. Eccentricity, e
The eccentricity of hyperbola is always greater than one.

e=ca>1.0e=ca>1.0
6. Location of directrix d relative to the center of hyperbola.

d=aed=ae or d=a2cd=a2c
7. Equation of asymptotes.

y−k=±m(x−h)y−k=±m(x−h)

where
m is (+) for upward asymptote and m is (-) for downward.
m = b/a if the transverse axis is horizontal and
m = a/b if the transverse axis is vertical
 The Polar Coordinate System
In Polar Coordinate System, the references are a fixed point and a fixed line. The fixed
point is called the pole and the fixed line is called the polar axis. The location of a
point is expressed according to its distance from the pole and its angle from the polar
axis. The distance is denoted by r and the angle by θ.

Plotting a Point in Polar Coordinate System

 θ is positive if measured counterclockwise
 θ is negative if measured clockwise
 r is positive if laid off at the terminal side of θ
 r is negative if laid off at the prolongation through O from the terminal side of θ
Example of point plotting
Plot the points A(3, 30°), B(5, -45°), C(-4, 75°), and D(-8, -60°) in polar coordinate
system.

For easy plotting, identify the angle first by rotating appropriately from the polar axis.
Counterclockwise for positive angle and clockwise for negative angle. Next is plot the
distance. The point is on the terminal side of the angle if r is positive. If r is negative, the
point is located on the other side of the pole along the line where the angle terminates.
From the figure above, point A is indicated by the angle blue, B is red, C is neon green,
and D is in black color. Observe that the corresponding angle of each point is in the
same color as the point.

Example of finding the polar coordinates of a point

Give the four basic polar coordinates of points A, B, C, and D shown in the figure. Basic
polar coordinates are those coordinates with angles not lower than -360° and not higher
than +360°.
Coordinates of point A:
(7, 60°)
(7, -300°)
(-7, 240°)
(-7, -120°)
 Coordinates of point B:
(9, 300°)
(9, -60°)
(-9, 120°)
(-9, -240°)

Coordinates of point C:
(4, 150°)
(4, -210°)
(-4, 330°)
(-4, -30°)
 Coordinates of point D:
(6, 210°)
(6, -150°)
(-6, 30°)
(-6, -330°)

Distance between Two Points in Polar Plane

The distance between two points (r1, θ1) and (r2, θ2) can be found using cosine law.

d=r12+r22−2r1r2cos(θ2−θ1)−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−√d=r12+r22−2r1r2cos⁡(θ2−
θ1)

Relation between Polar and Rectangular

Coordinate System
Equation in rectangular form may be converted to polar form or vice versa. The
following relationships can be found from the figure shown.

Polar to Rectangular
x=rcosθx=rcos⁡θ
y=rsinθy=rsin⁡θ

Rectangular to Polar
r=x2+y2−−−−−−√r=x2+y2
θ=arctanyx