ASSIGNMENT 02

Question 1: What is memory? Describe in different types in detail and

with computer?

Memory:
“Memory is any physical device capable of storing information temporarily or
permanently.”

For example:
Random Access Memory (RAM), is a volatile memory that stores information on an
integrated circuit used by the operating system, software, and hardware.

Types of Memory:
There are two types of memory in the following below:

1. Permanent memory
2. Temporary Memory

Permanent Memory:

A memory that is not affected by the absence of electricity is a permanent memory and the
data stored in it remains intact even if it is moved from one place to another. On a
motherboard, it is present in an integrated chip, also called ROM or BIOS. All the
information about motherboard, booting instructions, and functions are stored in BIOS at
the time of manufacturing.

Permanent Memory has been further divided in to four types:

1: ROM (Read only memory)

2: PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)

3: EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)

4: EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Read Only Memory)

ROM (Read only memory):

ROM, once manufactured cannot be changed. It is the static form of permanent memory. A
commercially available movie or software in a CD-ROM is a good example of Read Only
Memory. You cannot change the contents once the data has been written to it.

PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory):

The hardware chip that can be programmed once is called PROM. Special Programmable
kits are used to program the electronic chips. The common example is burning (writing
data) on a CD-ROM or a DVD at home.

EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory):

This type of ROM has a small window on its top. If this window is exposed to UV light for a
specific period of time, all the previous data is deleted. You can re-program it after the data
has been completely removed.

EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Read Only Memory):

This is the most used type of permanent memory. You can easily erase the data with a
software program. BIOS on the motherboard is an example of EEPROM.

Temporary Memory:

RAM (Random Access Memory) is another name for temporary memory. It is called
temporary since all the data stored in RAM gets erased once the power is off. RAM is used
to hold and execute the data or the instructions. Whenever we work on the computer,
actually we are working on a RAM and it’s only when we press save button the data gets
saved in permanent storage like a hard disk.

Types of RAM Modules:

Different types of RAM modules are shown above. You can differentiate these RAM
modules by the CUTS on golden pins on the lower side of each module. Just notice that each
type of RAM module has a cut or a notch on different positions along the length. RAM
modules have been aligned vertically according to their date of origin and speed. Like SIMM
modules were among the first type of memories to come and DDR4 RAM modules are the
fastest and latest memory types. All the above type of RAM’s is Dynamic RAM’s.

RAM is further classified as two types:

1. DRAM Dynamic RAM

2. SRAM Static RAM
DRAM:

Dynamic random access memory (DRAM) is a type of memory that is typically used for data
or program code that a computer processor needs to function. DRAM is a common type of
random access memory (RAM) used in personal computers (PCs), workstations and
servers.

SRAM:

SRAM (static RAM) is random access memory (RAM) that retains data bits in its memory as
long as power is being supplied. Unlike dynamic RAM (DRAM), which stores bits in cells
consisting of a capacitor and a transistor, SRAM does not have to be periodically refreshed.

Cache Memory:

Cache memory is just like another memory that stores the data. Although all the programs,
documents or other media files you access in a computer runs in RAM but to make the
processing faster, the processor, instead of searching for data in main memory (RAM), it
reads the data from cache (SRAM). The SRAM which consists of FETs has high speed
compared to RAM which is built on capacitors.

Shadow Ram:

The ROM functions relatively slower than RAM. So it takes a longer time to access codes
from ROM than from RAM. In order to speed up the ROM processing, the codes of ROM are
copied in a region of RAM and are writing protected. This way the system now can access
the ROM codes from RAM at a much higher speed. The region of RAM where the ROM codes
are copied is called shadow RAM.

Question: 2 How does everything connect to develop a communication in

computer?
Using a network connection, including connecting to the Internet, computers connect to
each other to transmit data between them and communicate with each other using the

TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol). Think of TCP/IP as a book of

rules, a step-by-step guide that each computer uses to know how to talk to another

computer. This book of rules dictates what each computer must do to transmit data, when
to transmit data, how to transmit that data. It also states how to receive data in the same
manner. If the rules are not followed, the computer will not be able to connect to another
computer, nor send and receive data between other computers.

Internet Service Providers (ISP)

Internet service providers (ISP), the companies that provide Internet service and
connectivity also follow these rules. The ISP provides a bridge between your computer and
all the other computers in the world, which are all a part of the Internet. The ISP uses the
TCP/IP protocols to make computer-to-computer connections possible and transmit data
between them. When successfully connected to an ISP, you are assigned an IP address,
which is a unique address given to your computer or network and allows it to be found
while on the Internet.

Local Area Network:

A local-area network (LAN) is a computer network that spans a relatively small area. Most
often, a LAN is confined to a single room, building or group of buildings, however, one LAN
can be connected to other LANs over any distance via telephone lines and radio waves.

Wide Area Network:

A system of LANs connected in this way is called a wide-area network (WAN). The
difference between a LAN and WAN is that the wide-area network spans a relatively large
geographical area. Typically, a WAN consists of two or more local-area networks (LANs)
and is often connected through public networks.

Man Area Network:

A metropolitan area network (MAN) is similar to a local area network (LAN) but spans an
entire city or campus. MANs are formed by connecting multiple LANs. Thus, MANs are
larger than LANs but smaller than wide area networks (WAN).

Network Routine:
This type of network, your home has a network router that connects to your ISP. The router
is given the IP address for your connection to the Internet and then assigns local IP
addresses to each device in your network. These local addresses are often 192.168.1.2-255.

When accessing a local computer in your network, your router sends your TCP/IP packets
between the local IP addresses. However, when you want to connect to the Internet, your
router communicates to the Internet with the IP address assigned to it from the ISP. Your

IP address is not a 192.168.x.x address because the ISP assigns that IP address and not your
router. When requesting information from a web page, such as Computer Hope, you enter a
URL that is easy to understand and remember. For your computer to access the computer
containing the pages, that URL must be converted into an IP address, which is done with
DNS. Once DNS has converted the URL into an IP address, the routers on the Internet will
know how to route your TCP/IP packet.
Today, computers using the Microsoft Windows OS, macOS, and Linux OS all use the TCP/IP
protocol to connect to other computers on a LAN or WAN. Connecting to a LAN or WAN
requires either a wired connection or a wireless connection. A wired connection is usually done
using a network cable (Cat5 or Cat6 network cable). A wireless connection (Wi-Fi) is done using
a 802.11b, 802.11g or 802.11n wireless network card. With both connection types, a network
router is usually required to connect to other computers. Connecting to the Internet at your
home also requires either a cable modem or a DSL modem, depending on which ISP you use.

Question: 3 Which type of software run in the computer machine for the
operation of any work?

Software:
A piece of computer software is a set of computer instructions that tell a computer how it
should do something.

System Software:
On most computers there's an operating system, or OS, which defines some of the basics about
how your computer should act. The three (3) most common operating systems are Mac OS,
Linux, and Windows.

The Five Types of Systems Software:

There are five types of systems software, all designed to control and coordinate the procedures
and functions of computer hardware. They also enable functional interaction between
hardware, software and the user.

Systems software carries out middleman tasks to ensure communication between other
software and hardware to allow harmonious coexistence with the user.

Systems software can be categorized under the following:

 Operating system: Harnesses communication between hardware, system programs, and

other applications.
 Device driver: Enables device communication with the OS and other programs.
 Firmware: Enables device control and identification.
 Translator: Translates high-level languages to low-level machine codes.
 Utility: Ensures optimum functionality of devices and applications

1. Operating System (OS):

The operating system is a type of system software kernel that sits between computer hardware
and end user. It is installed first on a computer to allow devices and applications to be identified
and therefore functional.

System software is the first layer of software to be loaded into memory every time a computer
is powered up.

Types of Operating Systems

 Real-Time OS: Is installed in special purpose embedded systems like robots, cars, and
modems.
 Single-user and single-task OS: Are installed on single-user devices like phones.
 Single-user and multitask OS: Are installed on contemporary personal computers.
 Multi-user OS: Is installed in network environments where many users have to share
resources. Server OSs is examples of multi-user operating systems.
 Network OS: Is used to share resources such as files, printers in a network setup.
 Internet/Web OS: Is designed to run on the browser that is online.
 Mobile OS: Is designed to run on mobile phones, tablets and other mobile devices.

Examples of Operating Systems:

Popular OSs for computers are:

 Windows 10
 Mac OS X
 Ubuntu

Popular network/server OSs are:

 Ubuntu Server
 Windows Server
 Red Hat Enterprise

Popular internet/web OSs are:

 Chrome OS
 Club Linux
 Remix OS

Popular mobile OSs are:

 IPhone OS
  Android OS
 Windows Phone OS

2. Device Drivers:
Driver software is a type of system software which brings computer devices and peripherals to
life. Drivers make it possible for all connected components and external add-ons perform their
intended tasks and as directed by the OS. Without drivers, the OS would not assign any duties.

Examples:

 Mouse
 Keyboard
 Soundcard
 Display card
 Network card
 Printer

Usually, the operating system ships with drivers for most devices already in the market. By
default, input devices such as the mouse and keyboard will have their drivers installed. They
may never require third-party installations.

If a device is newer than the operating system, the user may have to download drivers from
manufacturer websites or alternative sources.

3. Firmware:
Firmware is the operational software embedded within a flash, ROM, or EPROM memory chip
for the OS to identify it. It directly manages and controls all activities of any single hardware.

Traditionally, firmware used to mean fixed software as denoted by the word firm. It was
installed on non-volatile chips and could be upgraded only by swapping them with new,
preprogrammed chips.

BIOS and UEFI

The most important firmware in computers today is installed by the manufacturer on the
motherboard and can be accessed through the old BIOS (Basic Input/output System) or the new
UEFI (Unified Extended Firmware Interface) platforms.

It is the configuration interface which loads first when the computer is powered up and is going
through POST (Power on Self-Test)
The motherboard firmware starts by waking up all the hardware and ensures that components
like the processor, memory, and disk drives are operational. If all the crucial components are
fine, it will run the boot loader, which will load the operating system. If the random-access
memory is faulty, the BIOS will not allow the computer to boot up.

The user can change the BIOS and UEFI settings by pressing special keys (a function key, delete,
or the esc key) at boot-up to load the configuration page. The user can configure security, boot
order, time, and other options in the page that pops up.

Though they work differently, firmware compliments drivers in a few ways. Both give identity to
hardware devices, with the latter making the operating system see the device.

The major difference between the two is that firmware will always reside within devices while
drivers will install within the operating system.

Firmware upgrades come from the device manufacturer (not the OS manufacturer). They're
necessary if the user wants computer hardware to receive new hardware and software support.

Firmware will make it possible for devices to work better with old and new operating systems
and applications.

Almost all devices and peripherals are embedded with firmware. Network card, TV tuner,
router, scanner, or monitor and examples of devices which have firmware installed on them.

4. Programming Language Translators:

These are intermediate programs relied on by software programmers to translate high-level
language source code to machine language code. The former is a collection of programming
languages that are easy for humans to comprehend and code (i.e., Java, C++, Python, PHP,
BASIC). The latter is a complex code only understood by the processor.

Popular translator languages are compilers, assemblers, and interpreters. They're usually
designed by computer manufacturers. Translator programs may perform a complete translation
of program codes or translate every other instruction at a time.

Machine code is written in a number system of base-2, written out in 0 or 1. This is the lowest
level language possible. While seemingly meaningless to humans, the zeros and ones are
actually sequenced intelligently by the processor to refer to every conceivable human code and
word.

Besides simplifying the work of software developers, translators help in various design tasks.
They;
  Identify syntax errors during translation, thus allowing changes to be made to the code.
 Provide diagnostic reports whenever the code rules are not followed.
 Allocate data storage for the program.
 List both source code and program details.

5. Utilities:
Utilities are types of system software which sits between system and application software.
These are programs intended for diagnostic and maintenance tasks for the computer. They
come in handy to ensure the computer functions optimally. Their tasks vary from crucial data
security to disk drive defragmentation.

Most are third-party tools but they may come bundled with the operating system. Third-party
tools are available individually or bundled together such as with Hiren Boot CD, Ultimate Boot
CD, and Kaspersky Rescue Disk.

Examples:

 Antivirus and security software for the security of files and applications, e.g.,
Malwarebytes, Microsoft Security Essentials, and AVG.
 Disk partition services such as Windows Disk Management, Easeus Partition Master,
and Partition Magic.
 Disk defragmentation to organize scattered files on the drive. Examples include Disk
Defragmenter, Perfect Disk, Disk Keeper, Comodo Free Firewall, and Little Snitch.
 File Compression to optimize disk space such as WinRAR, Winzip, and 7-Zip.
 Data backup for security reasons, e.g., Cobi an, Clonezilla, and Comodo.
 Hardware diagnostic services like Hard Disk Sentinel, Memtest, and Performance
Monitor.
 Data recovery to help gets back lost data. Examples include iCare Data Recovery,
Recover, and Ease Us Data Recovery Wizard.
 Firewall for protection against external threats, e.g., Windows Firewall.