Sonic and seismic Waves: Wave

propagations, Measurements, problems,

and Their Applications in oil and Gas
Reservoirs

By

Dr. Eissa Shokir

Outline

„ Overview
„ Source of Sonic waves
„ Wave Propagations
„ Measurements
„ Problems
„ Benefits of Applications for Oil and gas
Reservoirs
Any acoustic tool measure the speed of sound waves in
subsurface formations. While the acoustic log can be used
to determine porosity in consolidated formations, it is also
valuable in other applications, such as:

„ lithology identifications
„ Determining integrated travel time (an important tool for
seismic/wellbore correlation),
„ Correlation with other wells
„ Detecting fractures and evaluating secondary porosity,
„ Evaluating cement bonds between casing, and formation,
„ Detecting over-pressure,
„ Determining mechanical properties (in combination with the
density log),
„ Gas hydrate
„ Reservoir Stimulation
Simple Sonic Tool
 Piezoelectric Effect
Transmitter or Transducer
The conversion of electrical pulses to mechanical vibrations
and the conversion of returned mechanical vibrations back
into electrical energy is the basis for ultrasonic testing
The unit cell of crystal silicon dioxide

+ +

- -

+
What is a crystal?

„ A class of materials arranged in a

definite, geometric pattern in three
dimensions (table salt and sugar are
common examples)
„ Quartz Crystal is silicon and oxygen
arranged in a crystalline structure
(SiO2).
„ SiO2 is also found abundantly in
nature in a non-crystal structure
(“amorphous”) as sand.
The Piezoelectric Effect

Crystal material at rest: No forces applied,

so net current flow is 0

Crystal

+-+-+-

Current Meter
=0

Charges cancel +-+-+-

each other, so
no current flow
 The Piezoelectric Effect

Crystal material with forces applied

in direction of arrows………..
Crystal

-----

Force

Current Meter
+++++
deflects in +
direction

Due to properties of symmetry,

charges are net + on one side &
net - on the opposite side: crystal gets
thinner and longer
 The Piezoelectric Effect

Changing the direction of the

applied force………..
Crystal

++++
Force
Current Meter
deflects in -
----- direction

…. Changes the direction of

current flow, and the crystal gets
shorter and fatter.
 The electromechanical effect

Now, replace the current meter with a power source capable

of supplying the same current indicated by the meter….
Crystal
switch
+-+-+-

charges cancel power source

+-+-+-

…. With the switch open, the crystal material is now at rest again:
the positive charges cancel the negative charges.
 The electromechanical effect
When the switch is closed, and you apply the exact amount
of power to get the same current that resulted when you squeezed
the crystal, the crystal should deform by the same amount!!

Crystal

++++ + side
power source
(battery)
----- - side

…. and, the crystal should get shorter and fatter.

 The electromechanical effect
What will happen if you switched the battery around??

Crystal

-----
- side
power source
(battery)
+++++
+ side

…. the crystal should get longer and skinnier.

Properties of Acoustic Wave
Wavelength, Frequency and Velocity

rule of thumb in industrial inspections is that

discontinuities that are larger than one-half the size of
wavelength can be usually be detected.
 Sound Propagation in Elastic
Materials
„ Sound waves propagate due to the vibrations or oscillatory
motions of particles within a material. An ultrasonic wave
may be visualized as an infinite number of oscillating masses
or particles connected by means of elastic springs. Each
individual particle is influenced by the motion of its nearest
neighbor and elastic restoring forces act upon each particle.
A mass on a spring has a single resonant frequency determined by its
spring constant k and its mass m. The spring constant is the restoring
force of a spring per unit of length. Within the elastic limit of any
material, there is a linear relationship between the displacement of a
particle and the force attempting to restore the particle to its equilibrium
position. This linear dependency is described by Hooke's Law.
F = -kx,
Newton's Second Law says F = ma. Hooke's Law then says
that this force will be balanced by a force in the opposite
direction that is dependent on the amount of displacement
and the spring constant (F = -kx). Therefore, since the
applied force and the restoring force are equal, ma=-kx

It turns out that the time that it takes a particle to move and
return to its equilibrium position is independent of the force
applied. So, within a given material, sound always travels at
the same speed no matter how much force is applied when
other variables, such as temperature, are held constant
 What properties of material
affect its speed of sound?
„ Of course, sound does travel at different speeds in different
materials. This is because the mass of the atomic particles
and the spring constants are different for different materials.
The mass of the particles is related to the density of the
material, and the spring constant is related to the elastic
constants of a material

This equation may take a number of different forms depending on the

type of wave (longitudinal or shear) and which of the elastic constants
that are used. The typical elastic constants of a materials include:
 „ Young's Modulus, E: a proportionality constant between
uniaxial stress and strain.
„ Poisson's Ratio, n: the ratio of radial strain to axial strain
„ Bulk modulus, K: a measure of the incompressibility of a
body subjected to hydrostatic pressure.
„ Shear Modulus, G: also called rigidity, a measure of
substance's resistance to shear.

When calculating the velocity of a longitudinal wave, Young's

Modulus and Poisson's Ratio are commonly used. When calculating
the velocity of a shear wave, the shear modulus is used
„ It must also be mentioned that the subscript ij
attached to C in the above equation is used to indicate
the directionality of the elastic constants with respect
to the wave type and direction of wave travel. In
isotropic materials, the elastic constants are the same
for all directions within the material. However, most
materials are anisotropic and the elastic constants
differ with each direction
 Acoustic Impedance

„ The acoustic impedance (Z) of a material is defined

as the product of density (p) and acoustic velocity (V)
of that material.
Z = pV
Acoustic impedance is important in
„ the determination of acoustic transmission and
reflection at the boundary of two materials having
different acoustic impedance
„ the design of ultrasonic transducers.
„ assessing absorption of sound in a medium.
„ The reflected energy is the square of the difference divided by the
sum of the acoustic impedances of the two materials

Note that Transmitted Sound Energy + Reflected Sound Energy = 1

Example
 MODES of WAVE PROPAGATION IN
VARIOUS MEDIA

„ PROPAGATION IN AN INFINITE MEDIUM

¾ Compressional Waves - Compressional (or
pressure) waves are longitudinal, that is, the
direction of propagation is parallel to the
direction of particle displacement

¾ Shear Waves - Shear waves are transverse;

that is, the direction of propagation is
perpendicular to the direction of particle
displacement
Propagation in a finite
medium
In a finite medium (such as a borehole), other types of waves are
propagated. These are guided waves, which include:
„ Rayleigh Waves - Rayleigh waves occur at the mud/formation
interface and are a combination of two displacements, one parallel
and the other perpendicular to the interface. Their speed is slightly
less than the shear wave velocity (VRayleigh is 86% to 96% of
VShear). When energy leaks away from the interface as
compressional waves are set up in the mud, the waves are then
referred to as pseudo-Rayleigh waves.

„ Stoneley Waves - Stoneley waves ("tube waves") can travel in the

mud by interaction between the mud and the formation. The
amplitude of these low-frequency waves decays exponentially in both
the mud and the formation away from the borehole boundary.
Stoneley wave velocity is lower than mud compressional velocity.
„ Proper interpretation of measurements using elastic wave data
requires an understanding of the elastic properties of a medium.
Long-spacing Acoustic
Tool
 POROSITY
DETERMINATION
 POROSITY
DETERMINATION

∆t = φ ∆tf + (1-φ) ∆tma

or

φ =(∆tl -∆tma) / (∆tf -∆tma)

φ =(∆tl -∆tma) / (∆tf -∆tma)*1/Bc
Bc= ∆tsh/100

The sonic log makes a very good correlation tool with other sonic logs from offset
wells, owing to the high vertical resolution of the tool and the fact that
velocity variations in different types of rock produce a sonic log curve with a
co-relatable character.
SECONDARY POROSITY

φ2ndry = φtotal − φsonic

DETECTION OF OVERPRESSURED ZONES

Transit Tim e, m icro-second/ft

0 100 200
2250

4250

6250
Depth, ft

8250

10250

12250
Detecting overpressured zone with the sonic Log
Hottman and Johnson Correlation
lithology identifications
Cement Bond Logging
Tool
„ Acoustic cement bond logging was developed for annular
cement evaluation in oil and gas production wells. The
interpretation of cement bond logs involves the analysis of the
amplitude of the compression wave arrival, and the full
waveform display. Where pipe, cement, and formation are
well bonded, the full waveform display indicates that the
acoustic energy from the logging probe is being transmitted
to the formation (a formation response is evident).
„ Furthermore, for the case of continuous cement in the
annular space with no voids or channels, the compression
wave amplitude is a minimum, increasing where the cement is
discontinuous.
Vertical Seismic Profile
(VSP)
 GAS HYDRATE
OCCURRENCES
„ Natural gas hydrate occurrences are
generally characterized by an increase
in log-measured acoustic velocities
and electrical resistivities.
Hydrocarbon
Identification
„ Detection of by passed oil and reservoir monitoring from
cased- and open-hole sonic logs relies on the influence of the
pore fluid on the bulk modulus and its negligible influence on
the shear modulus of saturated rock. The ratio of these two
elastic moduli and, as a result, VP/VS increase with increasing
bulk modulus of the pore fluid.

„ VP/VS in water-saturated rock is larger than in oil-saturated

rock, which is larger than that in gas-saturated rock. This is
the basis for using empirical VP/VS relations of Castagna et al.
(1985 and 1993), Han (1986), and Williams (1990) to
separate water-saturated from hydrocarbon-saturated rocks in
the acoustic velocity domain
Hydrocarbon
Identification
 Hydrocarbon
Identification

Figure 5. Well LC-1882. Plotted are VP versus VS from core data. Original
velocities have been measured on room-dry samples (black). The 100% water
saturation and 100% oil saturation data points were computed using
Gassmann's fluid substitution
 Reservoir Stimulation
„ Interest in seismic stimulation started in the 1938s with observed
correlations between water well level and seismic excitation
produced from railroad trains and earthquakes. Similar effects were
observed in producing oil fields where distant earthquakes caused
increases in production, and wells close to operating machinery,
highways, or railroads appeared to produce more oil than wells in
quieter areas.
„ For example, after a natural earthquake in Starogroznenskoe
Oilfield in Russia (Jan. 7, 1938), the production rate increased by
45%.
„ On May 14, 1970 the 6.5 earthquake in Tajikistan resulted in an
increase of production rate lasting for several months. The
maximum change occurred near the fault zones.
No Technique No. of Location Incremental Oil
Wells Production, MT

1 Gun- Powder and thermal gas- 6,000 Russia 6,000

chemical pressure generators 500 Russia 100
2 Electric –hydraulic impulse 800 Russia 350
oscillation sources 7,000 Russia 5,000
3 Wave-jet depression generators 700 Russia 330
4 Downhole hydraulic vibrators
5 Hydraulic and electroacustic
sources of vibration

Total 11,780
 Hydro-Impact Tool from Applied Seismic Research
Shakes World Oil Industry (USA)

This Hydro-Impact Tool is installed about 30 ft above the shallowest

producing layer. The tool generates shock waves. The standard size
tool fits in a 7 inch or larger casing, but a slim-hole version is also
available. Typically each shock wave (six per minute) imparts up to ten
million watts of energy to the formation, with the acoustic wave
travelling at about 1.5 miles per second.
 Historic production data for the Lost Hills field, California show a clear
response to a magnitude 7.1 earthquake in October 1999 and to downhole
stimulation treatments performed during July - November 2000.
„ Oil & Gas Consultants International, Inc.
(OGCI) developed a new version of a downhole
vibration tool based on their patented whirling
orbital vibrator. The tool developed by OGCI
uses a backward rotating motion to create both
compression and shear seismic waves from 5 to
more than 500 hertz, and is capable of generating
controllable force levels up to many tens of
thousands of pounds. Two sets of mechanical
slips are used to transmit the vibration energy
from the backward whirling mass into the
producing formation.
„ The reasons why acoustic stimulation
increases oil production are discussed in:
1) a newly-published book by Kouznetsov,
Simkin and Chilingar (2001), and in

2) articles by Kouznetsov et al. (1994, 1998,

2001 & 2002)
Pressure Pulse

„ According to Drake and Beresnev (1999), an

emerging technology (TERFENOL_D),
discovered in 1978 by the Navy Ordinance
Laboratory (presently Naval Surface Warfare
Center), Ames Laboratory, and Iowa State
University, enabled development of a new
equipment (Fig. 5, 6) capable of emitting
pressure waves into the reservoir.
 Actuator

Fleotensional
element

Actuator

The acoustic stimulation tool uses two opposing magnetostrictive

actuators to compress a solid rubber element, introducing pressure
waves into the reservoir.
„ According to Zhang et al. (1999), a
12-cycle test was conducted in
Liaoahe Oilfield in China using an LCZY
seismic machine with vibration force of
30-40 tons. The effective depth and
radius of vibration were 1300m and
1000m, respectively.
Summary

It is left to the audient ………………!

 What is next?

EEOR ………………?