EC6403 Unit 3

UNIT - III
Static Magnetic Fields

B.Hemalatha AP-ECE 1
Motivating the Magnetic Field Concept:
Forces Between Currents
Magnetic forces arise whenever we have charges in motion. Forces between current-
carrying wires present familiar examples that we can use to determine what a
magnetic force field should look like:
Here are the easily-observed facts:
Biot-Savart Law
• The current flowing in any path, can be considered as many
infinitesimal current elements, each of length dl, flowing in a
magnetic field dB, at any point P
0 I d l  rˆ
dB 
4 r 2
0 I dl sin 
dB 
4
• The magnitude of dB is:
r2
where θ is the angle between dl and r
0 I d l  rˆ
• The total magnetic field at point P is: B   d B 
2  r 2
• This is equivalent to Coulomb’s Law written in differential
dE 
form: 1 dq
4 0 r 2
Magnetic Field
due to
a Current-
Carrying Wire
Biot-Savart Law
Hans Christian Oersted, 1820

• Magnetic fields are caused by currents.
• Hans Christian Oersted in 1820’s showed that a
current carrying wire deflects a compass.
No Current in the Wire Current in the Wire
Right Hand Curl Rule
Magnetic Fields of Long Current-Carrying
Wires
B = o I
2r I
I = current through the wire (Amps)
r = distance from the wire (m)
o = permeability of free space
= 4 x 10-7 T m / A
B = magnetic field strength (Tesla)
Magnetic Field of a Current Carrying
Wire
What if the current-carrying wire is not straight? Use
the Biot-Savart Law:
Assume a small segment of

wire ds causing a field dB:
  0  ds  rˆ
dB    I
4
  r
2
Note: dB is perpendicular to ds and r

Biot-Savart Law allows us to calculate the
Magnetic Field Vector
• To find the total field, sum up the contributions from all the
current elements I ds
B   I
 0  ds i  rˆi
 4 
2
ri
• The integral is over the entire current distribution
 r2
ds  ˆr
B
μo I
4π
Note on Biot-Savart Law
• The law is also valid for a current consisting of
charges flowing through space
• ds represents the length of a small segment of

space in which the charges flow.
• Example: electron beam in a TV set
Comparison of Magnetic to Electric Field
Magnetic Field Electric Field

• B proportional to r2 • E proportional to r2
• Vector • Vector
• Perpendicular to FB , ds, r • Same direction as FE
• Magnetic field lines have no • Electric field lines begin on
beginning and no end; they positive charges and end on
form continuous circles negative charges
• Biot-Savart Law • Coulomb’s Law

• Ampere’s Law (where there • Gauss’s Law (where there is
is symmetry symmetry)
Derivation of B for a Long, Straight Current-Carrying
Wire
Integrating over all the
ds  ˆr   dx sin θ  kˆ
current elements gives
B 
μo I θ2
sin θ dθ
4πa θ1
  cos θ1  cos θ2 
μo I
4πa
If the conductor is an infinitely long, straight
wire, = 0 and = 
• The field becomes:
B
μo I a
2πa
B for a Curved Wire Segment
• Find the field at point O due

to the wire segment A’ACC’:
B=0 due to AA’ and CC’
Due to the circular arc:
 r2
ds  ˆr
B
μo I
4π
B
μo I
θ
4πR
q=s/R, will be in radians
B at the Center of a Circular Loop of Wire
B θ  o 2π
μo I μ I
Consider the previous result, with  = 2 4πR 4πR
B o
μ I
2R
Note
The overall shape of the magnetic field of the circular loop
Is similar to the magnetic field of a bar magnet.
B along the axis of a Circular Current Loop
• Find B at point P
 r2
ds  ˆr
B o
μ I
4π
Bx 
2  x2  R2 
μo I R 2
3
If x=0, B same as at center of a loop
2
If x is at a very large distance away from the loop.
x>>R:
Bx  
2x  R 
μo I R 2 μo I R 2
3
2 2 2 2x 3
Magnetic Force Between Two Parallel Conductors
The field B2 due to the current

in wire 2 exerts a force on
wire 1 of
F1 = I1ℓ B2
B2 
μo I 2
2πa
F1 
μo I1 I 2

2πa
Magnetic Field at Center of a Solenoid
B = o NI
L
N: Number of turns
L : Length
n=N/L
------------------------L----------------
Direction of Force Between Two Parallel
Conductors
If the currents are in the:
–same direction the wires attract each other.
–opposite directions the wires repel each other.
Magnetic Force Between Two
Parallel Conductors, FB

FB μo I1 I 2
Force per unit length:
 2πa
Definition of the Ampere
• When the magnitude of the force per unit
length between two long parallel wires that
carry identical currents and are separated by 1
m is 2 x 10-7 N/m, the current in each wire is
defined to be 1 A
Definition of the Coulomb
• The SI unit of charge, the coulomb, is defined
in terms of the ampere
• When a conductor carries a steady current of

1 A, the quantity of charge that flows through
a cross section of the conductor in 1 s is 1 C
Biot-Savart Law:
  0  ds  rˆ
Field produced by current carrying wires dB    I
 4  r
2
0 I
– Distance a from long straight wire B  2a
0 I
– Centre of a wire loop radius R B
2R
 0 NI
– Centre of a tight Wire Coil with N turns B
2R
F  0 I1 I 2

2a
• Force between two wires
l
Differences between Ampere’s law & the Biot-
Savart Law
• The difference between Ampere’s Law and the Biot-
Savart Law is that in Ampere’s Law ( B  dl   I ), the
0 encl
magnetic field is not necessarily due only to the

current enclosed by the path of integration, as
Ampere suggests
• In the Biot-Savant Law, dB is due entirely to the

current element I·dl. To find the total B, it is necessary
to include all currents
Magnetic Field Due to Current in a Straight Wire
• To find the magnetic field near an

infinitely long, straight wire, carrying a
current I, the Biot- Savant Law gives us:
0 I dy sin 

y  
B
4 y  
r 2
• The solution of this integral yields:
0 I
B
2R
• This is the same as Ampere’s Law
The Magnetic Field On-Axis of a Current Loop
• To find the magnetic field On-Axis, of a Current
Loop, applying the Biot-Savant Law yields:
0 I dl sin 
dB    because dl  rˆ
4R 2
, 90 
 I dl
dB  0 2
4R
0 I 0 I
2 
B dl  2R 
4R 4R 2
0 I
B
2R
Magnetic Field of a Loop at a Point On-Axis
• By = 0 is from the symmetry of the

problem
• Bz is calculated using the Biot- Savant Law:

Savart Law
0 2 R 2 I
z 
Bz 
4 2
 R 2
3
2
• For z>>R then the above relationship simplifies to:
0 2R 2 I
Bz 
4 z 3
r̂
Magnetic Field of a Wire Segment

• Again:   90 because dl  rˆ , the Biot-Savant Law
gives:
 0 I dl
dB 
4R 2
r̂
• Solving the Integral yields: dB
0 I
B 1
8
R
Magnetic fields of long wires
• Example for two wires. Find B at P1, P2, and P3.
• P1: - 0I/2d) + 0I/2(4d) = -0I/8d
• P2: +0I/2d) + 0I/2(d) = +0I/d
• P3: + 0I/2d) - 0I/2(d) = -0I/3d
Ampere’s law (general statement)
• General statement of Ampere’s law
Ampere’s law (special case)
• Ampere’s law for a circular path around a long straight
conductor.
Applications of Ampere’s Law
Ampère’s law in differential form   B( r )   0 J ( r )
   
Ampère’s law in integral form  (  B)  da   B  d    0  J  da   0 Ienc

     
Example 1
K  Kx̂

Find the magnetic field of an infinite uniform surface
current , flowing over the xy plane
Example 2
Find the magnetic field of a very long solenoid, consisting of n closely
wound turns per unit length on a cylinder of radius R and carrying a
steady current I.
 B  d s   B  d s  B  ds  B  B  d s  B   0 NI 
     
side1 side1
Where N is the number of turns in the length

B  0 I   0 nI
N

Example 3
Find the magnetic field of a toroidal coil, consisting of a circular ring
around which a long wire is wrapped.
 B  d s  B ds  B(2r )   0 NI
 
 0 NI
B
2 r
Problem 1
A steady current I flows down a long cylindrical wire of radius a. Find
the magnetic field, both inside and outside the wire, if
(a). The current is uniformly distributed over the outside surface of the
wire.
(b). The current is distributed in such a way that J is proportional to s,
the
distance from the axis.
a I
 B  d   2sB   0 Ienc
(a)  
  0 for s  a
B   0 I ˆ
 2s  for s  a
I   Jda   ks(2s)ds 
2ka 3
J  ks k
a
(b) 3I
3 2a 3
 B  d   2sB   0 Ienc
0
J  ks 
3Is  
2a 3
For s < a
 B  d   2sB   0 Ienc   0 0 2a 3 2sds  a 3 3 s  a 3

3 0 I 1 3  0 Is3
s
  3Is
 0 Is2
B
2a 3
For s > a
 B  d   2sB   0 Ienc   0 0 2a 3 2sds  a 3 3 a   0 I

3 0 I 1 3
a
  3Is
0 I
B
2s
Comparison of Magnetostatics and Electrostatics
The divergence and curl of the electrostatic field are
  1
  E  
 0
Gauss’s law

 E  0

The divergence and curl of the magnetostatic field are
 B 0


  B   0 J
 
Ampère’s law
“The electric force is stronger than the magnetic force. Only when both
the source charge and the test charge are moving at velocities
comparable to the speed of light, the magnetic force approaches the
electric force.”
Magnetic Vector Potential
E  0 E   V
 
V: electric scalar potential
You can add to V any function whose gradient is zero
  ( V  f )   V  f   V
B 0 B  A
   
A: magnetic vector potential

You can add toA any function whose curl is zero
  ( A   )    A        A
  
B  A   B    (  A)   (  A)   A   0 J
     2
 
We will prove that   A  0 :



A0
Suppose that our original vector potential is not divergenceless
  A0  0


Because we can add toA 0 any function whose curl is zero
A  A 0     A    A 0        A 0   2
    
If a function  can be found that satisfies
     A 0 A  0
2
 

 V
0
2
Mathematically identical to Poisson’s equation
In particular, if  goes to zero at infinity, then the solution is
  d '

V
1
4 0
By the same token, if  A 0 goes to zero at infinity, then


1   A0

 d '
4 
It is always possible to make the vector potential divergenceless
A  0

  B   (  A)   A   A   0 J
  2
 2
 
so
This again is a Poisson’s equation


Assuming J goes to zero at infinity, then
A( r )  0 
 J( r ' )
 
d '
 
4 

For line and surface currents
 0 K( r ' )

0 I( r ' )
   
A( r )  A( r ) 
   
4  4 
d ' da '
Example 1
A spherical shell, of radius R, carrying a uniform surface charge ,

 velocity . Find the vector potential it
is set spinning at angular
produces at point .r


r
The integration is easier


if we let r lie on the z
axis, so that  is titled at

r'
an angle .

 0 K( r ' )
 
A( r )        2 Rr cos '
   
4 
da ' where K v R 2
r 2
x̂ ŷ ẑ
v   r '   sin   cos 
  
0
R sin ' cos ' R sin ' sin ' R cos '
 R[  (cos  sin ' sin ' ) x̂  (cos  sin ' cos ' sin  cos ' ) ŷ  (sin  sin ' sin ' )ẑ]
 sin ' d'   cos ' d'  0 v   R sin  cos ' ŷ

2 2

Because We just consider

0
 0 (  R sin  cos ' ) 2

0
A( r )  R sin ' d' d'ŷ

 
4 R  r  2 Rr cos '
2 2
(
 0 R 3 sin  sin ' cos '

 d') ŷ
2 0 R  r  2 Rr cos '
2 2
Letting u  cos ' , the integral becomes
I  
sin ' cos '

d' 
1
u
R  r  2 Rr cos ' R  r  2 Rru
du
1
2 2 2 2
0
 [ R 2  r 2  2 Rru   
1
u 1 2 2 3/ 2
2 2
( R r 2 Rru ) ]
Rr 3R r 1
( R 2  r 2  Rru)
 [   2 Rru ]
1
2 2
2 2
R r
3R r 1
       Rr)( R  r )]
1 2 2 2 2
2 2
[( R r Rr ) R r ( R r
3R r
r lies inside the sphere, Then R > r.  I  2
 2r
If the point
3R
I 2
 2R
If the point r lies outside the sphere, Then R < r. 
3r
(
 0 R 3 sin  sin ' cos '  0 R 3 sin 

A( r )   d') ŷ  
 
R  r  2 Rr cos '
Iŷ
2 0
2 2 2
r lies inside the sphere, Then R > r.  I  2

 2r
If the point
3R
I 2
 2R
If the point r lies outside the sphere, Then R < r. 
3r
(  r )   r sin ŷ
 
Noting that
For the point inside the sphere
 0 R 3 sin   0 R 3 sin  2r  0 R  

A( r )   Iŷ   ŷ  (  r )
 
2
2 2 3R 3
For the point outside the sphere
 0 R 3 sin   0 R 3 sin  2 R  0 R 4  

A( r )   Iŷ   ŷ  (  r )
 
2 3
2 2 3r 3r


We revert to the original coordinates, in which coincides

with the z axis and the point r is at (r,,)
   0 R    0 R
A( r )  (  r )  r sin ˆ
3 3
2 R 2 R
B    A( r )  0 (cos r̂  sin ˆ )  0
  
ẑ
3 3
The magnetic field inside this spherical shell is uniform!

   0 R 4     0 R 4 
A( r )  3
(  r )  2
sin ˆ
3r 3r
Example 2
Find the vector potential of an infinite solenoid with n turns per

unit length, radius R, and current I


 
We cannot use A( r )  0
  I(r ' )
4 
d' because the current itself extends
 A  d    (  A)  da   B  da  
to infinity.
     
Notice that
Since the magnetic field is uniform inside the solenoid : B   0 nIẑ


 A  d   A(2s)   B  da   0 nI(s )
  0 nIs
A ˆ
    2
For s < R
2
For an amperian outside the solenoid
 
  0 nIR 2
        A ˆ For s > R
    2
A d  A ( 2 s ) B d a 0 nI ( R )
2s
Magnetic forces arise whenever we have charges in motion. Forces between
current-carrying wires present familiar examples that we can use to
determine what a magnetic force field should look like:
Magnetic Field
The geometry of the magnetic field is set up to correctly model forces between currents that
allow for any relative orientation. The magnetic field intensity, H, circulates around its source, I1,
in a direction most easily determined by the right-hand rule: Right thumb in the direction of the
current, fingers curl in the direction of H
Note that in the third case (perpendicular currents), I2 is in the same direction as H, so that their
cross product (and the resulting force) is zero. The actual force computation involves a different
field quantity, B, which is related to H through B = H in free space. This will be taken up in
a later lecture. Our immediate concern is how to find H from any given current distribution.
Magnetic Field Arising From a Circulating Current
At point P, the magnetic field associated with

the differential current element IdL is
To determine the total field arising from the closed

circuit path, we sum the contributions from the current
elements that make up
the entire loop, or
The contribution to the field at P from any portion of the current will be just the above integral
evaluated over just that portion.
Two- and Three-Dimensional Currents
On a surface that carries uniform surface current

density K [A/m], the current within width b is
..and so the differential current quantity that

appears in the Biot-Savart law becomes:
The magnetic field arising from a current

sheet is thus found from the two-dimensional
form of the Biot-Savart law:
In a similar way, a volume current will be made up

of three-dimensional current elements, and so the Biot-Savart
law for this case becomes:
Example of the Biot-Savart Law
In this example, we evaluate the magnetic field intensity on the y axis (equivalently in the xy plane)
arising from a filament current of infinite length in on the z axis.
Using the drawing, we identify:
and so..
so that:
Example: continued
We now have:
Integrate this over the entire wire:
..after carrying out the cross product

Example: concluded
Evaluating the integral:
Current is into the page. Magnetic field streamlines

are concentric circles, whose magnitudes
finally: decrease as the inverse distance from the z axis
Field Arising from a Finite Current Segment
In this case, the field is to be found in the xy plane at Point 2.
The Biot-Savart integral is taken over the wire length:
..after a few additional steps (see Problem 7.8), we find:
Another Example: Magnetic Field from a
Current Loop
Consider a circular current loop of radius a in the x-y plane, which

carries steady current I. We wish to find the magnetic field strength
anywhere on the z axis.
We will use the Biot-Savart Law:
where:
Example: Continued
Substituting the previous expressions, the Biot-Savart Law becomes:
carry out the cross products to find:
but we must include the angle dependence in the radial

unit vector:
with this substitution, the radial component will integrate to zero, meaning that all radial
components will cancel on the z axis.
Example: Continued
Now, only the z component remains, and the integral

evaluates easily:
Note the form of the numerator: the product of

the current and the loop area. We define this as
the magnetic moment:
Ampere’s Circuital Law
Ampere’s Circuital Law states that the line integral of H about any closed path
is exactly equal to the direct current enclosed by that path.
In the figure at right, the integral of H about closed paths a and b gives
the total current I, while the integral over path c gives only that portion
of the current that lies within c
Ampere’s Law Applied to a Long Wire
Symmetry suggests that H will be circular, constant-

valued at constant radius, and centered on the
current (z) axis.
Choosing path a, and integrating H around the circle

of radius  gives the enclosed current, I:
so that: as before.
Coaxial Transmission Line
In the coax line, we have two concentric solid

conductors that carry equal and opposite currents, I.
The line is assumed to be infinitely long, and the

circular symmetry suggests that H will be entirely
 - directed, and will vary only with radius .
Our objective is to find the magnetic field for all

values of 
Field Between Conductors
The inner conductor can be thought of as made up of a
bundle of filament currents, each of which produces
the
field of a long wire.
Consider two such filaments, located at the same

radius from the z axis, , but which lie at symmetric 
coordinates, and -Their field contributions
superpose to give a net H component as shown.
The same happens for every pair of symmetrically-
located filaments, which taken as a whole, make up
the entire center conductor.
a < < b
Field Within the Inner Conductor
With current uniformly distributed inside the conductors, the H can be assumed
circular everywhere.
Inside the inner conductor, and at radius we again have:
But now, the current enclosed is
so that or finally:
Field Outside Both Conductors
Outside the transmission line, where > c,
no current is enclosed by the integration path,
and so
As the current is uniformly distributed, and

since we have circular symmetry, the field
would have to be constant over the circular
integration path, and so it must be true
that:
Field Inside the Outer Conductor
Inside the outer conductor, the enclosed current consists of that within
the inner conductor plus that portion of the outer conductor current
existing at radii less than 
Ampere’s Circuital Law becomes
..and so finally:
Magnetic Field Strength as a Function of
Radius in the Coax Line
Combining the previous results, and assigning dimensions as shown in the
inset below, we find:
Magnetic Field Arising from a Current Sheet
For a uniform plane current in the y direction, we expect an x-directed H field from
symmetry.
Applying Ampere’s circuital law to the path
we find: or
In other words, the magnetic field is discontinuous across the current sheet by
the magnitude of the surface current density.
If instead, the upper path is elevated to the line between 3 and 3’ , the same current is
enclosed and we would have
from which we conclude that
So the field is constant in each region (above and below the current plane)
By symmetry, the field above the sheet must be the same in magnitude as the field
below the sheet. Therefore, we may state that
&
The actual field configuration is shown below, in which magnetic field above the
current sheet is equal in magnitude, but in the direction opposite to the field below the
sheet.
The field in either region is found by the cross product:
where aN is the unit vector that is normal

to the current sheet,
and that points into the region in which

the magnetic field is to be evaluated.
Magnetic Field Arising from Two Current
Sheets
Here are two parallel currents, equal and opposite, as you would find in a parallel-plate
transmission line. If the sheets are much wider than their spacing, then the magnetic
field will be contained in the region between plates, and will be nearly zero outside.
Hx2 (z > d/2 ) These fields cancel for current

Hx1 (z > d/2 ) sheets of infinite width.
K1 = -Ky ay These fields are equal and

Hx1 (-d /2 < z < d/2 ) add to give
Hx2 (-d /2 < z < d/2 ) H = K x aN (-d/2 < z < d/2 )
K2 = -Ky ay
where K is either K1 or K2
Hx1 (z < -d/2 ) These fields cancel for current

Hx2 (z < -d/2 ) sheets of infinite width.
Current Loop Field
Using the Biot-Savart Law, we previously found the magnetic field on the z axis
from a circular current loop:
We will now use this result as a building block

to construct the magnetic field on the axis of
a solenoid -- formed by a stack of identical current
loops, centered on the z axis.
On-Axis Field Within a Solenoid
We consider the single current loop field as a differential contribution to the total field from
a stack of N closely-spaced loops, each of which carries current I. The length of the stack
(solenoid) is d, so therefore the density of turns will be N/d.
Now the current in the turns within a differential length, dz, will be
We consider this as our differential “loop current” z
d/
so that the previous result for 2
H from a single loop:
-
now becomes: d/2
in which z is measured from the center of the coil, where we wish to evaluate the field.
Solenoid Field, Continued
The total field on the z axis at z = 0 will be the sum of the field
contributions from all turns in the coil -- or the integral of dH over the
length of the solenoid.
z
d/2
-d/2
Approximation for Long Solenoids
We now have the on-axis field at the solenoid midpoint (z = 0):
z
Note that for long solenoids, for which , the d/2
result simplifies to:
( )
-d/2
This result is valid at all on-axis positions deep within long coils
-- at distances from each end of several radii.
Another Interpretation: Continuous
Surface Current
The solenoid of our previous example was assumed to have many tightly-wound turns, with
Several existing within a differential length, dz. We could model such a current configuration
as a continuous surface current of density K = Ka a A/m.
d/2 Therefore:
-d/2 In other words, the on-axis field magnitude near the center of a
cylindrical current sheet, where current circulates around the z
axis,
and whose length is much greater than its radius, is just the
surface current density.
Solenoid Field -- Off-Axis
To find the field within a solenoid, but off the z axis, we apply Ampere’s Circuital Law
in the following way:
The illustration below shows the solenoid cross-section, from a lengthwise cut through
the
z axis. Current in the windings flows in and out of the screen in the circular current path.
Each turn carries current I. The magnetic field along the z axis is NI/d as we found earlier.
Toroid Magnetic Field
A toroid is a doughnut-shaped set of windings around a core material. The cross-section
could be circular (as shown here, with radius a) or any other shape.
Below, a slice of the toroid is shown, with current emerging from the screen
around the inner periphery (in the positive z direction). The windings are modeled
as N individual current loops, each of which carries current I.
Ampere’s Law as Applied to a Toroid
Ampere’s Circuital Law can be applied to a toroid by taking a closed loop integral
around the circular contour C at radius Magnetic field H is presumed to be circular,
and a function of radius only at locations within the toroid that are not too close to the
individual windings. Under this condition, we would assume:
This approximation improves as the density of turns gets higher

(using more turns with finer wire).
Ampere’s Law now takes the form:
so that….
Performing the same integrals over contours drawn in the regions or

will lead to zero magnetic field there, because no current is enclosed in either case.
Surface Current Model of a Toroid
Consider a sheet current molded into a doughnut shape, as shown. The current density
at radius crosses the xy plane in the z direction and is given in magnitude by Ka
Ampere’s Law applied to a circular contour C inside the toroid (as in the previous
example) will take the form:
leading to…
inside the toroid…. and the field is zero outside as before.
Approximation of H Along One Segment
Along path 1-2, we may write:
where:
And therefore:
Stokes’ Theorem
We now take our previous result, and take the limit as
In the limit, this side In the limit, this side

becomes the path integral becomes the integral
of H over the outer perimeter of the curl of H over
because all interior paths surface S
.
cancel
The result is Stokes’ Theorem
This is a valuable tool to have at our disposal, because it gives us two ways to
evaluate the same thing!
Obtaining Ampere’s Circuital Law in
Integral Form, using Stokes’ Theorem
Begin with the point form of Ampere’s Law for static fields:
Integrate both sides over surface S:
..in which the far right hand side is found from the left hand side
using Stokes’ Theorem. The closed path integral is taken around
The perimeter of S. Again, note that we use the right-hand
convention in choosing the direction of the path integral.
The center expression is just the net current through surface S,

so we are left with the integral form of Ampere’s Law:
Magnetic Flux and Flux Density
We are already familiar with the concept of electric flux:
Coulombs
in which the electric flux density in free space is:

and where the free space permittivity is
In a similar way, we can define the magnetic flux in units of Webers (Wb):
Webers
in which the magnetic flux density (or magnetic induction)

in free space is:
and where the free space permeability is
This is a defined quantity, having to do with the definition of the ampere
A Key Property of B
If the flux is evaluated through a closed surface, we have in the case of
electric flux, Gauss’ Law:
If the same were to be done with magnetic flux density, we would find:
The implication is that (for our purposes) there are no magnetic charges
-- specifically, no point sources of magnetic field exist.
A hint of this has already been observed, in that magnetic field lines always
close on themselves.
Another Maxwell Equation
We may rewrite the closed surface integral of B using the divergence theorem,
in which the right hand integral is taken over the volume surrounded by the
closed surface:
Because the result is zero, it follows that
This result is known as Gauss’ Law for the magnetic field in point form.
Example: Magnetic Flux Within a Coaxial Line
Consider a length d of coax, as shown here. The magnetic field strength between conductors is:
and so:
The magnetic flux is now the integral of B over the

flat surface between radii a and b,
and of length d along z:
B d
The result is:
The coax line thus “stores” this amount of magnetic flux in the region between conductors.
This will have importance when we discuss inductance in a later lecture.
Scalar Magnetic Potential
We are already familiar with the relation between the scalar electric potential
and electric field:
So it is tempting to define a scalar magnetic potential such that:
This rule must be consistent with Maxwell’s equations, so therefore:
But the curl of the gradient of any function is identically zero! Therefore, the scalar
magnetic potential is valid only in regions where the current density is zero
(such as in free space).
So we define scalar magnetic

potential with a condition:
Further Requirements on the Scalar
Magnetic Potential
The other Maxwell equation involving magnetic field must also be satisfied. This is:
in free space
Therefore:
..and so the scalar magnetic potential satisfies Laplace’s equation (again with
the restriction that current density must be zero:
Example: Coaxial Transmission Line
With the center conductor current flowing out of the screen, we have
Thus:
So we solve:
.. and obtain:
where the integration constant has been set to zero
Ambiguities in the Scalar Potential
The scalar potential is now:
where the potential is zero at
At point P ( ) the potential is
But wait! As increases to
we have returned to the same physical location, and the potential has a new
value of -I.
In general, the potential at P will be multivalued, and will acquire a new value
after each full rotation in the xy plane:
Overcoming the Ambiguity
To remove the ambiguity, we construct a mathematical barrier at any value of phi.
The angle domain cannot cross this barrier in either direction, and so the potential function
is restricted to angles on either side.
In the present case we choose the barrier to lie at so that
The potential at point P is now single-valued:
Barrier at
Vector Magnetic Potential
We make use of the Maxwell equation:
.. and the fact that the divergence of the curl of any vector field is identically zero
(show this!)
This leads to the definition of the magnetic vector potential, A:
Thus:
and Ampere’s Law becomes
Equation for the Vector Potential
We start with:
Then, introduce a vector identity that defines the vector Laplacian:
Using a (lengthy) procedure (see Sec. 7.7) it can be proven that
We are therefore left with
The Direction of A
We now have
In rectangular coordinates:
(not so simple in the other coordinate systems)
The equation separates to give:
This indicates that the direction of A will be the same as that of the current to which it
is associated.
The vector field, A, existing in all space, is sometimes described as being a “fuzzy image”
of its generating current.
Expressions for Potential
Consider a differential elements, shown here. On the left is a point charge
represented by a differential length of line charge. On the right is a differential
current element. The setups for obtaining potential are identical between the two
cases.
Line Charge Line Current
Scalar Electrostatic Potential Vector Magnetic Potential

General Expressions for Vector Potential
For large scale charge or current distributions, we would sum the
differential contributions by integrating over the charge or current, thus:
and
The closed path integral is taken because the current must close on itself
to form a complete circuit.
For surface or volume current distributions, we would have,

respectively:
or
in the same manner that we used for scalar electric potential.

Example
We continue with the differential current element as shown here:
In this case
becomes at point P:
Now, the curl is taken in cylindrical coordinates:
This is the same result as found using the Biot-Savart Law (as it should be)
UNIT - III
Static Magnetic Fields
Magnetic forces arise whenever we have charges in motion. Forces between current-
carrying wires present familiar examples that we can use to determine what a
magnetic force field should look like:
Biot-Savart Law
• The current flowing in any path, can be considered as many
infinitesimal current elements, each of length dl, flowing in a
magnetic field dB, at any point P
0 I d l  rˆ
dB 
4 r 2
0 I dl sin 
• The magnitude of dB is: dB 
4 r2
where θ is the angle between dl and r
0 I d l  rˆ
• The total magnetic field at point P is: B   d B 
2  r 2
• This is equivalent to Coulomb’s Law written in differential

form: 1 dq
dE 
4 0 r 2
Magnetic Field
due to
a Current-
Carrying Wire
Biot-Savart Law
Hans Christian Oersted, 1820

• Magnetic fields are caused by currents.
• Hans Christian Oersted in 1820’s showed that a
current carrying wire deflects a compass.
No Current in the Wire Current in the Wire
Right Hand Curl Rule
Magnetic Fields of Long Current-Carrying
Wires
B = o I
2r I
I = current through the wire (Amps)
r = distance from the wire (m)
o = permeability of free space
= 4 x 10-7 T m / A
B = magnetic field strength (Tesla)
Magnetic Field of a Current Carrying
Wire
What if the current-carrying wire is not straight? Use
the Biot-Savart Law:
Assume a small segment of

wire ds causing a field dB:
  0  ds  rˆ
dB    I
4
  r
2
Note: dB is perpendicular to ds and r

Biot-Savart Law allows us to calculate the
Magnetic Field Vector
• To find the total field, sum up the contributions from all the
current elements I ds
 0  ds i  rˆi
B   I
 4 
2
ri
• The integral is over the entire current distribution

μo I ds  ˆr
B
4π  r2
Note on Biot-Savart Law
• The law is also valid for a current consisting of
charges flowing through space
• ds represents the length of a small segment of

space in which the charges flow.
• Example: electron beam in a TV set
Comparison of Magnetic to Electric Field
Magnetic Field Electric Field

• B proportional to r2 • E proportional to r2
• Vector • Vector
• Perpendicular to FB , ds, r • Same direction as FE
• Magnetic field lines have no • Electric field lines begin on
beginning and no end; they positive charges and end on
form continuous circles negative charges
• Biot-Savart Law • Coulomb’s Law

• Ampere’s Law (where there • Gauss’s Law (where there is
is symmetry symmetry)
Derivation of B for a Long, Straight Current-Carrying
Wire
Integrating over all the

current elements gives
ds  ˆr   dx sin θ  kˆ
μo I θ2
B 
4πa θ1
sin θ dθ
μo I
  cos θ1  cos θ2 
4πa
If the conductor is an infinitely long, straight
wire, = 0 and = 
• The field becomes:

μo I a
B
2πa
B for a Curved Wire Segment
• Find the field at point O due

to the wire segment A’ACC’:
B=0 due to AA’ and CC’
Due to the circular arc:
μo I ds  ˆr
B
4π  r2
μo I
B θ
4πR
q=s/R, will be in radians
B at the Center of a Circular Loop of Wire
μo I μ I
B θ  o 2π
Consider the previous result, with  = 2 4πR 4πR
μ I
B o
2R
Note
The overall shape of the magnetic field of the circular loop
Is similar to the magnetic field of a bar magnet.
B along the axis of a Circular Current Loop
• Find B at point P
μ I ds  ˆr
B o
4π  r2
μo I R 2
Bx  If x=0, B same as at center of a loop
2  x2  R2 
3
2
If x is at a very large distance away from the loop.
x>>R:
μo I R 2 μo I R 2
Bx  
2x  R 
3
2 2 2 2x 3
Magnetic Force Between Two Parallel Conductors
The field B2 due to the current

in wire 2 exerts a force on
wire 1 of
F1 = I1ℓ B2
μo I 2
B2 
2πa
μo I1 I 2
F1  
2πa
Magnetic Field at Center of a Solenoid
B = o NI
L
N: Number of turns
L : Length
n=N/L
------------------------L----------------
Direction of Force Between Two Parallel
Conductors
If the currents are in the:
–same direction the wires attract each other.
–opposite directions the wires repel each other.
Magnetic Force Between Two
Parallel Conductors, FB
FB μo I1 I 2
Force per unit length: 
 2πa
Definition of the Ampere
• When the magnitude of the force per unit
length between two long parallel wires that
carry identical currents and are separated by 1
m is 2 x 10-7 N/m, the current in each wire is
defined to be 1 A
Definition of the Coulomb
• The SI unit of charge, the coulomb, is defined
in terms of the ampere
• When a conductor carries a steady current of

1 A, the quantity of charge that flows through
a cross section of the conductor in 1 s is 1 C
Biot-Savart Law:
Field produced by current carrying wires   0  ds  rˆ
dB    I
 4  r
2
0 I
– Distance a from long straight wire B  2a
0 I
– Centre of a wire loop radius R B
2R
 0 NI
– Centre of a tight Wire Coil with N turns B
2R
F  0 I1 I 2
• Force between two wires 
l 2a
Differences between Ampere’s law & the Biot-
Savart Law
• The difference between Ampere’s Law and the Biot-
Savart Law is that in Ampere’s Law ( B  dl   I ), the
0 encl
magnetic field is not necessarily due only to the

current enclosed by the path of integration, as
Ampere suggests
• In the Biot-Savant Law, dB is due entirely to the

current element I·dl. To find the total B, it is necessary
to include all currents
Magnetic Field Due to Current in a Straight Wire
• To find the magnetic field near an

infinitely long, straight wire, carrying a
current I, the Biot- Savant Law gives us:
y  
0 I dy sin 
B
4 
y  
r 2
• The solution of this integral yields:
0 I
B
2R
• This is the same as Ampere’s Law
The Magnetic Field On-Axis of a Current Loop
• To find the magnetic field On-Axis, of a Current
Loop, applying the Biot-Savant Law yields:
0 I dl sin 
dB  ,   90 
because dl  rˆ
4R 2
 I dl
dB  0 2
4R
0 I 0 I
B 2 
dl  2R 
4R 4R 2
0 I
B
2R
Magnetic Field of a Loop at a Point On-Axis
• By = 0 is from the symmetry of the

problem
• Bz is calculated using the Biot- Savant Law:

Savart Law
0 2 R 2 I
Bz 
4 z 2
 R 2
 3
2
• For z>>R then the above relationship simplifies to:
0 2R 2 I
Bz 
4 z 3
r̂
Magnetic Field of a Wire Segment

• Again:   90 because dl  rˆ , the Biot-Savant Law
gives:
 0 I dl
dB 
4R 2
r̂
• Solving the Integral yields: dB
0 I
B 1
8
R
• Example for two wires. Find B at P1, P2, and P3.
• P1: - 0I/2d) + 0I/2(4d) = -0I/8d
• P2: +0I/2d) + 0I/2(d) = +0I/d
• P3: + 0I/2d) - 0I/2(d) = -0I/3d
Ampere’s law (general statement)
• General statement of Ampere’s law
Ampere’s law (special case)
• Ampere’s law for a circular path around a long straight
conductor.
   
Ampère’s law in differential form   B( r )   0 J ( r )
     
Ampère’s law in integral form  (  B)  da   B  d    0  J  da   0 Ienc
Example 1

Find the magnetic field of an infinite uniform surface current K  Kx̂ ,
flowing over the xy plane
Example 2
Find the magnetic field of a very long solenoid, consisting of n closely wound
turns per unit length on a cylinder of radius R and carrying a steady current I.
     
 B  d s   B  d s  B  ds  B  B  d s  B   0 NI 
side1 side1
Where N is the number of turns in the length

N
B  0 I   0 nI

Example 3
Find the magnetic field of a toroidal coil, consisting of a circular ring around
which a long wire is wrapped.
 
 B  d s  B ds  B(2r )   0 NI
 0 NI
B
2 r
Problem 1
A steady current I flows down a long cylindrical wire of radius a. Find the
magnetic field, both inside and outside the wire, if
(a). The current is uniformly distributed over the outside surface of the wire.
(b). The current is distributed in such a way that J is proportional to s, the
distance from the axis.
a I
(a)  
 B  d   2sB   0 Ienc
  0 for s  a
B   0 I ˆ
 2s  for s  a
a
(b) 2ka 3 3I
J  ks I   Jda   ks(2s)ds  k
0
3 2a 3
3Is  
J  ks 
2a 3  B  d   2sB   0 Ienc
For s < a
  s
3Is 3 0 I 1 3  0 Is3
 B  d   2sB   0 Ienc   0 0 2a 3 2sds  a 3 3 s  a 3
 0 Is2
B
2a 3
For s > a
  a
3Is 3 0 I 1 3
 B  d   2sB   0 Ienc   0 0 2a 3 2sds  a 3 3 a   0 I
0 I
B
2s
Comparison of Magnetostatics and Electrostatics
The divergence and curl of the electrostatic field are
  1 Gauss’s law
  E  
  0
 E  0

The divergence and curl of the magnetostatic field are

 B 0
  
  B   0 J Ampère’s law
“The electric force is stronger than the magnetic force. Only when both the
source charge and the test charge are moving at velocities comparable to
the speed of light, the magnetic force approaches the electric force.”
 
E  0 E   V V: electric scalar potential
You can add to V any function whose gradient is zero
  ( V  f )   V  f   V
   
B 0 B A A: magnetic vector potential

You can add to A any function whose curl is zero
  
  ( A   )    A        A
      
B A   B    (  A)   (  A)   A   0 J
2

We will prove that   A  0 :

Suppose that our original vector potential A 0 is not divergenceless

  A0  0

Because we can add to A 0 any function whose curl is zero
    
A  A 0     A    A 0        A 0   2
If a function  can be found that satisfies
 
     A 0
2
A  0

Mathematically identical to Poisson’s equation  V  
2
0
In particular, if  goes to zero at infinity, then the solution is
1 
V
4 0   d'

By the same token, if   A 0 goes to zero at infinity, then

1   A0

4  
d'
It is always possible to make the vector potential divergenceless


A  0
    
so   B   (  A)   A   A   0 J
2 2
This again is a Poisson’s equation


Assuming J goes to zero at infinity, then
 
   J( r ' )
A( r )  0  d'
4 
For line and surface currents  
   
  0 I( r ' )  0 K( r ' )
A( r ) 
4  
d ' A( r ) 
4  
da '
Example 1
A spherical shell, of radius R, carrying a uniform surface charge , is

set spinning at angular velocity . Find the vector potential it
produces at point . r

r 
The integration is easier


if we let r lie on the z

r' axis, so that  is titled at
an angle .
 
   0 K( r ' )  
A( r )         2 Rr cos '
2 2
da ' where K v R r
4 
x̂ ŷ ẑ
  
v   r '   sin  0  cos 
R sin ' cos ' R sin ' sin ' R cos '
 R[ (cos  sin ' sin ' ) x̂  (cos  sin ' cos ' sin  cos ' ) ŷ  (sin  sin ' sin ' )ẑ ]
2 2

Because
 sin ' d'   cos ' d'  0 We just consider v   R sin  cos ' ŷ
0 0
   0 ( R sin  cos ' ) 2

A( r ) 
4  R  r  2 Rr cos '
2 2
R sin ' d' d'ŷ

 0 R 3 sin  sin ' cos '
 ( d') ŷ
2 0 R  r  2 Rr cos '
2 2
Letting u  cos ' , the integral becomes
 1
sin ' cos ' u
I  d '   du
0 R  r  2 Rr cos '
2 2
1 R  r  2 Rru
2 2
1
u 1
 [ R 2  r 2  2 Rru  2 2
( R 2
 r 2
 2 Rru ) 3/ 2
]
Rr 3R r 1
1
( R 2  r 2  Rru)
 [ 2 2
R 2
 r 2
 2 Rru ]
3R r 1
1
 2 2
[( R 2
 r 2
 Rr ) R  r  ( R 2
 r 2
 Rr)( R  r )]
3R r
 2r
If the point r lies inside the sphere, Then R > r.  I  2
3R
 2R
If the point r lies outside the sphere, Then R < r.  I 2
3r
   0 R 3 sin 

sin ' cos '  0 R 3 sin 
A( r )   ( d') ŷ   Iŷ
2 0 R  r  2 Rr cos '
2 2 2
 2r
If the point r lies inside the sphere, Then R > r.  I  2
3R
 2R
If the point r lies outside the sphere, Then R < r.  I 2
  3r
Noting that (  r )   r sin ŷ
   0 R 3 sin   0 R 3 sin  2r  0 R  
A( r )   Iŷ   2
ŷ  (  r )
2 2 3R 3
   0 R 3 sin   0 R 3 sin  2 R  0 R 4  
A( r )   Iŷ   2
ŷ  3
(  r )
2 2 3r 3r

We revert to the original coordinates, in which  coincides

with the z axis and the point r is at (r,,)
   0 R    0 R
A( r )  (  r )  r sin ˆ
3 3
   2 R 2 R
B    A( r )  0 (cos r̂  sin ˆ )  0 ẑ
3 3
The magnetic field inside this spherical shell is uniform!

   0 R 4     0 R 4 
A( r )  3
(  r )  2
sin ˆ
3r 3r
Example 2
Find the vector potential of an infinite solenoid with n turns per

unit length, radius R, and current I
 
   I(r ' )
We cannot use A( r )  0
to infinity. 4  
d' because the current itself extends
     
Notice that  A  d    (  A)  da   B  da   
Since the magnetic field is uniform inside the solenoid : B   0 nIẑ
      0 nIs
 A  d   A(2s)   B  da   0 nI(s ) ˆ
2
A For s < R
2
For an amperian outside the solenoid
      0 nIR 2
          A ˆ For s > R
2
A d  A ( 2 s ) B d a 0 nI ( R )
2s
Magnetic forces arise whenever we have charges in motion. Forces between
current-carrying wires present familiar examples that we can use to determine
what a magnetic force field should look like:
Magnetic Field
The geometry of the magnetic field is set up to correctly model forces between currents that
allow for any relative orientation. The magnetic field intensity, H, circulates around its source, I1,
in a direction most easily determined by the right-hand rule: Right thumb in the direction of the
current, fingers curl in the direction of H
Note that in the third case (perpendicular currents), I2 is in the same direction as H, so that their
cross product (and the resulting force) is zero. The actual force computation involves a different
field quantity, B, which is related to H through B = H in free space. This will be taken up in
a later lecture. Our immediate concern is how to find H from any given current distribution.
Magnetic Field Arising From a Circulating Current
At point P, the magnetic field associated with

the differential current element IdL is
To determine the total field arising from the closed

circuit path, we sum the contributions from the current
elements that make up
the entire loop, or
The contribution to the field at P from any portion of the current will be just the above integral
evaluated over just that portion.
Two- and Three-Dimensional Currents
On a surface that carries uniform surface current

density K [A/m], the current within width b is
..and so the differential current quantity that

appears in the Biot-Savart law becomes:
The magnetic field arising from a current

sheet is thus found from the two-dimensional
form of the Biot-Savart law:
In a similar way, a volume current will be made up

of three-dimensional current elements, and so the Biot-Savart
law for this case becomes:
Example of the Biot-Savart Law
In this example, we evaluate the magnetic field intensity on the y axis (equivalently in the xy plane)
arising from a filament current of infinite length in on the z axis.
Using the drawing, we identify:
and so..
so that:
Example: continued
We now have:
Integrate this over the entire wire:
..after carrying out the cross product

Example: concluded
Evaluating the integral:
Current is into the page. Magnetic field streamlines

are concentric circles, whose magnitudes
finally: decrease as the inverse distance from the z axis
Field Arising from a Finite Current Segment
In this case, the field is to be found in the xy plane at Point 2.
The Biot-Savart integral is taken over the wire length:
..after a few additional steps (see Problem 7.8), we find:
Another Example: Magnetic Field from a
Current Loop
Consider a circular current loop of radius a in the x-y plane, which

carries steady current I. We wish to find the magnetic field strength
anywhere on the z axis.
We will use the Biot-Savart Law:
where:
Example: Continued
Substituting the previous expressions, the Biot-Savart Law becomes:
carry out the cross products to find:
but we must include the angle dependence in the radial

unit vector:
with this substitution, the radial component will integrate to zero, meaning that all radial
components will cancel on the z axis.
Example: Continued
Now, only the z component remains, and the integral

evaluates easily:
Note the form of the numerator: the product of

the current and the loop area. We define this as
the magnetic moment:
Ampere’s Circuital Law
Ampere’s Circuital Law states that the line integral of H about any closed path
is exactly equal to the direct current enclosed by that path.
In the figure at right, the integral of H about closed paths a and b gives
the total current I, while the integral over path c gives only that portion
of the current that lies within c
Ampere’s Law Applied to a Long Wire
Symmetry suggests that H will be circular, constant-

valued at constant radius, and centered on the
current (z) axis.
Choosing path a, and integrating H around the circle

of radius  gives the enclosed current, I:
so that: as before.
Coaxial Transmission Line
In the coax line, we have two concentric solid

conductors that carry equal and opposite currents, I.
The line is assumed to be infinitely long, and the

circular symmetry suggests that H will be entirely
 - directed, and will vary only with radius .
Our objective is to find the magnetic field for all

values of 
Field Between Conductors
The inner conductor can be thought of as made up of a
bundle of filament currents, each of which produces the
field of a long wire.
Consider two such filaments, located at the same radius

from the z axis, , but which lie at symmetric 
coordinates, and -Their field contributions
superpose to give a net H component as shown.
The same happens for every pair of symmetrically-
located filaments, which taken as a whole, make up the
entire center conductor.
a < < b
Field Within the Inner Conductor
With current uniformly distributed inside the conductors, the H can be assumed
circular everywhere.
Inside the inner conductor, and at radius we again have:
But now, the current enclosed is
so that or finally:
Field Outside Both Conductors
Outside the transmission line, where > c,
no current is enclosed by the integration path,
and so
As the current is uniformly distributed, and

since we have circular symmetry, the field
would have to be constant over the circular
integration path, and so it must be true
that:
Field Inside the Outer Conductor
Inside the outer conductor, the enclosed current consists of that within
the inner conductor plus that portion of the outer conductor current
existing at radii less than 
Ampere’s Circuital Law becomes
..and so finally:
Magnetic Field Strength as a Function of
Radius in the Coax Line
Combining the previous results, and assigning dimensions as shown in the
inset below, we find:
For a uniform plane current in the y direction, we expect an x-directed H field from symmetry.
Applying Ampere’s circuital law to the path
we find: or
In other words, the magnetic field is discontinuous across the current sheet by the
magnitude of the surface current density.
If instead, the upper path is elevated to the line between 3 and 3’ , the same current is
enclosed and we would have
from which we conclude that
So the field is constant in each region (above and below the current plane)
By symmetry, the field above the sheet must be the same in magnitude as the field
below the sheet. Therefore, we may state that
&
The actual field configuration is shown below, in which magnetic field above the current
sheet is equal in magnitude, but in the direction opposite to the field below the sheet.
The field in either region is found by the cross product:
where aN is the unit vector that is normal

to the current sheet,
and that points into the region in which

the magnetic field is to be evaluated.
Magnetic Field Arising from Two Current
Sheets
Here are two parallel currents, equal and opposite, as you would find in a parallel-plate
transmission line. If the sheets are much wider than their spacing, then the magnetic
field will be contained in the region between plates, and will be nearly zero outside.
Hx2 (z > d/2 ) These fields cancel for current

Hx1 (z > d/2 ) sheets of infinite width.
K1 = -Ky ay These fields are equal and

Hx1 (-d /2 < z < d/2 ) add to give
Hx2 (-d /2 < z < d/2 ) H = K x aN (-d/2 < z < d/2 )
K2 = -Ky ay
where K is either K1 or K2
Hx1 (z < -d/2 ) These fields cancel for current

Hx2 (z < -d/2 ) sheets of infinite width.
Current Loop Field
Using the Biot-Savart Law, we previously found the magnetic field on the z axis from
a circular current loop:
We will now use this result as a building block

to construct the magnetic field on the axis of
a solenoid -- formed by a stack of identical current
loops, centered on the z axis.
On-Axis Field Within a Solenoid
We consider the single current loop field as a differential contribution to the total field from a
stack of N closely-spaced loops, each of which carries current I. The length of the stack
(solenoid) is d, so therefore the density of turns will be N/d.
Now the current in the turns within a differential length, dz, will be
We consider this as our differential “loop current” z
d/
so that the previous result for 2
H from a single loop:
-
now becomes: d/2
in which z is measured from the center of the coil, where we wish to evaluate the field.
Solenoid Field, Continued
The total field on the z axis at z = 0 will be the sum of the field contributions
from all turns in the coil -- or the integral of dH over the length of the
solenoid.
z
d/2
-d/2
Approximation for Long Solenoids
We now have the on-axis field at the solenoid midpoint (z = 0):
z
Note that for long solenoids, for which , the d/2
result simplifies to:
( )
-d/2
This result is valid at all on-axis positions deep within long coils
-- at distances from each end of several radii.
Another Interpretation: Continuous
Surface Current
The solenoid of our previous example was assumed to have many tightly-wound turns, with
Several existing within a differential length, dz. We could model such a current configuration
as a continuous surface current of density K = Ka a A/m.
d/2 Therefore:
-d/2 In other words, the on-axis field magnitude near the center of a
cylindrical current sheet, where current circulates around the z axis,
and whose length is much greater than its radius, is just the surface
current density.
Solenoid Field -- Off-Axis
To find the field within a solenoid, but off the z axis, we apply Ampere’s Circuital Law
in the following way:
The illustration below shows the solenoid cross-section, from a lengthwise cut through the
z axis. Current in the windings flows in and out of the screen in the circular current path.
Each turn carries current I. The magnetic field along the z axis is NI/d as we found earlier.
Toroid Magnetic Field
A toroid is a doughnut-shaped set of windings around a core material. The cross-section
could be circular (as shown here, with radius a) or any other shape.
Below, a slice of the toroid is shown, with current emerging from the screen around
the inner periphery (in the positive z direction). The windings are modeled
as N individual current loops, each of which carries current I.
Ampere’s Law as Applied to a Toroid
Ampere’s Circuital Law can be applied to a toroid by taking a closed loop integral
around the circular contour C at radius Magnetic field H is presumed to be circular,
and a function of radius only at locations within the toroid that are not too close to the
individual windings. Under this condition, we would assume:
This approximation improves as the density of turns gets higher

(using more turns with finer wire).
Ampere’s Law now takes the form:
so that….
Performing the same integrals over contours drawn in the regions or

will lead to zero magnetic field there, because no current is enclosed in either case.
Surface Current Model of a Toroid
Consider a sheet current molded into a doughnut shape, as shown. The current density
at radius crosses the xy plane in the z direction and is given in magnitude by Ka
Ampere’s Law applied to a circular contour C inside the toroid (as in the previous
example) will take the form:
leading to…
inside the toroid…. and the field is zero outside as before.
Approximation of H Along One Segment
Along path 1-2, we may write:
where:
And therefore:
Stokes’ Theorem
We now take our previous result, and take the limit as
In the limit, this side In the limit, this side

becomes the path integral becomes the integral
of H over the outer perimeter of the curl of H over
because all interior paths surface S
cancel
.
The result is Stokes’ Theorem
This is a valuable tool to have at our disposal, because it gives us two ways to
evaluate the same thing!
Obtaining Ampere’s Circuital Law in
Integral Form, using Stokes’ Theorem
Begin with the point form of Ampere’s Law for static fields:
Integrate both sides over surface S:
..in which the far right hand side is found from the left hand side
using Stokes’ Theorem. The closed path integral is taken around
The perimeter of S. Again, note that we use the right-hand
convention in choosing the direction of the path integral.
The center expression is just the net current through surface S,

so we are left with the integral form of Ampere’s Law:
Magnetic Flux and Flux Density
We are already familiar with the concept of electric flux:
Coulombs
in which the electric flux density in free space is:

and where the free space permittivity is
In a similar way, we can define the magnetic flux in units of Webers (Wb):
Webers
in which the magnetic flux density (or magnetic induction)

in free space is:
and where the free space permeability is
This is a defined quantity, having to do with the definition of the ampere
A Key Property of B
If the flux is evaluated through a closed surface, we have in the case of
electric flux, Gauss’ Law:
If the same were to be done with magnetic flux density, we would find:
The implication is that (for our purposes) there are no magnetic charges
-- specifically, no point sources of magnetic field exist.
A hint of this has already been observed, in that magnetic field lines always
close on themselves.
Another Maxwell Equation
We may rewrite the closed surface integral of B using the divergence theorem,
in which the right hand integral is taken over the volume surrounded by the
closed surface:
Because the result is zero, it follows that
This result is known as Gauss’ Law for the magnetic field in point form.
Example: Magnetic Flux Within a Coaxial Line
Consider a length d of coax, as shown here. The magnetic field strength between conductors is:
and so:
The magnetic flux is now the integral of B over the

flat surface between radii a and b,
and of length d along z:
B d
The result is:
The coax line thus “stores” this amount of magnetic flux in the region between conductors.
This will have importance when we discuss inductance in a later lecture.
Scalar Magnetic Potential
We are already familiar with the relation between the scalar electric potential
and electric field:
So it is tempting to define a scalar magnetic potential such that:
This rule must be consistent with Maxwell’s equations, so therefore:
But the curl of the gradient of any function is identically zero! Therefore, the scalar
magnetic potential is valid only in regions where the current density is zero
(such as in free space).
So we define scalar magnetic

potential with a condition:
Further Requirements on the Scalar
Magnetic Potential
The other Maxwell equation involving magnetic field must also be satisfied. This is:
in free space
Therefore:
..and so the scalar magnetic potential satisfies Laplace’s equation (again with
the restriction that current density must be zero:
Example: Coaxial Transmission Line
With the center conductor current flowing out of the screen, we have
Thus:
So we solve:
.. and obtain:
where the integration constant has been set to zero
Ambiguities in the Scalar Potential
The scalar potential is now:
where the potential is zero at
At point P ( ) the potential is
But wait! As increases to
we have returned to the same physical location, and the potential has a new
value of -I.
In general, the potential at P will be multivalued, and will acquire a new value after
each full rotation in the xy plane:
Overcoming the Ambiguity
To remove the ambiguity, we construct a mathematical barrier at any value of phi.
The angle domain cannot cross this barrier in either direction, and so the potential function
is restricted to angles on either side.
In the present case we choose the barrier to lie at so that
The potential at point P is now single-valued:
Barrier at
Vector Magnetic Potential
We make use of the Maxwell equation:
.. and the fact that the divergence of the curl of any vector field is identically zero
(show this!)
This leads to the definition of the magnetic vector potential, A:
Thus:
and Ampere’s Law becomes
Equation for the Vector Potential
We start with:
Then, introduce a vector identity that defines the vector Laplacian:
Using a (lengthy) procedure (see Sec. 7.7) it can be proven that
We are therefore left with
The Direction of A
We now have
In rectangular coordinates:
(not so simple in the other coordinate systems)
The equation separates to give:
This indicates that the direction of A will be the same as that of the current to which it is
associated.
The vector field, A, existing in all space, is sometimes described as being a “fuzzy image”
of its generating current.
Expressions for Potential
Consider a differential elements, shown here. On the left is a point charge
represented by a differential length of line charge. On the right is a differential
current element. The setups for obtaining potential are identical between the two
cases.
Line Charge Line Current
Scalar Electrostatic Potential Vector Magnetic Potential

General Expressions for Vector Potential
For large scale charge or current distributions, we would sum the
differential contributions by integrating over the charge or current, thus:
and
The closed path integral is taken because the current must close on itself
to form a complete circuit.
For surface or volume current distributions, we would have, respectively:
or
in the same manner that we used for scalar electric potential.

Example
We continue with the differential current element as shown here:
In this case
becomes at point P:
Now, the curl is taken in cylindrical coordinates:
This is the same result as found using the Biot-Savart Law (as it should be)

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UNIT - III

Static Magnetic Fields

Here are the easily-observed facts:

• This is equivalent to Coulomb’s Law written in differential

Hans Christian Oersted, 1820

No Current in the Wire Current in the Wire

Assume a small segment of

Note: dB is perpendicular to ds and r

• The integral is over the entire current distribution

• ds represents the length of a small segment of

• Example: electron beam in a TV set

Magnetic Field Electric Field

• Biot-Savart Law • Coulomb’s Law

Integrating over all the

• The field becomes:

• Find the field at point O due

The field B2 due to the current

If the currents are in the:

–same direction the wires attract each other.

–opposite directions the wires repel each other.

• When a conductor carries a steady current of

magnetic field is not necessarily due only to the

• In the Biot-Savant Law, dB is due entirely to the

• To find the magnetic field near an

• The solution of this integral yields:

• By = 0 is from the symmetry of the

• Bz is calculated using the Biot- Savant Law:

• For z>>R then the above relationship simplifies to:

Magnetic Field of a Wire Segment

• Example for two wires. Find B at P1, P2, and P3.

Ampère’s law in integral form  (  B)  da   B  d    0  J  da   0 Ienc

Where N is the number of turns in the length

 B  d   2sB   0 Ienc   0 0 2a 3 2sds  a 3 3 s  a 3

 B  d   2sB   0 Ienc   0 0 2a 3 2sds  a 3 3 a   0 I

The divergence and curl of the electrostatic field are

The divergence and curl of the magnetostatic field are

You can add to V any function whose gradient is zero

We will prove that   A  0 :

If a function  can be found that satisfies

In particular, if  goes to zero at infinity, then the solution is

This again is a Poisson’s equation

A spherical shell, of radius R, carrying a uniform surface charge ,

The integration is easier

 sin ' d'   cos ' d'  0 v   R sin  cos ' ŷ

 0 (  R sin  cos ' ) 2

A( r )  R sin ' d' d'ŷ

r lies inside the sphere, Then R > r.  I  2

For the point inside the sphere

 0 R 3 sin   0 R 3 sin  2r  0 R  

 0 R 3 sin   0 R 3 sin  2 R  0 R 4  

For the point outside the sphere

Find the vector potential of an infinite solenoid with n turns per

Since the magnetic field is uniform inside the solenoid : B   0 nIẑ

Here are the easily-observed facts:

At point P, the magnetic field associated with

To determine the total field arising from the closed

On a surface that carries uniform surface current

..and so the differential current quantity that

The magnetic field arising from a current

In a similar way, a volume current will be made up

Using the drawing, we identify:

Integrate this over the entire wire:

..after carrying out the cross product