Let Reviewer Encoded

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COMPREHENSIVE
REVIEWER
Specialization
ENGLISH
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. REMEDIAL INSTRUCTION IN ENGLISH

1.1. Take into consideration student inadequacies in language and literature
competencies for remediation purposes
2. ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSE
2.1. Apply content-based principles and strategies in developing language proficiency
for specific disciplines
3. LANGUAGE CURRICULUM FOR SECONDARY SCHOOL
3.1. Exhibit clear understanding of the design, development and dissemination of a
language curriculum
4. INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS
4.1. Demonstrate understanding of the structural aspect of language, i.e. phonology,
morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics
4.2. Apply concepts and principles of language learning, teaching and language use in
specific contexts for language acquisition and learning
4.3. Draw implications of the theories of linguistics, psycholinguistics and
sociolinguistics to language teaching and learning
5. STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH
5.1. Demonstrate the understanding of grammatical concepts by being able to
describe and analyse the form, meaning and use of various language structures
6. INTRODUCTION TO STYLISTICS
6.1. Use the conceptual framework and schema of linguistics and literature in
understanding literary language
7. LITERARY CRITICISM
7.1. Demonstrate understanding of the basic principles to problems in critical theory
from the classical to modern times as applied to literary works
8. MYTHOLOGY AND FOLKLORE
8.1. Use literary concepts in interpreting and analysing various literary texts
9. AFRO- ASIAN LITERATURE ( including PHILIPPINE LITERATURE )
9.1. Identify characteristics, motifs, archetypes and symbols of different literary texts
10. ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE
10.1. Identify characteristics, motifs, archetypes and symbols of different literary texts
11. THE TEACHING OF SPEAKING, LISTENING AND READING
11.1. Demonstrate understanding of the nature of the four language macro-
components ( listening, speaking, reading and writing, including grammar ) and the
theoretical bases, principles, methods, strategies in teaching these components
12. TEACHING OF LITERATURE
12.1. Apply principles, skills and strategies gained to literature instruction
13. PREPARATION AND EVALUATION OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
13.1. Apply knowledge of principles and processes involved in developing and
evaluating various types of instructional materials for language and literature
instruction, including the use of technology for assisting instruction and independent
language learning
14. LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE ASSESSMENT
14.1. Use basic concepts in language and literature testing in assessing language
proficiency
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15. LANGUAGE RESEARCH

15.1. Apply principles and approaches in research to find answers to questions in
language and literature teaching and learning
16. CAMPUS JOURNALISM
16.1. Apply principles and strategies in writing the various parts (e.g. editorial, news,
feature story, etc ) of a campus paper
17. TRANSLATION AND EDITING OF TEXT
17.1. Apply the rules of discourse and rhetoric in editing various kinds of written
materials
17.2. Demonstrate understanding of basic theories and concepts in translation as
applied to the writing and editing of various types of texts
17.3. Apply principles and strategies in translating texts of various types from English
to another language or from another language to English
18. SPEECH AND STAGE ARTS
18.1. Demonstrate understanding of the process of oral communication and the
various forms of speech arts from public speaking and group discussion to debate, oral
interpretation and dramatics
19. CREATIVE WRITING
19.1 apply theories, concepts and skills in creative writing to include biographical
sketches, fiction , creative non-fiction and poetry
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START HERE
Directions : Write the letter of the correct answer beside each number. Use a pencil for your
corrections.
1. REMEDIAL INSTRUCTION IN ENGLISH

1.1. Take into consideration student inadequacies in language and literature
competencies for remediation purposes
1. For which is an Individualized Education Programme (IEP) ?
I. Reinforcement of the foundation of learning
II. Helping pupils overcome their learning difficulties
III. Developing learner’s potentials
A. I only B. II only C. III only D. I, II and III
2. What should be done first before doing remedial instruction?
A. Diagnose the difficulty C. Plan the remedial instruction
B. Prepare remedial materials D. Group the pupils by gender
3. The following are remedial teaching strategies EXCEPT
A. Individualized Educational Programme C. Reward Scheme
B. Peer Support Programme D. Test and Drill
4. Is remedial instruction the same as special education?
A. No, however, remedial instruction may include children with special needs
if they are diagnosed with difficulty.
B. Yes, both remedial instruction and special education serve learners that need
help
C. It depends on the clientele of remedial instruction
D. No, they are far apart and not in any way related
5. Which statement on remedial teaching is WRONG?
Remedial teaching involves
A. Working systematically: observing, diagnosing, remediating, evaluating
B. Working purposefully and intensively with a pupil
C. Seeing to it that the pupil can remain at his/ her school
D. Re-teaching , reviewing and assessing
6. What does remedial instruction focus on?
A. Content B. Skills C. Grammar D. Test
7. Which practices mean success for learners with reading difficulties?
I. Be clear on what students must know, understand and be able to do in
order to grow in their grasp of a subject?
II. Build scaffolding leading to student success in those goals. Don’t dilute
the goals.
III. Make use of several avenues of learning- make students hear it, sing it,
read it.
A. I, II and III C. I and II
B. II and III D. I, II and II
8. For effective remedial instruction, work for learning-in -the- context. What does
learning-in-the-context mean?
A. Make students see how ideas and skills connect to their families and
communities
B. Make students see how important concepts and skills are
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C. Make use of problem solving

D. Avoid drills
9. Which can increase the effectiveness of remedial teaching?
A. Let the student know that you believe in her/him
B. Direct students to work harder whether she likes it or not
C. Do not allow him to play until he can do the task
D. Engage him in a continuous drill until he learns the skill
10. Because reading remediation requires building skills rather than learning course
content, which should reading trainers do?
I. Minimize testing and grading
II. Observe the student in the actual act of reading
III. Make reading classes a grammar class
A. I and II B. II only C. III only D. I, II and III
2. ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES
2.1. Apply content –based principles and strategies in developing language
proficiency for specific disciplines
11. Which statement about the use of voice in academic or scientific writing is NOT
true?
A. Scientific or academic writing uses the passive voice more than the active
voice.
B. Scientific writing uses the passive voice more than the active voice is a myth.
C. The choice of active or passive is constrained by functional consideration,
thus, writers use the we-from active when they describe their own
procedural choices but use the passive when describing standard procedures
D. Writers use the we-form active when contrasting their work with previous
work in the field
12. Which of the following statements about hedging is INCORRECT?
A. Hedging is a scientific writing strategy where writers use aspects of the verb
as devices to express politeness or to distance themselves from a claim.
B. When hedging, academic writers use words that strongly and sharply
express commitment to their criticism.
C. ESP learners need to appreciates the role of hedging in academic,
professional and business genres and to manipulate its actual linguistic
devices
D. In research or in the professional community, the criticism, Mr. de la Cruz
appears not to have understood my point, is hedged and is more acceptable
than the statement; Mr. de la Cruz definitely did not understand my point.
13. Which statement compares/ contrasts BEST discourses analysis from genre
analysis?
A. Discourse analysis is any study of language text at a level above that of a
sentence, genre analysis is a text analysis focused on the regularities of
structure that distinguishes one type of text from another
B. Discourse analysis is the global/umbrella term for text analysis while genre
analysis is a part of discourse analysis
C. Discourse analysis is valuable in looking at spoken and written business texts
while genre analysis is useful in looking at both written and spoken texts in
all areas of ESP
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D. Discourse analysis includes the study of cohesive links between sentences of

paragraph structure or the structure of the whole text
14. Which statement below best defines ESP?
A. It is a language teaching approach which is based on learner’s need
B. It is an approach not a product
C. It is a particular kind of language or methodology
D. It consists of a particular type of teaching material
15. Which type of knowledge is NOT required of the ESP teacher?
A. a positive attitude towards the ESP content
B. a knowledge of the fundamental principles of the subject area
C. an awareness of how much they probably already know
D. a specialist subject knowledge
16. One of the consistent problems of ESP teachers is the lack of orthodoxy. This
means that
I. ESP teachers do not have a ready-made, straightforward answers to
problems they meet
II. ESP teachers need to distil and synthesize from several options those that
best suit their circumstances
III. All ESP teachers are pioneers who are helping to shape the world of ESP
A. I B. II C. I, II D. I, II, III
17. Another problem that constantly faces ESP teachers is the new realms of knowledge that ESP
teachers have to cope with. This suggests that
A. ESP teachers have to struggle to master language and subject matter they know
very little about
B. ESP teachers often feel a sense of utter inadequacy at their ability to cope
C. ESP teachers feel boredom as they teach subject matters that are very simple
and familiar
D. A and B
18. Which type of syllabus would contain the following set of topics: making arrangements,
attending meetings, taking part in an interview, and selling?
A. structural/situational syllabus C. Functional/ notional syllabus
B. skill syllabus D. Functional / task based syllabus
19. Which type of syllabus would contain the following set of topics: taking notes, writing essays,
study techniques and examinations, improving your reading?
A. skill syllabus B. discourse/skills syllabus C. functional/task based D. skills
and strategies
20. Which type of syllabus would contain the following set of topics: properties and shapes,
location, structure, actions in sequence, cause and effect, etc?
A. Structural/situational syllabus C. Functional/Notional syllabus
B. Skill syllabus D. Functional/ task based syllabus
21. Which type of syllabus would contain the following set of topics : the nature of
generalizations, general and specific information, levels of generality, etc?
A. skill syllabus C. functional/task based
syllabus
B. discourse/skill syllabus D. skills and strategies
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22. Which type of syllabus would contain the following set of topics: exercises in
personal evaluation, exercises in examining your job, needs, exercises in using the
ads, etc ?
A. skill syllabus C. functional/ task-based syllabus
B. discourse/ skill syllabus D. skills and strategies
3. LANGUAGE CURRICULUM FOR SECONDARY SCHOOL

3.1. Exhibit clear understanding of the design, development and dissemination of a
language curriculum of DepEd
23. Which program for school staff members and teachers was conducted to better match
students with their aptitude and career interests?
A. Project Effective and Affordable Secondary Education (EASE )
B. Revitalized Homeroom Guidance Program ( RHGP )
C. School Based Education ( SBE)
D. Thinking Skills Development for Maximized Cognitive Performance ( TSDMCP )
24. Which was the Secondary Education Curriculum that was implemented in 1989 to replace
the Revised Secondary Education Program (RSEP)?
A. Program for Decentralized Education ( RSEP )
B. Secondary Education Development Program ( PRODED)
C. New Secondary Education Curriculum ( NSEC)
D. Revised Secondary Education Curriculum ( RSEC)
25 In the K-12 curriculum, to which does the basic education refer to?
A. 6 years of primary school and four years of junior high school
B. 4 years of junior high school, 7 years of primary school and 2 years senior high school
C. 2 years of junior high school , 4 years of senior high school and 6 years of primary education
D. 6 years of elementary education, 4 years of junior high school and 2 years of senior high
school
26. Which is the main objective of the K to 12 program?
A. to provide sufficient time for mastery of concepts and skills, develop lifelong learners and
prepare graduates for tertiary education, middle-level skills development , employment and
entrepreneurship
B. to produce graduates at the age of 18 instead of 16
C. to follow the trend of the other countries all over the world
D. to cope with the other educational systems in the ASEAN
27. The K to 12 curriculum envisions
A. holistically developed learners with 21st century skills
B. a good competition with other countries in the financial world
C. 12 years of basic education that meets international standard
28. The new curriculum will be focused more on the _____
A. teacher B. learners C. instructional materials D. hours spent in teaching
29. Who will be the first beneficiaries of the free senior high school education of the K to 12
curriculum?
A. Incoming freshmen of SY 2012-2013 C. Incoming juniors of SY 2012-2013
B. Incoming sophomores of SY 2012-2013 D. Incoming seniors of SY2012-2013
30. According to the Department of Education, which subject area will be integrated into the
teaching of language?
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A. Reading b. Physical Education C. Science d. Social Studies

4. INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS
4.1. Demonstrate understanding of the structural aspect of language i.e. phonology,
morphology, syntax
31.The transcription /taip/ represents the word
A. tap B. tape C. tip D. type
32. Which one has the correct stress?
A. ceremony B. ceremony C. ceremony D. ceremony
33. The P in "Spot, Pot, Spoon, Pat" are phonetically different because
A. the acoustic pattern is not identical
B. the letter is used in different words with different places
C. all letter P’s represent the same phoneme
D. all of the above
34. Which has the correct stress?
A. honourable B. honourable C. honourable D. honourable
35. – 48 Which is the best synonym for the following words?
35. loquacious A learned B. valuable C. talkative D. silent
36. erudite A. learned B. valuable C. talkative D. silent
37 precious A. learned B. valuable C. talkative D. silent
38. Unique A. simple B. allowed C. special D. known
39. bulky A. skinny B. simple C. tender D. huge
40. assist A. attend B. apply C. reproach D. help
41. Advocate A. predict B. pronounce C. support D. determine
42. authorize A. protect B. question C. empower D. verify
43. Bless A. consecrate B. alarm C. concern D. terrify
44. try A. wish B. want C. hope D. attempt
45. Startle A. frighten B. rush C. upset D. surprise
46. utter A. scream B. shout C. yell D. say
47. thrill A. disturb B. chill C. move D. excite
48. wreck A. pop B. mash C. dash D. crash
49 – 60 Which is the best antonym for the following words ?
49. Vicious A. gentle B. healthy C. helpful D. dangerous
50. conquer A. surrender B. descend C. punish D. divide
51. criticize A. berate B. enjoy C. fault D. Acclaim
52. enormous A. thin B. loose C. large D. small
53. relegate A. prevaricate B. promote C. import D. secrete
54. instigate A. incite B. create C. mediate D. hesitate
55. legalize A. fire B. ban C. boycott D. outlaw
56. mourn A. rejoice B. suffer C. regret D. cry
57. oppress A. suppress B. hurt C. increase D. inspire
58. attach A. scrape B. subtract C. detach D. add
59. export A. tax B. import C. intake D. bring
60. donate A. take B. steal C. let D. give
61. Which has an odd-sounding word in the following groups?
A. maintain B. domain C. contain D. mountain
62. Discern the semantic similarities in the following items by identifying the sentence with a
different meaning.
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A. He paid almost thirty thousand pesos for his new personal computer.
B. His new personal computer cost a little less than thirty thousand pesos.
C. At thirty thousand pesos, his personal computer was expensive.
D. The new personal computer he bought cost him about thirty thousand pesos.
63. Which word is supposed to be stressed when the speaker means that the robber may have
taken some jewellery?
A. I didn’t say he stole the money. C. I didn’t say he stole the money.
B. I didn’t say he stole the money. D. I didn’t say he stole the money.
64. How many morphemes are there in transportation ?
A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4
65. Which of the following sentences is done in acceptable English?
A. Maria cleaned the table up. C. That Maria dances well surprises me.
B. Maria is eager to talk to. D. Maria desires that you go.
66. Which is the correct and preferred sentence?
A. I offered the visitor a meal that was hungry. C. I offered for the consumption of the
visitor, a meal
B. I offered a meal to the visitor who was hungry. D. A meal was offered by me to the hungry
visitor.
67. Which is the closest meaning of the root word philanthropist?
A. physician B. benevolent C. philosopher D. artist
68. Where should the modifier- weighing 150 pounds be placed in the following sentences?
The robber was described as a tall man with heavy moustache.
A. The robber weighing 150 pounds was described as a tall man with a heavy moustache.
B. The robber was described as a tall man with a heavy moustache weighing 150 pounds
C. The robber was described as a tall man with a heavy weighing 150 pounds moustache
D. The robber was described weighing 150 pounds as tall man with a heavy moustache.
69. Which is the free morpheme in the word examination?
A. exam B. in C. am D. tion
70. Which of the appropriate homonym for blew in the following sentences?
The wind blew the rain clouds away, leaving a clear _____ sky.
A. Blow B. blue C. blows D. dark

71. Select the sentence that has the modifier placed correctly.
Emotional intelligence which emerged a decade ago, includes the abilities to motivate
yourself and persist in the face of frustrations.
A. Emotional intelligence which emerged a decade ago includes the abilities to motivate
yourself and persist in the face of frustration
B. Emotional intelligence includes the abilities to motivate yourself and persist in the face
of frustration which emerged a decade ago
C. Which emerged a decade ago, emotional intelligence includes the abilities to motivate
yourself and persist in the face of frustration.
D. Emotional intelligence includes the abilities to motivate yourself which emerged a
decade ago and persist in the face of frustrations.
72. Which is the best ending for the following sentence?
Pupils are required to be in their classrooms by 8:00 am each morning. Hence, ____
A. Pupils have their own wrist watches C. pupils are intelligent
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B. Pupils coming late will be punished accordingly D. pupils are supposed to be trained to
be
punctual at an early age
73. Which of the following words contains a voiced “th” / ó / sound?
A. thoughtful B. thermometer C. thinkers D. therefore
74. Which sentence is punctuated correctly?
A. In that college, you have to take the following courses: four years of English, three
years of math, three years of social studies and three years of science.
B. In that college, you have to take the following courses; four years of English, three
C. In that college, you have to take the following courses. Four years of English, three
D. In that college, you have to take the following courses, four years of English, three
75. Select the words that best complete the following sentence __with repeated rejections
of her novel, Isabel _____ to submit her manuscript to other publishers.
A. Inspired…complied C. encouraged…refused
B. Elated…planned D. undaunted…continued
4.2. Apply concepts and principles of language learning, teaching and language use in
specific contexts for language acquisition and learning
76. Given below are some of the contributions of theoretical linguistics to language
teaching except one. Which one is the EXEPTION?
A. Changing views and theories of language teaching
B. Different technical terms like phoneme, morpheme , hyponymy, etc
C. Pronouncing words and transcribing sounds using the IPA
D. Different approaches in language teaching
77. All the options below except one are some of the contributions of applied linguistics to
language teaching. Which one is NOT?
A. How to develop the macro-language skills of listening, speaking, reading, etc
B. Ideas about learning styles of students and materials production
C. Learning strategies, principles of test construction and conducting classroom research
D. Relationship between and among sentences in a text
78. Good instructional materials produce satisfactory results only if the teacher ___
A. is creative and has pleasant presentation techniques
B. uses them in teaching lessons that she has not fully mastered
C. allows students to manipulate during her presentation
D. is knowledgeable of developments and principles underlying those materials
79. Which situation best assures that the good findings of linguistics will reach the end users?
A. Linguists publish their research findings without delay.
B. Schools encourage increased efforts to conduct classroom research
C. Current findings are disseminated during proper presentations.
D. Teachers pick up and put to good use findings of linguistics in their language.
80. What attitude needs to be maintained by language teachers about the findings of
linguistics?
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A. Knowledge is constantly changing; take them with a grain of salt.

B. Findings are permanent foundations; memorize them for future application.
C. Many research findings spring from careless research procedures, be choosy and selective
D. Knowledge is in a continuous state of flux; be open to new developments and give them a
try.
81. In the machine of language teaching and language learning, who appears to be the most
important cog?
A. the linguist B. the learner C. the researcher D. the teacher
82. You are the classroom English teacher of Gracia, a new language learner who has no
knowledge of English whatsoever. Which of the following contributions of linguistics will be
most helpful to you as a teacher to teach her successfully?
A. the perfection of your articulation and oral proficiency in the English language
B. your knowledge and skill in grammatical analysis
C. your knowledge of linguistically sound language teaching materials
D. the reshaping of your view, attitude and concept of language and language learning
83. Genre analysis, macro discourse patterns, text analysis, micro – discourse analyses are
concept developments in linguistics. Which list of authors would you consult to know more
about them?
A. Michael Hoey, Wimifred Crombie, John Swales and Trimble
B. Svardik, Geoffrey Leech, Celce-Murcia and Terence Odlin
C. John Austin, John Searle and Dell Hymes
D. John Austin, Wimifred Crombie, John Swales and Trimble
84. Pedagogical grammar, collocational grammar, ergative verbs, semantic grammar are
concepts developments in in linguistics. Which list of authors would you consult to know more
about them?
A. John Austin, John Searle and Dell Hymes
B. Michael Howey, Wimifred Crombie, John Swales and Trimble
C. Svardik, Geoffrey Leech, Celce-Murcia and Terence Odlin
D. John Austin, John Searle and Dell Hymes Terence Odlin
85. Conversational analysis, gambits , adjacency pairs, speech act theory are concept
developments in linguistics. Which list of authors should you consult to know more about
them?
A. John Austin, John Searle and Dell Hymes
B. Michael Howey, Wimifred Crombie, John Swales and Trimble
C. Svardik, Geoffrey Leech, Celce-Murcia and Terence Odlin
D. John Austin, John Searle and Dell Hymes , Svardik
86. Language learning refers to how an individual learns a language. Which statement about
language learning is correct?
A. Language learning occurs in a natural manner.
B. Language learning happens when a person knows how to speak a language after living in the
country that has it as its native tongue.
C. Language learning occurs in a formal and non -constructive process.
D. Language learning is a constructive process through which we know and use a language.
87. Which theory of language learning advanced by Stephen Krashen states that a student
can learn a second language if the language components are not too complex nor too easy?
A. Comprehensible Input C. Linguistic output
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B. Critical Period Hypothesis D. Language Acquisition

88. Which method emphasizes isolated word lists and a thorough examination of its
grammar is used in second language teaching?
A. Direct approach C. Grammar translation method
C. Total Physical Response D. Suggestopedia
89. Which of the following is NOT an activity under the total physical response method ?
A. The teacher gives an activity that involves students interviewing people in the market.
B. The teacher uses body actions such as jumping to teach the meaning of the word “jump”.
C. The teacher opens the door as she gives the command “open the door”.
D. The students repeat the phrase , “ I can clap “ as they clap their hands.
90. Which hypothesis on second language acquisition states that grammatical structure
proceeds in a predictable order, that is, some grammatical structures are to be acquired early
and the others later?
A. Monitor hypothesis C. Affective Filter Hypothesis
B. Input hypothesis D. Natural Order Hypothesis
91. If the input hypothesis answers the question how a language acquirer develops
competency over time, this hypothesis points that motivation, self-confidence and anxiety
affect how an individual acquires the language. Which hypothesis is referred to?
A. Critical Period hypothesis C. Natural Order Hypothesis
B. Monitor Hypothesis D. Affective Filter Hypothesis
92. Schema theory describes the way the mind acquires, categorizes and organizes
knowledge. Which of the following is NOT a component of schema theory?
A. Schemata are basic units of knowledge stored in the mind.
B. Schema are linked together to form the schemata- out cognitive or thinking structure.
C. There can be real learning without meaning.
D. New information is organized and categorized to be properly integrated into the existing
schemata
93. Metacognition can be defined as “thinking about thinking”. The essence of
metacognition includes reflecting, monitoring , self – questioning and ____
A.self-concept B. self – recognition C. self-respect D. self –regulating
94. What approach involves a lot of repetition of the second language grammatical forms
especially those that are different from the learner’s first language?
A. Natural approach B. Communicative approach C. Linguistic D.Audio lingual
95. What kind of second language do the learners need to learn in employing the
communicative approach?
A. They must have knowledge of the grammatical rules. C. They will need to communicate
fluently
B. They will need for a real-world, real-life situations. D. They will know the deep structure of
grammar
96. Which among the classroom principles is not part of the communicative language teaching?
A. An emphasis on the use of interaction in the target language
B. The introduction of authentic texts into a learning situation
C. An enhancement of the learner’s personal experiences on the target language
D. The distinction between language acquisition and language learning
97. Which approach is frequently used task-based language teaching ( TBLT ) and features
small group activities that promote positive interaction?
A. Total Physical Response C. Cooperative Learning
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B. Academic Language Scaffolding D. Dialogue Journals

98. If the teacher asks the students to prepare a written story/text of the experience, what
kind of approach has been used?
A. Language Experience Approach C. Culture Studies
B. Dialogue Journals D. Total Physical Response
99. The following are concepts to be considered in employing cultural approach in
teaching language EXCEPT one. Which is the exception?
A. Children‘s experiences in learning their own language and culture are resources for
learning a second language.
B. Much of the students’ knowledge of their own culture is embedded in their first
language.
C. The process of learning the second language will also involve learning about the
culture embedded in that language.
D. There are superior languages because there are superior cultures.
100. If the academic language scaffolding involves providing students with second
language input that is a little bit beyond their current level, dialogue journals create a written
conversation between each student and the teacher. Which of the following is TRUE?
A. Both statements are true. C. The first is false while the second is true
B. The first statement is true while the second is false. D. Both statements are false.
101. Dialogue journals : students write a topic in the second language in their journal;
_____ the teacher or a more advanced classmate acts as support as the student builds his
second language vocabulary and fluency.
A. Language experience approach C. Academic Language Scaffolding
B. Cooperative Learning D. Culture Studies
102. The domain of language that an individual acquires from 1-2 years is___
A. Cognitive-academic language proficiency C. Second language
B. First Language D. Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills
103. The theoretical framework for communicative language teaching (CLT ) includes ___
that views the learner’s use of second language as the best source for learning the second
language.
A . social interaction C. universal grammar
B. behaviourism theory D. language acquisition device
104. Which hypothesis suggests that there is an optimal window of time during which
anyone can learn a first language or second language in a “normal or native-like “ level?
A. Monitor hypothesis C. Natural order hypothesis
B. Critical period hypothesis D. Affective Filter Hypothesis
105. Which language teaching approach never uses the first language because it
emphasized the natural dialogue in the second language?
A. Total Physical Response C. Direct approach
B. Grammar translation method D. Cooperative learning
106. If the prefix “un” is attached to a base word to mean “not” which word is incorrect?
A. unserious B. uncommon C. unkind D. unsad
107. “Flu” “Bra” “ Fax” and “Cab” are words formed through ____
A. abbreviation B. acronym C. clipping D. eponym
108. Coinage is the invention of totally new terms. However, there are few coinages
because the words themselves give no clue to their meanings. Which of the following is not
coined?
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A. vortal B. kodak C. xerox D .Kleenex

109. The word “ skitch “ which means “ to propel oneself while on the skateboard “ came
from the words
A. ski and hitch B. ski and itch C. skate and itch D. skate and hitch
110. Which sentence shows the need for mastery of their plural form?
A. Bacteria is disease-causing microorganisms.’
B. Bacteria are studied microscopically.
C. Bacteria have cell walls.
D. Bacteria abound anywhere.
111. In language learning, discrimination of sounds can be done through minimal pairs-pair
of words in contrast. Which phrase does not use minimal pairs?
A. Shoes that fit his feet C. To eat it with gusto
B. Reach the peak D. The rich beyond the reach
112. In written communication, punctuation marks can be used to show junctures to make
the meaning clear. Which sentence expresses the idea that the speaker asks John to sleep?
A. John, don’t try to sleep now. C. John don’t try, sleep now.
B. John don’t, try to sleep now. D. John don’t try to sleep now.
113. In written communication, a slash mark is used to signify pauses for proper
communication. What meaning is conveyed by this line? “Nadia/says Thelma/is a liar.”
A. Nadia is a speaker. C. Thelma is the speaker.
B. Thelma is a liar. D. Nadia tells something to Thelma.
114. Using idioms is an effective way of vocabulary enrichment. Which sentence is
idiomatic?
A. She was crying because the milk was spilled.
B. At this point, it is useless crying over spilled milk.
C. The spilled milk is useless.
D. The useless spilled milk cannot be drunk.
115. Learning vocabulary can be done through context. What is the meaning of “set” in this
sentence? Alice wants a chess set for her collection.
A. apparatus B .model C. board D. kit
116. Which sentence is not emphatic?
A. Days, weeks and years may pass before they are recognized.
B. This has happened more than one.
C. Newsletters were used by them to spread news.
D. Edison took further steps to develop modern movies.
117. Which sentence shows a noun in the genitive case?
A. The teacher teaches grammar. C. The teacher’s grammar is excellent.
B. The teacher likes grammar. D. The teacher teaches us grammar.
118. The meanings associated with the word “ ear “ in the following sentences seem
related. How are the words with the same spelling and related meaning called?
I put a cotton wool in my ear
He listened to their difficulties with an impatient ear
The phonetician has a good ear for tone
I tried to get her ear
A. capitonyms B. paronyms C. oronyms D. polysemes
119. How are these words called ? “polish”- v.to make shiny and “Polish “ –adj. from
Poland , “ march –v.to walk with regular, steady steps of equal length and “ March “ –n. the
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third month of the year. These words share the same spelling but have different meanings
when capitalized and may or may not have different pronunciations.
A. capitonyms B. paronyms C. oronyms D. synonyms
120. Tenses express time. Which sentence shows that an action happened at a recent past?
A. Carlo just climbed the mountain last year.
B. Carlo has just climbed the mountain.
C. Carlo had just climbed the mountain.
D. Carlo is just climbing the mountain.
4.3 Draw implications of the theories of linguistics, psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics to
language teaching and learning
121. Noam Chomsky’s Language Acquisition Device (LAD) has led to an entirely new approach in
the field of linguistics : generative phonology and transformational grammar. What is the focus
of this new approach?
A. It focuses almost entirely on the abstract “deep structure” of individuals’ native language
B. It focuses on the device itself and how it is used in teaching
C. It focuses on how the individual acquires and learns a language
D. It focuses on language teaching
122. Anderson’s Adaptive Control of Thought (ACT) model has been influential in studies of
cognitive development and second language acquisition. Which of the following describes the
ACT model?
A. This model applies to the way people learn language as well as other human behaviour.
B. Children use language arguably the most abstract symbolic system that they will encounter in
their lives.
C. This is more of informational processing that is based on the belief that all human knowledge
can be divided into two irreducible kinds of representations, the declarative knowledge and
procedural knowledge.
D. The stages of development that are required for children to develop their cognitive abilities
in other areas do not apply to learning a language.
123. Which theory emphasizes that nay human behaviour can be learned through a process of
stimulus-response and positive or negative reinforcement?
A. behaviourism B. constructivism C. social interaction theories D. sociocultural theories
124. Which concept is NOT characteristic of academic language proficiency?
A. It includes knowledge of the less frequent vocabulary of the target language as well as the
ability to interpret and produce increasingly complex written language
B. Immigrant students typically require at least 5 years to attain expectation in second language
literacy skills
C. Frequent writing across genres is also crucial in developing academic writing skills
D. Academic language is primarily found in everyday conversation , hence teachers should train
the students with language use in everyday activities
125. Which of the statements is NOT true about the sociological factors in language learning?
A. A sociological factor is exercising power by a dominant individual, group or country
B. Students who experience academic failure predominantly come from social groups whose
identities have been devalued by the wider society, sometimes over many generations
C. Power relations in the broader society play a crucial role in students’ achievement in school
D. Effective education challenges coercive power relations in the broader society by affirming
the students’ identities at school
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126. Which principle states that language abilities required for academic success are very different
from those operating in everyday conversational context and that among bilingual children, transfer
of academic language proficiency occurs across languages when development of literacy in both
languages is promoted in the school context?
A. linguistic principle B. sociolinguistic principle C. psycholinguistic principle D. bilingual education
127. Which strategy allows the students to integrate their academic content to classroom activities
and to their own knowledge and expertise?
A. Language experience approach C. Culture studies
B. First language support D. Story telling
128. Which of the following does NOT belong to the group?
A. The acquisition –learning distinction C. Linguistic output
B. Monitor Hypothesis D. Affective filter hypothesis
129. Comprehensible input : level I + l ; linguistic output
A. using meaning-filled speech C. using the target language
B. production of language D. progress of the second language
130. Which principle does NOT belong to direct approach in language teaching ?
A. It is emphasizes natural dialogue in the second language
B. It is a method based on immersion
C. It never uses the second language
D. It takes advantage of the kinaesthetic memory
5. STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH
5.1. Demonstrate the understanding of grammatical concepts by being able to describe and
analyse the form, meaning and use of various language structures
131. Which word cannot complete the sentence?
__________ is my friend, Tom.
A. This B. That C. There D. He
132. Which word cannot complete the sentence?
_____________are my parents, John and Betty.
A. These B. That C. Those D. They
133. Which question is correct?
A. This is your coat? C. Is this your coat?
B. This your coat is? D. Your coat is this?
A. That is your husband? C. Are these your pens?
B. How much this bag is? D. These your pens?
135. Complete the sentence. How much are those ______?
A. bread B. apples C. fruit D. pen
136. Which word best completes the sentence?
Is _______ your dog over there?
A. those B. this C. that D. these
137. Which sentence is correct?
A. This’s my best friend, William. C. That’s my teacher, Ms. Wilson.
B. Those’re my classmates, James and Harry. D. They’re my friend, Alyssa.
138. Which sentence is not correct?
A. You look nice today. C. This music sounds great!
B. You sing very good. D. That is my house over there.
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A. Paul’s not going to get a job. C. We’re going to see a film.

B. They’re not going visit the castle. D. I am on a strict diet.
140. Which is the correct reply? Are you going to meet Ruth?
A. Yes , we are. B. Yes, she is C. Yes, I do. D. Yes, we will.
A. What time we going to arrive? C. Which television are you going to buy?
B. Where you are going to stay? D. When do your arrival?
A. How much do we have milk? C. How many milk do we have?
B. How much milk do we have? D. Do we have many milk?
A. How long does it take to get from here to Sagada? C. How long it takes to get from here to
Sagada?
B. How long to get from here to Sagada? D. How far do we go to Sagada?
A. How many rooms are in your house? C. How many rooms are there in your
house?
B. How many rooms there are in your house? D. How many are there rooms in your
house?
145. Complete the question. ______ work do you have to do today?
A. How much B. How many C. How long D. How little?
A. I’m twenty three years old. C. I’m twenty three.
B. I’m twenty three years. D. I’m twenty years older.
147. What is the correct reply? How much is the cruise?
A. It’s 1,450 pesos. C. Its 470 kilometers
B. It’s 10 days. D. It’s a two-day travel.
148. Which question is not correct?
A. How many students there are in the school? C. How much money do you have?
B. How long is the lesson? D. How far is the house from the
school?
149. Which is the friendliest way to reply to the question : How do I log onto the website ?
A. First, you type your username here. C. You should type your username here.
B. You must type your username here. D. If you want result, you must type your name
here.
150. Which sentence is best for a sign?
A. Please sign in, visitors! C. Visitor, you must sign in please.
B. Visitors must sign in. D. Sign in here.
A. Please to take a seat. C. Don’t leave the house alone.
B. Take care when you cross the road. D. Why not take a seat?
152. Which sentence is best for a sign?
A. Don’t park your car here please, visitors. C. Visitor, you don’t park here.
B. Visitors must not park their cars here. D. No parking on both sides.
153. You are giving someone instructions . Which sentence is best?
A. Please to put the box over there. C. You must put the box over there.
B. Please put the box over there. D. Over there put the box.
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A. Don’t to tell anyone! It is a secret. C. Don’t telling anyone! It’s a secret.
B. Don’t tell anyone! It’s a secret. D. Don’t tell nobody! It’s a secret.
155. Which sign is best?
A. Passenger must not cross this line. C. Passengers, don’t cross this line.
B. Passengers must not cross this line. D. Passengers must not cross.
156. Where can you write the word “went”?
A. We ___ to France every year. C. We _______ to France last week.
B. We ____ France last month. D. We did ___ to France last month.
A. Tom didn’t met Anna. C. Sally didn’t got my email.
B. We didn’t go out last night. D. We didn’t went out last night.
158. Which question is not correct?
A. Did you like the gift? C. Where did your parents meet?
B. What time you did arrive? D. Where did you eat your lunch?
A. That’s Bobs car. C. That’s Bobs’ car.
B. That’s Bob’s car. D. That’s Bob cars.
A. Are you going to Dan’s and Suzie’s party? C. Are you going to Dan and Suzies’ party?
B. Are you going to Dan and Suzie’s party? D. Are you going to Dans and Suzies party?
161. Complete the sentence. That’s not my bag. It’s my _____
A. brothers’s B. brothers C. brother’s D. brother
162. Complete the sentence . Write your name at the ________
A. top of the page B. page’s top C. page in the top D. page on top
163. Which sentence is best?
A. Do you have the newspaper of yesterday? C. Do you have yesterdays’
newspaper?
B. Do you have yesterday’s newspaper? D. Do you have yesterday?
164. Read the sentence below and answer the question.
That’s my sisters’ bedroom. How many girls sleep in room?
A.one B. two or more C.it is impossible to know. D. it is
impossible.
165. Which sentence is best?
A. Istanbul is the biggest city of Turkey. C. Istanbul is Turkey’s biggest city.
B. Istanbul is Turkey’s biggest city. D. Istanbul is biggest city in Turkey.
166. Complete the sentence. That’s _____ car.
A. Anne’s parents’ B. Annes’ parent’s C. Anne’s parents D. Anne parents
167. Complete the sentence. I never read ___________ magazines.
A. woman’s B. women’s C. womens’ D. womens
Choose the complete word/phrase to complete the sentence.
168. What will you do if _____________
A . you don’t pass the licensure examination?
B. you didn’t pass the licensure examination?
C. you won’t pass the licensure examination?
D. you didn’t get a good score in the licensure examination?
169. Daniel Padilla is a great teenage actor, __________?
19
A. doesn’t he B. wasn’t he C. isn’t he D. is he

170. Victoria and ___ best friends are going on a holiday together.
A. their B. her C. she D. they
171. While you are reading her, your mother ______ on her seat in the plane.
A. will cry B. will have cried C. will be crying D. will do
crying
172. The library ________ the centre of the city has a vast collection of updated books and
journals.
A.in B. on C. at D from
173. _________ the new memorandum, there will be clean up drive before the start of classes.
A. Supposedly B. Conversely C. According to D. Apparently
174. The President challenged the voting population that ____ they vote wisely, there will be
the same problems of graft and corruption.
A. While B. In case C. provided that D. unless
175. Freshman students from the provinces ______ on campus dormitories in their first year
A. stay B. stays C. are staying D. staying
176. I saw the advertisement for the job _________ chance.
A.by B. in C. at D. on
177. My daughter likes chocolates, __________ she does not like milk.
A. so B. for C. but D. or
178. In doing a research, you _____ copy the idea from books and journals without referencing
them properly.
A. must not B. don’t have to C. have to D. must not have
179. __________, the governor agreed to be the guest speaker when I invited him. I had not
expected that.
A. unfortunately B. Certainly C. surprisingly D. personally
180. You ______ smoke inside but you can smoke outside.
A. don’t have to B. must not C. need not D. don’t need to
181. Neither Elaine nor the other girls sent ______ photograph entries.
A. their B. her C. its D. theirselves
182. My bag is made out of _____ leather.
A. genuine B. more genuine C. most genuine D. least genuine
183. _________________! Give me back my purse.
A. Wow B. Yipee C. Hey D. Ouch
184. None of my siblings __ here last week for the family reunion.
A. is B. are C. was D. were
185. Juan dela Cruz, the elected mayor, made the speech ________
A. herself B. hisself C. himself D. itself
186. Statistics _______ is one of the most difficult subjects among English majors
187. The new front desk clerk dresses ___________
A. prettifully B. pretty C. prettily D. prettiest
188. The number of students who attended the seminar-workshop _______considerably large.
189. Tom and Jerry were creeping through the cold clammy cave when they suddenly heard
rocks falling behind them. The underlined group of words is an/ a _________
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A. phrase B. dependent clause C. independent clause D. complex

sentence
190. The diamond, the mineral form of carbon, is valued as a precious stone and also used for
various industrial processes. What is the function of the underlined noun?
A. appositive B. objective complement C. object of the preposition D. direct object
191. The barrio council announced the number coding scheme. What part of speech is the
underlined word?
A. noun B. adjective C. adverb D. interjection
192. Match the underlined verb in the example sentence with the verb pattern.
El Nino events trigger devastating weather in the Eastern Pacific.
A. verb followed by a direct object C. verb with no object
B. verb followed by a direct object and an indirect object D. verb followed by a predicate
nominative
193. Match the underlined verb in the example sentence with the verb pattern.
Anorexia Nervosa is a condition that is characterized by an intense fear of gaining weight
194. What area of language is NOT a central theme in describing a process?
A. Passive forms B. following steps C. sequencing words D. superlative forms
6. INTRODUCTION TO STYLISTICS
6.1. Use the conceptual framework and schema of linguistics and literature in understanding
literary language.
195. It is a term that has assumed different meanings from different linguistic
scholars but it can simply be said to be the study of style.
a. Linguistics b. Stylistics C. Phonetics D. Semantics
195. It is a very vital instrument of stylistics since it deals with the variations and the options
that are available to an author.
a. Style as choice b. style as the man c. style as deviation d. style as conformity
196. This is based on the notion that every individual has his own unique way of doing
things and that no two persons are of exactly the same character.
197. This is based on the notion that there are rules, conventions and regulations that
guide the different activities that must be executed.
198. It can be seen as the first available option for a writer to express himself because
virtually all possible fields that a written material can belong to have been
established.
199. Because language is dynamic, it is always changing. This becomes obvious when we
look at the stages in the development of the English language.
a. Style as period or time b. style as situation c. style as deviation d. style as
conformity
200. Language is used according to circumstance. It is the context that determines
language choice in speaking or writing.
a. Style as period or time b. style as situation c. style as deviation d. style as
conformity
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201. It explores the linguistic features of a text. It points out those linguistic choices which
a writer or speaker has made as well as the effects of the choices.
a. Linguistic stylistics c. stylistic analysis
b. Literary stylistics d. literary text
202. This is a feature of linguistic stylistics where words may be repeated, synonyms or
near-synonyms may be used. At times, poets repeat some items.
a. Lexical repetition b. lexico-semantic level c. syntactic level d. phonological
level
203. Words can be chosen for their denotative, connotative and other dimensions of
meanings.
level
204. This has something to do with the arrangement of units larger than the word. These
units include groups/phrases, clauses and sentences.
level
205. Sound patterning functions linguistically in poetry to project a poet’s purpose or
concern in a work.
level
206. This is another way in which poets can make us contemplate the otherwise unmarked
morphological structure of words by playing around with word boundaries.
a. Graphological level b. phonological level c. syntactic level d. lexical level
207. It is synonymous to literary criticism. Its ultimate purpose is to explain the individual
message of the writer in terms which makes its importance clear to others.
a. Linguistic stylistics c. stylistic analysis
b. Literary stylistics d. literary text
208. Joe watched his favorite singer perform in three occasions. He noticed that on those
different occasions, his favorite singer sang the same song but with different
interpretations. Which style did the singer fulfill?
a. As a choice b. As a period or time c. As a man d. As a deviation
209. May read one of the poems written by her favorite author and she noticed that there
were only two punctuation marks used and some of the common nouns at the middle
of the lines were written in capital letters. May could conclude that her favorite
author took into consideration the use of
a. Lexico-semantic feature b. syntactic feature c. phonological feature d.
graphological feature
210. What stylistic device is used in “ A face reproachful tearful an odour of camphor and
of tears a voice weeping steadily and softly beyond the twilight door the twilight –
coloured smell of honeysuckle” ( The Sound and The Fury )
a. Stream of consciousness c. dialogue strategy
b. free direct speech d. character viewpoint
211. Mr. Wansan has a difficulty figuring out who the culprits are in the massacre of the Y
family. Aside from looking closely at the crime scene, he also needs to consider issues
like voice recognition and identification of regional accents. Which type of stylistics
analysis should Mr. Wansan need to consider?
a. Pragmatic stylistics c. pedagogical stylistics
22
b. Forensic stylistics d. affective stylistics

212. Which method of achieving cohesion in a discourse is used in the line “ Would you
like a soda? “ Yes, I’d like one. ?
a. Elliptical cohesion c. lexical cohesion
b. Referential cohesion d. substitutive cohesion
213. Which stylistic feature is used in the following lines?
Break him up
Slurp him up
Drain him off
a. Lexical repetition c. lexico-semantic level
b. Syntactic level d. graphological level
214. Which stylistic device is used in William Shakespeare’s
All the world’s a stage
And all the men and women merely players
They have their exits and their entrances
a. Metonymy b. synecdoche c. simile d. metaphor
215. In Don’t take your break up with Lance too hard. Don’t worry, there, will be more
handsome faces that will come your way, the writer considered using _________
a. Holonymic agency b. meronymic agency c. multiple meanings d.
metonymic agency
7. LITERARY CRITICISM
7.1. Demonstrate understanding of the basic approaches to problems in critical

theory from the classical to modern times as applied to literary works
216. Aristotle’s Poetics states that a successful tragedy exploits and appeals to two
basic emotions: fear and poetry. These emotions offer a “katharsis” or purgation. This
belief has influenced the works of Shakespeare. Which of Shakespeare’s works does
not reflect this belief?
A. Twelfth Night B. Othello C. Romeo and Juliet D. King Lear
217. Dante Alighiere contends that the use of the vernacular is an excellent vehicle to
the full understanding of a literary piece. Which Philippine literary piece supports this
claim?
A. Walang Sugat B. Dilim at Liwanag C. Three Generations D. The Fence
218. According to Sir Philip Sidney in his “ An Apology for Poetry” , poetry embodies truth.
What truth may a critic see in these lines of the poem, Change, by Angela Manalang:
And when I shall outgrow this love of you! Sooner or later, I shall put away! This
jewelled ecstasy for something new! Brand me not fickle on that fatal day!
A. Life is a puzzle C. Love is everywhere.
B. Nothing is permanent in this world except change D. Teenagers are fickle minded.
219. Based from Alexander Pope’s “ An Essay on Criticism” , bad criticism does greater
harm than bad writing. So Pope advises a critic to have these characteristics except
one
A. Emotion B. Tact C. Modesty D. Integrity
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220. In “ The Art of Fiction” of Henry James, a critic is advised to see that a text should
have these qualities except
A. Realistic B. Interesting C. Either romantic or scientific D. Recognizable to
readers
221. A formalistic approach to John Milton’s Paradise Lost would take into account the
following except
A. The characters of Adam, Eve, Satan and God C. Plot analysis
B. The point of view in which the story is told D. The blindness of
the writer
222. If the biographical approach is used to analyze Milton’s Paradise Lost, the critic
will consider the
A. Author’s Puritan belief C. Description of the grader of Eden and its prescribed
location
B. Symbolism of the paradise D. Interrelated activities
223. Using the feminist perspective in Alice Walker’s Beauty: When the Other Dancer
is the Self, the critic will consider
A. The time when the story was written C. the author’s perception of “beauty and
the world she lives in
B. Who the other dancer is D. the figure of speech used in the title
224. If the psychological approach is used to analyze Alice Walker’s Beauty: When
Other Dancer is the Self, the reader will consider the
A. Meaning of “beauty “ C. effect of the cataract in Alice’s Lines
B. Point of view of the story d. setting of the story
225. The historical approach cannot be used to analyze the events of the times in
____
A. The Declaration of Independence by Thomas Jefferson
B. The Crisis by Thomas Paine
C. Patrick Henry’s “Give Me Liberty or Give Me Death” speech
D. The Tide Rises, The Tide Falls by Longfellow
226. The historical approach can be used to analyze Jose Rizal’s Noli Me Tangere if
the critic considers
A. The travels of Rizal C. the abuses experienced by
the Filipinos
B. The time that shaped the events in the novel D. the meaning of the title of the
novel
227. The sociological approach can be used to study the Noli Me Tangere of Rizal if
the critic considers
A. The political and social conditions of the Filipinos during the Spanish era
B. The influence of the Americans to the independence of the Filipinos
C. The literary contributions of the Japanese to the Filipinos
D. The linguistic contributions of the Chinese to the Filipinos
228. Using the mythological approach, what would the critic see in the literary piece?
A. Plot C. archetypes present in the text
B. Historical background of the piece D. social problems of the characters
229. What is the philosophical discussion of literature’s method and goals?
A. Literary theory C. Literary Criticism
B. Literary piece D. Literary Demonstration
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230. In “The Mole” by Kabawata Yasunari, the woman has the habit of touching her
mole which annoyed her husband so much that it caused them marital problems. The
woman could not explain well why she did it so. What approach can be used best to
understand the woman?
A. psychological B. cultural C. archetypal D. Formalistic
231. What approach is concerned with the study of “signs “ ?
A. Hermeneutics B. Semiotics C. Formalistic D. Dialogue
232. What approach can be used to study the “lexis” of the bible?
A. Hermeneutics B. Semiotics C. Formalistic D. Dialogue
233. Which literary theory can give a meaningful criticism of the following poem?
“Hope “ is the thing with feathers I’ve heard it in the chilliest
land -
That perches in the soul And on the strangest Sea-
And sings the tune without the words Yet – never – in
Extremity
And never stops –at all – It asked a crumb- of me
And sweetest – in the Gale – is heard

And sore must be the storm
That could abash the little Bird
That kept so many warm-
A. New criticism B. Realism C. Naturalism D. New Historicism
234. Which of the following is the focus of medieval literary period?
A. Secular and individualistic C. Mundane and symbolic
B. Aesthetic and Social D. Divine and spiritual
235. Which of the following does not characterize deconstructive reading of text?
A. Authorial intention fallacy renders meaning uncertain.
B. Language is a fixed system of signs.
C. A text is a combination of multiple shades of contradicting meaning.
D. It is a reading which analyses a text’s critical difference from its intended meaning.
236. Which is an example of the error deus ex machine?
A. The protagonist saw and talked to God.
B. The antagonist changed and turned to God.
C. The conflict is related to religion.
D. The plot ended with divine intervention like way.
237. Which of the following is NOT true?
A. Romanticism emphasized human subjectivity and imagination
B. Post modernism is highly structural, objective and empiricist.
C. Realism draws from the objective and referential aspect of language art.
D. The Renaissance movement brought about the other-worldly disposition in art and
literature.
238. Which of the following is NOT true?
A. Marxism as a literary theory rejects the idea of “art for art’s sake”.
B. Formalism is criticism for meaning.
C. New criticism promotes close reading and interpretation.
D. Psychoanalytic theory in literature attempts to interpret symbols in literature.
239. Which is known as the science of interpretation?
25
A. Hermeneutics B. Textual exegesis C. Literary appreciation D. documentary

analysis
240. Which of the following does NOT allow intertextual reading of literature?
A. Feminism Criticism C. New Criticism
B. Marxism Criticism D. Post – Colonial Criticism
241. Which of the following is valid in the context of the science of interpretation?
A. Every individual’s preconception and prejudice is destructive and unproductive in
the reading and analysis of texts.
B. A person cannot factor out his prejudices but he can compromise and find a
common ground between his prejudices and the author’s historical horizon.
C. Prejudices are productive because they allow rich and valid interpretations of the
significance of literary texts.
D. Truth is always what the reader thinks and not what the author attempts to convey
in the text.
242. Which of the following may be accepted by a Reader- response critic?
A. All interpretations and meanings are correct.
B. Interpretations should ultimately be aligned with the author’s intention, not the
reader’s perception.
C. No interpretation can be objective, truthful and accurate.
D. Interpretations are governed by the language and conventions of the text, and the
literary competence of the reader.
243. What is common among the following literary criticism theories: Marxism, Post
colonialism, Gender and Feminism and New Historicism?
A. Literature is a product of an ideology or social constructs.
B. Literature affects human behaviour in a given society.
C. Literature is independent from other texts and factors external to the text.
D. Literature is creative.
244. Which of the following can be the subject matter of humanism literature?
A. Faith B. poverty C. Sacred D. Salvation
245. Which is characterized by a re-examination and imitation of the classical models,
literary styles and values of the ancient Greek and Roman authors?
A. Neoclassicism B. neo – Platonism C. renaissance D. romanticism
246. Which movement reacted against the stylistic excess and superfluous artistry
and ornamentation of Renaissance writers?
A. Neoclassicism B. Realism C. Aestheticism D. Romanticism
247. Which was characterized by two broad events : French Revolution and the
industrial revolution?
A. Humanism revolution C. post - modernism
B. Modern period D. renaissance period
248. In which literary period was poem analysis done within the framework of human
subjectivity and its expression and exaltation of nature?
A. Naturalism B. neoclassicism C. realism D. romanticism
249. “ Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day? “ This sonnet from William
Shakespeare may be interpreted in terms of its allusion to the beauty of nature, its
metaphor and the feelings that nature and human nature evoke upon the reader.
Which literary movement advocates this critical approach?
A. Empiricism B. Neoclassicism C. Realism D. Romanticism
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250. Which literary movement is characterized by the avoidance of what is fantastical,

imaginary and mythical or supernatural?
A. Naturalism B. Neoclassicism C. Realism D. Romanticism
251. This movement adheres to the requirements of probability and shuns impossible
or improbable literary subjects and themes, with characters and incidents from all
social strata included. Which of the following literary selections can be studied using
this critical theory of Realism?
A. Animal Farm by George Orwell C. The House of the Spirits by Isabel Allende
B. The Grapes of Wrath by John Steinbeck D. The Hunger Games by Suzanne Collins
252. The following characterize realism EXCEPT
A. It considered the human experiences of the present time and the topics from
contemporary life rather than longing for some idealized past
B. It emphasized the social rather that the individual or seeing the individual as a social
being
C. It emphasized logical reason and empiricism in the presentation of events and
characters
D. It is focused on contemporary life and not about some classical events in the past
253. Which emphasizes the hereditary psychological components of characters and
experiments the connections between human psychology and external environment?
A. Naturalism B. Neoclassicism C. Realism D.
Romanticism
254. As an extreme form of Realism, which literary movement emphasizes the sue of
the methods of the physical sciences and principles of causality using highly detailed
methods of description to present the natural occurrences of things in the literary
text?
A. Enlightenment B. Magic Realism C. Naturalism
D. Romanticism
255. Known as the era of “decadence” which literary movement was a reaction
against realism and naturalism, and highly structured poetry?
A. Aestheticism B. Classicism C. Enlightenment D. Symbolism
256. Which literary movement rejected the idea that language was referential or that
the signifiers automatically refer to their accurate signified?
A. Naturalism B. Post – Modernism C. Realism D. Symbolism
257. Which literary movement emphasizes a more suggestive, allusive and
connotative language that would enrich and evoke feeling of awareness and aesthetic
experience?
A. Naturalism B. post –modernism C. Realism D. Symbolism
258. Which literary movement states that exists for its own sake or for the sake of
beauty, disregarding moral or political considerations and advocating the freedom of
art from didactic, educational and moralistic functions?
A. Aestheticism B. Humanism C. Renaissance D. Structuralism
259. Which literary movement would give productive interpretations and criticisms of
Jose Garcia Villas’s comma or punctuation poems ?
“In, my, underarm, of, death,
I, unspoken, the, Word.
Since, nobody, had, dared,
With, my, own, breath,
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I, broke, the, cord!

A. Aestheticism B. realism C. Structuralism D. Symbolism
260. Which characterized hermeneutics during the Middle Ages?
A. Interpretation became significantly important in the field of religion.
B. Invention of literary forms gave rise to the science of interpretation in secular texts
C. Meaning became terribly difficult in literature
D. Philosophical ideas were so abstract that people had to invent the science of
interpretation
261. The following are post-colonial critical approaches EXCEPT
A. It analyses how a superior culture influences an inferior community
B. It pushes for the appreciation of the literary creativity of the post-modern era
C. It recognizes how history shaped the lives and beliefs of people of a former colony
D. It studies the impact of colonial culture upon a community through literature
262. Which of the following is not a process or principle of formalist criticism?
A. Close reading and non-intertextual interpretation are approaches iin the study of
literary texts
B. Defamiliarization creates the literary experience
C. Meaning is the essence of literature
D. The dominant quality and literary device that shape the nature and form of
literature
263. Intertextuality believes that
A. Accurate meaning can be achieved through close reading of the text itself
B. Heteroglossia or multiple meanings do not exist, nor can accurate or valid
interpretations be possible
C. Heteroglossia or multiple meaning exist
D. Meaning is the sole responsibility of the author, therefore, interpretation should be
aligned with what the author meant in the text
264. Which of the following is NOT true about signs?
A. Iconic signs- the signifier resembles the signified
B. Indexes signifier indicates the signified
C. Signs-signifier as the concept is represented by the sound image or signified
D. True symbol-signifier is arbitrarily assigned to refer to signified
265. Which of the following represents the philosophical belief of a New Historicism
scholar?
A. History exists as the only accurate text of the post structuralism
B. It does not allow inter textual reading
C. It examines how reader are influenced by their prejudice or personal view of the
world
D. There is no history but a version of the author’s view of the historical facts
8. – 10 MASTERPIECES OF WORLD LITERATURE ( Mythology and Folklore, Afro-Asian

Literature and English and American Literature )
8.1.Use literary concepts in interpreting and analysing various literary texts
266. In literature, allusion is a reference to a person, an event or place in which a

reader is deemed familiar . In the Sumerian epic, Gilgamesh, what biblical allusion
was used?
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A. The Ten Commandments C. The Exodus

B. The Great Flood D. The Last Supper
267. Symbol is a representation of something beyond itself. In the “Odyssey “ of
Homer , what is the best symbolism of the “ wedding bed”?
A. Life for Telemachus C. Constancy of Odysseus and Penelope’s love
B. Love of Family D. hope for the return of Odysseus
268. What is the theme of Gilgamesh?
A. Importance of love and friendship C. Preference to immortality thru doing good deeds
B. Value of self- worth and accomplishment D. Significance of death
269. “Even a stone can shiver and bleed” was a line uttered by Anticleia, Odysseus’
mother, before she drowed herself because she could no longer endure the pain of
waiting for her son’s return. What figure of speech best illustrates the quoted line ?
A. Hyperbole B. Meioisis C. Metonymy D.
Personification
270. “ The Song of Hiawatha”, an American Indian Epic, tells of the origin of the Indian
maize. What function does this myth have?
A. Explanation B. Validation /justification C. Description D Inspiration
271. According to a Greek writer, certain gods were originally great people venerated
because of their benefaction to mankind. What philosophy in the study of myth tells
us this?
A. Romanticism B. Euhemerism C. Rationalism D. Structuralism
272. The primitive deity Aphrodite represents
A. The magical function of procreation C. intelligence, wit and sex
B. Physical beauty and grace D. woman of purity of life and mind
273. The myths of the Greeks reflect
A. That humans are the centre of the universe
B. That humans and gods live alike
C. A view of the universe that acknowledges the mystery and beauty of humanity
D. A less strange and frightening magic than the myths of other ancient civilization
274. When Oedipus learns the incredible truth about his mother and father, he puts
out his own eyes and leaves his city to wander and eventually die. This shows
A. Regret and repentance to a wrong decision C. fate’s control over human lives
B. Physical manifestation of the limitation of man D. acceptance of wrongdoing
and self punishment
275. The presence of these three divinities : Clotho, Lachesis and Atropos in Greek
myth symbolizes
A. Destiny which cannot be controlled by anyone
B. Power of immortality over mortals
C. Mortal’s fate which depends on the gods
D. Immortals that play a great part in mortal’s life
276. The Pyramus and Thisbe love affair shows
A. The immaturity of teenagers C. the authority of parents over their children
B. The aggressiveness of young lovers D. an attemptto change traditional practices
277. The Trojan War can be seen today as
A. The war over lands and boundaries C. men’s exhibition of greed
B. Women’s empowerment D. the reign of political dynasty
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278. In his masterpiece, “The Canterbury Tales “, Geoffrey Chaucer used a literary technique
which refers to a narrative within a narrative. Which technique is referred to?
A. internal story C. Sequential Story
B. Frame Story D. embedded story
11. THE TEACHING OF SPEAKING, LISTENING AND READING

11.1 Demonstrate understanding of the nature of the four language macro -components
279. Reading strategies are different from what are traditionally called reading skills. Which of
the following statements does not prove the difference?
A. Strategies emphasize intentional and deliberate plans under control where good readers
make decisions about which strategy to use while skills are basically automatic routines.
B. Strategies emphasize reasoning because readers use reasoning and critical thinking as they
construct and reconstruct evolving meanings from the text while skills tend to be associated
with lower levels of thinking and reading.
C. Strategies are inherently flexible and adaptable; readers modify strategies to fit different
kinds of texts and different purposes while skills connote consistency if not rigidity in
application across a variety of texts
D. Strategies imply metacognitive awareness while skills that have been learned imply cognitive
awareness.
280. Which macro skill involves putting sentences together in connected discourse but the main
focus is on basic communicability?
A. speaking B. writing C. listening D. reading
281. Which is a critical foundation for reading, writing and spelling and is the engine of learning
and thinking?
A. written language development C. oral language development
B. cognitive development D. affective development
282. At what age does a child normally gain level of oral competence in the first language that
will enable him to become a fluent reader and writer?
A. about five years old C. About nine years old
B. about seven years old D. about eight years old
283. Since the purpose of language is communication, children need to gain confidence in
listening, speaking , reading and writing for
A. meaning B. expression C. adaptability D. comprehension
284. A good language education program should give equal importance to meaning and to ____
from beginning.
A. fluency B. speaking C. accuracy D. expression
285. Which skill involves understanding and responding to what has been heard and the
recognition of sounds, syllables, words and sentence?
A. speaking B. writing C. reading D. listening
286. For speaking, emphasis on meaning is on communicating thought and ideas while
emphasis on accuracy focuses on
A. forming letters properly and neatly C. spelling words correctly
B. using correct vocabulary D. recognizing and distinguishing sounds
287. Which of the following statements is TRUE?
A. The students write to enjoy, to understand and to use new ideas and information.
B. In reading, the students form letters properly and neatly.
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C. The students read when they recognize parts of the words, sentences and paragraph and can
sound them out.
D. The students listen to communicate their thoughts and ideas.
288. Which of the following activities does NOT focus on meaning for reading?
A. Break words and sentences into parts and put them back together again.
B. Watch and listen to good readers.
C. Participate in group reading experience.
D. Read stories by themselves or with a partner.
289. Which of the following statements is TRUE?
A. You learn to read by writing.
B. You learn to listen by reading.
C. The importance of learning to read and write meaningfully in a second language in a second
languge is often a key to continued success in formal education.
D. The first language literacy is of major importance in the instructional program.
290. Which is the heart of reading, be in in the first or second language?
A. Pronunciation B. Comprehension C. Spelling D. Grammar
291. Which of the following does not belong to the activities in writing in the second language?
A. One of the events in the story should be narrated by the teacher.
B. Utilize oral and written personal narratives.
C. Utilize dialogues for writing.
D. Encourage students to write for a variety of different purposes.
292. Which one of the most important skills in communication because it is a way of portraying
information in the database, thus giving more emphasis to the importance of mental faculty
that allows a perceiver to delineate or given details about a target that is inaccessible to normal
senses due to time, distance or shielding?
A. speaking B. listening C. writing D. viewing
293. Which statement tells the truth about communication?
A. Communication involves reading and writing ideas properly.
B. Communication deals with imperfection in the use of the skills.
C. Communication is the key progress and advancement in continuing to learn things more
accurately and effectively.
D. All the communication skills are developing one’s ability.
294. Which of the following is indicative of the TOP-DOWN APPROACH?
A. Listening activities focus learners on the individual elements and building blocks of the
language.
B. Decoding oral utterances, discriminating minimal contrasts, identifying different stress,
rhythm and intonation patterns feature prominently ij the teacher’s attempt to develop
listening comprehension.
C. Teaching is based on the assumption that learning is a gradual, linear and an additive
process.
D. Listening activities are based on the view that meaning is in the head of the listener activated
only the orally encoded items entering onto his mind.
295. What does research say about the nature of listening?
A. Good listening is strictly a bottom-up process.
B. Intelligent listening is predominantly top-down.
C. Successful listening involves a gradual movement from sound to word to sentence to text.
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D. Successful listening involves the integration of information encoded in the message itself
with broader knowledge of the world.
296. Which is/are a characteristic / s of transactional listening?
I. one way listening
II. used primarily to communication information
III. No opportunity for clarification with a speaker
A.I, II and III B. I and II C. I only D. II only
297. Which option below presents CORRECTLY the steps in the listening process?
A. Understanding-remembering-evaluating-responding-receiving
B. Remembering-evaluating-responding-receiving-understanding
C. Evaluating-responding-receiving-understanding-remembering
D. Receiving –understanding-remembering-evaluating-responding
298. Ms. Conception wants to prepare her students for a lesson that aims to sharpen the critical
evaluative listening skills of her students. Before making them listen to a recorded
advertisement , she establishes the context of the listening text and activates the background
knowledge of the students about the nature of advertisement. In what phase or stage is her
listening lesson?
A. Pre-listening stage C. While listening stage
B. Post-listening stage D. Planning stage
299. When teaching speaking to learners of English as a second language ( ESL ) the specific
learning needs that need to be addressed always are
A. improving their fluency, improving their pronunciation and improving their enunciation
B. exposing them to native speakers and giving them plenty of practice
C. teaching them to speak in the target language
D. understanding the movement and location of mouth and tongue when making sounds
300. Which teaching activities would be most appropriate if the objective of teaching speaking
is the improvement of fluency?
I. delivering speeches, group discussion , negotiation and debate, interviews and meeting, etc
II. working on specific vowels, troublesome consonants, exercises on sounds not present in the
L1 etc
III. working on reductions ( want to wanna) word stress, intonation patters, etc
A. I only B. I and II C. I, II and III D. II and III
301. What is the view of behaviourists on the influence of L1 to a learner’s success in mastering
his TL?
I. L1 habits interfere with a learner’s success in acquiring his/her target language (TL)
II. L1 items not found in the TL will be difficult for him/her to learn.
III.L1 items found in the TL will be easy for him/her to learn.
A.I only B. I and II C. I and III D. I , II and III
302. How do cognitivists such as Chomsky perceive the commission of errors by learners?
A. Errors are indicators of failure to learn; thus, should be right away eliminated .
B. Errors foster the wrong speech habits and should be stamped out by repeated drills and
exercises.
C. Errors are welcome in that they indicate what has been learned and what needs yet to be
learned.
D. Contrastive analysis before language teaching minimizes error occurrence.
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303. If your aim in teaching writing is to stress grammar, syntax and mechanics and to reinforce
the language forms and vocabulary items you taught earlier which approach to teaching writing
be useful?
A. controlled writing
B. guided writing
C. free writing
D. communicative writing
304. A language teacher teaches writing by approximating what writers do in real life that is
writing for a definite purpose and definite audience. Thus she creates the context for writing
and provides the target audience for the students to choose what to say how to say it and who
to say it o. What teaching writing approach is used in this instance?
A. controlled writing
B. guided writing
C. free writing
D. communicative writing
305. What view about writing is exemplified when a teacher makes her students go through
several stages in producing a piece of writing such as prewriting, drafting, revising and proof
reading and publishing and presenting.
I. writing as an act of communication
II. writing as a process
III. writing as product
A.I only B. II only C. III only D. I, II and III
306. Which statement below does not refer to audio-lingualism?
A. it is a language teaching method that grew out of the behaviourist psychology.
B. it is most consistently associated with B.F.Skinner, Leonard Bloomfield and Charles Fries
C. it upholds the view that language is primarily speech and is best learned through habit
formation
D. it believes that language development is characterized by a rule-governed creativity
307. Which of the following language methods does not belong to the humanistic approach?
A. community language learning
B. suggestopedia
C. total physical response
D. imitation and drill
308. Which of the following language teaching methods is not learner-centered in approach?
A. content –based instruction
B. cooperative learning
C. task –based
D. grammar –translation method
309. What is grammatical consciousness –raising?
A. it suggests total avoidance of directly teaching grammar in the classroom
B. it is a return to the traditional form-focused approach in language teaching
C. it adheres to the view that language teaching should be focused on language
notions/functions
D. a top-down approach that advocates explicit grammatical instruction in order to contribute
to the learner’s literacy awareness
310. What is the relationship between vocabulary and grammar in the curriculum?
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A. vocabulary is the easiest aspect of a second language to be learned and does not need
attention in the classroom
B. vocabulary building could come later if learners were able to internalize the basic patters
C. vocabulary acquisition does not seem to be slowed down by age
D. in the early stages of learning, one is better served by vocabulary than by grammar
12. TEACHING OF LITERATURE

12.1 Apply principles, skills, and strategies gained in literature instruction
311. One of the salient distinguishing features of works of literature is the writer’s connotative
use of language. This means____________
A. there is a one-to-one correspondence between the word and what id refers to because of
the writer’s aim at exactness
B. literary language exhibits a richness in meaning which does not only refer to something but
also communicates the tone of the writer and tries to affect the reader
C. explicit referents or precise meanings are expressed
D. language used is scientific very much like that used in research
312. Readers find pleasure in the form, technique and style of writing- a well -constructed plot,
vivid characterization, unusual imagery , expressive language, etc. In other words, all the
elements are combined to create an over –all order or coherence. What does this show about
literature ?
A. Literature is language. C. Literature is aesthetic.
B. Literature is expressive. D. Literature is true.
313. Which function of literature is illustrated when aside from its natural gift of pleasure to the
reader, it provides illumination that enables us to act, interpret and transform our world?
A. Literature is a form of escape. C. Literature as a form of pleasure
B. Literature provides aesthetic satisfaction. D. Literature is a form of engagement.
314. Why is literature said to be fictional?
I. literature can be a re-ordering of the real world in which people and experience, though
drawn upon from actual life are re-shaped, altered, given new psychological insights.
II. The lack of factuality is strengthened by the writer’s artistic control in the literary work
III. The writer’s artistic control has the effect of stylizing the materials of the work., setting it
apart from the context of the real, nevertheless making the reader enjoy and contemplate on it,
reject it even show aesthetic distance.
A. I only B. II only C. III only D. I, II and III
315. Why is literature said to be expressive?
I. Literature expresses the writer’s personality, emotions and beliefs no matter how writers may
try to reduce their presence as much as possible
II. Literature has the ability to create an emotional response in the reader
III. Literature imposes order on language, characters events and details
A. I only B. II only C. III only D. I , II and III
316. Which theory enlightens the approach used by a literary critic who is mainly concerned
with the background of a literary work-the social conditions, political developments, religious
ideas and practices and modes of thinking current at the time of its production or the period it
represents?
A. the work in relation to the word it imitates ( mimetic theory)
B. the work in relation to its author (expressive theory )
C. the work and its readers ( pragmatic or affective theory )
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D. the word as an entity in itself

317. Which element of fiction refers to the universal aspects of life as the writer perceives them
to be so that it determines his choice and organization of actions, characters, setting and point
of view?
A. plot B. setting C. character D. theme
318. Which refers to the author’s or narrator’s predominant attitude toward the subject which
may be happy, tragic, loving, tender, cynical, angry, detached, satirical, apathetic, etc?
A. Setting/ Atmosphere
B. Point of View
C. Tone
D. Theme
319. Which form of expository prose presents the personal view of its writer on a topic? It is
said to provide light as well as delight for the author tries to charm his reader with his prose as
he discusses his ideas or experiences?
A. paragraph
B. discourse
C. essay
D. composition
320. Construct Procedure is an interesting technique that teachers can use to help students
have a graphic overview of an essay. Which of the techniques below is used when the teacher
requires the learner to read the selection rapidly by using all available information, such as title,
subtitles, introductory paragraphs, first sentence, summarizes pictures, maps and diagrams?
A. survey reading
B. study-type reading
C. scanning
D. skimming
321. According to Aristotle, plays classified as tragedy produce as an effect where our baser
emotions of lust, hatred, jealousy, feat, self-pity, greed, avarice, sloth, etc are cleansed or
purged because of dread that the tragedy that befall the tragic character would happen to us.
In the process, we countercheck ourselves and are ennobled. How is this cleansing process
called?
A. Caveat B. Kinesis C. Catharsis D. Catharses
322. These are true about the reasons for teaching literature to students except one. Which is
the exception?
A. It contributes to the holistic development of an individual.
B. It shows value to language experiences.
C. It provides an escape from one’s reality.
D. It develops mostly the analytic skills of the learners.
323. Teaching literature is seeking the opportunity for students to relate and respond to the
themes and issues by making a connection to their personal lives. Which model is described?
A. cultural model B. language model C. personal growth D. philosophical model
324. Which model vies literature as a source of facts or information and the teacher is
transmitter of knowledge and information to the students?
A. Personal growth model
B. cultural model
C. Philosophical model
D. Language model
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325. What is the most innovative way of teaching literature?

A. Students are asked to read a literary piece at home.
B. Students memorize the stanzas of a poem.
C. Students create a collage of their experiences in relation to the story read in class.
D. Students explain difficult words orally.
326. How do you make the story of BIAG NI LAM-ANG relevant and interesting to the life of
learners today?
A. Let them make a multimedia presentation of the main characteristic of Lam-ang as it is seen
today.
B. Allow the learners to translate key events in their own mother tongue.
C. Let them discuss the conflicts in the story that they can relate to.
D. Let them write their own ending to the story.
327. Which is the best way to prepare in teaching of literature?
A. Enjoy the literature.
B. Choose a literary genre that appeal to the nature of your learners.
C. Memorize the essentials of the piece to be read in class.
D. Plan for an output that learners can create based on the literary piece.
328. Which can be used to teach learners to organize information on the major and minor
characters in a text?
A. chunking B. character charts C. storyboarding D note taking
329. If you want to help students in processing dilemmas experienced by characters in a text,
the most appropriate strategy to use is
A. reader’s theatre
B. chunking
C. word tree
D. life road maps
330. Which strategy will help students better understand key life events of historical or literary
figures?
A. chunking
B. reader’s theatre
C. word tree
D. life road maps
331. You want your students to keep track of main ideas and supporting details in a narrative by
letting them illustrate important scenes in a story. What is the most appropriate strategy that
you will employ?
A. chunking
B. fishbone diagrams
C. storyboarding
D. note taking
332. There are specific modelling techniques in literature –based instruction except one. Which
is the exception?
A. reading aloud
B. shared writing
C. cooperative learning
D. providing scaffolds
333. Which of the following is not suitable in activating prior knowledge of students?
A. read and sketch
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B. reading several selections

C. Thematic organization of related pieces of literature
D. self-questioning
334. Which is not true about teaching literary appreciation in the classroom?
A. It develops a sense of self-understanding.
B. It helps in reflecting on one’s socio-political issues in one’s culture.
C. It facilitates language proficiency.
D. It can only be facilitated through classic literature.
13. PREPARATION AND EVALUATION OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

13. 1 Apply knowledge of principles and processes involved in developing and evaluating
various types of instructional materials for language and literature instruction, including the
use of technology for assisting instruction and independent language learning.
335. In selecting instructional materials, the following factors need to be considered EXCEPT
one
A. Consider the varied interests, abilities and maturity of the learners
B. Stimulate growth in factual knowledge, literary appreciation and aesthetic values
C. Promote faith and confidence in other cultures
D. Represent the many religious and cultural groups
336. Which does not belong to the group?
A. textbooks B. collaborative activities C. specimens of real objects D. software
337. Which criterion in choosing instructional materials ensures the accuracy and reliability of
the content?
A. Controversial issues represent both sides
B. Authors are competent and qualified in the field
C. it contributes to the promotion of cultural values
D. Topics on human growth and development are presented with dignity and appropriate to the
age of the learners.
338. Why do teachers need to use instructional materials in teaching language?
I. They allow students to interact with words, images and idea in ways that develop their
literacy skills
II. Learning cannot be facilitated without these materials
III. All types of students will benefit even from one visual material used by teacher
A..I only B. II only C. III only IV. I,II and III
339. You are planning to use a video clip from youtube to test the active listening skills of your
students. What do you need to primarily consider before using it in your class?
A. It should have a clear connection to your educational objectives.
B. It should be audible and appealing to the students.
C. It should be appropriate to the age of the learners.
D. It should have subtitles for better comprehension.
340. A teacher who utilizes computer – aided instruction is said to be an advocate of which
philosophy?
A. pragmatism B. idealism C. behaviourism D. realism
341. This is the most compelling reason for deciding to utilize CAI when teaching about the
history of children’s literature.
A. Privacy helps the shy and slow learners
B. The teacher can devote more time to individual students
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C. Large amount of information can be learned in a shorter time and through a multisensory
approach
D. There is immediate response to the answers elected.
342. While CAI has many advantages, teachers may not be able to utilize the technology for
which observable and practical reasons?
I. Lack of infrastructure
II. Lack of expertise in integrating CAI
III. Lack of motivation on the part of the students
IV. Students are free to experiment on different options

A. I, II III B. I and II C. II, III, IV D. III and IV
343. Blogs are online journals that are regularly updated by an author posting information that
allows other bloggers to interact with. If you were to integrate the use of this tool in your
literature classes, how will you ensure the maximum participation of the learners?
A. check their attendance through their blogs
B. let them submit weekly reports
C. assign a buddy to help motivate students to participate
D. asses first the technology literacy level of students
344. What would be a relevant objective for the use of blogs in your literature classes?
A. Let the students acquaint themselves with the use of online tools
B. Judge the opinions of others about an issue
C. Students post their opinions about an issue raised in the literary piece.
D. Students link as much resources related to the literary piece for further reading.
345. Which element should give you a hint in NOT adopting an internet resource for your
literary criticism activities?
A. Authors have contact details
B. More advertisement are posted
C. Links for further reading are linked
D. Contents relate to your set objectives
346. What is NOT TRUE about the application of Dale’s Cone of Experience?
A. It encourages educators to plan experiences that will help students apply their learning to
real-life situations.
B. Contrived experiences are those that make the learners act out a role.
C. Motion pictures limit the participation of students since it only involves seeing and hearing.
D. The more senses used in interaction with a source, the better chances for students to learn.
347. When teaching foreign language to students , a video is most useful because of this
technique that helps students engage in communicative exercises on some difficult language
points. Which is the technique?
A. Repetition and role play
B. active viewing
C. Freeze faming and production
D. Silent viewing
348. Why do you need to use a variety of instructional materials in teaching?
A. There are a lot of materials available.
B. Students have diverse needs and interests.
C. Teachers need to showcase their versatility.
D. It continuously challenges the innovation of teachers.
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349. In selecting textbooks to be used in teaching language in a multicultural setting, which

should be given particular attention besides the other important elements?
A. Culture, native language, and ethnicity portrayed in the textbook
B. Gender expression and identity
C. Sexual orientation and gender
D. Physical disability
350. Teacher Erick wants to prepare a multimedia presentation on the different forms of
poetry to be projected in his class. What does he need to consider in preparing each slide?
A. Maximize the space to cover more content.
B. Complete sentences are better for information listed with numbers.
C. Observe consistency in backgrounds, colors and formats for a more focused learners’
attention
D. Use tables for information instead of diagrams to show the different forms.
351. If you found information on a website that you want to incorporate in your multimedia
presentation, what is an ethical thing to do?
A. Use a portion only so you don’t have to cite in your references.
B. Download the whole article and attach it in your presentation
C. Cite completely in your references regardless of the amount of information you need.
D. Get only the portion you need and cite completely in your references.
352. What is not true about CAI?
A. Teachers have nothing to do since this is for independent learning
B. Students work at their own paper
C. Students become more confident and motivated to learn
D. Teachers cover more content in a shorter span of time
353. Teacher Joana teaches in a remote barangay school where there are no available
storybooks. How can she introduce or facilitate the reading skills of her students?
A. Bring the students to a nearby town library.
B. Write a short version of an existing local story in the barangay.
C. Make a request to the head of the school to procure books for English subjects.
D. Purchase books yourself for the meantime.
354. According to the fair use guidelines in using educational multimedia, teachers may be
exempted from copyright use. In which situations can teachers incorporate lawfully acquired
copyrighted works without asking for copyright permissions?
I. Students produce their own multimedia projects
II. Teachers use the copyrighted work for face to face instruction
III. Teachers show a film to her class with a minimum entrance fee collected
IV. Teachers use for presentations to their peers during workshops and conferences
V. Teachers use their educational multimedia project for up to three years.
A. I, II and IV B. I, II and III C. I, III, IV and V D. III and V
14. LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE ASSESSMENT
14. 1 Use basic concepts in language and literature testing in assessing language
proficiency
355. Which would be the most probable reason if Myra got 59% on July 28, 2013 on a language
teacher made test and 77 % on July 30, 2013 on a test covering the same material?
A. The tests were not relevant. C. The tests were not
reliable.
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B. The tests were not valid D. The tests were not

representative.
356. Ms. H. wants to measure her students’ ability against the learning objectives of a specific
language course. Which of the following tests should she give?
A. Norm – referenced test C. Discrete-point test
B. Criterion – referenced test D. Assessment test
357. Which would be the possible reason if the correlations of a language test are generally
significant to the highest level (99%) except for the listening test?
A. The listening test does not differentiate between the most able and the least
able takers.
B. The listening test is not valid.
C. The listening test is not reliable.
D. The listening test is not consistent with the other parts of the test.
358. Which kind of language test should Mr. C give if he wanted to measure the students’
ability in language regardless of any training they may have had in that language?
A. Achievement Test B. Placement Test C. Diagnostic Test D. Proficiency Test
366. Ms. M prepared a close test that is concerned primarily with meaning and the total
communicative effect of discourse. She made sure that the test involved functional
language but not the use of functional language. Which approach did Ms. Rio consider in
constructing her test?
A. Communicative Approach C. Structuralist Approach
B. Integrative Approach D. Essay – Translation Approach
359. Ms. M prepared a cloze test that is concerned primarily with meaning and the total
communicative effect of discourse. She made sure that the test involved functional language
but not the use of functional language. Which approach did Ms. Rio consider in constructing her
test?
A. communicative approach
B. integrative approach
C. structuralist approach
D. essay- translation approach
360. Which domain of learning as identified in Bloom’s Revised Cognitive Taxonomy is
addressed if a teacher prepares a language task that focuses on recognizing the connotative
meanings of words, correctly processing dictation and making inferences.
A. Comprehension B. Knowledge C. Analysis D. Synthesis
361. The Grade 7 teachers in school A are evaluating the language tests prepared by the Grade
7 teachers in School B. Specifically, the teachers are evaluating the utility, equity and
appropriateness of the assessment techniques used. In which evaluation phase are the
teachers.
A. Reflection B. Preparation C. Assessment D. Evaluation
362. Ms. Siagto asked her students to retrace the chronological order in which the enumerated
events took place by assigning numbers? Which task did Ms. Siagto ask her students to do?
A. Matching B. Single Response C. Multiple Response D. Sequencing
363. Which test task would the students do if they were asked to fill in the blanks with the
correct pronoun?
A. C-Cloze B. Cloze C. Text Numeric D. Hot Spot
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364. A group of teachers is designing an achievement test. Specifically, they are looking closely
at the test and are deciding which questions will be omitted and which items need further
clarification. Which stage are the teachers in?
A. Writing a draft C. Evaluating draft version
B. Collecting testing material D. Rewriting the draft version
365. Ms. Wakat wants to measure the reorganization skills of her students. Which should she
ask her students to do?
A. Write a two-paragraph summary of the plot of the story.
B. Predict what is in store for the protagonist.
C. Cite incidents in the story that show the stained relationship between the protagonist
and her husband.
D. Draw what is in store for the protagonist.
366. Mark aims to make a language test that tends to have the highest reliability. Which type
of exam should he make?
A. Close test B. Multiple Choice C. True or False D. Matching Type
367. John wants to assess Myra’s conversational ability in English, so he gives her a list of words
to read. The assessment would yield to
A. an invalid result C. a reliable result
B. a valid result D. an unreliable result
368. Which proficiency assessment interpretation did Matthew use when he remarked that
Aldine got 80 out of 100 and that she is in the top 20%?
A. Criterion-referenced interpretation C. Selection test interpretation
B. Placement test interpretation D. Norm -referenced interpretation
369. Shane wants to assess the speaking ability of her students. She first specified the
components of the speaking ability she wants to assess. Which of the following did Shane
make?
A. Performance criteria C. Construct definition
B. Profile definition D. Ability criteria
370. Ronie asked his students to choose the letter of the appropriate preposition to complete
the sentence. Ronie gives a ____
A. Criterion-referenced test C. Norm -referenced test
B. Discrete point test D. Integrative Test
371. Five English teachers assessed literary comprehension one section of students. The
assessment of the five teachers yielded fairly close. The assessment is
A. valid B. reliable C. convergently valid D. equally difficult
372. In the test prepared by Mica, Mr. Kin commented that she overemphasized on knowledge
outcome. What might have Mica forgotten to do?
A. Predictive validity testing C. Constructive Validity Testing
B. Table of Specifications D. Difficulty Distribution
373. Teacher Carylle collected samples of classroom tests and writings of her students to
monitor her students’ writing performance. Teacher Carylle used ________ assessment.
A. non-formal B. achievement C. summative D. portfolio
374. Homer assigned number values to the various criteria he listed to assess his students’
reading performance. Which assessment tool did Homer prepare?
A. Checklist B. Rubric C. Rating Scale D. Observation sheet
375. Which cognitive level do the instructions “ Write the meaning of the underlined words
according to how they are used in the sentence” address ?
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A. Application B. Analysis C. Evaluation D. Synthesis

376. Which among the following is NOT a criterion of a good test?
A. Reliability B. Authenticity C. Relativity D. Balance
377. Darwin had his test validated and the results indicate that there is a high correlation
between the test scores and the test scores in a different test measuring the same construct,
irrespective of method. Which validity does the result satisfy?
A. Criterion-related validity C. Construct validity
B. Convergent validity D. Concurrent validity
378. Which qualitative analysis should Teacher Arkin use if he wants to examine the test tasks
and to determine the extent to which they are correspondent to the test goal?
A. Conversational analysis C. Test Language Analysis
B. Discourse analysis D. Task Characteristics
379. Marcos distributed his test among a group of representative end users in the same
settings and circumstances as the live test. What task did Marcos do?
A. Formatting B. Revising C. Piloting D. Assessing
380. In language tests, which of the following can merely serve as an indicator of reliability?
A. Descriptive statistics C. Correlation
B. Item reliability D. T- test
381. Which approach should Teacher Mina use if she if aims to gain insight into the thinking
processes and opinions of the test taker?
A. Verbal reports B. Diary studies C. reflection D. Survey questions
382. Mr. Marcial aims to develop students’ abilities to assume more responsibility to identify
where they believe they have been successful and where they believe they need assistance.
Which of the following did Mr. Marcial ask his students to do?
A. Peer Assessment C. Self – Assessment
B. Reflective Assessment D. Teacher Consultation Assessment
383. Glenda conducted an interview with five of her language students in order to substantiate
her assessment findings. She asked fixed series of questions without deviating from them.
Which type of interview did Glenda conduct?
A. One -on-one C. Structured
B. Group D. Semi-structured
384. Which of the following should Lance do if he would like to gather information in order t
gauge and understand a learner’s knowledge of the language and his ability to use that
knowledge?
A. Evaluation B. Assessment C. Testing D. Measurement
15. LANGUAGE RESEARCH

15. 1 Apply principles and approaches in research to find answers to questions in language
and literature teaching and learning
385. Both Gass and Vygotsky focused on research for second language acquisition, Which of
the statements is true about their contributions?
A. Both are focused on the importance of the cognitive ability in learning the language.
B. Gass focused on the language learning context while Vygotsky focused on the role of
social environment.
C. Gass gave the idea of comprehensible input while Vygotsky focused gave the on the
social environment
D. Both are behaviourist in their emphatic on language research
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386. Which of the following statements is TRUE about research on second language
acquisition?
A. Methods based on behaviourist theory of language learning emphasize conversation.
B. Methods based on interactionist theory gave the learners the opportunity for
conversation that allows meaningful input from the teachers and students
C. Methods based on teaching what the learner is ready to learn are most closely
associated to Krashen
D. Methods recognize a role for instruction and assume that everything has been taught
387. One student conducted a research on the communication strategies used by the teacher in
educating students with visual impairment. In order to identify the communication strategies,
the researcher interviewed the teachers educating the students with visual impairment and
also did some actual observation of the classes. What research design was used in the study?
A. Experimental B. descriptive C. quantitative D.qualitative
388. Research suggests that an increased focus on form is likely to lead to change in
grammatical knowledge in so far as it is manifested learner behaviour. What suggestion can be
drawn from this result?
A. destabilizing fossilized form C. form should not be a priority
B. focus more on grammar D. form and grammar be given equal
emphasis
389. Output plays an important part in language research. It is while attempting to produce the
target language that learners may notice that they do not know how to say or to write precisely
the meaning intended. Below are some output techniques that the teachers use. Which does
NOT belong to the group?
A. negotiation task C. consciousness raising
B. metatalking D. communicative language teaching
390. You want to explore the effective methods used in improving the children’s way of using
the language in the classroom. Who will be the best respondents for your study?
A. Parents B. teachers C. children D. administrator
391. Feedback and interaction are very important elements in language learning and teaching.
What is the best activity to be employed by the teacher to have interaction enhancement?
A. give many activities for drills and exercises in language
B. let the student give their reaction to the situation given
C. let the students identify the mismatch between inter language grammar and the
target language
D. give feedback on the student’s lapses in spoken language
392. For language research, several scholars have borrowed from the concepts of ethnography.
Which of the following researches does not use ethnographic method?
A. Cultural models of personhood : What does it mean to be a good Osage Indian?
B. Communication : How is communication accomplished?
C. Emotional expression : What are the “display rules” of when and how emotion should be
displayed?
D. Methodology : What effective strategy is used to increase participation in the classroom?
16. CAMPUS JOURNALISM

16.1 Apply principles and strategies in writing the various parts (e.g. editorial, news,
feature story, etc) of a campus paper
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393. EXCEPT for specialized publications and programs that cater to the youth, what could be
the role of the mainstream media?
A. it cannot be expected to have that kind of slant that is inherently biased for the youth
B. it is expected that the mainstream media shall have that kind of slant
C. it is a must that mainstream media shall proffer the youth with the kind of slant
D. the mainstream media has the option whether they will have that kind of slant or not
394. Aside from being the official stand of the paper on a relevant development or issue, which
of the following supports the definition of an editorial article?
A. it is written by the editor-in-chief
B. it is a concerted commentary written by any member of the staff
C. it is the opinion of the newspaper publisher
D. it is opinion which the public clamour about
395. The editorial article is considered the soul of the newspaper. It is usually written in formal
language , expressing the stand of the paper on controversial issues of the day. Which is NOT a
characteristic of an editorial?
A. it entertains and gives happiness to the readers C. it influences and molds public
opinion
B. it stirs the conscience of the readers to action D. it has no by-line
396. Copyreading is correcting the error made by the reporter. It is another word for editing.
How does proofreading differ from copyreading or editing? Proofreading is correcting error
made by
A. the desk man B. the linotype man C. the page editor D. the typesetter or printer
397. Which is NOT a step in copyreading?
A. get an overview of the story
B. look out for editorializing, biases, and possible grounds for libel
C. verify the accuracy of facts and determine whether the story contains all essential
information
D. ensure that opinion, speculations and statements which are without attribution and
sources are retained
398. According to Jesus Valenzuela in the History of Journalism in the Philippine Islands (1933 )
and John Lent in the Philippines Mass Communication (1964 ) when did the history of campus
journalism in the Philippines start?
A. When the University of Santo Tomas published El Liliputiense in 1890
B. when the University of the Philippines published The Collegian in 1908
C. When Araullo High School published The Coconut in 1911
D. When the first high school paper was published in the United States in 1851
399. Which according to Okoye, is an in-depth and factual write up on a topical issue which
seeks to give comprehensive information in a more captivating and relaxed style?
A. editorial article B. news article C. feature story D. sports story
400. Berger ( 1980 ) distinguishes between mini documentaries and standard documentaries.
How much time will a standard documentary take?
A. not longer than 15 minutes C. two hours or more
B. one hour or more D. three hours or more
401. While a news writer will normally stick to facts and report them as a matter of fact,
without embellishment or comments of any kind, the feature writer offers more than bare facts
EXCEPT
A. he can add flavour to his story C. he uses anecdotes, description and humor
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B. he hires a very good reporter D. he uses more factual and imaginative language
402. Which is the most difficult type of feature classified under the “invention feature story”
because it really involves the writer’s motions which sometimes colors the story, in most cases
negatively ? This type involves death and finally the resolution of the conflict either positively or
negatively.
A. character sketch B. medical story C. news-feature D. full-blown feature
story
403. It is a feature story which is not presented to the reader in the normal half a page of
newspaper features or the usual magazine feature format or one to several pages. This type of
feature story is because it is very long. Sometimes, as long as a short novel, it has added
advantage of suspense as it whets the appetite of the reader and leaves him guessing and
anxious for the remaining part of the story. Which is described?
A. adventure and travel B. developmental feature C. big red D. what and how to do feature
404. This according to MacDougall , is the first among the several” qualifications “ a reporter
needs. This means the ability to recognize that the information can be made of interest to
readers the ability to recognize clues which may be very casual but which may lead to the
discovery of important news and the ability to recognize the possibility of other stories. Which
is referred to?
A. big heart for the victims C. nose for news
B. eagle eye to see information D. wide fluffy ears to hear facts
405. Why is it that in writing a news story one is advised to make one’s paragraph?
A. it is easier to read, the words stand out better and it gives it a dramatic shade.
B. it is preferred by the reading public
C. publishers have realized that it is a space saver
D. it is advised as per style sheet
406. In writing a lead, what is the disadvantage of a wordy lead ?
A. reduces the effectiveness of an introduction C. is boring and shaky
B. cannot be understood by the reader D. reduces the readability of the article
407. In writing a lead, the sue of action words is a rule thumb. Why is active voice of action
verbs considered more effective and more exciting?
A. It gives life to your lead. C. It makes the lead bright and colourful.
B. The action is clearly understood D. It enhances the description of the information.
408. In news writing , active tense is preferred particularly in writing headlines. What headline
gets immediate attention?
I. Oklahoma City Thunder Beat New York Knicks
II. New York Knicks Lost to Oklahoma City Thunder
III. 3 Million Students Entered Public Schools Today
A .I only B.II only C. I and II D. III only
409. Which among the following leads is more engaging?
I. “The government has decided not to introduce the planned tax increase on petrol and
diesel this summer.
II. “The government has abandoned plans to raise fuel taxes this summer.”
III. “The LET was postponed due to inclement weather.
A.I only B.II only I and II D. III only
410. Adjectives should not be allowed in newspapers unless they have something to say. An
adjective should not raise questions in the reader’s mind, it should answer them. What test
should be applied to all adjectives used in journalistic writing?
45
A. Do they add relevantly to the information being provided?

B. Do they add color and style?
C. Do they describe the words appropriately?
D. Are they adding to the aesthetic appearance of the article?
411. What kind of grammatical beginning lead is being featured in the following statements?
With rakes, brooms and other cleaning equipment, the pupils from the Little Read
School cleaned the roads leading to the school in preparation for the coming school year
as part of the annual Brigada Eskwela?
A. Clause lead C. Infinitive phrase lead
B. Participial Phrase lead D. Prepositional phrase lead
412. Of the kinds of lead used in writing news feature, which kind is being shown by the
following statements? The new dean, although only in her mid-thirties, is already seasoned. She
is so humane and believes in humility as a guiding principle. She answers that justice and
fairness is served at any given instance.
A. background lead B. picture lead C. epigram lead D. descriptive lead
413. In page makeup it is advised that tombstoning should be avoided. What is tombstoning?
A. breaking stories to the top of columns C. placing two or more headlines on
approximatedly the same level in adjacent
columns
B. keeping long columns of 6-point types D. some rules in newswriting may apply
414. The following are the things to remember in captioning, EXCEPT one.
A. It should be written in short and pithy sentences.
B. It must answer the basic questions.
C. A gay picture should have a gay caption.
D. Some rules in newswriting may apply.
415. Which is a broken –column carried to the extreme?
A. broken column make-up C. Streamlined make up
B. circus make up D. Occult make up
17. TRANSLATION AND EDITING OF TEXT
17.1. Apply the rules of discourse and rhetoric in editing various kinds of written materials
17.2. Demonstrate understanding of the basic theories and concepts in translation as applied
to thewriting and editing of various types of texts
17.3. Apply principles and strategies in translating texts of various types from English to
anotherlanguage or from another language to English
416. The difference between “Don’t oppose and “Don’t whimper” lies in their
A. denotative meaning C. expressive meaning
B. propositional meaning D. selectional proposition
417. Alvin wants to translate the different kinds of bananas ( saging na saba, latondan, etc ) to
English however, he could not find the exact terms to use. Which problems of non-equivalence
did Alvin encounter?
A. The source and target languages make different distinctions in meaning.
B. The target language lacks hyponym.
C. The source-language word is semantically complex.
D. The target language lacks superordinate.
418. Which of the following indicates a problem in differences in physical or interpersonal
perspective?
A. emigrate/immigrate C. coup d ‘ e’tat/ a la carte
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B. blackness/redness D. dancing / singing

419. Which strategy was used in translating the source text “ Shampoo the hair lightly and
towel dry to the target text “ Lavar cabello ligeramente con una toalla “ ( Wash hair lightly with
a towel )
A. translation by a more neutral/less expressive word
B. translation by a more general word
C. translation by cultural submission
D. translation using a loan word
420. Which of the following is not true?
As with single words, an idiom may sometimes be omitted altogether in the target text ____
A. if it has no close match in the target language
B. it its meaning cannot be easily paraphrased
C. for stylistic reasons
D. if the term has no superordinate
421. Which grammatical categories would affect the translation of the word “masseuse “ to a
Filipino term?
A. number B. person C. case D gender
422. Which is the theme in the sentence My taking the LET review will absolutely help me ?
A.my taking the LET review C. will absolutely help me
B. will help D. the LET review
423. Which of the following sentences has a predicated theme ?
A. It is your love that made me strong.
B. What made me strong is your love.
C. Your love made me strong.
D.I was made strong by your love.
424. Which thematic structure is used in the sentence? Well scrutinized the exam was?
A. fronting of time or place adjunct
B. fronting of predicator
C. fronting of object or complement
D. fronting of pronominal
425. Which translation problem is evident in the sentence “ Kumain sya ng manga “ ( Eat s/he
mango)?
A. Syntagmatic dislocation C. Nominalization
B. Linear dislocation D. Extraposition
426. Marky received his paper with the mark 5 before the sentence. We will reap victory! What
does the teacher want Marky to do?
A. Move five spaces to the left. C. Use five single spaces.
B. Insert five spaces. D. Indent five spaces
427. Which of the following answers to the question “ Does Carmi dance while she cooks?”
A. Yes, she does B. No but I do C. Yes she doesn’t D. No
428. Which strategy is used in translating “ I didn’t expect Milo to cry crocodile tears to Hindi
ko inasahan na iiyak ng peke si Milo.
A. Translation by omission of play on idiom
C. Using an idiom of similar meaning but dissimilar form
B. Translation by paraphrase
D. Using an idiom of similar meaning and form
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429. Amy wants her student to inset a space between words. Which mark should she write on
her student’s paper?
430. What could be the reason why “ po” and “opo” cannot be directly translated in the English
language?
A. because the words are considered foreign in the English language
B. because the words are only true in the Philippines
C. because the words are culture-specific
D. because the words are exotic
18. SPEECH AND STAGE ARTS
18.1. Demonstrate understanding of the process of oral communication and the various
forms of speech arts from public speaking and group discussion to debate, oral interpretation
and dramatics
431. Which one includes a student telling stories, original or taken from a book in his own
words?
A. sight reading B. reader’s theatre C. story reading D. creative speech
498. There are four main types of speech delivery-manuscript, memorization,
impromptu and extemporaneous. Which of the following does NOT belong to the
memorization?
A. The speaker writes the manuscript as reference during the speech
B. The speaker writes the manuscript for official records
C. Manuscript delivery is reading the text word for word
D. The use of eye contract and facial expression helps bring personality to the type of
delivery
432. There are four main types of speech delivery-manuscript, memorization , impromptu and
extemporaneous. Which of the following does not belong to memorization?
A. The speaker writes the manuscript as reference during the speech.
B. The speaker writes the manuscript for official records.
C. Manuscript delivery is reading the text word for word.
D. The use of eye contact and facial expression helps bring the personality to the type of
delivery.
433. Which is a method of speech delivery termed as “making it up on the spot” where the
students use more natural delivery and the audience is less critical?
A. Impromptu B. Manuscript C. Extemporaneous D. Memorized
434. The characteristics of effective speech based on Cicero’s canons of rhetoric include
invention, disposition, elocution , pronunciation and ______
A. arrangement B. grammar C. voice D. memory
435. Invention; discovering the best arguments _____ : delivery, language and speaking style?
A. disposition B. pronunciation C. memory D. elocution
436.Which characteristic of effective speech refers to the arrangement and organization of
materials?
A. disposition B. pronunciation C. invention D. elocution
437. Which refers to the processes associated with the production and perception of sounds
used in spoke language?
A. Speech C. Speaking
B. Oral Communication D. Discussing
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438. Which are is included in speech discipline that includes the study of symbolic behaviour in
dyadic relationship?
A. group communication C. rhetoric
B. organizational communication D. interpersonal communication
439. Which speech is delivered during wedding receptions, graduation ceremonies, religious
inductions and other kids? It strongly suggests that speakers know the background of the
events and assess their audience to determine what information is most appropriate to share
A. Persuasive speaking C. ceremonial speaking
B. Informative speaking D. demonstrative speaking
440. If informative speaking aims to inform, what is the aim of demonstrative speaking?
A. to shift the opinions or behaviours of the audience
B. to entertain the audience
C. to share some facts and opinions
D. to show audience how to perform a task
441. Which of the following is not an example of a persuasive speech?
A. a politician asking people to vote for him/her
B. a student trying to get a patient to stop smoking
C. a tour guide explaining the floor plan of a larger art museum
D. an environmentalist trying to get people to start thinking about the environment
19. CREATIVE WRITING
19.1. Apply theories, concepts and skills in creative writing to include biographical sketches,
fiction, creative non-fiction and poetry
442. Which is one of the first rules to remember in writing?

A. writers read a lot
B. writers are born
C. writers write
D. writers are made
443. Ideas are all around but as a general rule where can you find ideas?
A. in a solemn place where you can think well
B. in a place where the scenery is great
C. anywhere when a number of people gather
D. no particular place of venue
444. Creative writing is any _____ writing that goes outside the hounds of normal professional,
journalistic, academic or technical forms of literature. Which word/words can be in the blank to
make sentence correct?
I. professional
II. journalistic
III. academic
IV. technical
A.I, II, III and IV
B. I and II
C. II, III and IV
D. III and IV
445. One successful Mills and Boon author states that, once she had made up her mind to
become a novelist, she turned one room of her house into a study room and _____
A. allow everyone to get inside if they wish
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B. forbade anyone to enter while she was working

C. locked herself until she was done with the manuscript
D. stayed in the room as she wish to avoid disturbance
446. Which is the most common excuse for not putting pen to paper?
A. poor vocabulary
B. very few materials available
C. limited resources (financial)
D. lack of time
447. Which is considered as a major stumbling block for would-be writers?
A. Lack of time
B. lack of confidence
C. lack of resources
D. lack of training
448. Which is the first thing that writers do when they are about to continue writing?
A. ponder and think well
B. write his thoughts at once
C. re-read what you have written yesterday
D. recall what you have yesterday
449. Watching the world go by in order to get ideas to write means
A. watching the globe turning around closely
B. traveling around the world
C. reading the latest news every day
D. observing how people behave in everyday situations
450. Writers are terrible eavesdroppers and will shamelessly listen in to the most private
conversation. Is this correct?
A. true to all extent
B. that’s not their natural characteristics
C. somehow it is correct
D. that’s not becoming of a professional writer
451. You have a large family; you’re very tired and you have demanding full time jobs etc. are
excuses which may be rolled into one simple explanation. Which one is it?
A. you have no inspiration
B. nobody is behind you
C. you are indolent
D. you don’t think you are good enough.
452. What makes long descriptive passages vibrate and lively?
A. appropriate words and phrases
B. nicely chosen adjectives and descriptions
C. dialogue action or interaction
D. beautifully worded sentences
453. What is the meaning of write about what you know as an advice to would-be writers?
A. do not write what you have not read
B. do not write anything that you have not experienced
C. write only the things that you know well
D. write what you know if not find out
454.Expert knowledge is invaluable . Is this true?
A. not certain
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B. true
C. it is not right
D. that is contradicting
455. Aside from realism, what is considered a vital ingredient in any piece of writing, fact or
fiction?
A. originality
B. good editing
C. pleasant experience
D. popular subject
456. Michael Green, a professional journalist offers an excellent advice, “observe everyday life
with _____
A. enthusiasm
B. patience and perseverance
C. writer’s eye
D. writer’s imagination
457. Failure to write ideas down can result to losing them altogether. How shall it help if you
commit it to paper?
A. helps commit them to memory and stimulate new ideas
B. helps you to recall what has happened
C. motivates a writer to continue writing
D. motivates the writer to gather some more information that he needs in writing
458. What is taboo in sending letters to the editor?
A. sending it to several government agency
B. sending without prior notice
C. sending it with high expectation
D. sending to several publications
459. What is one important gesture to ensure that you will be noticed by a publication?
A. addressing your letter to the publication’s public relation officer
B. lengthy but straight to the point
C. a brief word of praise for the publication
D. clear and legible cursive handwriting
460. Reading with a writer’s eye means
A. focusing on the main idea of what you are reading
B. giving emphasis on the characters of the article you are reading
C. reading as fast as you could so that you will not forget the thought of the story
D. taking time to analyse how an author manages to grab your attention
461. Which is the framework that binds your blog posts together and choosing the right
platform to suit your needs is essential?
A. blogging platform
B. URLs
C. website
D. blogposts
REVIEW NOTES IN ENGLISH BASED ON THE NCBTS AND TABLE OF

SPECIFICATIONS
REMEDIAL INSTRUCTION IN ENGLISH
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Take into consideration student inadequacies in language and literature competencies for
remediation purposes
Remedial education (also known as developmental education, basic skills education,
compensatory education, preparatory education and academic upgrading) is education designed
to assist students in order to achieve expected competencies in core academic skills such as
literacy and numeracy. Remedial Teaching is intended for students who, for one reason or
another have fallen behind the rest of the class.
Basically, remedial instruction is a type of clinical teaching. It is a “ spiral process of assessment-
instruction-re-assessment”. The subjects are targeted at low achievements learners or under-
prepared students. After the teacher diagnoses students’ learning difficulties, a remedial course
will be designed in accordance with students’ needs.
The teacher takes initiative in offering the instruction and an evaluation will be conducted
during and after the implementation of the remedial instruction to examine the actual
effectiveness of the course. Minor adjustments would be made based on the results of the
evaluation to ensure that students are able to catch up in regular classes.
Remedial programs are usually offered during normal school hours, however , more and more
schools offer after-school and summer-school programs. Programs implemented after school
or in summer are reported to be more successful as students do not have to miss the normal
classroom instruction while attending the remedial course.
Remedial programs include the following types, compensatory program, supplementary
program, tutorial program, adaptive program, basic skills program and learning strategies
training program. The compensatory program provides necessary services to at risk students
who are from disadvantaged backgrounds to help them overcome learning problems and
increase academic achievement. It also requires the involvement of school staff and parents.
The supplemental program is a support program that aims to help students master content
oriented materials, improve study skills or test –taking strategies tailored to the specific needs
of a class. As for the tutorial program, learning tasks require a great deal of practice , trained
tutors can be effective. The higher-achieving tutors can offer extra explanation and practices
to the underachieving students and meanwhile reduce teachers’ workloads to meet the
learning needs of individual students for them to effectively master basic skills in academic
subjects. The teacher could choose different teaching materials or even compile materials that
appeal to students; interest and learning level. Alternative evaluation methods rather than
traditional paper and pencil test could be used to measure students’ achievement. In the basic
skills program, the instruction focuses on teaching students to acquire the basic skills required
in certain subjects so that they can academically prepare for college-level work. With respect
to the learning strategies training program, it aims to help students become more effective
and efficient learners by teaching them thinking, learning and self-management strategies.
Remedial education courses are more common in elementary and junior high schools than in
high schools. Many elementary schools strive to introduce remedial education as early as
possible, generally in the primary grades (kindergarten to grade 3 ) . Educators target these
grades because research indicates that overcoming difficulties in reading, writing, and math
becomes more difficult as children grow older. At the secondary school level, many students
require remedial support to help meet graduation standards.
In many respects, instruction in remedial courses is similar to instruction in regular, or
mainstream courses. However, schools typically limit the class size of remedial courses to a
relatively small number of students per teacher. This class size gives teachers more
opportunity to respond to the unique needs of individual students.
52
Most remedial education classes consist of groups of fewer than ten students per teacher. In
some cases, one-on-one step tutoring ( on instructor working with one student) can help the
student make substantial gains in achievement in a relatively short period of time. One-on-one
tutoring can be especially effective in remedial reading programs. However, most schools lack
the resources to provide instruction on such a personal level.
Elementary and secondary schools usually offer remedial programs during normal school hours,
but increasing numbers of schools offer after- school and summer-school programs. These
programs appear to be the most successful ones because participating students do not have to
miss regular classroom instruction while attending the remedial course and thus benefit from
the additional spent in classes.
ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES
Apply content-based principles and strategies in developing language proficiency for specific
purposes
English for Specific Purposes (ESP ) is a branch of English language Teaching (ELT ) and refereed
as “applied ELT “ as the aims and contents of any ESP course is based on specific needs of the
learners.
ESP ( English for Specific Purposes) involves teaching and learning the specific skills and
language needs by particular learners for a particular purpose. The P in ESP is always a
professional purpose- a set of skills that learners currently need in their or will need in their
professional careers. This broad definition can be taken to include business skills, such as
English for Job – Hunting or presentations but many ESP teachers see their field as distinct from
mainstream Business English, ESP contrasts with General English which is aimed at a very wide
range of learners. It also contrasts with Business English although there is considerable overlap
between the two branches. A lawyer and a marketing executive might both benefit from
attending the same Business English course focusing on the generic skills they both need at
work ( such as writing an email or participating in a meeting, but they might get more from
attending an ESP course in legal or marketing English respectively as this will focus more
precisely on their needs.
Definition of ESP ( Dudley-Evans, 1997 )
Absolute Characteristics
1. ESP is defined to meet specific needs of the learners

2. ESP makes use of underlying methodology and activities of the discipline it serves
3. ESP is centred on the language appropriate to these activities in terms of grammar, lexis,
register, study skills, discourse and genre
Variable Characteristics
1. ESP may be related to or designated for specific discipline

2. ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a different methodology from that of
General English
3. ESP is centered on the language appropriate to these activities in terms of grammar,
lexis, register and skills, discourse and genre.
II. Variable Characteristics • ESP may be related to or designed for specific
disciplines;
140 Choudhary Zahid Javid
53
• ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a different methodology from that of general
English; • ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, either at a tertiary level institution or in a
professional work situation. It could, however, be for learners at secondary school level; • ESP is
generally designed for intermediate or advanced students; • Most ESP courses assume some basic
knowledge of the language system, but it can be used with beginners”. This definition also
acknowledges that ESP is meant to meet learner’s specific needs but it has removed the
characteristic mentioned in Strevens’ definition that “ESP is in contrast with General English”. This
modified definition has extended the horizon of ESP by allowing it to encompass the specific needs
of the students who do not necessarily belong to any specific occupation or discipline. Dudley-
Evans and St. John (1998) have also enhanced the list of variable characteristics as well. They have
contended that ESP is not necessarily but “may be related to or designed for specific
disciplines”and different methodologies “from that of General English”may be employed to cater
for the needs of the specific teaching situations for specific disciplines (ibid.). Contrary to the idea
of restricting ESP courses for adult learners (Abbot, 1981; Widdowson, 1983; Robinson, 1991;
McKay and Tom, 1999), Dudley-Evans and St. John have asserted that ESP courses are “likely to be
designed for adult learners”but may be organized “for learners at secondary school level”.
Likewise they have pointed out that ESP courses may be planned for the beginners along with
intermediate or advanced students. It comes out from the above discussion that “S”for specific is
central to this approach as was stated by Hadley (2006: 3) that “the key to teaching ESP is to focus
on the “S”for specific. ESP can be differentiated from general ELT by its concern with specialized
language and practice”. But this word “special”might apply to special language or special needs /
aim. This confusion over these two notions was reported during 1980’s (Gatehouse, 2001 cf.
Perren, 1974). Mackay and Mountford (1978, p. 4) defined the idea of special language as follows:
“The only practical way in which we can understand the notion of special language is as a
restricted repertoire of words and expressions selected from the whole language because that
restricted repertoire covers every requirement within a welldefined context, task or vocation”.
The second notion, “special aim”, was interpreted as the learners’ special purpose of learning of
English as a second language (ESL) or English as a foreign language (EFL) instead of the nature of
the language they intended to learn (ibid.). Barron (1994, p. 3) supported the first notion and
confined ESP to specific disciplines and insisted “to place ESP firmly within the multidimensional
space that constitutes the students’ chosen disciplinary culture”. It was further explained that the
multidimensional space included “social, cultural and political factors as well as functional
ones”(ibid., p. 3). Strevens’ (1998) supported the same notion because one of the absolute
characteristics of his definition identified ESP as being "in contrast to General English". Resultantly,
ESP should concentrate on the learners’ special needs in particular occupations and activities.
Fiorito (2005, p. 1) supported the same belief and declared that “the ESP focal point is that English
is not taught as a subject separated from the students' real world (or wishes); instead, it is
integrated into a subject matter area important to the learners.” Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998)
contradicted this restricted view regarding the scope of ESP by including English for Academic
Purposes (EAP) in the realm of ESP in their revised definition. They further clarified their
contention when they proclaimed that “it is our contention that all courses in specialized language
and practice fall under the English for specific purposes rubrics”(Hadley, 2006 cf. Dudley-Evans
and St. John, 1998, p. 3). This specialized (language and practice) mean business, academic,
occupational etc. Hutchinson and Waters (1987) also favored the broader notion of ESP and did
not restrict it to any specific discipline. They theorized that "ESP is an approach to language
teaching in which all decisions as to content and method are based on the learner's reason for
English for Specific Purposes: Its Definition, Characteristics, Scope and Purpose 141
54
learning”(ibid., p. 19). According to them, ESP programs insisted on the “learner’s reason for
learning”and not on any occupation or profession. Gatehouse (2001, p. 3) reported that
“consequently, the focus of the word 'special' in ESP ought to be on the purpose for which
learners learn and not on the specific jargon or registers they learn”. Although the above-
mentioned controversy about the definition and scope of ESP is likely to exist to some extent but a
vast majority of ESP proponents seems to agree that ESP is a very flexible approach of teaching of
English as a second language (TESL) / teaching of English as a foreign language (TEFL) that is
integrally linked not only with special disciplines and occupations but also caters for the special
needs in the realm of EAP as well. It transpires that ESP is not limited to any specific discipline but
meant for the specific needs of the learners because “ESP is (or ought logically to be) integrally
linked with areas of activity (academic, vocational, professional) which have already been defined
and which represent the learners’ aspiration. The learning of ESP is in consequence an essentially
dependent activity, a parasitic process, and it follows that the pedagogy of ESP must be
dependent too. It has no purpose of its own; it exists only to serve those that have been specified
elsewhere”(Barron, 1994, cf. Widdowson, 1983, pp. 108-109).
3. Types of ESP Dudley-Evans and St. John, (1998) have divided EAP into two divisions: English for
General Academic Purposes (EGAP) and ESAP. EGAP is related to the teaching of language skills
that are common in different disciplines but ESAP refers to the teaching of language features that
are specific for various disciplines. Research has offered insights into the mutual relationship of
EGAP and ESAP. Skills and language functions learnt in EGAP programs may be transferred to
specific disciplines in ESAP programs (ibid.). Many researchers have discussed about the types of
ESP and most of them have grouped ESP into two main categories: English for Occupational
Purposes (EOP) and EAP (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987; Robinson, 1991) whereas Carter (1983)
has identified the following three types of ESP: 1. English as a restricted language 2. English for
Academic and Occupational Purposes (EAOP) 3. English with specific topics. Mackey and
Mountford (1978) clearly defined the concept of “restricted language”in their following
statement: “... the language of international air-traffic control could be regarded as 'special', in the
sense that the repertoire required by the controller is strictly limited and can be accurately
determined situationally, as might be the linguistic needs of a dining-room waiter or air-hostess.
However, such restricted repertoires are not languages, just as a tourist phrase book is not
grammar. Knowing a restricted 'language' would not allow the speaker to communicate effectively
in novel situation, or in contexts outside the vocational environment”(Gatehouse, 2001 cf. Mackey
and Mountford, 1978, pp. 4-5). The scope and canvas of this first type of ESP is extremely limited
which allows the learners learn English language for very restricted purposes and it trains the
learners to handle specific situations in extremely limited linguistic settings. This kind of ESP
teaching restricts itself to "limited number of phrases and expressions and these learners remain
unable to use English in any setting other than the one they have been trained for. EAOP has been
recognized as the second kind by Carter (1983) whereas majority of other researchers have
confined their classification of ESP to EAP and EOP. Robinson (1991) has also included these two
types in his classification of ESP. Kennedy and Bolitho (1985) have added English for Science and
Technology (EST) in their list of types of ESP. It seems to transpire that ESP has been separated
from EOP and EAP because of the fact that it was basically scientific and technological knowledge
that this new approach of ELT was supposed to transfer to non-native speakers of English
(Hutchinson and Waters, 1987; Gatehouse, 2001; Dudley-Evans and St John, 1998; Strevens,
1977). “Tree of ELT”(Hutchinson and Waters, 1987, p. 6) describes the classification of ESP in detail
which offers significant insights into the broad scope of ESP:
55
Hutchinson and Waters (1987) seem to agree with Carter (1983) in his belief that EOP and EAP are
not entirely separate phenomena. They have argued that “people can work and study
simultaneously; it is also likely that in many cases the language learnt for immediate use in a study
environment will be used later when the student takes up, or returns to, a job”(ibid., p. 16). What
transpires from the above discussion is that EOP and EAP have approximately common goals but
their dynamics and means to achieve the ultimate goals are indeed different. Dudley-Evans and St.
John (1998, p. 5) have also included only EAP and EOP in their division of ESP. Their suggested
classification is as under:
English for Occupational Purposes Post-experience
Independent Integrated Simultaneous / In-service Pre-study post-study
In-study “English with specific topics” is the third type of ESP according to Carter (1983).
He has mentioned activities like post-graduate reading studies, working in foreign institutions and
attending conferences as future needs for scientists. This third category of ESP requires that the
linguistic needs of the learners should be properly determined before any ESP material is
designed. It confines itself to the target future (linguistic) needs (TFN) of the learners to prepare
them for their future needs. It seems that this category of ESP is not very distinguishable because
all ESP courses have a proper NA procedure as an integral component of developing ESP teaching
material which targets situational language, including topics mentioned by Carter (1983) and
others, in present and target workplace settings (Gatehouse, 2001).
THE ART OF TRANSLATION AND THE ART OF EDITING

Unlike writing translation is hardly a lonely work. There is no room here for the loneliness of a
long-distance runner, it is much more likely to resemble a Canadian canoe with the author and
the translator paddling in unison to reach the finish line. This metaphor, however, fails to give
a precise description of the translation process, especially when we have in mind literary
translation intended for publication. In this case the old saying “where two is a company, three is
a crowd” ceases to apply. Literary translation is a coxed pair in which the coxswain’s place is given
to an editor. Translation is an art of making choices – of the right words, phrases, or metaphors –
tens and hundreds of choices made at any given moment. Inasmuch as we can assume that a
translator understands the text the translation of which he attempts, the chances that his choices
are always the best ones (in literary translation only the best choices should be accepted as it
always aims much higher than the commercial one) are fairly slim. In an ideal world translators
should be their own editors combining an unlimited knowledge with a literary gift as well as – last
but not least – a critical sense which would allow them to remove or simply avoid any mistakes
and errors they might make. Were this possible, the publishers would simply love such
translators. However, all those who come short of these expectations must resort to cooperation
with editors. What qualities and talents should we expect from a literary editor? Some degree of
literary talent would do nicely as it would help the editor suggest better solutions to various
literary problems. Such gems can be found among editors although the more seasoned
translators meet during their careers many “professionals” who “edit” their texts but cannot
improve them in any way although they can be quite successful in spoiling it completely. A
literary sensitivity is simply obligatory, an ability which allows the editor for example to see that a
translation who seemingly goes against the rules of grammar, spelling, or punctuation cannot
be any different because it is the only way to represent the qualities of the original text. Probably
a much simpler way to put is this: an editor must love books. An ideal editor should know the
language of the original. For quite obvious reasons this ideal is seldom attained. Only translator
working with such global languages as English and Spanish (in specifically Polish context
56
sometimes also German, Russian or French) may reasonably count on such help. A working
knowledge of the original language is most often sufficient, a perfect one can actually be
counterproductive e.g. in such situations when translator leaves in his work phrases translated
literally from the original. An editor who is very well acquainted with the source language may
miss such errors as the erroneous phrase will be comprehensible to them. Naturally, true
professionals will not make such mistakes. Nevertheless, it seems quite reasonable to expect
from an editor a basic working command of the language of the original, a knowledge
which may be insufficient to allow reading literature for pleasure but it is just enough to get the
message with the help of dictionaries. It also helps a lot if the editor is able to accept the fact
that it is the translator who should have a perfect command of the language of the original. The
editor, however, should have a perfect command of the target language. It is quite irrational to
expect an editor to know all languages of the world yet every language he or she masters can be
of some help, especially when the original is written in a relatively unknown one. Such knowledge
becomes especially helpful when the text in question has been formerly translated into other,
more popular languages, and the translation can be used as a point of reference when the
original becomes impenetrable. Naturally, we are referring here to a rather ideal but seldom
encountered situation when such other translations are readily available. Knowledge of other
languages also comes handy when the editor works on translation from a language related to one
he or she knows – knowledge of German helps with Dutch, knowledge of Latin helps with Italian,
knowledge of Spanish helps with Portuguese etc. This kind of help must not be overrated but it
can get useful every now and then. It is very important, however, that an editor should know at
least one foreign language as such knowledge offers a new and fresh perspective on one’s native
language, strengthening the awareness of possible differences. The very awareness of the
existence of differences of such grammatical structures as reported speech39 should attract the
editor’s attention to strange sounding expressions in the edited text. Even if they are not aware
of specific grammatical rules they should notice their possible presence. Is it possible to learn
how to be a good editor? Universities are apparently convinced it is so. The department of Polish
studies of the University of Warsaw offers a specialized course of studies for future editors who
prepare there for work in the press and publishing houses. The 360 hours long course includes a
variety of specific classes and practical training which prepare for the job. Strangely enough a
lengthy description as well as the detailed programme of studies which last for two years
available in 2010 does not mention editing translation at all. In 2005 it at least included 10 hours
practical classes on editing translation which apparently did not outlast the budget cuts and the
introduction of the Bologna process. Although it did not seem much, it was exactly as many as
there were planned for editing original literary texts.40 However, no university can make you a
good editor. In this respect editor is very much alike translator. The art of translation can only be
mastered by practice. One has to go on translating, editing, listening to criticism and drawing
conclusions, improving, correcting, and editing again. And again. The way to become a good
editor is exactly the same. Experience is the greatest asset, practice is something that no diploma
can replace. Naturally, it does not mean that I would rule out any candidates for the job who
have nothing but a university diploma. My personal experience, however, very clearly suggests
that I could expect much more help from people whose path to this profession was somewhat
more circuitous. It is highly advantageous for a prospective editor to be a graduate of a Polish
department but love of books and respect towards translators is something one does not
necessarily learn during courses in history of Polish publishing houses or their structure. It is quite
difficult to explain but it often seems that diplomas give especially younger editors an unbearable
and largely ungrounded self-confidence and belief in their own infallibility and intellectual
57
supremacy over translators who can only show a BA or MA diploma in foreign language studies
(thus indirectly proving that their knowledge of their native language is amateurish at best).
Mutual respect is a necessary basis for any cooperation between a translator and an editor.
Work on an edition of a translation requires a lot of listening and considering other people’s
opinions, a very difficult task if you do not respect them. Naturally, mutual respect is much easier
to inspire when both parties have similar achievements and experience. The ability to listen
attentively is the absolute minimum, conditio sine qua non. And yet all too often both translators
and editors are characterised by self-righteousness and they fail to notice that in conflicts this
particular personal trait causes the first to lose is always the translation. Which by no means
should be taken as an advice to back away from possible conflicts. An editor should be as
steadfast as possible in his refusal to accept just any (and this most certainly stands for any bad)
solution even if it comes from a seasoned, first-rate, and awarded translator. Even the best make
mistakes and, unfortunately, it is usually the best who are the most difficult to convince that such
a thing happened. On the other hand, however, such an attitude on the part of the editor must
be limited to linguistic correctness. Translator has (or at least should have) an exclusive right to
make any decisions concerning the artistic, aesthetic quality of his work. In the process of
translation an editor is not another author, a second translator (although if their cooperation
works well he may become a co-author of the final text). If he cannot accept this, he should try
his hand at translation instead of attempts at back-seat driving. The task of an editor is that of a
spokesperson of the author and the future readers. The aim of the editor’s work is the creation of
such a translation which will be true to the original author’s intent (although not
necessary to his every word). The author and the readers must be skilfully defended against any
excesses of translators’ misplaced creativity. On the other hand the editor should always have in
mind the readers for whose benefit he should make sure that the final text of the translation
simply reads well. A translated book must be a good one. Many Polish readers remember the
infamous Fredzia Phi-Phi, a translation of Alexander Alan Milne’s Winnie the Pooh prepared by
Monika Adamczyk-Garbowska (Lublin 1986). This translation is a perfect example of a book, the
translator of which had both knowledge and a vision of her work, yet as the result of which she
produced a book which can hardly be read by children while adults, most of whom had read the
canonical translation by Irena Tuwim, find unpalatable. An editor should avoid three major
dangers which usually appear in the process of editing. The first is literal translation which can get
even as bad as word for word translation. It is a problem which is equally difficult for the
translator and the editor. Both can demand their choices to be accepted because “it is exactly so
in the original” and while claiming to defend the original they stand by their mistakes.
Unfortunately, it often happens so that convincing an editor that in order to retain the spirit of
the work it is impossible to stick to its every letter turns out an impossible task. Both sides of this
conflict sometimes happen to defend the original’s “integrity” in order to hide their ignorance of
its meaning or, even more probably, of its language. Ignorance, the second possible danger on
the part of the editor, is rather naturally also not exclusive and both parts should watch the
other’s work attentively. Excessive trust can also be dangerous. The third possible danger is an
abuse of power. It is sometimes so that translator’s influence upon the text ends when he
submits his work while any later remarks are not considered at all. The first opportunity to get to
know what happened to the translation arrives with the copies of the printed books (if the
publishing house chooses to supply them as more and more prefer to save money and avoid
problems with additional taxation41) and by then it is too late to change anything. Attempts to
cut costs by the publishers are by no means limited to the number of free copies available. As I
mentioned above, from the point of view of a publisher, a perfect translator does not require an
58
editor (or a proof-reader, preferably neither) at all. One of major changes which took
place in Polish publishing after 1989 was outsourcing editors employed fulltime. They were either
offered possibility of cooperating with the publishers or replaced with younger and less
experienced candidates who could offer (seemingly) the same services for less money. The most
courageous publishers went as far as to demand from translators providing edition and proof-
reading as part of their job at no extra fee. I can still recall with some amusement an offer of
translating a popular course of history of Poland into English at a very modest fee which
was supposed to cover also edition and proof-reading of the text made by an English-language
native speaker. Fortunately, serious publishers discovered rather sooner than later that this
policy is extremely short-sighted and returned to employing editors on a full-time basis. Even
though outsourcing gave some short-term savings, in the long-term it was extremely damaging to
their reputation and those who failed to notice this on time very often had to move on to other
businesses. The change in the status of editor within a publishing house was nevertheless
irreversible. Famous editors such as Irena Szymańska (19211999), who combined editing with
writing and translating, forming personal relations with authors and translators, would have a
hard time trying to fit in this new reality. After a period when edition was treated as a
necessary evil or a costly luxury came a period when this task was entrusted to first year students
of Polish studies who sought any possibility of supplementing their meagre incomes but could
actually do very little beyond reading and returning an “edited” text without any substantial
changes. They either had to master their trade on their own or they were gradually replaced by
people with more skills coming from various walks of life. The next stage was an increased
professionalization, more and more publishers would either expand their market presence and
increase the number of published titles (as the print-runs were decreasing) which increased the
demand for editors as a result of which it became cheaper to keep editors busy nine to five for a
regular salary rather than to pay for each edited book. Other publishers seek niches on the
market and they require highly specialised editors who can expect safe and steady working
environment in return for their qualifications. Inasmuch as one can hardly complain of the
necessity to deal with professionals the re-professionalisation meant also that many highly
qualified specialists who were not interesting in full-time or even part-time positions gave up
editing. I have so far limited these remarks to professional editors (although I have quite vivid
memories of collaborating with people who were paid for their editing services but the quality
thereof was rather unprofessional). However, any translator must not seek their help only.
Especially in the early stages of translator’s career or even before any real career starts it is highly
advisable to put your attempts to the test of your colleagues’ literary tastes. It is the easiest for
students of departments of foreign language studies and applied linguistics who dream of
becoming literary translators and who can count on the help of their fellow students. Every
reading of a translated text helps remove faults and mistakes which the translator missed. Every
reading of a text translated by a fellow student helps notice mistakes which one can make or
makes in their own work. Peer correction should be an opportunity when we can expect an
honest and direct criticism of our work (not of ourselves) and we should learn how to offer this
kind of criticism to others. It is much easier to accept criticism from people we like and respect,
creating a network of peer correction is also an important stage in preparation for translator’s
career. The ability to accept criticism becomes more and more important when we decide to
choose translation as our job because then we have to face criticism (the good part is that
translation is quite seldom the object of reviewers’ attention but it can be a limited consolation)
coming from professional reviewers who may be more competent but usually are less friendly
and much less inclined to turn a deaf ear to our mistakes. Every translator should be aware of the
59
fact that criticism, no matter whether it comes from editors or reviewers, has (or at least should
have) one clear aim – improving the quality of the translation and protecting readers from the
bad ones. If someone cannot handle criticism, they should look for another source of income.
What attitude should a translator adopt towards editors? One can decide that editor’s
participation in the process of translation is a necessary evil. Collaboration may be for us one of
those trials and tribulations to which we habitually apply the saying “what kills us not makes us
stronger”. Yet we must bear in mind what I have just said – a good editor protects both translator
from reviewers and readers from translator. If he is an evil, we should at least agree that it is a
lesser evil after all. For translators it is much better to try to accept the arguments of editors and,
if possible, become friends with them. Every translated book means many hours spent together
discussing possible changes and improvements. Such hours pass much faster when spent with
someone we like striving towards a common goal. Sometimes it takes a lot of effort and humility
but it is always worth it. It is seldom possible to reach the finish line fighting with the coxswain.
ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE
Beowulf
The poem begins with a brief genealogy of the Danes. Scyld Shefing was the first great king of
the Danes, known for his ability to conquer enemies. Scyld becomes the great-grandfather of
Hrothgar, the king of the Danes during the events of Beowulf. Hrothgar, like his ancestors
before him, is a good king, and he wishes to celebrate his reign by building a grand hall called
Heorot. Once the hall is finished, Hrothgar holds a large feast. The revelry attracts the
attentions of the monster Grendel, who decides to attack during the night. In the morning,
Hrothgar and his thanes discover the bloodshed and mourn the lost warriors. This begins
Grendel's assault upon the Danes.
Twelve years pass. Eventually the news of Grendel's aggression on the Danes reaches the
Geats, another tribe. A Geat thane, Beowulf, decides to help the Danes; he sails to the land of
the Danes with his best warriors. Upon their arrival, Hrothgar's thane Wulfgar judges the Geats
worthy enough to speak with Hrothgar. Hrothgar remembers when he helped Beowulf's father
Ecgtheow settle a feud; thus, he welcomes Beowulf's help gladly.
Heorot is filled once again for a large feast in honor of Beowulf. During the feast, a thane
named Unferth tries to get into a boasting match with Beowulf by accusing him of losing a
swimming contest. Beowulf tells the story of his heroic victory in the contest, and the company
celebrates his courage. During the height of the celebration, the Danish queen Wealhtheow
comes forth, bearing the mead-cup. She presents it first to Hrothgar, then to the rest of the
hall, and finally to Beowulf. As he receives the cup, Beowulf tells Wealhtheow that he will kill
Grendel or be killed in Heorot. This simple declaration moves Wealhtheow and the Danes, and
the revelry continues. Finally, everyone retires. Before he leaves, Hrothgar promises to give
Beowulf everything if he can defeat Grendel. Beowulf says that he will leave God to judge the
outcome. He and his thanes sleep in the hall as they wait for Grendel.
Eventually Grendel arrives at Heorot as usual, hungry for flesh. Beowulf watches carefully as
Grendel eats one of his men. When Grendel reaches for Beowulf, Beowulf grabs Grendel's arm
and doesn't let go. Grendel writhes about in pain as Beowulf grips him. He thrashes about,
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causing the hall to nearly collapse. Soon Grendel tears away, leaving his arm in Beowulf's grasp.
He slinks back to his lair in the moors and dies.
The Danes, meanwhile, consider Beowulf as the greatest hero in Danish history. Hrothgar's
minstrel sings songs of Beowulf and other great characters of the past, including Sigemund
(who slew a dragon) and Heremod (who ruled his kingdom unwisely and was punished). In
Heorot, Grendel's arm is nailed to the wall as a trophy. Hrothgar says that Beowulf will never
lack for riches, and Beowulf graciously thanks him. The horses and men of the Geats are all
richly adorned, in keeping with Hrothgar's wishes.
Another party is held to celebrate Beowulf's victory. Hrothgar's minstrel tells another story at
the feast, the story of the Frisian slaughter. An ancient Danish king had a daughter named
Hildeburh; he married her to a king of the Frisians. While Hnaef, Hildeburh's brother, visited his
sister, the Frisians attacked the Danes, killing Hnaef and Hildeburh's son in the process.
Hengest, the next leader of the Danes, desired vengeance, and in the spring, the Danes
attacked the Frisians, killing their leader and taking Hildeburh back to Denmark.
After this story is told, Wealhtheow presents a necklace to Hrothgar while pleading with her
brother-in-law Hrothulf to help her two young sons if they should ever need it. Next she
presents many golden treasures to Beowulf, such as necklaces, cups, and rings. Soon the feast
ends, and everyone sleeps peacefully.
In the night, Grendel's mother approaches the hall, wanting vengeance for her son. The
warriors prepared for battle, leaving enough time for Grendel's mother to grab one of
Hrothgar's counselors and run away. When Beowulf is summoned to the hall, he finds Hrothgar
in mourning for his friend Aeschere. Hrothgar tells Beowulf where the creatures like Grendel
live‹in a shadowy, fearful land within the moors.
Beowulf persuades Hrothgar to ride with him to the moors. When they reach the edge of the
moors, Beowulf calls for his armor, takes a sword from Unferth, and dives into the lake. After a
long time, Beowulf reaches the bottom of the lake, where Grendel's mother is waiting to attack.
Beowulf swings his sword, but discovers that it cannot cut her, so he tosses it away. They then
wrestle until Beowulf spies a large sword nearby. He grabs it by the hilt and swings‹killing
Grendel's mother by slicing off her head. Still in a rage, Beowulf finds the dead Grendel in the
lair and cuts off his head as a trophy.
As they wait, the Danes have given up all hope for Beowulf because he has been underwater for
such a long time. They are shocked when Beowulf returns with Grendel's head and the hilt of
the sword (which melted with the heat of Grendel's blood). They bear the hero and his booty
back to Heorot, where another celebration takes place. Beowulf recounts his battle; Hrothgar
praises him and gives him advice on being a king. A grand feast follows, and Beowulf is given
more priceless treasures. The next morning, the Geats look forward to leaving Denmark. Before
they leave, Beowulf promises aid for Hrothgar from the Danes. Hrothgar praises Beowulf and
promises that their lands will have an alliance forever. As the Geats leave, Hrothgar finds
himself wishing Beowulf would never leave.
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The Geats return with much rejoicing to their homeland, where their king Hygelac and his
queen Hygd greet them. In an aside, the narrator compares Hygd to the queen of the ancient
Offa, who is not tamed until Offa comes to subjugate her. Beowulf tells his lord the events of
his trip to Denmark. In the process, he tells another story that had previously been
unmentioned. Hrothgar betrothed his daughter Freawaru to a prince of the Heathobards in
order to settle an old feud. Beowulf speculates that someone will goad this Heathobard prince
to take vengeance upon the Danes for all their past wrongs. Hygelac praises Beowulf for his
bravery and gives him half the kingdom. They rule the kingdom together in peace and
prosperity. Hygelac is killed in a battle soon after, so Beowulf becomes king of the Geats and
rules the kingdom well.
In the fiftieth year of Beowulf's reign, a monster arises to terrorize the Geats. A treasure trove
was left by an ancient civilization, which guarded it jealously until only one member of the race
was left. After the last person's death, a fire-breathing dragon found the treasure and guarded
it for three hundred years. One day, a slave stumbled upon the treasure and stole a cup as an
offering to his lord. The dragon awakened to find something missing from his treasure, and
began his rampage upon the Geats.
One day, Beowulf learns that this dragon has destroyed his own great hall. This attack sends
him into deep thought. Soon he orders a shield to use for battle, but not without a heavy heart
at what may happen to him. He recalls Hygelac's death in battle and his own narrow escape
from this battle. He recalls a number of battles he has seen as he travels to the dragon's lair
with eleven of his thanes. The servant who stole the cup leads them to the lair.
As they wait to attack the dragon, Beowulf recounts the Geat royal family's plight, in which
Hygelac's oldest brothers killed each other and left their father to die of a broken heart.
Beowulf says he served Hygelac well, and a sword (named Naegling) that he won while serving
Hygelac will help him save the kingdom once again. Beowulf leads the charge to the dragon's
cave. The shield protects him from the dragon's flames, but his men flee in fear, leaving only
one man behind. This man is Wiglaf, Beowulf's kinsman through Ecgtheow. Wiglaf becomes
angry, but swears that he will stay by Beowulf's side.
Just then the dragon rushes up to them. Beowulf and the dragon swing at each other three
times, finally landing mortal blows upon each other the last time. The dragon is beheaded, but
Beowulf is bitten and has a mortal poison from the dragon flowing through his body as a result.
Wiglaf bathes his lord's body as Beowulf speaks on the treasure. He says that Wiglaf should
inherit it as his kinsman; then he dies.
After his death, the cowards return, to be severely chastised by Wiglaf. He sends a messenger
to tell the people of their king's death. The messenger envisions the joy of the Geats' enemies
upon hearing of the death of Beowulf. He also says that no man shall ever have the treasure for
which Beowulf fought. Wiglaf and Beowulf's thanes toss the dragon's body into the sea. They
place the treasure inside a mound with Beowulf's body and mourn for "the ablest of all world-
kings."
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The Canterbury Tales

The Canterbury Tales is a collection of stories written in Middle English by Geoffrey Chaucer at
the end of the 14th century. The tales are presented as part of a story-telling contest by a group
of pilgrims as they travel together on a journey from Southwark to the shrine of Saint Thomas
Beckett at Canterbury Cathedral. The prize for this contest is a free meal at the Tabard Inn in
Southwark on their return.
The following is the Prologue to the Canterbury Tales; a modern translation by Gerard NeCastro
(2007) of the University of Maine's e-Chaucer website. The images are screenshots or fan art
from the popular Korean online role-playing game, Ragnarök Online.
The Prologue
When the sweet showers of April have pierced to the root the dryness of March and bathed
every vein in moisture by which strength are the flowers brought forth; when Zephyr also with
his sweet breath has given spirit to the tender new shoots in the grove and field, and the young
sun has run half his course through Aries the Ram, and little birds make melody and sleep all
night with an open eye, so nature pricks them in their hearts; then people long to go on
pilgrimages to renowned shrines in various distant lands, and palmers to seek foreign shores.
And especially from every shire's end in England they make their way to Canterbury, to seek the
holy blessed martyr who helped them when they were sick.
One day in that season, as I was waiting at the Tabard Inn at Southwark, about to make my
pilgrimage with devout heart to Canterbury, it happened that there came at night to that inn a
company of twenty-nine various people, who by chance had joined together in fellowship. All
were pilgrims, riding to Canterbury. The chambers and the stables were spacious, and we were
lodged well. But in brief, when the sun had gone to rest, I had spoken with every one of them
and was soon a part of their company, and agreed to rise early to take our way to where I have
told you.
Nevertheless, while I have time and space, before this tale goes further, I think it is reasonable
to tell you all the qualities of each of them, as they appeared to me, what sort of people they
were, of what station and how they were fashioned. I will begin with a knight. There was
a Knight and a worthy man, who, from the time when he first rode abroad, loved chivalry,
faithfulness and honor, liberality and courtesy. He was valiant in his lord's war and had
campaigned, no man farther, in both Christian and heathen lands, and ever was honored for his
worth. He was at Alexandria when it was won; many times in Prussia he sat in the place of
honor above knights from all nations; he had fought in Lithuania and in Russia, and no Christian
man of his did so more often; he had been in Granada at the siege of Algeciras and in Belmaria;
he was at Lyeys and in Attalia when they were won, and had landed with many noble armies in
the Levant. He had been in fifteen mortal battles, and had thrice fought for our faith in the lists
at Tremessen and always slain his foe; he had been also, long before, with the lord of Palathia
against another heathen host in Turkey; and ever he had great renown. And though he was
valorous, he was prudent, and he was as meek as a maiden in his bearing. In all his life he never
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yet spoke any discourtesy to any living creature, but was truly a perfect gentle knight. To tell
you of his equipment, his horses were good but he was not gaily clad. He wore a jerkin of
coarse cloth all stained with rust by his coat of mail, for he had just returned from his travels
and went to do his pilgrimage.His son was with him, a young Squire, a lover and a lusty young
soldier. His locks were curled as if laid in a press. He may have been twenty years of age, of
average height, amazingly nimble and great of strength. He had been, at one time, in a
campaign in Flanders, Artois, and Picardy, and had borne himself well, in so little time, in hope
to stand in his lady's grace. His clothes were embroidered, red and white, like a meadow full of
fresh flowers. All the day long he was singing or playing upon the flute; he was as fresh as the
month of May. His coat was short, with long, wide sleeves. Well could he sit a horse and ride,
make songs, joust and dance, draw and write. He loved so ardently that at night-time he slept
no more than a nightingale. He was courteous, modest and helpful, and carved before his
father at table.
They had a Yeoman with them; on that journey they would have no other servants. He was clad
in a coat and hood of green, and in his hand he bore a mighty bow and under his belt a neat
sheaf of arrows, bright and sharp, with peacock feathers. He knew how to handle his gear like a
good yeoman; his arrows did not fall short on account of any poorly adjusted feathers. His head
was cropped and his face brown. He understood well all the practice of woodcraft. He wore a
gay arm-guard of leather and at one side a sword and buckler; at the other a fine dagger, well
fashioned and as sharp as a spear-point; on his breast an image of St. Christopher in bright
silver, and over his shoulder a horn on a green baldric. He was a woodsman indeed, I believe.
There was also a nun, a Prioress, quiet and simple in her smiling; her greatest oath was "by
Saint Loy." She was named Madame Eglantine. Well she sang the divine service, intoned in a
seemly manner in her nose, and spoke French elegantly, after the manner of Stratford-atte-
Bow, for of Parisian French she knew nothing. She had been well taught the art of eating, and
let no morsel fall from her lips, and wet but her finger-tips in the sauce. She knew how to lift
and how to hold a bit so that not a drop fell upon her breast. Her pleasure was all in courtesy.
She wiped her upper lip so well that no spot of grease was to be seen in her cup after she had
drunk; and very dainty she was in reaching for her food. And surely she was of fine behavior,
pleasant and amiable of bearing. She took pains to imitate court manners, to be stately in her
demeanor and to be held worthy of reverence. But to tell you of her character, she was so
charitable and so tenderhearted she would weep if she saw a mouse caught in a trap if it were
dead or bleeding. She had certain small dogs, which she fed upon roasted meat or milk and
finest wheaten bread. She would weep sorely if one of them died or was struck at sharply with
a stick. She was all warm feeling and tender heart. Her wimple was pleated neatly. Her nose
was slender, her eyes gray as glass, her mouth small and soft and red. Certainly she had a fine
forehead, almost a span high; truly she was not undersized. Her cloak was neatly made, I could
tell. About her arm was a coral rosary, the larger beads of green, upon which hung a brooch of
shining gold; on it was engraved first an "A" with a crown, and after that Amor vincit omnia.
['Love conquers all'--Sir G]
Another Nun, her Chaplain, was with her, and three Priests.
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There was a Monk, a very fine and handsome one, a great rider about the country-side and a
lover of hunting, a manly man in all things, fit to be an abbot. He had many fine horses in his
stable, and when he rode, men could hear his bridle jingling in a whistling wind as clear and
loud as the chapel-bell where this lord was prior. Because the rule of St. Maurus or of St.
Benedict was old and something austere, this same monk let such old things pass and followed
the ways of the newer world. He gave not a plucked hen for the text that hunters are not holy,
or that a careless monk (that is to say, one out of his cloister) is like a fish out of water; for that
text he would not give a herring. And I said his opinion was right; why should he study and lose
his wits ever poring over a book in the cloister, or toil with his hands and labor as St. Augustine
bids? How shall the world be served? Let St. Augustine have his work to himself. Therefore he
rode hard, followed greyhounds as swift as birds on the wing. All his pleasure was in riding and
hunting the hare, and he spared no cost on those. I saw his sleeves edged at the wrist with fine
dark fur, the finest in the country, and to fasten his hood under his chin he had a finely-wrought
brooch of gold; in the larger end was a love-knot. His bald head shone like glass; so did his face,
as if it had been anointed. He was a sleek, fat lord. His bright eyes rolled in his head, glowing
like the fire under a cauldron. His boots were of rich soft leather, his horse in excellent
condition. Now certainly he was a fine prelate. He was not pale, like a wasted spirit; best of any
roast he loved a fat swan. His palfrey was as brown as a berry.
There was a begging Friar, lively and jolly, a very dignified fellow. In all the four orders there is
not one so skilled in gay and flattering talk. He had, at his own expense, married off many
young women; he was a noble pillar of his order! He was well beloved and familiar among
franklins everywhere in his countryside, and also with worthy town women, for he had, as he
said himself, more virtue as confessor than a parson, for he held a papal license. Very sweetly
he heard confession, and his absolution was pleasant; he was an easy man to give penance,
when he looked to have a good dinner. Gifts to a poor order are a sign that a man has been well
confessed, he maintained if a man gave, he knew he was contrite. For many people are so stern
of heart that they cannot weep, though they suffer sorely; therefore, instead of weeping and
praying, men may give silver to the poor friars. The tip of his hood was stuffed full of knives and
pins as presents to fine women. And certainly he had a pleasant voice in singing, and well could
play the fiddle; in singing ballads he bore off the prize. His neck was as white as the fleur-de-
lis [lily flower--Sir G], and he was as strong as a champion. He knew all the town taverns, and
every inn-keeper and bar-maid, better than the lepers and beggar-women. For it accorded not
with a man of his importance to have acquaintance with sick lepers; it was not seemly, it
profited not, to deal with any such poor trash, but all with rich folk and sellers of victual. But
everywhere that advantage might follow he was courteous, lowly and serviceable. Nowhere
was any so capable; he was the best beggar in his house, and gave a certain yearly payment so
that none of his brethren might trespass on his routes. Though a widow might not have an old
shoe to give, so pleasant was his "In principio," ['In the beginning'--Sir G] he would have his
farthing before he went. He gained more from his begging than he ever needed, I believe! He
would romp about like a puppy-dog. On days of reconciliation, or love-days, he was very
helpful, for he was not like a cloister-monk or a poor scholar with a threadbare cope, but like a
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Master of Arts or a cardinal. His half-cope was of double worsted and came from the clothes-
press rounding out like a bell. He pleased his whim by lisping a little, to make his English sound
sweet upon his tongue, and in his harping and singing his eyes twinkled in his head like the stars
on a frosty night. This worthy friar was named Hubert.
There was a Merchant with a forked beard, in parti-colored garb. High he sat upon his horse, a
Flanders beaver-hat on his head, and boots fastened neatly with rich clasps. He uttered his
opinions pompously, ever tending to the increase of his own profit; at any cost he wished the
sea were safeguarded between Middleburg and Orwell. In selling crown-pieces he knew how to
profit by the exchange. This worthy man employed his wit cunningly; no creature knew that he
was in debt, so stately he was of demeanor in bargaining and borrowing. He was a worthy man
indeed, but, to tell the truth, I know not his name.
There was also a Clerk from Oxford who had long gone to lectures on logic. His horse was as
lean as a rake, and he was not at all fat, I think, but looked hollow-cheeked, and grave likewise.
His little outer cloak was threadbare, for he had no worldly skill to beg for his needs, and as yet
had gained himself no benefice. He would rather have had at his bed's head twenty volumes of
Aristotle and his philosophy, bound in red or black, than rich robes or a fiddle or gay psaltery.
Even though he was a philosopher, he had little gold in his money-box! But all that he could get
from his friends he spent on books and learning, and would pray diligently for the souls of who
gave it to him to stay at the schools. Of study he took most heed and care. Not a word did he
speak more than was needed, and the little he spoke was formal and modest, short and quick,
and full of high matter. All that he said tended toward moral virtue. Gladly would he learn and
gladly teach. There was also a Sergeant of the Law, an excellent man, wary and wise, a
frequenter of the porch of Paul's Church. He was discreet and of great distinction; or seemed
such, his words were so sage. He had been judge at court, by patent and full commission; with
his learning and great reputation he had earned many fees and robes. Such a man as he for
acquiring goods there never was; anything that he desired could be shown to be held in
unrestricted possession, and none could find a flaw in his deeds. Nowhere was there so busy a
man, and yet he seemed busier than he was. He knew in precise terms every case and
judgment since King William the Conqueror, and every statute fully, word for word, and none
could chide at his writing. He rode in simple style in a parti-colored coat and a belt of silk with
small cross-bars. Of his appearance I will not make a longer story.
Traveling with him was a Franklin, with a beard as white as a daisy, a ruddy face and a sanguine
temper. Well he loved a sop of wine of a morning. He was accustomed to live in pleasure, for he
was a very son of Epicurus, who held the opinion that perfect felicity stands in pleasure alone.
He ever kept an open house, like a true St. Julian in his own country-side. His bread and his
wine both were always of the best; never were a man's wine-vaults better stored. His house
was never without a huge supply of fish or meat; in his house it snowed meat and drink, and
every fine pleasure that a man could dream of. According to the season of the year he varied
his meats and his suppers. Many fat partridges were in his cage and many bream and pike in his
fishpond. Woe to his cook unless his sauces were pungent and sharp, and his gear ever in
order! All the long day stood a great table in his hall fully prepared. When the justices met at
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sessions of court, there he lorded it full grandly, and many times he sat as knight of the shire in
parliament. A dagger hung at his girdle, and a pouch of taffeta, white as morning's milk. He had
been sheriff and auditor; nowhere was so worthy a vassal.
A Haberdasher, a Carpenter, a Weaver, a Dyer, and an Upholsterer were with us also, all in the
same dress of a great and splendid guild. All fresh and new was their gear. Their knives were
not tipped with brass but all with fine-wrought silver, like their girdles and their pouches. Each
of them seemed a fair burgess to sit in a guildhall on a dais. Each for his discretion was fit to be
alderman of his guild, and had goods and income sufficient for that. Their wives would have
consented, I should think; otherwise, they would be at fault. It is a fair thing to be called
madame, and to walk ahead of other folks to vigils, and to have a mantle carried royally before
them.
They had a Cook with them for that journey, to boil chickens with the marrow-bones and tart
powder-merchant and cyprus-root. Well he knew a draught of London ale! He could roast and
fry and broil and stew, make dainty pottage and bake pies well. It was a great pity, it seemed to
me, that he had a great ulcer on his shin, for he made capon-in-cream with the best of them.
There was a Shipman, from far in the West; for anything I know, he was from Dartmouth. He
rode a nag, as well as he knew how, in a gown of coarse wool to the knee. He had a dagger
hanging on a lace around his neck and under his arm. The hot summer had made his hue
brown. In truth he was a good fellow: many draughts of wine had he drawn at Bordeaux while
the merchant slept. He paid no heed to nice conscience; on the high seas, if he fought and had
the upper hand, he made his victims walk the plank. But in skill to reckon his moon, his tides,
his currents and dangers at hand, his harbors and navigation, there was none like him from Hull
to Carthage. In his undertakings he was bold and shrewd. His beard had been shaken by many
tempests. He knew the harbors well from Gothland to Cape Finisterre, and every creek in Spain
and in Brittany. His ship was called the Maudelayne.
With us was a Doctor, a Physician; for skill in medicine and in surgery there was no peer in this
entire world. He watched sharply for favorable hours and an auspicious ascendant for his
patients' treatment, for he was well grounded in astrology. He knew the cause of each malady,
if it was hot, cold, dry or moist, from where it had sprung and of what humor. He was a
thorough and a perfect practitioner. Having found the cause and source of his trouble, quickly
he had ready the sick man's cure. He had his apothecaries all prepared to send him electuaries
and drugs, for each helped the other's gain; their friendship was not formed of late! He knew
well the old Aesculapius, Dioscorides and Rufus, Hippocrates, Haly and Galen, Serapion, Rhasis
and Avicenna, Averroes, Damascene and Constantine, Bernard, Gatisden and Gilbertine. His
own diet was moderate, with no excess, but nourishing and simple to digest. His study was only
a little on Scripture. He was clad in red and blue-gray cloth, lined with taffeta and sendal silk.
Yet he was but moderate in spending, and kept what he gained during the pestilence. Gold is a
medicine from the heart in physicians' terms; doubtless that was why he loved gold above all
else.
There was a Good Wife from near Bath, but she was somewhat deaf, and that was pity. She was
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so skilled in making cloth that she surpassed those of Ypres and Ghent. In all the parish there
was no wife who should march up to make an offering before her, and if any did, so angered
she was that truly she was out of all charity. Her kerchiefs were very fine in texture; and I dare
swear those that were on her head for Sunday weighed ten pounds. Her hose were of a fine
scarlet and tightly fastened, and her shoes were soft and new. Her face was bold and fair and
red. All her life she was a worthy woman; she had had five husbands at the church-door,
besides other company in her youth, but of that there is no need to speak now. She had thrice
been at Jerusalem; many distant streams had she crossed; she had been on pilgrimages to
Boulogne and to Rome, to Santiago in Galicia and to Cologne. This wandering by the way had
taught her various things. To tell the truth, she was gap-toothed; she sat easily on an ambling
horse, wearing a fair wimple and on her head a hat as broad as a buckler or target. About her
broad hips was a short riding skirt and on her feet a pair of sharp spurs. Well could she laugh
and prattle in company. Love and its remedies she knew all about, I dare give my word, for she
had been through the old dance.
There was a good man of religion, a poor Parson, but rich in holy thought and deed. He was also
a learned man, a clerk, and would faithfully preach Christ's gospel and devoutly instruct his
parishioners. He was benign, wonderfully diligent, and patient in adversity, as he was often
tested. He was loath to excommunicate for unpaid tithes, but rather would give to his poor
parishioners out of the church alms and also of his own substance; in little he found sufficiency.
His parish was wide and the houses far apart, but not even for thunder or rain did he neglect to
visit the farthest, great or small, in sickness or misfortune, going on foot, a staff in his hand. To
his sheep did he give this noble example, which he first set into action and afterward taught;
these words he took out of the gospel, and this similitude he added also, that if gold will rust,
what shall iron do? For if a priest upon whom we trust were to be foul, it is no wonder that an
ignorant layman would be corrupt; and it is a shame (if a priest will but pay attention to it) that
a shepherd should be defiled and the sheep clean. A priest should give good example by his
cleanness how his sheep should live. He would not farm out his benefice, nor leave his sheep
stuck fast in the mire, while he ran to London to St. Paul's, to get an easy appointment as a
chantry-priest, or to be retained by some guild, but dwelled at home and guarded his fold well,
so that the wolf would not make it miscarry. He was no hireling, but a shepherd. And though he
was holy and virtuous, he was not pitiless to sinful men, nor cold or haughty of speech, but
both discreet and benign in his teaching; to draw folk up to heaven by his fair life and good
example, this was his care. But when a man was stubborn, whether of high or low estate, he
would scold him sharply. There was nowhere a better priest than he. He looked for no pomp
and reverence, nor yet was his conscience too particular; but the teaching of Christ and his
apostles he taught, and first he followed it himself.
With him was his brother, a Ploughman, who had drawn many cartloads of dung. He was a
faithful and good toiler, living in peace and perfect charity. He loved God best at all times with
all his whole heart, in good and ill fortune, and then his neighbor even as himself. He would
thresh and ditch and delve for every poor person without pay, but for Christ's sake, if he were
able. He paid his tithes fairly and well on both his produce and his goods. He wore a
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ploughman's frock and rode upon a mare.
There was a Reeve also and a Miller, a Summoner and a Pardoner, a Manciple and myself.
There were no more.
The Miller was a stout fellow, big of bones and brawn; and well he showed them, for
everywhere he went to a wrestling match he would always carry off the prize ram. He was
short-shouldered and broad, a thick, knotty fellow. There was no door that he could not heave
off its hinges, or break with his head at a running. His beard was as red as any sow or fox, and
broad like a spade as well. Upon the very tip of his nose he had a wart, and on it stood a tuft of
red hair like the bristles on a sow's ears, and his nostrils were black and wide. At his thigh hung
a sword and buckler. His mouth was as great as a great furnace. He was a teller of dirty stories
and a buffoon, and it was mostly of sin and obscenity. He knew well how to steal corn and take
his toll of meal three times over; and yet he had a golden thumb, by God! He wore a white coat
and a blue hood. He could blow and play the bagpipe well, and with its noise he led us out of
town. There was a gentle Manciple of an Inn of Court, of whom other stewards might take
example for craftiness in buying victuals. Whether he paid in cash or took on credit, he was so
watchful in his buying that he was always ahead and in good standing. Now is it not a full fair
gift of God that the wit of such an unlettered man shall surpass the wisdom of a great body of
learned men? He had more than a score of masters, expert and diligent in law, of whom in that
house there were a dozen worthy to be stewards of lands and revenues of any lord in England,
to let him live upon his income, honorably, free from debt, unless he were mad, or live as
plainly as he would; or able to help a whole shire in any case that might occur. And yet this
Manciple hoodwinked all of them.
The Reeve was a slender, bilious man. His beard was shaven as close as could be, and his hair
was cut short around his ears and docked in front like a priest's. His legs were full and lean like
a stick; I could see no calf. He could well keep a bin and a garner and no inspector could get the
best of him. In the drought or in the wet he could foretell the yield of his grain and seed. His
lord's sheep, poultry and cattle, his dairy and swine and horses and all his stock, this Reeve had
wholly under his governance, and submitted his accounts thereon ever since his lord was
twenty years of age; and none could ever find him out in arrears. There was no bailiff nor
herdsman nor other churl whose tricks and craftiness he didn't know. They were as afraid of
him as of the plague. His dwelling-place was a pleasant one on a heath, all shaded with green
trees. Better than his lord he knew how to pick up wealth, and had a rich private hoard; he
knew how to please his master cunningly by giving and lending him out of what was his
master's by right, and to win thanks for that, and a coat and hood as a reward too. In his youth
he had learned a good trade and was a fine carpenter and workman. This Reeve sat upon a fine
dapple gray cob named Scot. He wore a long surcoat of blue and at his side a rusty blade. He
was from Norfolk, near a town they call Baldeswell. His coat was tucked up around him like a
friar's, and he always rode last of us all.
A Summoner was with us there, a fire-red cherubim-faced fellow, salt-phlegmed and pimply,
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with slits for eyes, scabby black eyebrows and thin ragged beard, and as hot and lecherous as a
sparrow. Children were terrified at his visage. No quicksilver, white-lead, brimstone, borax nor
ceruse, no cream of tartar nor any ointment that would clean and burn, could help his white
blotches or the knobs on his chaps. He loved garlic, onions and leeks too well, and to drink
strong wine as red as blood, and then he would talk and cry out like mad. And after drinking
deep of wine he would speak no word but Latin, in which he had a few terms, two or three,
learned out of some canon. No wonder was that, for he heard it all day long, and you know well
how a jay can call "Walter" after hearing it a long time, as well as the pope could. But if he were
tested in any other point, his learning was found to be all spent. Questio quid juris ['I question
which law applies'--Sir G], he was always crying. He was a kind and gentle rogue; a better fellow
I never knew; for a quart of wine he would allow a good fellow to have his concubine for a year
and completely excuse him. Secretly he knew how to swindle anyone. And if anywhere he
found a good fellow, he would teach him in such case to have no fear of the archdeacon's
excommunication, unless a man's soul is in his purse, for it was in his purse he should be
punished. "The Archdeacon's hell is your purse," he said. (But well I know he lied in his teeth;
every guilty man should fear the church's curse, for it will slay, just as absolution saves, and also
let him beware of a significavit.) Within his jurisdiction on his own terms he held all the young
people of the diocese, knew their guilty secrets, and was their chief adviser. He had a garland
on his head large enough for an ale-house sign, and carried a round loaf of bread as big as a
buckler.
With him rode a gentle Pardoner, of Roncesvalles, his friend and companion, who had come
straight from the court of Rome. He sang loudly, "Come here, love, to me," while the
Summoner joined him with a stiff bass; never was there a trumpet of half such a sound. This
Pardoner had waxy-yellow hair, hanging smooth, like a hank of flax, spread over his shoulders in
thin strands. For sport he wore no hood, which was trussed up in his wallet; riding with his hair
disheveled, bareheaded except for his cap, he thought he was all in the latest fashion. His eyes
were glaring like a hare's. He had a veronica sewed on his cap, and his wallet, brimful of
pardons hot from Rome, lay before him on his saddle. His voice was as small as a goat's. He had
no beard nor ever would have, his face was as smooth as if lately shaven; I believe he was a
mare or a gelding. But as for his trade, from Berwick to Dover there was not such another
pardoner. In his bag he had a pillow-case which he said was our Lady's kerchief, and a small
piece of the sail which he said St. Peter had when he walked upon the sea and Jesus Christ
caught him. He had a cross of latoun, set full of false gems, and pigs' bones in a glass. But with
these relics, when he found a poor parson dwelling in the country, in one day he gained himself
more money than the parson gained in two months. And thus, with flattering deceit and tricks,
he made the parson and the people his dupes. But to give him his due, after all he was a noble
ecclesiastic in church; he could read well a lesson or legend and best of all sing an offertory. For
he knew well that when that was done he must preach and file his tongue smooth, to win silver
as he well knew how. Therefore he sang merrily and loud.
Now I have told you in few words the station, the array, the number of this company and why
they were assembled in Southwark as well, at this noble inn, the Tabard, close to the Bell
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tavern. But now it is time to say how we behaved that same evening, when we had arrived at
that inn; and afterward I will tell you of our journey and the rest of our pilgrimage.
But first I pray that by your courtesy you ascribe it not to my ill manners if I speak plainly in this
matter, telling you their words and cheer, and if I speak their very words as they were. For this
you know as well as I, that whoever tells a tale that another has told, he must repeat every
word, as nearly as he can, although he may speak ever so rudely and freely. Otherwise, he must
tell his tale falsely, or pretend, or find new words. He may not spare any, even if it were his own
brother; he is bound to say one word as well as the next. Christ himself spoke plainly in Holy
Scriptures and you know well there is no baseness in that. And Plato, whoever can read him,
says that the word must be cousin to the deed.
I also pray you to forgive me though I have not set folk here in this tale according to their
station, as they should be. My wit is short, you can well understand.
Our host put us all in good spirits, and soon brought us to supper and served us with the best of
provisions. The wine was strong and very glad we were to drink. Our Host was a seemly man, fit
to be marshal in a banquet-hall, a large man with bright eyes, bold in speech, wise and discreet,
lacking nothing of manhood: there is not a fairer burgess in Cheapside. He was in all things a
very merry fellow, and after supper, when we had paid our bills, he began to jest and speak of
mirth among other things.
"Now gentle people," he said, "truly you are heartily welcome to me, for, by my word, if I shall
tell the truth, I have not seen this year so merry a company at this inn at once. I would gladly
make mirth if I only knew how. And I have just now thought of a mirthful thing to give you
pleasure, which shall cost nothing. You go to Canterbury, God speed you, and may the blessed
martyr duly reward you! I know full well, along the way you mean to tell tales and amuse
yourselves, for in truth it is no comfort or mirth to ride along dumb as a stone.
"And therefore, as I said, I will make you a game. If it please you all by common consent to
stand by my words and to do as I shall tell you, now, by my father's soul (and he is in heaven),
tomorrow as you ride along, if you are not merry, I will give you my head. Hold up your hands,
without more words!"
Our mind was not long to decide. We thought it not worth debating, and agreed with him
without more thought, and told him to say his verdict as he wished.
"Gentle people," said he, "please listen now, but take it not, I pray you, disdainfully. To speak
briefly and plainly, this is the point, that each of you for pastime shall tell two tales in this
journey to Canterbury, and two others on the way home, of things that have happened in the
past. And whichever of you bears himself best, that is to say, that tells now tales most
instructive and delighting, shall have a supper at the expense of us all, sitting here in this place,
beside this post, when we come back from Canterbury. And to add to your sport I will gladly go
with you at my own cost, and be your guide. And whoever opposes my judgment shall pay all
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that we spend on the way. If you agree that this will be so, tell me now, without more words,
and without delay I will plan for that."
We agreed to this thing and pledged our word with glad hearts, and prayed him to do so, and to
be our ruler and to remember and judge our tales, and to appoint a supper at a certain price.
We would be ruled at his will in great and small, and thus with one voice we agreed to his
judgment. At this the wine was fetched, and we drank and then each went to rest without a
longer stay.
In the morning, when the day began to spring, our host arose and played rooster to us all, and
gathered us in a flock. Forth we rode, a little faster than a walk, to St. Thomas-a-Watering.
There our Host drew up his horse and said, "Listen, gentle people, if you will. You know your
agreement; I remind you of it. If what you said at the hour of evensong last night is still what
you agree to this morning at the time of matins, let us see who shall tell the first tale. So may I
ever drink beer or wine, whoever rebels against my judgment shall pay all that is spent on the
journey. Now draw cuts, before we depart further; he who has the shortest shall begin the
tales. Sir Knight, my master and my lord," said he, "now draw your lot, for this is my will, Come
nearer, my lady Prioress, and you, sir Clerk, be not shy, study not; set your hands to them, every
one of you."
Without delay every one began to draw, and in short, whether it were by chance or not, the
truth is, the lot fell to the Knight, at which every one was merry and glad. He was to tell his tale,
as was reasonable, according to the agreement that you have heard. What need is there for
more words?
When this good man saw it was so, as one discreet and obedient to his free promise he said,
"Since I begin the game, what, in God's name, welcome be the cut! Now let us ride on, and
listen to what I say." And at that word we rode forth on our journey. And he soon began his tale
with a cheerful spirit, and spoke in this way.
Here ends the Prologue of this book
The Iliad by Homer
The Iliad by Homer (the blind poet), which is probably the greatest epic in the world, tells the
story of thew Trojan War. The Iliad is part one of a trilogy: it's sequel is The Odyssey, which tells
of the journey of the Greek hero Odysseus back to Ithaca; and part three is The Aeneid (written
in Latin by Virgil), which tells of the journey of the Trojan hero Aeneas to Italy.
The Iliad itself covers the seduction of Helen by Paris to the death and cremation of Hector,
prince of Troy. The cause of the war--the judgment of Paris--is told in The Trojan Women by
Euripedes and the fall of Troy (including the story of the Trojan horse) is told in The Aeneid.
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Prologue: The Judgment of Paris

Zeus, the king of the gods and the god of the sky, and his brother, Poseidon, the god of the sea,
both wanted Thetis, a sea nymph. But Prometheus--the Titan who created man and Pandora,
the first woman--prophesied that the son of Thetis would be greater than his father. Naturally,
neither god wants a child to be greater than them. So they had Thetis marry a mortal king,
Peleus, so that her son would be a mere mortal.
Eris, the goddess of discord, was not invited to the wedding of Peleus and Thetis. So she threw
a golden apple incribed, To the Fairest. All the goddess want the apple but the choice was
eventually narrowed down to three: Hera, the queen of the gods; Pallas Athena, the goddess of
wisdom; and Aphrodite, the goddess of love and beauty.
Zeus wisely did not judge among the three goddesses. Instead, he delegated the task to Paris, a
young prince who was then shepherding his father's sheep.He is the son of King Priam of Troy,
who banished him because of a prophecy that one day he would be the cause of the
destruction of Troy. Each goddess enticed Paris to choose her. Hera promised him power by
making him the Lord of Europe and Asia. Athena offered him wisdom. And Aphrodite promised
him the most beautiful woman in the world. Paris chose Aphrodite and gave her the golden
apple. So he left Mount Ida, abandoning the nymph who he was living with named Oenone,
who loved him very much.
This is the reason for the Trojan War.
The Abduction of Helen
The most beautiful woman in the world was Helen, daughter of Leda and Zeus and sister of the
Gemini twins, Castor and Pollux. Her beauty was so renown that she had plenty of suitors,
coming from powerful families. King Tyndareus, her mother's husband, was afraid to choose
among the suitors because it might anger all the others. So he made all the suitors swear that
they would support whoever was chosen to be Helen's husband--something that the all the
suitors naturally and selfishly wanted. Tyndareus then chose Menelaus to be Helen's husband
and made him the king of Sparta.
Aphrodite, who was given the golden apple, led Paris to Sparta where he was received well by
Menelaus and Helen. However, when Menelaus went to the island of Crete, Paris abducted
Helen and took her to Troy.
When Menelaus returned and found that his wife was gone, he called upon the greatest
chieftains of Greece to help him rescue his wife. Among the chieftains were: Achilles, son of
Peleus and Thetis (his mother dipped her into the River Styx to make him invulnerable--except
by his heel, where his mother held him); Patroclus, Achilles' cousin [and lover]; Agamemnon,
brother of Menelaus and supreme commander of the Greek forces; Odysseus, king of Ithaca,
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and others like Diomedes and Ajax. Achilles was warned by his mother Thetis that if he went to
Troy, he would die there.
At Aulis, the ships could not proceed because of the strong winds and tides. A seer named
Calchas said that Artemis, the goddess of the hunt, was angry because a sacred hare was killed
by one of the Greeks. Agamemnon had to sacrifice his daughter Iphigenia so that the Greek
armada can proceed to Troy.
When the Greek army arrived at Troy, the first person to jump off the ships, Protesilaus, was
killed by a Trojan spear. He was greatly honored by the Greek soldiers and by the gods. Hermes
allowed him to visit his wife, Laodama. But when he had to return to the underworld, she
followed him by killing herself.
The Trojan War
The thousand ships of the Greek army brought with it thousands of mighty warriors. But the
city of Troy itself was very strong too. It was ruled by King Priam and Queen Hecuba. Their son
was the champion of Troy: Prince Hector, whose wife was Andromache and their son was
named Astyanax. For nine years both sides fought without decisive victory.
The gods were also at war because of the Greeks and the Trojans. Poseidon sided with the
Greeks because they were seafarers. Hera and Athena also sided with the Greeks. On the side
of the Trojans were Aphrodite and her husband Ares, the god of war. Also siding with the
Trojans were Apollo, his sister Artemis. Zeus secretly favored the Trojans but could not support
them openly because of the wrath of Hera. So have secretly hatched a plan to have Achilles
killed to weaken the Greek army.
During a heated battle between the Greek and Trojan armies, King Menelaus of Greece and
Prince Paris of Troy faced each other in champion combat. Menelaus wounded Paris but before
he was able to kill him, Paris was carried away by Aphrodite back to Troy.
Agamemnon and Achilles had a quarrel between themselves. Before arriving at Troy, the
Greeks carried off Chryseis, daughter of a priest of Apollo and was given to Agamemnon as a
prize. Phoebus Apollo, the sun god, attacked the Greeks with a rain of arrows of fire. Achilles
called a meeting of the chieftains where Calchas the seer revealed that Chryseis must be
returned to her father. So they did.
In retaliation, Agamemnon sent two of his squires to get Briseis, a maiden who was kept by
Achilles as his prize. This greatly depressed Achilles. He refused to go out and fight with the
army. As a result, the Greeks suffered great loses from the Trojans.
What woke up Achilles was the death of his friend/lover Patroclus, who was killed by Hector.
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Patroclus was wearing Achilles' armor so the Trojan prince thought it was Achilles. Thetis
brought a new armor for her son, made by the god Hephaestus himself. Achilles faced Hector in
champion combat and succeeds in killing Hector.
Not contented with killing Hector, Achilles stripped him of his armor, hitched his dead body on
his chariot, and dragged the body of Hector around Troy.
The abuse of Hector's body caused displeasure to the gods (except for Hera, Athena, and
Poseidon). Zeus ordered Iris, the messenger of the gods, to go to King Priam to tell him to ask
Achilles for the body of his son. Priam loaded a chariot with treasures and was led by Hermes
into the Greek camp and into the tent of Achilles himself.
Achilles was touched by the plea of the old man and ordered his servants to wash the body of
Hector and to return it to his father. Priam took his son home and cremated him on a great
pyre. The Trojans mourned for Hector for nine days.
Thus ends the Iliad.
The Fall of Troy
Achilles fought his last battle against Prince Memnon of Ethiopia, son of the goddess of the
dawn, who came with a huge army to aid the Trojans. Achilles was able to kill Memnon and
drive the Trojan army back up until the walls of Troy. Paris shot an arrow at Achilles and Apollo
guided the arrow so that it struck Achilles at the only place where he was vulnerable--his heel.
The Greek hero Ajax took away his body and cremated it while Odysseus held back the Trojans.
Ajax and Odysseus quarrelled over the armor of Achilles. The Greek chieftains had a voted and
awarded Achilles' armor to Odysseus. Depressed, Ajax went mad and killed his cattle, thinking
they were Greek commanders who voted against him. Realizing his error, Ajax committed
suicide by falling on his sword.
Odysseus took a Trojan prophet, Helenus prisoner. Helenus revealed that Troy can only be
defeated if the Greek possessed the bow and arrow of Hercules. Before his death, Hercules
gave his bow and arrow to a Greek hero named Philoctetes. But on the way to Troy, the Greeks
abandoned Philoctetes on the island of Lemnos because he was bitten by a serpent and would
not get healed. Odysseus, together with the Greek hero Diomedes (in other versions, with
Neoptolemus, the young son of Achilles) and rescued Philoctetes. A wise Greek physician
healed him and Philoctetes was able to join the fight. During a battle, he was able to strike Paris
with an arrow. Paris was taken back to Mount Ida. Because he abandoned her, the nymph
Oenone refused to give a magic herb to heal him. Oenone watched Paris die; afterwards she
committed suicide.
The Trojans possessed a sacred image of Pallas Athena called the Palladium. The Greeks knew
that as long as the Trojans had it, Troy would not be taken. Diomedes was able to steal the
precious Palladium.
Now possessing the Palladium, Odysseus devised a plan to defeat the Trojans. He had his men
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built a huge wooden horse and had the Greek fleet retreat. They left behind a single Greek
named Sinon who told of the story of the Greek army's retreat and that the horse was an
offering to Poseidon for a safe voyage. The Trojans thought that the Greeks have retreated and
took the wooden horse into the city. They thought it was a sign that Athena restored her favor
on them after the loss of the sacred Palladium. However, the priest Laocoön and King Priam's
daughter Cassandra urged the Trojans to destroy the horse: "Beware of Greeks bearing gifts."
But no one believed them. (According to the Odyssey, Cassandra was given the gift of prophecy
by Apollo. But when she refused his love, Apollo cursed her so that no one would believe her.)
The Trojans feasted and celebrated that the war was over. That night, Odysseus and twenty of
his men crept out of the wooden horse. They opened the gates of the city for the waiting
Greeks, who sailed back secretly in the night. The Trojans fought desperately: many of those
killed were not even able to put their armor or get a chance to make a blow. Some of the
Trojans hurled burning timber and tiles on the Greeks. Some even removed their armor and
wore the armor of the dead Greeks and attacked the Greeks by surprise. But it was too late--
too may Trojans have already been killed.
Menelaus found his wife Helen and brought her back to Troy. Neoptolemus, the son of Achilles,
kills King Priam. Neoptolemus also kills Astyanax, son of Hector, by throwing him down the wall.
By death of Astyanax, the victory of the Greeks over Troy is complete. (According to one
version, the city of Troy was left burning for seven years.)
Many of the women were either killed or abused or both. The Trojan women were left
languishing in the once-great city, watching as the Greeks sailed away.
On their journey home, Odysseus and his men were blown off-course. Thus begins his ten-year
journey home to his wife Penelope and his son Telemachus in Ithaca. This story is told in
the Odyssey. On the other hand, one of the Trojan heroes, Aeneas, son of Aphrodite, escapes
from Troy and undergoes a similar journey to Italy, where he eventually founds the city of
Rome, which is told in the Aenid.
The Odyssey by Homer
The Odyssey, which is the sequel of The Iliad, was also written by Homer. The Trojan War ends
with the destruction of Troy and the victory of the Greek army. The Odyssey actually begins ‘in
the middle of things’ (Latin, in media res) with Odysseus, one of the Greek chieftains, being held
hostage on the island of a nymph named Calypso. He is then shipwrecked to the land on the
Phaeacians and he tells his all of his adventures from Troy to the present to the court of King
Alcinoüs. The story ends with Odysseus returning to his homeland of Ithaca where he rescues
his wife Penelope with the help of their son, Telemachus. The Trojan War was ten years long
and the Odyssey another ten years; thus Odysseus had been away for twenty years.
After ten long years of war, the Greeks were finally able to defeat the Trojans using the
stratagem of the wooden horse. The Greeks burned Troy to the ground, killed its men and
children, and ravished their women. The Greek became mad with victory, causing the
displeasure of the very gods that helped them win the victory.
Cassandra, daughter of King Priam, was given the gift of prophecy by Phoebus Apollo, the god
of the sun and of prophecy. However, she refused his love. Apollo could not revoke his gift, so
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he cursed her instead: she would never be believed. She warned the Trojans against the
wooden horse, but nobody listened to her. During the sack of Troy, she sought refuge at the
temple of Athena. But Ajax (“the Lesser”, not the same Ajax who contested Odysseus for the
armor of Achilles), grabbed her from Athena’s altar and dragged her away. Nobody protested
this sacrilege. This incited the anger of Athena, who was formerly on the Greek’s side.
Athena asked Poseidon to avenge her. Just like Athena, Poseidon originally sided with the
Greeks. As the Greek armada was sailing home, Poseidon sent a great storm. Menelaus was
blown toward Egypt; while Agamemnon lost almost all his ships. Ajax’s ship sank but he was
able to swim ashore. He boasted that he was the one who the sea could not drown. Poseidon
broke off the piece of rock to which Ajax was clinging to and the waves swept him to death.
Odysseus did not die, but it would take him ten years to return to his homeland of Ithaca. He
left behind his wife, Penelope, and their little son, Telemachus. At this time, people presumed
that Odysseus was dead and men started to court Penelope. However these were rude, greedy
men: everyday they would spend their time in Odysseus’ house slaughtering and eating his
swine and cattle, drinking his wine, ordering his servants around, and making a mess of the
house.
Penelope tried to tire them out. She said that she would choose one of them after she
finishes weaving a burial shroud for Laertes, father of Odysseus. But every night she would
undo her work. But one of her handmaids told the suitors and they discovered her
deception. They became more disagreeable than ever. Odysseus and his men were driven by
the storm for ten days to the land of the Lotus-eaters. The Lotus-eaters ate a kind of flower-
food and gave some to the men. Those who tasted the lotus lost all their desire to go home;
they wanted to remain in the land of the Lotus-eaters forever. Odysseus dragged his men to
their ship, chained them, and sailed away.
Next they arrived in the land of the Cyclops, Polyphemus, son of Poseidon. Odysseus took
twelve of his men to investigate a cave with a fence which they saw. They discovered plenty of
sheep and goats, racks of cheese and pails of milk. Odysseus and his men ate and drank to their
full. That night, Polyphemus came and closed the mouth of the cave with a rock. When he
discovered that there were men there, he killed two of them and ate them; then he proceeded
to sleep.
Odysseus had to think of a way to escape. He cannot kill Polyphemus because only he can roll
away the stone door. But they cannot stay for long: for breakfast he ate another two of his
men. Polyphemus opened the mouth of the cave and let his flocks out. He then left the men
trapped inside his cave. Odysseus and his men took a log, sharpened it, and hid it. When
Polyphemus return, he ate two more of his men. Odysseus then offered Polyphemus some of
the wine he brought with him. The Cyclops fell asleep, drunk. Odysseus and his men heated the
tip of the sharpened log in a fire and pierced Polyphemus in his eye. Polyphemus tried to find
them; but he could not, because is now blind.
Polyphemus opened the mouth of the cave and tried to catch any of the men who would
escape. But Odysseus tied each of his men under three rams. Polyphemus would feel each of
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the sheep on the back but did not check underneath. They were able to escape on their ship. As
they were escaping, Odysseus told the Cyclops who he was: Odysseus, the wrecker of cites, was
the one who put out his eye.
From the island of the Cyclops, they came to the country of King Aeolus, the viceroy of the
winds. Aeolus gave Odysseus a leather sack which all of the Storm Winds so that no they can
travel home safely. But of his men became curious of the sack, thinking it was treasure. This
released all of the Winds and they were blown for many days to Telepylos, capital of the land of
the Laestrygons.
The Laestrygons were giants and cannibals. They destroyed all of Odysseus' ships except the
one he himself was on—which has not yet entered the harbor when the attack happened.
They escaped to the Aenea, the realm of Circe, a very beautiful and dangerous witch. She
turned the men who were sent to spy the land into swine. One of the men was able to evade
her and reported back to Odysseus. Odysseus rushed to help his men but Hermes, the
messenger god, met him. The god gave Odysseus an herb (called moly) that would make him
immune from Circe’s powers. Hermes advised him to threaten Circe with his sword so that she
will turn the pigs back into men. But Circe fell in love with Odysseus and gladly restored his
men. She treated them well and they stayed at her house for a year.
When they had to leave, Circe told them that in order to go home, they must first pass over the
river Ocean and go to Hades. Odysseus must consult with the ghost of the Teiresias, prophet of
Thebes. In order for the spirit to go to him, Odysseus slaughtered a sheep and poured its blood
into a pit in the ground. All ghosts have an irresistible craving for blood; but Odysseus fended
them off with his sword. When Teiresias came, he warned them not to harm to oxen of the
Helios, titan of the Sun. After the prophet, the spirits of the other heroes of the Trojan War
came and spoke with Odysseus: Achilles, Ajax the Greater (still angry over the armor of
Achilles), and many others.
Odysseus and his men sailed away and as per advice of Circe sailed to the land of the Sirens.
The Sirens have a song which seduces men away from their ships and into their deaths.
Odysseus ordered his men to stop their ears with wax so that they would not hear the Sirens.
But Odysseus wanted to hear the song of the Sirens, so he ordered his men to tie him to the
mast of their ship.
One more danger awaits them: the passage between Scylla and Charybdis. Scylla is a sheer rock
wall (or, the rock where the sea monster Scylla dwelt) while Charybdis is a whirlpool. (Jason and
the Argonauts in their quest for the Golden Fleece were able to pass through years before.)
With the guidance of Athena, Odysseus was able to make it through but six of his men were
killed.
They arrived at the Island of the Helios. While Odysseus was away praying, his men slaughtered
some of the oxen of the Sun, then roasted and ate them—something that Teiresias warned
them not to do. The Sun shot a thunderbolt that shattered their ship. Everyone was killed.
Odysseus clung on to the keel of their ship. He drifted for ten days until he arrived at the island
of Calypso.
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Calypso kept loved Odysseus and kept him a virtual prisoner on her island for eight long years.
She showed him all sorts of kindness. But Odysseus did nothing but search the horizon and
thought of nothing but his wife and his son.
Finally, Athena’s anger on Odysseus had abated and she felt sorry for him. While Poseidon was
busy visiting the Ethiopians down south, across the river Ocean, Athena persuaded the gods to
end the sufferings of Odysseus. The gods were moved by Athena’s plea. Zeus sent Hermes to
Calypso to tell her to let Odysseus go.
Meanwhile, Athena went to Ithaca to help Odysseus’ son Telemachus, now a grown man, to
look for his father. She disguised herself as a seafaring man and Telemachus received her well.
Athena told Telemachus that he must go on a quest to find his father so that he will have
respect in the eyes of his mother’s suitors. He must go find Nestor, the oldest and wisest of the
Greek chieftains who went on the Trojan War, and to King Menelaus of Sparta to get clues on
his father’s whereabouts. When Telemachus told this to the suitors, they just laughed at him
and refused to lend him a ship. Telemachus prayed to Athena and she appeared to him as
Mentor, Odysseus’ trusted adviser. Athena, as Mentor, promised him a fast ship. They sailed for
Nestor’s home in Pylos.
Nestor received them well but said he does not know where Odysseus went. He advised them
to go to Menelaus, who traveled all the way to Egypt back to Sparta. He also advised
Telemachus to take a chariot instead because it was faster to travel that way than by ship.
Telemachus was accompanied to Sparta by one of Nestor’s sons, Peisistratus.
In Sparta, Telemachus and Peisistratos were received gladly by King Menelaus. They also met
Helen, the cause of the Trojan War. Menelaus said that while he was stranded on the island of
Pharos in Egypt, he prayed and a sea-goddess told that her father Proteus would tell him how
to get home. But first, Menelaus must first capture Proteus in for him to talk. The next day
when Proteus went ashore with some seals to bask in the son, Menelaus and his men
ambushed him and pinned him down. He changed shaped into a lion, then a dragon, and many
other animals, even a high-branched tree. Menelaus learned from Proteus that Odysseus was
being kept on an island by Calypso.
Meanwhile, Hermes came to Calypso and told her the message of Zeus. She had no choice and
reluctantly obeyed the king of the gods. She gave Odysseus twenty great trees to make a raft
and loaded it with all the food and drink needed for the journey. Odysseus sailed for seventeen
days until he met Poseidon, who was returning from his visit with the Ethiopians. He unleashed
a terrible storm which destroyed his raft. He was rescued by a goddess named Ino, who
appeared to him as a seagull and gave him her veil for protection. Poseidon went away to cause
a storm somewhere else; then Athena came to calm the waves.
Odysseus swam for two days until he was washed ashore, naked and hungry. He was in the land
of the Phaeacians, a kind, seafaring people. He was discovered by Nausicaä, daughter of King
Alcinoüs, while she was out with her maidens to wash the laundry. She brought her back to the
city and the king received him kindly. The next day Odysseus told King Alcinoüs and his court his
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ten-year journey from Troy, beginning with the Lotus-eaters to his exile on the island of
Calypso.
The Phaeacians decided to help Odysseus go home. They gave him a ship and loaded it with
treasure. Odysseus went to sleep but when he woke up he was lying on a beach with all the
gifts around him. The Phaeacian sailors have left. Athena appeared to him as a shepherd and
told him that he is now in Ithaca. When Odysseus finally realized it was Athena, they hatched a
plan to eliminate his wife’s suitors. Athena told him to go to his trusty old swineherd, Eumaeus,
as she went to fetch Telemachus. Odysseus disguised himself and went to Eumaeus, who
treated him well.
Athena went to Telemachus in Sparta and told him to sail home. He bade Menelaus and Helen
farewell. The goddess told him not to go into the city but to go to Eumaeus first. At Eumaeus’
home, the swineherd treated him well. Telemachus dispatched him to inform his mother of his
return. When Odysseus and Telemachus were alone, Odysseus finally revealed himself as his
father. They prepared a plan against the suitors of Penelope.
The next morning, Telemachus and his father, disguised as a beggar, returned to the palace. As
they entered into the palace, they passed by an old dog. It was Argo, which wagged his tail but
could not pull himself toward him. Odysseus pretended not to recognize the dog and as he
turned away, the old dog died.
Telemachus went around the palace and hid all the weapons. Meanwhile, the suitors mocked
and abused Odysseus, thinking that he was just an old beggar. Penelope rescued him and told
Eurycleia, Odysseus’ old nurse, to take care of him. As she was washing his feet, Eurycleia
recognized the scar on Odysseus’ foot, caused by a wild boar hunt. He warned her not to say a
word to anyone.
The next morning, Penelope gave her suitors a test. She brought out Odysseus’ bow and arrow
and twelve axes. Whoever can string the bow and shoot an arrow through the twelve axes will
be her husband. But no one can bend Odysseus’ bow, no manner how strong they were.
Odysseus, still disguised as a beggar, asked to join the contest. He effortlessly stringed his bow
and shot an arrow through the twelve axes, killing one of the suitors. He finally revealed himself
and attacked the suitors. They could not find their weapons because Telemachus hid them. As
he shot the suitors one by one, Telemachus kept them from escaping by using a spear.
After the massacre of the suitors, Eurycleia and her maids restored everything to order. When
the old nurse told Penelope that Odysseus had returned, she could not believe it. Finally
Odysseus and Penelope had a joyful reunion. They held a great feast in the hall of the palace
with plenty of singing and dancing, because after twenty years of wandering hardship,
Odysseus was home at last.
The Divina Comedia: Inferno
The Divina Comedia (English: ‘The Divine Comedy’) is a long epic poem in three parts written by
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Dante Alighieri from c. 1308 to his death in 1321. It is considered the greatest piece of Italian
literature and one of the greatest pieces of literature in the world. It is composed of 14,233
lines and divided into three canticas: Inferno (Hell), Purgatorio (Purgatory),
and Paradiso (Paradise, or Heaven). It illustrates the concept about the afterlife of the Roman
Catholic Church during the Middle Ages. The Divine Comedy is an allegory—an extended
symbol—of the journey of a soul to God.
The Comedia narrates the journey of Dante through Hell, Purgatory, and finally Paradise. His
guide through Hell and Purgatory is the Roman poet Virgil, the author of the Aeneid. But for his
journey through Heaven, Dante is guided by Beatrice, a woman who Dante admired since
childhood.
The first cantica, Inferno, begins with Dante getting lost in a forest (which symbolizes sin) until
he was rescued by Virgil (who symbolizes human philosophy). Dante was given a tour of Hell,
which is composed of nine concentric circles, each progressively deeper than the last. In each
circle, each sin is punished in a form of poetic justice.
Inferno, with its various depictions of the punishment of sin, is a symbol of the soul being made
aware of the true nature of sin.
INFERNO
Introduction
It was on the evening of Maundy Thursday, 1300, when Dante, who was at the time “halfway
along our life’s path” (35 years old, half of the biblical life expectancy of 70 years—Psalm 90:10)
found himself lost “in a dark wood”. He was attacked by three beasts—a lion, a leopon (a half-
leopard half-lion), and a she-wolf—which he could not evade. He was unable to find the
“straight (or right) way” to salvation until he finds himself falling into “a deep place” where “the
sun is silent”.
Dante was then rescued by Virgil, who claims that he was sent by Beatrice, and guides him into
a journey to the underworld. They pass through the gates of Hell which has an inscription:
Abandon all hope, all those who enter here
The Circles of Hell
Acheron: the ante-room of Hell. Virgil and Dante arrive at Acheron, the ante-room of Hell
(though not part of Hell itself). This is the place of the Uncommitted, those who have done
neither good nor evil. Among those Dante found there are Pontius Pilate (or Pope Celestine V--
the text is ambiguous), and outcasts who did not participate in the rebellion of the angels. They
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are made to chase a banner (representing self-interest) while being chased by wasps and
hornets (representing the “sting of conscience”) as maggots and other insects suck their blood
and tears.
Virgil and Dante then ride on a ferry piloted by Charon, boatman of the dead, to take them into
Hell proper. Charon refused to take Dante but Virgil tells Charon, “So it is wanted there where
power lies”—which means Dante was divinely sent on the journey. Dante hears the wailing of
the souls being taken to Hell and the joyful singing of the souls being taken to Purgatory. He
was not able to describe the horrors going to Hell because he faints in terror.
Virgil reveals that Hell is composed of nine concentric circles where sinners are punished
according to their sin. Satan himself is in the lowest and innermost circle, found in the center of
the Earth. He also clarifies that those who were able to ask for forgiveness before they die will
go to Purgatory; but those who die justifying their evildoings will go to Hell.
First Circle (Limbo). The virtuous but unbaptized nonbelievers live in Limbo. They were not
sinful but they did not accept Christ. It has a castle with seven gates, symbolizing the Seven
Virtues. Virgil himself lives in Limbo. Among the people in the First Circle of Hell are: the Persian
mathematician Avicenna; the poets Homer, Horace, Ovid, and Lucan; the mathematician Euclid;
the Roman statesman Cicero; the Greek doctor Hippocrates; the Greek philosophers Socrates,
Plato, Aristotle; the Arab philosopher Averroes; and the Roman general Julius Caesar. Among
the mythological characters there were Hector, Electra, Camilla, Latinus, and Orpheus. Saladin
was also in Limbo.
As they were going to the next circles, Minos initially stopped the admission of Dante. As the
judge of the dead, he would wrap his tail around himself, indicating the circle of Hell to which a
soul is condemned. The sinners punished in the Second to Fifth Circles are guilty of passive sins.
Second Circle (Lust). In the Second Circle are those overcome by lust. They are punished by the
terrible winds of a violent storm, representing the power of lust to lead people astray. In here
Dante sees the Babylonian queen Semiramis, Dido of Carthage, Helen of Troy, Achilles, and
Paris. There was also a woman named Francesca de Rimini who committed adultery with her
husband’s brother Paolo Malatesta. They were killed by her husband, Giovanni (or Gianicotto).
Third Circle (Gluttony). Cereberus, the three-headed dog of Hades, guards the gluttonous. They
are punished by being forced to lie in a “vile slush” (composed of burnt grease and fat) that is
continually added to by a “foul, icy rain”. The gluttonous lie there without being aware of their
neighbors, because gluttony makes blind to those around them.
Fourth Circle (Greed). Two kinds of people are punished in here: the greedy (including many
priests, popes, and cardinals) who hoard material possessions, and the squanderers, who
foolishly waste money. They are guarded by Pluto, the god of wealth and the underworld
(because precious stones and metals come from underground). The two groups are made to
push against each other using huge bags filled with money.
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Fifth Circle (Anger/Wrath). Phlegyas takes Virgil and Dante on his skiff across the Styx, the river
of the unbreakable oath. The wrathful fight each other on the surface while the sullen lie
beneath the water.
They reach the lower parts of Hell which are surrounded by a wall of the city of Dis, a city in the
underworld. The walls are guarded by the fallen angels. Virgil tries to persuade them to let
Dante enter. Dante is then threatened by the three Furies (Alecto, Megaera, and Tisiphone) and
by the snake-headed Medusa. An angel of heaven descends and opens the gate to the lower
parts of Hell. (This symbolizes that what Dante is about to encounter are sins that human
philosophy cannot understand.) Virgil and Dante enter the lower parts of Hell where sinners
who were guilty of active (rather than passive) sins are punished.
Sixth Circle (Heresy). The heretics are punished here, including the Epicureans, followers of the
Greek philosopher Epicurus who taught: “Eat and drink, for tomorrow we die”—meaning that
people should enjoy life because there is no life after death. They were trapped in flaming
tombs—which, as one of the Epicureans explained, means that people know that they will go to
Hell but they refused to believe it. Thus, nothing can now change their destiny.
Seventh Circle (Violence). This is composed of three rings guarded by the bull-headed Minotaur.
Centaurs, who have the upper body of a man and the lower body of a horse, shoot arrows at
those attempting to escape.
The Outer Ring contains those who are violent against people and property. They are immersed
in Phlegethon, the river of fire, in a death according to their guilt. Alexander the Great is
immersed up to his eyebrows, and the conqueror Attila the Hun is also there.
The Middle Ring contains those who commit suicide and the profligates. Those who committed
suicide—who committed violence against themselves—are transformed into thorny bushes and
trees and then fed upon by the Harpies. The profligates—who destroyed their lives because of
money and property—are chased around by ferocious dogs.
The Inner Ring contains the blasphemers, who committed violence against God, and those who
were violent against nature, including sodomites (men who have sexual relations with other
men) and usurers (who lend money with excessive interest). They reside in a desert with
flaming sand and fire raining from the sky. To his surprise, Dante finds his respected teacher,
Brunetto Latini, here.
Eighth Circle (Fraud). To reach the last two circles of Hell, Virgil and Dante rode on the back of
Geryon, a winged monster. Geryon is a symbol of fraud: it has the face of a man and the
beautiful body of a wyvern (two-legged dragon), but with the paws of a lion and scorpion-like
stinging tail. The Eighth Circle is composed of ten malebolge’s or ‘evil pockets’ which are ditches
of stone with bridges across them.
Bolgia 1. Panderers and seducers march in opposite directions, whipped by demons. Just as
they seduced people to do what they want, now the demons make them do their bidding. Virgil
points out Jason (leader of the Argonauts), who seduced Medea but later abandoning her for
Creusa. He also seduced Hypsiple, leaving her pregnant.
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Bolgia 2. Flatterers are punished by being steeped in human excrement, representing the words
by which they exploit people.
Bolgia 3. Those being punished here are guilty of simony—buying favors from the Church using
money. They are placed head-first into holes in a rock (resembling baptismal fonts) with flames
burning their feet. Dante sees several popes there. Also there was Simon Magus, who tried to
buy the power of healing from St. Peter (Acts 8:9-24), after whom the sin was named.
Bolgia 4. Those who tried to see the future by forbidden means, like sorcerers, astronomers,
and false prophets, were punished by having their heads twisted backwards, so that they
cannot see where they are headed. Dante sees the Trojan prophet Tiresias there.
Bolgia 5. Corrupt politicians are immersed in boiling tar, which represents their sticky fingers
and deeds done in darkness. They are guarded by demons called the Malebranche (‘evil claws’)
and led by Malecoda (‘evil tail’).
Bolgia 6. Hypocrites, those who appear holy outside but evil inside, are made to wear cloaks of
lead, which represents their falsity and the weight which hinders their spiritual progress.
Caiaphas, the high priest who sentences Jesus to death, is crucified to the ground and trampled
upon.
Bolgia 7. Thieves are guarded by the centaur Cacus, who has a fire-breathing dragon on his
shoulder and snakes covering his horse back. Just as they stole other people’s property, so now
their own identities are stolen: As they are bitten by snakes, they are turned into distorted
animals.
Bolgia 8. Evil counselors, those who advise other people to commit fraud, are punished within
individual flames. Among those there are Ulysses/Odysseus and Diomedes, for their deception
using the Trojan horse. Ulysses tells of his final tale (invented by Dante and not included in
the Odyssey), where he left his home and family to sail to the ends of the earth, only to have his
ship flounder at Mount Purgatory. He also mentions Circe and how she seduced him.
Bolgia 9. The “sowers of discord” are cut apart by demons with swords, just as they divided
people against each other. The wounds would heal, only for the demons to cut them again.
Dante sees Muhammad, the founder of Islam, there, apparently for “separating” from
Christianity.
Bolgia 10. In the final bolgia, the falsifiers, like alchemists, counterfeiters, perjurers, and
impostors are given various diseases for being a “disease” to society. There is Potiphar’s wife,
who accused Joseph son of Jacob of seducing her. The Greek spy Sinon is burning with fever
because he tricked the Trojans to take the wooden horse inside their city, which burned to the
ground.
Ninth Circle (Treachery). The lowest circle is guarded by mythological and biblical giants
standing on its walls. These include Nimrod, Ephialthes (a Giant who with his brother Otus tried
to invade Mount Olympus), Typhon, and others. The giant Antaeus lowers Virgil and Dante into
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the Ninth Circle, which is composed of four rounds. Traitors are punished in a lake of ice (not
fire) called Cocytus.
Round 1. Named Caïna after Cain, who murdered his brother Abel. These are traitors who
betrayed their own family. They are frozen here up to their chins. Sir Mordred, who rebelled
against his father King Arthur, is punished here.
Round 2. Named Antenora after Antenor of Troy, who (according to Medieval tradition),
betrayed the Trojans to the Greeks. Punished here are those who betrayed their party, city, or
nation.
Round 3. Named Ptolomea, after Ptolomy, who invited Simon Maccabeus and his sons and then
kills them. Punished here are those who betrayed their guests. They lie in ice on their backs
with their face exposed.
Round 4. Named Judecca, after Judas Iscariot, who betrayed our Lord. Punished here are those
who betray their liege lords or benefactors. They lie frozen in ice, trapped in contorted
positions. Speaking is completely forbidden there, so Virgil and Dante quickly pass through
there and into the center of Hell itself.
Conclusion
The center of Hell. In the very center of Hell is Satan, who committed personal treachery
against God. He is described as a giant with three heads, one red, one black, one pale yellow—a
perversion of the Holy Trinity. He is trapped waist-deep in ice, wiping the tears off his six eyes,
and flapping his wings as if trying to escape. His left and right heads gnaw on the heads of
Cassius and Brutus, Roman senators who murdered Julius Caesar. His center head gnaws on the
head of Judas Iscariot, and his claws skin his back.
Escape from Hell. Virgil and Dante climb on the back of Satan and pass through the center of
the Earth. Now gravity pulls them “upwards” toward the other side of the world. They emerge
on Easter Sunday “beneath a sky studded with stars”. They have reached Mount Purgatory, and
their adventures are told in the next part of the Divine Comedy: Purgatorio.
The Divina Comedia - Paradiso
The third and final part of the Divina Comedia is Paradiso or ‘Paradise’. Dante has traveled
down the nine Circles of Hell and up the seven Terraces of Mount Purgatory. His guide thus far
was Virgil, who symbolizes human philosophy. On the summit of Mount Purgatory Date finally
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meets Beatrice, who symbolizes Christian theology, who is his guide through
Parasadise. Paradiso is an allegory of the Christian soul’s ascent to God.
Dante and Beatrice emerge from the Earthly Paradise on top of Mount Purgatory at noon on
the Wednesday of the Easter Octave, Dante having spent three days ascending its seven
Terraces. Paradise is composed of nine Spheres plus the Empyrean, the dwelling-place of God
Himself. Each Sphere is represents the four Cardinal Virtues of Prudence, Justice, Temperance,
and Fortitude and the three Theological Virtues of Faith, Hope, and Love. The planets and other
celestial bodies presented here reflect the geocentric (Earth-centered) view proposed by
Ptolemy which was accepted during that time. (Our present model of the Solar System is called
the Heliocentric or Sun-centered view which was proposed by Nicolas Copernicus and
supported by Galileo Galilei.)
PARADISO
Introduction
Dante and Beatrice emerge from the Earthly Paradise on the summit of Mount Purgatory. It is
noon of the Wednesday of Easter Week. They pass through the sphere of fire in the Earth’s
upper atmosphere. Dante converses with several blessed souls, which Dante was careful to
state actually dwell in the Empyrean, the dwelling-place of God.
The Spheres of Heaven
Paradise is composed of nine Spheres, which in turn is grouped into two: the first three Spheres
fall within the shadow of the Earth, which represent the deficient forms of Fortitude, Justice,
and Temperance. The next four Spheres represent positive examples of Prudence, Fortitude,
Justice, and Temperance. Faith, Hope, and Love exist on the eighth Sphere.
First Sphere (The Inconstant). Dante and Beatrice first visit the Moon, whose changing phases
represent Inconstancy, the deficient form of Fortitude. The Moon represents those who have
abandoned their vows. Dante met the sister of his friend Forese Donati, Piccarda, who was
forcibly removed from her convent. Also there Constance of Sicily, who was also forcibly
removed from her convent to marry Henry VI.
Beatrice explains to Dante the nature of Free Will: When a person makes a vow to God, that
person freely surrenders his will to God. Thus, a vow to God should never be treated lightly. The
only exception is that if a vow would lead a person to do evil, like Jephthah (Judges 10:29-40)
and Agamemnon (in the Iliad) whose vows made them sacrifice their own daughters.
Second Sphere (The Ambitious). Dante and Beatrice proceed to Mercury. Because of its
closeness to the Sun, it is often difficult to see. Thus, it represents Ambition, the deficient form
of Justice. Mercury represents those who do good out of a desire for fame. Dante meets the
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Roman emperor Justinian, who introduces himself as “I am Justinian, who was Caesar”,
indicating that his earthly status no longer exists in Heaven. He talks with Dante with the
current affairs of Italy and its affairs with France. Beatrice discusses the Birth and the Crucifixion
of Christ, which occurred during the time of the Roman Empire.
Third Sphere (The Lovers). Venus, the Morning and Evening Star, has been traditionally
associated with Love. Venus represents the Lovers, who are deficient in the virtue of
Temperance. Dante meets Folquet Marseilles, a French troubadour, who points out that the
cone of the Earth’s shadow which just touches Venus (as it is believed at that time). He speaks
on the temptations of love, and condemns the city of Florence, which he says was planted by
Satan himself. Florence mints a coin called the florin, which he calls “the damned flower” (the
coin contains the image of a lily), which is the source of corruption in the Church. Instead of
focusing on Scripture and the writings of the Early Church Fathers, the clergy became busy
focusing on money.
Fourth Sphere (The Wise). Beyond the shadow of the Earth is the Sun, where the Wise dwell as
examples of the virtue of Prudence. Just as the Sun gives light to the Earth, the Wise illuminate
the world with their knowledge. Dante and Beatrice were surrounded by a circle of twelve
bright lights, which are the souls wise men, including: Thomas Aquinas, the official theologian
of the Roman Catholic Church; his teacher, Albert the Great; King Solomon, known in the Bible
for his wisdom; Dionysus the Areopagite; and the saints Isidore of Seville and Bede the
Venerable.
St. Thomas Aquinas recounts the life of St. Francis of Assisi and his love for “Lady Poverty”.
Then twelve new bright lights appear. Among them is St. Bonaventure, a Franciscan, recounts
the life of St. Dominic, founder of the Dominicans (the Order of Preachers). The Franciscans and
the Dominicans have not always been friendly on Earth, but having representatives of each
order praising the founder of the other shows that love exists in Heaven. The twenty-four bright
lights now surround Dante and Beatrice. Finally, Aquinas explains that King Solomon has been
included among the wise not because of his mathematical or philosophical wisdom, but for his
kingly wisdom that enabled him to rule wisely.Fifth Sphere (The Warriors of Faith). The red
planet of Mars has been traditionally associated with war. Thus Mars is the home of the
Warriors of Faith, which represent the virtue of Fortitude. The souls there appear as a million
sparks of light that form a Greek Cross, which Dante compares to the stars of the Milky Way.
There Dante meets his ancestor Cacciaguida, who fought in the Second Crusade. He praises the
Republic of Florence in the 12th century and deplores the city’s decline at the present (the
14th century). He “predicts” Dante’s exile and charges him to write about all the things he saw
in Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise. Finally, Dante also sees other warriors of faith including Joshua
(who led the Israelites into the Promised Land), Judas Maccabeus (a Jewish priest who fought
against the Greeks), Charlemagne, and the French hero Roland.
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Sixth Sphere (The Just Rulers). The giant planet Jupiter has been traditionally associated with
the king of the gods, so Dante makes this the home of the Just Rulers, who display the virtue of
Justice. The souls here spell out the Latin phrase
DILIGITE IUSTITIAM QUI IUDACATIS TERRAM

…which means, ‘Love justice, you rulers of the Earth’. Then final “M” is transformed into the
shape of the giant Roman imperial eagle.
Those who dwell here include King David and King Hezekiah of the Bible; Trajan (who was
converted to Christianity according to a medieval legend); Emperor Constantine and (to Dante’s
surprise), Ripheus, a pagan Trojan, who was saved by the mercy of God. The souls forming the
imperial eagle declare in one voice the justice of God.
Seventh Sphere (The Contemplatives). The planet Saturn is the home of the Contemplatives,
those who devoted their lives in prayer and meditation, and are examples of the virtue of
Temperance. Dante speaks with Peter Damien, a monk, who discusses monasticism,
predestination, and the sad state of the Church at that time. Meanwhile Beatrice, who
represents theology, becomes increasingly lovelier here, because of the contemplatives closer
insight into the truth of God.
Eighth Sphere (Faith, Hope, and Love). The Eighth Sphere is composed of the fixed stars (the
constellations), which represents the Church Triumphant. From the constellation Gemini (under
which Dante is born), he looks back at the seven Spheres which he has visited, and to Earth.
Here, Dante sees the Virgin Mary and the other saints. He is test by St. Peter on faith: he asks
Dante how he knows that the Bible is true. Dante answers that the miracle of the Church’s
growth is proof of the veracity of the Bible. St. James tests Dante on hope and Beatrice vouches
that Dante does indeed have hope. Finally, St. John tests Dante on love: Dante refers back to
the twisted concepts of love in Purgatorio. Then St. Peter denounces the current Pope, Boniface
VIII, in very strong terms and states that in his eye, the Papal See is vacant.
Ninth Sphere (The Angels). The ninth Sphere is the Primum Mobile, the ‘First Mover’ and the
last sphere of the physical universe. It is moved directly by God, which in turn causes all the
other Spheres to move. It is the home of the Angels, with God as an intense point of light
surrounded by nine angels. Beatrice explains the Creation of the universe and the role of the
angels. She ends by denouncing the preachers of that time, who preach “idle stories” with
“jests and jeers” instead of the truth.
The Empyrean: the Abode of God.
Dante ascends above the Primum Mobile and into the Empyrean, which is non-material.
Beatrice becomes more beautiful than ever, and Dante is enveloped in light, enabling him to
see God himself.
Dante sees a great Rose, symbol of divine love. The souls of the faithful, from both the Old and
New Testament, live on the petals of this rose. Beatrice and all the souls that Dante has met all
88
live in this rose. The angels move about like bees, distributing peace and love. Beatrice returns
to her place in the rose, signifying that theology has ended and now Dante is in the presence of
God himself. St. Bernard, a mystical monk, guides Dante further in contemplation of God.
Dante describes God as three equally large circles that occupy the same space, representing the
Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. He also discerns within the three circles the human form of
Christ. But he cannot fully understand how the circles fit together or how the humanity of
Christ fits with his divinity. Then in a "flash of understanding", Dante finally understands this
though he cannot fully express it words. And his soul “becomes aligned with God’s love”.
The Divine Comedy ends with these lines:
“But already my desire and my will
were being turned like a wheel, all at one speed,
by the Love which moves the sun and the other stars."
AFRO ASIAN NOTES
Kabuki is a traditional Japanese form of theater with roots tracing back to the Edo Period. It
is recognized as one of Japan's three major classical theaters along with noh and bunraku,
and has been named as a UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage.
In theatre, a farce is a comedy that aims at entertaining the audience through situations that
are highly exaggerated, extravagant, and thus improbable.[1] Farces are often highly
incomprehensible plot-wise (due to the many plot twists and random events that occur), but
viewers are encouraged not to try to follow the plot in order to avoid becoming confused and
overwhelmed. Farce is also characterized by physical humor, the use of
deliberate absurdity or nonsense, and broadly stylized performances. Farces have been
written for the stage and film. Furthermore, a farce is also often set in one particular location,
where all events occur.
Kyogen is a form of traditional Japanese theater that developed as a sort of intermission and
comic relief between the solemn noh acts. The kyogen is very short, so costumes, masks, and
props are simple and minimal. There are usually only two or three roles, always played by
male actors, of which Nomura Mansai is one of the most famous. He has also directed several
productions, including a 2007 production of Richard III by the Suzuki Company of Toga. In
kyogen the acting is exaggerated, featuring slapstick and satire, and although the
performance is accompanied by the music of flute, drums, and gongs, the main emphasis is
on the dialogue and action rather than the music or dance. (Ai-kyogen refers to noh
interludes).
The drama is a favorite form of amusement. The popular plays are generally about history
and tradition, or they deal with the lives and adventures of gods and heroes. the scene is
always laid in Japan. The plays are very long. The performances begins in the morning and
can last all day. The spectators bring their food with them.
Three types of drama have been developed in Japan: the Noh play, the Joruri or puppet play,
and the Kabuki play.
The Noh play is the national theater of Japan. Tourists from all over the world go to Japan to
witness a Noh play. In the past it was a play reserved for the nobility, and the audience
89
dresses themselves in ceremonial robes. Legend says that the Noh has its origin in the dance
and that this dance was invented by the gods.
The story runs thus: The all important Sun Goddess hid herself in the rock cave of heaven,
causing universal darkness. So the other gods invented a dance which one of them performed
on top of an inverted tub, and the Sun Goddess came out to see what was the hollow noise
made by the dancer’s feet. The sound produced b the dancer stamping on the wooden floor is
still an important part of the play.
The puppet play(or doll theater) is very popular. The puppets are beautifully made and
lifelike in size. The strings are expertly manipulated and the dialogue realistically interpreted.
The third type of play is the Kabuki, the play for the masses. It is less intellectual, more
realistic, even sensational.
Bunraku, also known as Ningyō jōruri ,is a form of traditional Japanese puppet theatre,
founded in Osaka in 1684. Three kinds of performers take part in a bunraku performance:
the Ningyōtsukai orNingyōzukai (puppeteers), the Tayū (chanters) and shamisen musicians.
Occasionally other instruments such as taiko drums will be used.
The most accurate term for the traditional puppet theater in Japan is ningyō jōruri .The
combination of chanting and shamisen playing is called jōruri and the Japanese word for
puppet (or dolls, generally) is ningyō. It is used in many plays.
House of the Sleeping Beauties is a 1961 novella by the Japanese author Yasunari Kawabata.
It is a story about a lonely man, Old Eguchi, who continuously visits the House of the Sleeping
Beauties in hope of something more.
The Sea of Fertility ( Hōjō no Umi?) is a tetralogy of novels written by
the Japanese author Yukio Mishima. The four novels are Spring Snow (1969), Runaway
Horses (1969), The Temple of Dawn (1970), and The Decay of the Angel(1971).] The series,
which Mishima began writing in 1964 and which was his final work, is usually thought of as
his masterpiece. Its title refers to the Mare Fecunditatis, a lunar mare.
Snow Country ( Yukiguni?) is a full-length novel by the Japanese author Yasunari Kawabata.
The novel is considered a classic work of Japanese literature. It was among the three novels
the Nobel Committee cited in 1968 when the Nobel Prize in Literature for Kawabata was
awarded.
The Wild Geese is a British 1978 adventure film directed by Andrew V. McLaglen about a
group of mercenaries in Africa. It stars Richard Burton,Roger Moore, Richard Harris and Hardy
Krüger. The film was the result of a long-held ambition of its producer Euan Lloyd to make an
all-star adventure film similar to The Guns of Navarone or Where Eagles Dare.
The screenplay by Reginald Rose was based on an unpublished novel titled The Thin White
Line by Daniel Carney. The film was named The Wild Geese after a 17th century Irish
mercenary army (see Flight of the Wild Geese). Carney's novel was subsequently published by
Corgi Books under the same title as the film.
The novel was based upon rumors and speculation following the 1968 landing of a mysterious
aeroplane in Rhodesia, which was said to have been loaded with mercenaries and "an African
President" believed to have been a dying Moise Tshombe.
Yasunari Kawabata Kawabata Yasunari?, 11 June 1899 – 16 April 1972) was

a Japanese novelist and short story writer whose spare, lyrical, subtly-shaded prose works
90
won him the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1968, the first Japanese author to receive the
award. His works have enjoyed broad international appeal and are still widely read.
Jun'ichirō Tanizaki ( Tanizaki Jun'ichirō?, 24 July 1886 – 30 July 1965) was one of the major
writers of modern Japanese literature, and perhaps the most popular Japanese novelist
after Natsume Sōseki. Some of his works present a shocking world of sexuality and
destructive erotic obsessions. Others, less sensational, subtly portray the dynamics of family
life in the context of the rapid changes in 20th-century Japanese society. Frequently his
stories are narrated in the context of a search for cultural identity in which constructions of
"the West" and "Japanese tradition" are juxtaposed.
Kenzaburō Ōe ( Ōe Kenzaburō?, born January 31, 1935) is a Japanese writer and a major figure
in contemporary Japanese literature. His novels, short stories and essays were strongly
influenced by French and American literature and literary theory. They deal with political,
social and philosophical issues including nuclear weapons, nuclear power, social non-
conformism and existentialism.
Ōe was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1994 for creating "animagined world, where
life and myth condense to form a disconcerting picture of the human predicament today"
Ryūnosuke Akutagawa Akutagawa Ryūnosuke, 1 March 1892 – 24 July 1927) was

a Japanese writer active in the Taishō period in Japan. He is regarded as the "Father of the
Japanese short story" and Japan's premier literary award, the Akutagawa Prize, is named
after him. He committed suicide at the age of 35 through an overdose of barbital.
Négritude is a literary and ideological philosophy, developed by francophone African

intellectuals, writers, and politicians in France during the 1930s. Its initiators
included Martinican poet Aimé Césaire, Léopold Sédar Senghor (a future President of
Senegal), and Léon Damas of French Guiana. Négritude intellectuals disfavored French
colonialism and claimed that the best strategy to oppose it was to encourage a common
racial identity for black Africans worldwide. They included theMarxist ideas they favored as
part of this philosophy. The writers generally used a realist literary style, but later were also
influenced somewhat by the Surrealism style, and in 1932 the manifesto "Murderous
Humanitarianism" was signed by prominent Surrealists including the Martiniquans Pierre
Yoyotte and J. M. Monnerot.
Apartheid (Afrikaans pronunciation: [ɐˈpartɦɛit]; an Afrikaans[1] word meaning "the state of

being apart", literally "apart-hood")[2][3] was a system of racial segregationin South
Africa enforced through legislation by the National Party (NP), the governing party from 1948
to 1994. Under apartheid, the rights, associations, and movements of the majority black
inhabitants and other ethnic groups were curtailed and Afrikaner minority rule was
maintained. Apartheid was developed after World War II by the Afrikaner-
dominated National Party and Broederbond organizations. The ideology was also enforced
in South West Africa, which was administered by South Africa under a League of
Nations mandate (revoked in 1966 via United Nations Resolution 2145), [4] until it gained
independence as Namibia in 1990.[5] By extension, the term is currently used for forms of
91
systematic segregation, established by the state authority in a country, against the social and
civil rights of a certain group of citizens, due to ethnic prejudices.
Murasaki Shikibu (紫式部, English: Lady Murasaki) (c. 973 or 978 – c. 1014 or 1031) was a
Japanese novelist, poet and lady-in-waiting at the Imperial courtduring the Heian period. She
is best known as the author of The Tale of Genji, written in Japanese between about 1000 and
1012. Murasaki Shikibu is a nickname; her real name is unknown, but she may have
been Fujiwara Takako, who was mentioned in a 1007 court diary as an imperial lady-in-
waiting.
Heian women were traditionally excluded from learning Chinese, the written language of
government, but Murasaki, raised in her erudite father's household, showed a precocious
aptitude for the Chinese classics and managed to acquire fluency. She married in her mid-to
late twenties and gave birth to a daughterbefore her husband died, two years after they were
married. It is uncertain when she began to write The Tale of Genji, but it was probably while
she was married or shortly after she was widowed. In about 1005, Murasaki was invited to
serve as a lady-in-waiting to Empress Shōshi at the Imperial court, probably because of her
reputation as a writer. She continued to write during her service, adding scenes from court
life to her work. After five or six years, she left court and retired with Shōshi to the Lake
Biwa region. Scholars differ on the year of her death; although most agree on 1014, others
have suggested she was alive in 1031.
Wu Cheng'en (; pinyin:Wú Chéng'ēn; Wade–Giles: Wu Ch'êng-ên, c. 1500–1582[1] or 1505–
1580[),courtesy name Ruzhong ), pen name "Sheyang Hermit", was a Chinese novelist and
poet of the Ming Dynasty, and is considered to be the author of Journey to the West, one of
the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature.
Sei Shōnagon (, lesser councilor of state Sei), (c. 966–1017/1025) was a Japanese author, poet
and a court lady who served the Empress Teishi(Sadako) around the year 1000 during the
middle Heian period. She is best known as the author of The Pillow Book (makura no sōshi?).
Maharshi Valmiki, the author of the great Indian epic Ramayana, was a Hindu sage who lived
around the beginning of the first millennium B.C. He is referred to as the 'adikavi', the original
creator of the Hindu 'sloka' - a verse form in which most of the great epics such as Ramayana,
Mahabharata, Puranas, and other works are composed.
Rama, the perfect avatar of the Supreme Protector Vishnu, is an all-time favorite among
Hindu deities. The most popular symbol of chivalry and virtue, Rama - in the words of Swami
Vivekananda- is "the embodiment of truth, of morality, the ideal son, the ideal husband, and
above all, the ideal king."
92
Ramnavami or the birthday ofLord Rama falls on the 9th day of the bright fortnight of the
month of Chaitra (March-April)
Vyasa is perhaps the greatest sage in the history of Hindu religion. He edited the four Vedas,
wrote the 18 Puranas, the epicMahabharata and the Srimad Bhagavatamand even taught
Dattatreya, who is regarded as the ‘Guru of Gurus.’
Hinduism is the dominant religion, or way of life, in South Asia, most notably
in India and Nepal. Although Hinduism contains a broad range of philosophies, it is a family of
linked religious cultures bound by shared concepts, recognisable rituals, cosmology, shared
textual resources,pilgrimage to sacred sites and the questioning of authority.It
includesShaivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism[2] among others, each with an interwoven
diversity of beliefs and practices. With approximately one billion followers,Hinduism is
the world's third largest religion by population, after Christianity and Islam.
Hinduism has been called the "oldest religion" in the world, and some practitioners and
scholars refer to it as Sanātana Dharma, "the eternal law" or the "eternal way"[4] beyond
human origins.] Scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion or synthesis of various Indian cultures
and traditions, with diverse roots and no founder.
Buddhism /ˈbudɪzəm/[1][2] is a nontheistic religion[note
1][3] or philosophy(Sanskrit: dharma; Pali: धम्म dhamma) that encompasses a variety
oftraditions, beliefs and spiritual practices largely based on teachings attributed to Gautama
Buddha, commonly known as the Buddha ("the awakened one"). According to Buddhist
tradition, the Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern part of the Indian
subcontinent sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE.[note 1] He is recognized by
Buddhists as an awakened orenlightened teacher who shared his insights to help sentient
beings end theirsuffering through the elimination of ignorance and craving. Buddhists believe
that this is accomplished through the direct understanding and perception ofdependent
origination and the Four Noble Truths.
Shinto means the way of the gods. Shintoism is an Ancient religion of Japan. It started at least
as long ago as 1000 B.C.E. but is still practiced today by at least five million people. The
followers of Shintoism believe that spiritual powers exist in the natural world. They believe
that "spirits" called kami live in natural places such as in animals, plants, stones, mountains,
rivers, people and even the dead.
Taoism (sometimes Daoism) is a philosophical, ethical or religious tradition of Chinese origin,
or faith of Chinese exemplification, that emphasizes living in harmony with the Tao (also
romanized as Dao). The term Tao means "way", "path", or "principle", and can also be found
in Chinese philosophies and religions other than Taoism. In Taoism, however, Tao denotes
something that is both the source of, and the force behind, everything that exists. Taoism is
practised as a religion in various Asian communities, but its theology is not theist (even
though some communities do worship Laozi as the attributed founder of the religious
93
doctrine), and has more affinities with pantheistictraditions given its philosophical emphasis
on the formlessness of the Tao.
The Dhammapada (Pāli; Prakrit: Dhammapada;[1] Sanskrit: Dharmapada) is a collection of
sayings of the Buddha in verse form and one of the most widely read and best
known Buddhist scriptures.The original version of the Dhammapada is in the Khuddaka
Nikaya, a division of the Pali Canon of Theravada Buddhism.
The Buddhist scholar and commentator Buddhaghosa explains that each saying recorded in
the collection was made on a different occasion in response to a unique situation that had
arisen in the life of the Buddha and his monastic community. His commentary,
the Dhammapada Atthakatha, presents the details of these events and is a rich source of
legend for the life and times of the Buddha.
The Upanishads (Sanskrit: Upaniṣad; IPA: [upəniʂəd]) are a collection of texts which contain
some of the central philosophical concepts of Hinduism, some of which are shared
with Buddhism and Jainism.[1][note 1][note 2] The Upanishads are considered by Hindus to contain
utterances (śruti) concerning the nature of ultimate reality (brahman) and describing the
character of and path to human salvation (mokṣa or mukti).
The Upanishads are commonly referred to as Vedānta, variously interpreted to mean either
the "last chapters, parts of the Veda" or "the object, the highest purpose of the Veda".The
concepts of Brahman (Ultimate Reality) andĀtman (Soul, Self) are central ideas in all
the Upanishads, and "Know your Ātman" their thematic focus.[5][6] The Upanishads are the
foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and its diverse traditions. Of the Vedic corpus,
they alone are widely known, and the central ideas of the Upanishads are at the spiritual core
of Hindus.
The Bhagavad Gita (Sanskrit, bhagavad-gītā in IAST, Sanskrit pronunciation: [ˈbʱəɡəʋəd̪
ɡiːˈt̪aː]; lit. "Song of the Lord"[1]), often referred to as simply the Gita, is a 700-
verse Hindu scripture in Sanskrit that is part of the Hindu epicMahabharata.
The Gita is set in a narrative framework of a dialogue between Pandava princeArjuna and his
guide and charioteer Lord Krishna. Facing the duty as a warrior to fight the Dharma Yudhha or
righteous war between Pandavas and Kauravas, Arjuna is counselled by Lord Krishna to
"fulfill his Kshatriya (warrior) duty as a warrior and establishing Dharma."[2] Inserted[2] in this
appeal to kshatriya dharma (chivalry)[3] is "a dialogue ... between diverging attitudes
concerning and methods toward the attainment of liberation (moksha)".[4] The Bhagavad
Gita was exposed to the world through Sanjaya, who senses and cognizes all the events of the
battlefield.[5]Sanjaya is Dhritarashtra's advisor and also his charioteer.
The Rigveda (Sanskrit: ऋग्वेद ṛgveda, from ṛc "praise, shine"[1] and veda"knowledge") is an
ancient Indian collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns. It is one of the four canonical sacred texts
(śruti) of Hinduism known as the Vedas.[2][3]The text is a collection of 1,028 hymns and 10,600
verses, organized into ten books (Mandalas).[4] The hymns are dedicated to Rigvedic deities.[4]
94
The Rigveda begins with a small book addressed to deity Agni, Indra and other gods, all
arranged according to decreasing total number of hymns in each deity collection; for each
deity series the hymns progress from longer to shorter ones; yet, the number of hymns per
book increases; finally, the meter is systematically arranged from jagati and tristubh to
anustubh and gayatri as the text progresses.[2] In terms of substance, the hymns
predominantly discusscosmology and praise deities in the earliest composed eight
books,[5][6] shifting in books 1 and 10, that were added last, to philosophical or
speculative[6]questions about the origin of the universe and the nature of god, [7] the virtue
ofDāna (charity) in society,[8] and other metaphysical issues in its hymns.[9
The Panchatantra (IAST: Pañcatantra, Sanskrit: पञ्चतन्त्र, 'Five Principles') is an
ancient Indian collection of interrelated animal fables in verse and prose, arranged within
a frame story. The original Sanskrit work, which some scholars believe was composed around
the 3rd century BCE,[1] is attributed to Vishnu Sharma. It is based on older oral traditions,
including "animal fables that are as old as we are able to imagine". [2]
It is "certainly the most frequently translated literary product of India",[3] and these stories
are among the most widely known in the world
Mṛcchakaṭika (The Little Clay Cart) (Sanskrit: मृच्छकटिका; also spelled
Mrcchakatika, Mricchakatika, or Mrichchhakatika), is a ten-act Sanskrit drama attributed
to Śūdraka (Sanskrit: शूद्रक), an ancient playwright generally thought to have lived sometime
between the third century BC and the fifth century AD whom the prologue identifies as
a Kshatriya king and a devotee ofSiva who lived for 100 years.[1] The play is set in the ancient
city of Ujjayiniduring the reign of the King Pālaka, near the end of the Pradyota dynasty that
made up the first quarter of the fifth century BC.[2] The central story is that of noble but
impoverished young Brahmin, Chārudatta (Sanskrit: चारुदत्त), who falls in love with a wealthy
courtesan or nagarvadhu, Vasantasenā (Sanskrit:वसन्तसेना). Despite their mutual affection,
however, the couple's lives and love are threatened when a vulgar courtier, Samsthānaka,
also known as Shakara, begins to aggressively pursue Vasantasenā.[3]
Gitanjali (Bengali: গীতাঞ্জলি) is a collection of poems by the Indian poetRabindranath Tagore.
The original Bengali collection of 157 poems was published on August 14, 1910. The
English Gitanjali or Song Offerings is a collection of 103 English poems of Tagore's own
English translations of his Bengali poems first published in November 1912 by the India
Society of London. It contained translations of 53 poems from the original Bengali Gitanjali,
as well as 50 other poems which were from his drama Achalayatanand eight other books of
poetry — mainly Gitimalya (17 poems), Naivedya (15 poems) and Kheya (11 poems).[1][2]
Artha is one of the four aims of human life in Indian philosophy. [1] The word artha literally
translates as “meaning, sense, goal, purpose or essence” depending on the context. [4] Artha is
also a broader concept in the scriptures of Hinduism. As a concept, it has multiple meanings,
95
all of which imply “means of life”, activities and resources that enables one to be in a state
one wants to be in.[2]
Artha applies to both an individual and a government. In an individual’s
context, artha includes wealth, career, activity to make a living, financial security and
economic prosperity. The proper pursuit of artha is considered an important aim of human
life in Hinduism.[1][5] At government level, arthaincludes social, legal, economic and worldly
affairs. Proper Arthashastra is considered an important and necessary objective of
government.[5][6]
In Hindu traditions, Artha is connected to the three other aspects and goals of human life -
Dharma (virtuous, proper, moral life), Kama (pleasure, sensuality, emotional fulfillment)
and Moksha (liberation, release, self-actualization). Together, these mutually non-exclusive
four aims of life are calledPuruṣārtha.[7][8]
Endowed with richness of culture, India gained the admiration as well as the criticism of
the world. As its face
wasadornedwiththe veilofrigidcustoms and traditions, Westerners see the embroi
dery of strictness andinflexibility resulting to stagnation and poverty. In Santha Rama
Rau’s essayentitled “On Learning to Be an Indian,” this veil was lifted up to show
thef a c e o f I n d i a ’ s c u l t u r e – a c u l t u r e o f l o v e , o f f a i t h , o f r e s p e c t , o f
s t r o n g disposition and of innate pureness. T h e s o u l o f t h e
e s s a y w a n d e r s a r o u n d t h e a n t a g o n i s t i c v i e w s o f a Western mind to the
culture that
is enveloping her. Her grandmother, herm o t h e r a n d t h e w r i t e r h e r s e l f w
e r e p i v o t a l f i g u r e s i n t h e e s s a y . H e r grandmother, whom she called Asha,
is the embodiment of traditional
Hindub e l i e f s . H e r m o t h e r r e p r e s e n t s a m o d e r n H i n d u w o m a n w h o s e e s H i
ndutraditions perfectly, but seeks refinement. The writer, whose eyes
w e r e covered by ignorance, is the representative of Western attitude and ideas.
Rasa may refer to:
Indian culture
Rasa (aesthetics), a concept in the Indian performing arts
Rasa (theology), a concept of taste or emotional rapture related to Krishna devotion
Rasā, a mythical river mentioned in the Rigveda
Rasa lila, a dance performed by the Hindu god Krishna with his consort Radha and other milk-
maids
A rasa (Sanskrit: रस lit. 'juice' or 'essence') denotes an essential mental state and is the
dominant emotional theme of a work of art or the primary feeling that is evoked in the
person that views, reads or hears such a work.
96
Although the concept of rasa is fundamental to many forms of Indian

art includingdance, music, musical theatre, cinema and literature, the treatment,
interpretation, usage and actual performance of a particular rasa differs greatly between
different styles and schools of abhinaya, and the huge regional differences even within one
style.
Kāma (Sanskrit, Pali; Devanagari: काम) means desire, wish, longing in Indian
literature.[3] Kāma often connotes sexual desire and longing in contemporary literature, but
the concept more broadly refers to any desire, wish, passion, longing, pleasure of the senses,
the aesthetic enjoyment of life, affection, or love, with or without sexual connotations. [4][5]
Kāma is one of the four goals of human life in Hindu traditions.[2] It is considered an essential
and healthy goal of human life when pursued without sacrificing the other three
goals: Dharma (virtuous, proper, moral life), Artha (material prosperity, income security,
means of life) and Moksha(liberation, release, self-actualization).[6][7] Together, these four
aims of life are called Puruṣārtha.[8]
In Indian religions and Indian philosophy, moksha (Sanskrit: मोक्ष mokṣa), also
called vimoksha, vimukti and mukti,[1] means emancipation, liberation or release.[2] In
the soteriological and eschatological sense, it connotes freedom from saṃsāra, the cycle of
death and rebirth.[3] In the epistemological and psychological sense, moksha connotes
freedom, self-realization and self-knowledge.[4]
In Hindu traditions, moksha is a central concept[5] and included as one of the four aspects and
goals of human life; the other three goals are dharma(virtuous, proper, moral
life), artha (material prosperity, income security, means of life), and kama (pleasure,
sensuality, emotional fulfillment).[6] Together, these four aims of life are called Puruṣārtha in
Hinduism.[7]
The concept of moksha is found in Jainism, Buddhism and Hinduism. In some schools of
Indian religions, moksha is considered equivalent to and used interchangeably with other
terms such
as vimoksha, vimukti, kaivalya, apavarga, mukti, nihsreyasa and nirvana.[8] However, terms
such as moksha and nirvana differ and mean different states between various schools of
Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism.[9] The term nirvana is more common in Buddhism,[10] while
moksha is more prevalent in Hinduism.[11]
Free verse is an open form of poetry. It does not use consistent meter patterns, rhyme, or any
other musical pattern. It thus tends to follow the rhythm of natural speech.
97
"Li Sao" (Chinese: 離騷; literally: "Encountering Sorrow"") is a Chinese poem dating from
the Warring States period of ancient China. The early poetic tradition of China survives mainly
through two anthologies, one being the Chuci, the other being the formally distinct Classic of
Poetry (or Shijing). The poem "Li Sao" is the lead poem and the main inspiration for
theChuci collection. This famous piece was written by the person generally known as Qu
Yuan, an aristocrat of the Kingdom of Chu. In his signature poem "Li Sao", Qu Yuan manifests
himself in a poetic character, which is a major landmark in the tradition of Classical Chinese
poetry, contrasting with the anonymous poetic voices encountered in the Shijing and the
other early poems which exist as preserved in the form of incidental incorporations into
various documents of ancient miscellany. The rest of the Chuci anthology is centered on the
"Li Sao", the purported biography of its author Qu Yuan, and often its innovative epic poetic
lines. In the "Li Sao", the poet despairs that he has been plotted against by evil factions at
court with his resulting rejection by his lord and then recounts a series of shamanistic spirit
journeys to various mythological realms, engaging or attempting to engage with a variety of
divine or spiritual beings, with the theme of the righteous minister unfairly rejected
sometimes becoming exaggerated in the long history of later literary criticism and allegorical
interpretation. Dating from the time of King Huai of Chu, in the late third century BCE, the
poem "Li Sao" is a remarkable example of Chinese poetry.
The Chueh Chu or Regulated Verse (chu = song) is the Chinese "sonnet short cut". It is a verse
form that uses Chi Yen Shih and Wu Yen Shi meters.
The Chueh Chu is:

an 8 line meditation made up of two quatrains of either the Chi Yen Shih or Wu Yen
Shih meters or a combination.
rhymed, Variable rhyme schemes may be used, Rhyme schemes may be aaxa xaxa or xbxb
xbxb or aaxa aaxa x being unrhymed.
Renga (連歌?, collaborative poetry) is a genre[1] of Japanese collaborative poetry.
A renga consists of at least two ku (句?)or stanzas. The opening stanza of the renga, called
the hokku (発句?), became the basis for the modern haiku form of poetry.
Two of the most famous masters of renga were the Buddhist priest Sōgi (1421–1502)
and Matsuo Bashō (1644–1694).
Shi] and shih are romanizations of the character 詩 or 诗, the Chineseword for
all poetry generally and across all languages.
In Western analysis of the styles of Chinese poetry, shi is also used as a term of art for a
specific poetic tradition, modeled after the Old Chinese works collected in
the Confucian Classic of Poetry. This anthology included both aristocratic poems (the
"Hymns" and "Eulogies") and more rustic works believed to have derived from Huaxia folk
songs (the "Odes"). They are composed in ancient Chinese, mostly in four-character lines. In
such analysis, "shi" poetry is contrasted with other forms such as the Chu-derived "ci" and
theHan-era "fu".[3][4] This use is not common within Chinese literature, however, which
98
instead classifies these poems into other categories such as "classical Chinese poetry", "Field
and Garden" poetry, and "curtailed" poetry.
Gushi, literally "Ancient Poetry", may be used in either of two senses. It may be used broadly
to refer to the ancient poetry of China, chiefly the mostlyanonymous works collected in
the Confucian Classic of Poetry, the separate tradition exemplified by Qu Yuan and Song
Yu's Songs of Chu, and the workscollected by the Han "Music Bureau".
It may also be used strictly to refer to poems in the styles of the Confucian classic, regardless
of their time of composition. Owing to the variety of pieces included in the Classic, there are
few formal constraints apart from line length (usually four characters and no more than
seven) and rhyming every other line.
Jintishi, literally "Modern Poetry", was actually composed from the 5th century onwards and
is considered to have been fully developed by the early Tang dynasty. The works were
principally written in five- and seven-character lines and involve constrained tone patterns,
intended to balance the four tones of Middle Chinese within each couplet. The principal
forms are the four-line jueju, the eight-line lüshi, and the unlimited pailü. In addition to the
tonal patterns, lüshi and pailü were usually understood to further require parallelism in their
interior couplets: a theme developed in one couplet would be contrasted in the following
one, usually by means of the same parts of speech.
Confucius (/kənˈfjuːʃəs/; September 28, 551 – 479 BC) was a Chinese teacher, editor,
politician, and philosopher of the Spring and Autumn period of Chinese history.
The philosophy of Confucius emphasized personal and governmental morality, correctness of
social relationships, justice and sincerity. His followers competed successfully with many
other schools during the Hundred Schools of Thought era only to be suppressed in favor of
the Legalists during the Qin Dynasty. Following the victory of Han over Chu after the collapse
of Qin, Confucius's thoughts received official sanction and were further developed into a
system known as Confucianism.
Confucius is traditionally credited with having authored or edited many of the Chinese classic
texts including all of the Five Classics, but modern scholars are cautious of attributing specific
assertions to Confucius himself. Aphorisms concerning his teachings were compiled in
the Analects, but only many years after his death.

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1

1. REMEDIAL INSTRUCTION IN ENGLISH

15. LANGUAGE RESEARCH

1. REMEDIAL INSTRUCTION IN ENGLISH

C. Make use of problem solving

D. Discourse analysis includes the study of cohesive links between sentences of

3. LANGUAGE CURRICULUM FOR SECONDARY SCHOOL

A. Reading b. Physical Education C. Science d. Social Studies

A. Blow B. blue C. blows D. dark

A. Knowledge is constantly changing; take them with a grain of salt.

B. Critical Period Hypothesis D. Language Acquisition

B. Academic Language Scaffolding D. Dialogue Journals

A. vortal B. kodak C. xerox D .Kleenex

A. Paul’s not going to get a job. C. We’re going to see a film.

154. Which sentence is correct?

A. doesn’t he B. wasn’t he C. isn’t he D. is he

A. phrase B. dependent clause C. independent clause D. complex

b. Forensic stylistics d. affective stylistics

7.1. Demonstrate understanding of the basic approaches to problems in critical

And sweetest – in the Gale – is heard

A. Hermeneutics B. Textual exegesis C. Literary appreciation D. documentary

250. Which literary movement is characterized by the avoidance of what is fantastical,

I, broke, the, cord!

8. – 10 MASTERPIECES OF WORLD LITERATURE ( Mythology and Folklore, Afro-Asian

266. In literature, allusion is a reference to a person, an event or place in which a

A. The Ten Commandments C. The Exodus

11. THE TEACHING OF SPEAKING, LISTENING AND READING

12. TEACHING OF LITERATURE

D. the word as an entity in itself

325. What is the most innovative way of teaching literature?

B. reading several selections

13. PREPARATION AND EVALUATION OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

IV. Students are free to experiment on different options

349. In selecting textbooks to be used in teaching language in a multicultural setting, which

B. The tests were not valid D. The tests were not

A. Application B. Analysis C. Evaluation D. Synthesis

15. LANGUAGE RESEARCH

16. CAMPUS JOURNALISM

A. Do they add relevantly to the information being provided?

B. blackness/redness D. dancing / singing

442. Which is one of the first rules to remember in writing?

B. forbade anyone to enter while she was working

REVIEW NOTES IN ENGLISH BASED ON THE NCBTS AND TABLE OF

1. ESP is defined to meet specific needs of the learners

1. ESP may be related to or designated for specific discipline

THE ART OF TRANSLATION AND THE ART OF EDITING

The Canterbury Tales

ploughman's frock and rode upon a mare.

Here ends the Prologue of this book

The Iliad by Homer

Prologue: The Judgment of Paris

This is the reason for the Trojan War.

The Abduction of Helen

The Trojan War

Thus ends the Iliad.

The Fall of Troy

The Divina Comedia: Inferno

Abandon all hope, all those who enter here

The Circles of Hell

The Spheres of Heaven

DILIGITE IUSTITIAM QUI IUDACATIS TERRAM

Yasunari Kawabata Kawabata Yasunari?, 11 June 1899 – 16 April 1972) was

Ryūnosuke Akutagawa Akutagawa Ryūnosuke, 1 March 1892 – 24 July 1927) was

Négritude is a literary and ideological philosophy, developed by francophone African