Research Article

Received: 30 March 2015 Revised: 5 August 2015 Accepted article published: 7 August 2015 Published online in Wiley Online Library: 9 September 2015

(wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI 10.1002/jsfa.7373

In situ evaluation of the fruit and oil

characteristics of the main Lebanese olive
germplasm
Ali Chehade,a* Ahmad El Bitar,a Aline Kadri,a Elia Choueiri,b Rania Nabbout,c
Hiyam Youssef,d Maha Smeha,c Ali Awada,d Ziad Al Chami,e Eustachio
Dubla,e Antonio Trani,f Donato Mondellif and Franco Famianig*

Abstract
BACKGROUND: Very little information is available on the characteristics of the Lebanese olive germplasm. Therefore, the aim of
this work was to evaluate the fruit and oil characteristics of the main Lebanese olive varieties (Aayrouni, Abou chawkeh, Baladi,
Del and Soury) from two successive crop seasons (2010–2011).

RESULTS: All of the genotypes had medium–high oil content in the fruit, indicating their suitability for oil production; Aayrouni
had particularly high values. The variety Abou chawkeh also had a high pulp/pit ratio, which is a very desirable trait in table
olives. For all the varieties the values of free fatty acids, peroxide values, absorbances in ultraviolet, fatty acid composition,
sterol content and composition and erythrodiol + uvaol content of the oils were within the requirements of the International
Olive Council’s Trade Standard for extra virgin olive oil. The only exception was for the values of 𝚫-7-stigmastenol in 2011 in
Soury and, especially, in Baladi, which were higher than 0.5%. In some cases, stearic and arachidic acids fluctuated around the
maximum values allowed.

CONCLUSION: The findings of this study provide a first picture of the main characteristics of olives and oils currently produced
in Lebanon.
© 2015 Society of Chemical Industry

Keywords: arachidic acid; Δ-7-stigmastenol; Olea europaea L; stearic acid; sterol composition; uvaol and erythrodiol

INTRODUCTION Lebanese and this has probably contributed to the heterogeneity

The olive (Olea europaea L.) holds a major place in Lebanese
agriculture.1 It covers about 21% of the total cultivated area
(58 600 ha of 279 048 ha) and 69% of the land cultivated with fruit
trees (84 500 ha). Olives are grown in the north (42% of the total),
south (37%), Mount of Lebanon (17%) and the Bekaa Valley (4%).
In Lebanon, there are 485 olive oil mills, but only 15% of them use
modern continuous-extraction systems. The others are traditional
ones and have a very low processing capacity.
The Lebanese olive germplasm is characterised by a high level of
diversity. There are more than 40 accessions cultivated throughout
the country. However, four local varieties, Abou chawkeh, Baladi,
Del and Soury, are the most cultivated in commercial plantations
used for both oil and table olives.1 The variety Ayrouni is less
widespread, but is interesting because it seems to have a high oil
content.
Baladi, the most widespread variety in Lebanon, has been
shown to have a large morphological variability.2 This variabil-
ity is most likely the result of its broad geographical distribution
throughout Lebanon, associated with different environmental
conditions and cultural practices, and of clonal variation after
years of domestication.2 – 4 Moreover, Baladi means ‘local’, that is,
something autochthonous. Hence, the name Baladi has been used
2532
found with the name Baladi.
∗ Correspondence to: A Chehade, LARI, LebaneseAgricultural Research Institute,
Tal Amara Station, Department of Plant Biotechnology, P.O. Box 287, Zahleh,
Lebanon, E-mail: alichehade@hotmail.com; or F Famiani, Dipartimento di
Scienze Agrarie, Alimentari e Ambientali, Università degli Studi di Perugia,
Borgo XXGiugno, 74-06121 Perugia, Italy. E-mail: franco.famiani@unipg.it
a LARI, Lebanese Agricultural Research Institute, Tal Amara Station, Department
of Plant Biotechnology, P.O. Box 287, Zahleh, Lebanon
b LARI, Lebanese Agricultural Research Institute, Tal Amara Station, Department
of Plant Protection, Zahleh, Lebanon
c LARI, Lebanese Agricultural Research Institute, Kfarchakhna Station, Kfar-
chakhna, Lebanon
d LARI, Lebanese Agricultural Research Institute, Tyre Station, Tyre, Lebanon
e IAMB – Agronomic Mediterranean Institute of Bari, Via Ceglie, 9, 70010 Valen-
zano (BA), Italy
f Dipartimento di Scienze del Suolo della Pianta e degli Alimenti, Università degli
Studi “Aldo Moro’, Bari, Italy
g Dipartimento di Scienze Agrarie, Alimentari e Ambientali, Università degli Studi

by farmers to indicate olive genotypes that were believed to be di Perugia, Borgo XX Giugno, 74–06121 Perugia, Italy

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Characteristics of the main Lebanese olive germplasm www.soci.org

Until now, studies of Lebanese olive germplasm have mainly

regarded morphological and molecular characterisation,2,4
whereas very few have been carried out to evaluate the com-
mercial characteristics of the fruit and oil quality.
Characterisation of fruit and oil traits of the main Lebanese
olive varieties is important for making the best choices for the
AMIOUN
establishment of new olive orchards. Moreover, it is useful for
FEKEHE
determining the level of quality of the oil produced by the different
varieties and if they meet the qualitative standards required by the
international market.
The objective of this study was to evaluate the fruit and oil
characteristics of the main Lebanese olive varieties, by studying
them during the normal harvesting time in Lebanon, in the areas NIHA
where they have the largest distribution (in situ evaluation).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Plant material
The study was carried out in the 2010 and 2011 harvesting sea-
sons. It covered five locations in three regions: northern Lebanon,
southern Lebanon and the Bekaa Valley (Fig. 1, Table 1).
Five varieties were included in the study: Aayrouni in the north
of Lebanon, Soury and Baladi in the south of Lebanon, and Del and
Abou chawkeh in the Bekaa Valley (Table 1, Fig. 1). All the varieties
were studied in the areas where they have the largest distribution.
On the basis of a preliminary study, carried out by the Lebanese
Agricultural Research Institute (LARI) to identify the most represen-
tative trees for the main Lebanese olive varieties,5 for each variety
a single tree was selected and labelled and used to evaluate fruit
and oil traits. The same tree was used for morphological, molecular
and sanitary evaluations.1,3 In agreement with the Ministry of Agri-
culture of Lebanon (MoA), it was propagated in order to establish a
national collection of olive germplasm in a specific field gene bank
at the LARI. These trees will then be used as mother plants for the
production of certified trees for the establishment of new orchards
in Lebanon. For the production of certified trees the mother plants
must derive from a unique tree that has been characterised from a
morphological, sanitary and molecular point of view.
All the trees were in commercial groves and were in the mature
stage (adult). The tree density was around 200 trees ha−1 . The
groves were rainfed and all the field practices were as normal for
commercial olive groves in Lebanon: the soil was tilled three to
four times per year, manure/ammonium sulfate were spread as
fertilisers, pruning was biennial and treatments against peacock
eye and/or olive fly were carried out if necessary. All the trees in
the 2-year period had a medium yield. Fruit samples were har-
vested within the normal harvesting times (October to Novem-
ber) in Lebanon: beginning mid-October for Baladi and Soury,
mid-October for Abou chawkeh, and in the second half of October
for Aayrouni and Del. For all the varieties, the olives were harvested
when they had a spotted pigmentation (values between 2 and 3 of
the ‘Jaen pigmentation index’).6
Fruit characteristics
At harvesting, for each variety, three perfectly healthy olive sam-
ples were collected manually and used to determine: fruit weight
(15 drupes/sample); pigmentation, evaluated by using the ‘Jaen
pigmentation index’, from 0 to 7, with 0 for green olives and 7
for olives with pigmentation on 100% of both the epicarp and
the pulp (50 fruits/sample);6 water content, by drying the sam-
BAKKIFA
AIN BAAL
QANA
Figure 1. Locations of the five olive varieties studied in Lebanon.
weight; oil content, by using a Soxhlet apparatus;7 pulp/pit ratio
(10 fruits/sample).
Oil characteristics
Oil extraction
The oil was extracted from three perfectly healthy olive samples
per variety (of 1.5–2 kg each). The fruit was harvested manually
and put in a bag. Only healthy fruit without any kind of infection
or physical damage was processed. The oil was extracted within
24 h from olive harvesting using a small-size Abencor mill, simulat-
ing commercial oil-extraction systems (MC2; Ingenieria Sistemas,
Seville, Spain). The olives were crushed with an Abencor hammer
mill equipped with a 4-mm sieve and the paste was processed
using the Abencor malaxer (30 min at 25–27 ∘ C) and centrifuged
(1372 × g for 2 min). The oil was filtered through a filter plate and
stored at 4 ∘ C in darkness using amber glass bottles without head
space until analysis. The total polyphenol content was determined
soon after the extraction in sub-samples that were not stored
+4 ∘ C. No water or talc was added to facilitate the extraction.
Analyses of free fatty acids, peroxide values and spectrophotometric
investigation in the ultraviolet
The analyses of free fatty acids, peroxide values, and spectrophoto-
metric parameters were carried out according to the EC Regulation
No 2568/91,8 and subsequent amendments and supplements.
Colorimetric determination of total polyphenol content
The total polyphenol content of the oils was determined accord-
ing to the Folin–Ciocalteu method. Briefly, 5 g of olive oil was dis-
solved in 2.5 mL of hexane. Total polyphenols were extracted with
2533

ples used for fresh weight in an oven at 105 ∘ C until constant 5 mL of a methanol/water solution (70:30; v/v) by vortex shaking

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 www.soci.org A Chehade et al.

Table 1. Locations, regions, annual rainfalls, temperatures, latitude, longitude and elevation of the Lebanese olive varieties considered

Rainfall Av. temp. Av. temp. from

(mm year−1 ) of the year*, a (∘ C) Sept to Nov*, b (∘ C)
Latitude, Longitude, Elevation
Variety Region Location 2010 2011 2010 2011 2010 2011 ∘N ∘E (m a.s.l.)

Aayrouni North Amioun 600 775 20 (11–32) 18 (10–30) 23 (15–35) 19 (11–30) 34.299625 35.807951 350
Abou Chawkeh Bekaa Fekehe 300 350 18 (6–38) 16 (4–31) 19 (7–46) 16 (4–30) 34.243610 36.404933 1100
Baladi South Qana 580 632 22 (13–34) 19 (10–29) 23 (15–34) 20 (12–30) 33.208345 35.299257 350
Del Bekaa Bakkifa 727 886 18 (9–31) 15 (7–27) 22 (12–33) 17 (8–29) 33.493316 35.818569 1000
Soury South Ain Baal 580 632 22 (13–34) 19 (10–29) 23 (15–34) 20 (12–30) 33.233353 35.269178 150
a Average values of the average, minimum and maximum temperatures of the year.
b Average values of the average, minimum and maximum temperatures from September to November.
* Minimum and maximum temperatures are those reported between brackets.

for 5 min. Extracts were separated by centrifugation for 10 min. The
supernatant was collected in another tube and the second extrac-
tion was performed with a methanol/water solution. For each
extract, an aliquot of 200 μL was added to 1 mL distilled water in
spectrophotometric cuvettes, and then 200 μL of Folin–Ciocalteu
reagent was added. The solution was mixed and allowed to equi-
librate. After 2 min, 1 mL of a 10% (w/v) sodium carbonate solu-
tion was added. The mixture was shaken at 25 ∘ C for 15 min. Then,
the absorbance was measured at 740 nm using a UV–visible spec-
trophotometer (Helios Alpha, UNICAM UV–visible Spectrometry,
Cambridge, UK). Data are expressed as gallic acid equivalents using
a gallic acid calibration curve.
Fatty acid analysis
The analytical methods to determine the fatty acid composition
were carried out according to the EC Regulation No 2568/91 Annex
X – A and B and subsequent amendments and supplements. Since
all the olive oils analysed had a free fatty acids content below
1%, the methanol–potassium hydroxide method (method A) was
chosen for fatty acids methyl esters production. Determination of
the fatty acid content was performed by a gas chromatograph
TRACE GC Ultra (Thermo Scientfic, Walthan, MA, USA) equipped
with a capillary column SP-2340 (30 m × 0.25 mm i.d. × 0.20 μm
film thickness; Supelco, Bellefonte, PA, USA) and a flame ionisation
detector. Column flow rate was 0.8 mL min−1 using helium as
carrier. Injector and detector temperatures were held at 230 and
290 ∘ C, respectively. The following oven temperature program
was used: initial temperature 140 ∘ C held for 1 min; ramped at
5 ∘ C min−1 up to 230 ∘ C, held for 5 min. The injection volume was
1 μL and a split injection mode (1/100 ratio) was used. Fatty acids
were identified by comparing the retention time of experimental
peaks with those obtained by the injection of the external standard
mixture Me76 (Larodan, Solna, Sweden).
Sterol analysis
The analyses of sterols were performed according to the official
method of the EC Regulation No 2568/91 Annex V. Sterols were
determined using a gas chromatograph (Thermo Scientific-TRACE
GC Ultra) equipped with a capillary column (Supelco-SPB-5;
30 m × 0.25 mm i.d. × 0.25 μm film thickness), a split injector (1/75
ratio) and flame ionisation detector. The analyses were performed
using helium as carrier gas at a constant flow of 1 mL min−1 .
Injector and detector temperatures were held at 300 ∘ C. The oven
temperature program was isothermal at 265 ∘ C. The injection
2534
the relative retention times and chromatograms reported in the
above-mentioned official method.
Comparison of olive oil characteristics with IOC-TS
Oil characteristics were also evaluated by comparing them with
the International Olive Council’s (IOC) Trade Standard (TS) for extra
virgin olive oils (COI/T.15/NC No 3/Rev. 8 February 2015).9
Data analysis
Data were analysed according to a factorial completely ran-
domised design with the year and variety/locality (Table 1) as
main factors. The year of harvesting did not significantly affect
the characteristics of the fruit and the basic qualitative charac-
teristics of the oil (free fatty acids, peroxide value, spectropho-
tometer absorbances in ultra-violet, polyphenol content). There
were significant interactions (year × variety/locality) for most of
the fatty acids and sterols. On the basis of statistical analysis results,
fruit characteristics and basic oil characteristics are reported in the
tables as the means of the 2-year period 2010–2011 (six repli-
cates), whereas the fatty acid composition and sterol content
and composition are reported as the means of three replicates
for each variety, and separately for each year (ten combinations,
year × variety/locality).
For fruit and basic oil characteristics the means were compared
using the Tukey test.10 For fatty acid composition and sterol
content and composition, which presented significant interactions
between the two considered factors (year × variety/locality), the
means were compared using orthogonal contrast tests. For all the
parameters the standard errors are also reported.
RESULTS
The olive samples showed notable differences in most of the fruit
traits taken into account, which were evaluated according to the
classification proposed by Barranco-Navero et al.11 for the charac-
terisation of olive varieties (Table 2). According to this classifica-
tion, the olive weight was low for Baladi and medium for Aayrouni,
Abou chawkeh, Del and Soury (Table 2). The Abou chawkeh variety
had the highest fruit weight. Abou chawkeh also had the highest
pulp/pit ratio, while the other varieties had similar, medium–low,
values (Table 2). The much higher water content in the fruits
of Abou chawkeh may have contributed to their highest weight
and pulp/pit ratio. The oil content was medium for Baladi, Del

volume was 1 μL. The identifications were performed by using and Abou chawkeh, high for Soury and very high for Aayrouni

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Table 2. Characteristics of the fruit of the Lebanese olive varieties

Pigmentation Pulp/pit Oil content Oil content Water content

Variety Fresh weight (g) index (0–7) ratio (% FW) (% DW) (% FW)

Aayrouni 2.6 ± 0.2b 2.7 ± 0.5a 3.0 ± 0.3bc 36.4 ± 2.0a 56.2 ± 2.9a 35.2 ± 1.9c
Abou chawkeh 3.8 ± 0.4a 2.9 ± 0.3a 4.4 ± 0.3a 17.8 ± 0.3d 43.5 ± 1.5c 59.2 ± 1.2a
Baladi 1.7 ± 0.2c 3.0 ± 0.3a 2.6 ± 0.2c 28.0 ± 1.0bc 42.5 ± 1.8c 34.0 ± 2.2c
Del 2.5 ± 0.3b 2.5 ± 0.2a 2.6 ± 0.2c 26.3 ± 0.7c 44.1 ± 1.1c 40.3 ± 1.5b
Soury 2.7 ± 0.5b 2.8 ± 0.6a 3.5 ± 0.5b 31.8 ± 3.5b 51.0 ± 1.8b 37.0 ± 4.1bc

Data are presented as average values of the 2-year period 2010–2011 ± standard error (N = 6).
In each column, means followed by different letters are significantly different for P ≤ 0.05.
DW, dry weight; FW, fresh weight.

Table 3. Free fatty acids, peroxide value, spectrophotometer absorbances in the ultra-violet (K 232 , K 270 , ΔK) and polyphenol content of oils from the
Lebanese olive varieties

Peroxide value Total polyphenols

Variety Free acidity (%) (meq O2 kg−1 oil) K 232 K 270 ΔK (mg kg−1 oil)

Aayrouni 0.31 ± 0.01ab 9.0 ± 0.4a 1.75 ± 0.04b 0.15 ± 0.02ab 0.002 ± 0.000b 224 ± 27b
Abou chawkeh 0.24 ± 0.02b 6.0 ± 0.7b 1.98 ± 0.15a 0.18 ± 0.04a 0.006 ± 0.003a 283 ± 17b
Baladi 0.40 ± 0.05a 6.0 ± 0.4b 1.80 ± 0.06ab 0.17 ± 0.01ab 0.002 ± 0.000b 208 ± 41c
Del 0.27 ± 0.03b 7.3 ± 0.5b 1.96 ± 0.04ab 0.14 ± 0.04b 0.005 ± 0.000ab 430 ± 61a
Soury 0.33 ± 0.03ab 7.0 ± 0.6b 1.81 ± 0.02ab 0.18 ± 0.00a 0.003 ± 0.000ab 394 ± 13a
IOC-TS ≤0.80 ≤20.0 ≤2.50 ≤0.22 ≤0.01 –

Data are presented as average values of the 2-year period 2010–2011 ± standard error (N = 6).
In each column, means followed by different letters are significantly different for P ≤ 0.05.
The IOC Trade Standard (TS) values for extra virgin olive oils are reported in the last row.

(Table 2). The pigmentation index ranged from 2.5 and 3.0, show-
ing a similar pigmentation level for all the varieties. This was due
to the fact that the olive samples were collected when the olives
were in the spotted stage of ripening (Table 2). The year did
not significantly affect the fruit parameters taken into considera-
tion (data not shown) and there were no significant interactions
(year × variety/locality).
The percentage of the free fatty acids and peroxide values of the
oils were within the limits of the IOC Trade Standard for all the
varieties, ranging from 0.23 to 0.40% and from 6 to 9 meq O2 kg−1
of oil, respectively (Table 3). The spectrophotometric absorbances
in the ultra-violet of the oils of all the accessions were within the
IOC Trade Standard (Table 3). Again, the year did not significantly
affect these oil parameters (data not shown) and there were no
significant interaction (year × variety/locality). Del and Soury had
the highest amounts of total polyphenols (Table 3).
The fatty acid composition differed among the varieties and
the two years, showing significant year × variety/locality interac-
tions (Table 4). Abou chawkeh and Del had an oleic acid content
between 68 and 76%, Aayrouni and Soury had values of 67–69%,
whereas Baladi had about 62–66% (Table 4). In 2011 the oils of
all the varieties/localities had higher contents of oleic acid than
in 2010. The higher values of oleic acid in 2011 were associated
with corresponding lower values of linoleic acid and, in some cases,
palmitic acid. Basically, all the varieties had a fatty acid composition
which met the requirements of the IOC Trade Standard for extra
virgin olive oils; in very few cases and only in 2010, the values of
stearic and arachidic acids fluctuated around the maximum values
allowed (Table 4). Indeed, stearic acid of Aayrouni, and arachidic
IOC Trade Standard, and linolenic acid of Abou chawkeh was very
close to the limit.
The average values of the total sterol content were higher than
the prescribed lower limit in the oils of all the varieties and ranged
from 1158 to 2183 mg kg−1 (Table 5). The sterol content and
composition differed among the varieties and the 2 years with
significant interaction effects (year × variety/locality) (Table 5).
Also the erythrodiol + uvaol content differed among the vari-
eties/localities (Table 5). In the oils of all varieties/localities the
amounts of cholesterol, brassicasterol, campesterol, stigmasterol,
Δ-7-stigmastenol and erythrodiol + uvaol were lower than the
maximum allowed by the IOC Trade Standard, with the exception
in 2011 of Soury, which had slightly higher values, and Baladi,
which had much higher contents of Δ-7-stigmastenol. Moreover,
in all the oils, apparent 𝛽-sitosterol (i.e. Δ-5-23-stigmastadienol +
clerosterol + 𝛽-sitosterol + sitostanol + Δ-5-avenasterol + Δ-5-24-
stigmastadienol) was higher than the minimum allowed by the
IOC Trade Standard.
DISCUSSION
The fruit fresh weights of Soury, Del and Abou chawkeh were
substantially similar to values reported in the literature for the
same varieties.2 All the genotypes were deemed suitable for the
production of oil, since, according to the classification proposed by
Barranco-Navero et al.11 for the characterisation of olive varieties,
the oil content was between medium and high, with Aayrouni
having extremely high values. The highest fruit pulp/pit ratio
measured in the variety Abou chawkeh confirmed that this variety
2535

acid of Aayrouni and Soury were slightly above the limits of the is the best for table olive production.

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 www.soci.org A Chehade et al.

Table 4. Fatty acid composition (%) of oils of the Lebanese olive varieties in the two considered years (interaction year × variety/locality – Table 1)

Palmitic Palmitoleic Stearic

Variety 2010 2011 2010 2011 2010 2011

Aayrouni 12.98 ± 0.6b 14.95 ± 1.5ab 0.49 ± 0.0de 0.75 ± 0.1bc 5.14 ± 0.2a 3.85 ± 0.2c
Abou chawkeh 13.08 ± 0.2b 11.60 ± 0.9c 1.01 ± 0.0ab 0.80 ± 0.0bc 2.13 ± 0.2d 2.17 ± 0.1d
Baladi 13.46 ± 0.5b 15.95 ± 0.1a 0.41 ± 0.0de 1.05 ± 0.0a 4.71 ± 0.2b 3.80 ± 0.0c
Del 12.98 ± 0.2b 10.60 ± 0.1d 0.52 ± 0.0de 0.50 ± 0.0de 2.69 ± 0.2d 2.86 ± 0.0d
Soury 12.41 ± 0.3c 13.55 ± 0.8b 0.32 ± 0.3e 0.60 ± 0.0cd 4.50 ± 0.2b 4.15 ± 0.1bc
IOC-TS ≥7.50 ≤20.00 ≥0.30 ≤3.50 ≥0.50 ≤5.00

Oleic Linoleic Linolenic Arachidic

2010 2011 2010 2011 2010 2011 2010 2011

Aayrouni 66.60 ± 1.1b 68.90 ± 1.0b 12.37 ± 0.5c 9.90 ± 0.1e 0.70 ± 0.08c 0.70 ± 0.00c 0.64 ± 0.05ab 0.45 ± 0.05c
Abou chawkeh 67.68 ± 1.1b 76.46 ± 1.3a 13.71 ± 0.7b 7.06 ± 0.4f 0.97 ± 0.01a 0.90 ± 0.00ab 0.33 ± 0.03e 0.30 ± 0.00e
Baladi 62.44 ± 0.8c 65.95 ± 0.4b 16.39 ± 0.3a 11.30 ± 0.2d 0.89 ± 0.04ab 0.80 ± 0.00bc 0.55 ± 0.09bc 0.50 ± 0.00cd
Del 67.85 ± 0.3b 74.86 ± 0.5a 13.69 ± 0.3b 9.20 ± 0.5e 0.92 ± 0.04a 0.86 ± 0.03ab 0.39 ± 0.05de 0.40 ± 0.00de
Soury 67.28 ± 0.9b 67.55 ± 0.3b 13.18 ± 0.3b 12.25 ± 0.9c 0.71 ± 0.03c 0.75 ± 0.05c 0.66 ± 0.01a 0.50 ± 0.00cd
IOC-TS ≥55.00 ≤83.00 ≥2.50 ≤21.00 ≤1.00 ≤0.60
Data are presented as average values ± standard error (N = 3).
For each fatty acid, means followed by different letters are significantly different (P ≤ 0.05) by orthogonal contrasts. The IOC Trade Standard (TS) values
for extra virgin olive oils are reported in the last row.

Table 5. Sterol composition and content and erytrodiol + uvaol content in the oils of the considered Lebanese olive varieties in the two considered
years (interaction year × variety/locality – Table 1)

Cholesterol (%) Brassicasterol (%) Campesterol (%) Stigmasterol (%)

Variety 2010 2011 2010 2011 2010 2011 2010 2011

Aayrouni 0.02 ± 0.001c 0.12 ± 0.009a 0.08 ± 0.002ab 0.03 ± 0.009de 1.99 ± 0.017c 2.22 ± 0.000bc 0.55 ± 0.011c 0.62 ± 0.044b
Abou chawkeh 0.09 ± 0.005b 0.15 ± 0.054a 0.07 ± 0.002b 0.03 ± 0.011de 2.12 ± 0.017c 1.85 ± 0.104d 0.65 ± 0.017b 0.29 ± 0.040e
Baladi 0.07 ± 0.005b 0.15 ± 0.024a 0.03 ± 0.011de 0.02 ± 0.004e 2.14 ± 0.011c 2.14 ± 0.014c 0.54 ± 0.011c 0.46 ± 0.095d
Del 0.09 ± 0.002ab 0.08 ± 0.005b 0.06 ± 0.005bc 0.04 ± 0.017cd 2.50 ± 0.041b 2.64 ± 0.017b 0.44 ± 0.023d 0.36 ± 0.040ef
Soury 0.08 ± 0.005b 0.07 ± 0.009b 0.09 ± 0.002a 0.02 ± 0.009d 1.83 ± 0.002a 2.02 ± 0.024d 0.65 ± 0.060a 0.60 ± 0.109b
IOC-TS ≤0.5 ≤0.1 ≤4.0 < Campesterol

Erythrodiol + uvaol
Apparent 𝛽-sitosterol (%) Δ7-Stigmastenol (%) Total sterols (mg kg−1 oil) (% total sterols)
2010 2011 2010 2011 2010 2011 2011

Aayrouni 93.99 ± 0.190d 95.53 ± 0.220b 0.43 ± 0.017cd 0.39 ± 0.090e 1999 ± 57b 1169 ± 47e 1.91 ± 0.27b
Abou chawkeh 95.60 ± 0.098b 96.74 ± 0.156a 0.46 ± 0.005c 0.17 ± 0.023f 1444 ± 31d 1898 ± 134c 1.03 ± 0.16c
Baladi 94.80 ± 0.075c 94.40 ± 0.106c 0.45 ± 0.011c 1.34 ± 0.009a 1731 ± 19c 1643 ± 32c 1.33 ± 0.38c
Del 94.30 ± 0.080c 95.31 ± 0.200b 0.47 ± 0.017c 0.42 ± 0.002cd 2183 ± 63a 1973 ± 62b 2.50 ± 0.13a
Soury 94.80 ± 0.130c 95.67 ± 0.007b 0.49 ± 0.014c 0.57 ± 0.014b 1613 ± 29d 1158 ± 15e 1.01 ± 0.68c
IOC-TS ≥93.0 ≤0.5 ≥1000 ≤4.5
Data are presented as average values ± standard error (N = 3).
For each compound, means followed by different letters are significantly different (P ≤ 0.05) by orthogonal contrasts.
The IOC Trade Standard (TS) values for extra virgin olive oils are reported in the last row.

As far as oil characteristics are concerned, the polyphenol con-
tent varied among the different oils (Table 3). The influence of
variety on the content of polyphenols in the oil has been clearly
established.12 – 14 Therefore, this factor may have greatly con-
tributed to the differences. Also the fatty acid composition var-
ied among the different oils (Table 4). This was most likely due
to the cultivar, which is known to be a very important factor in
determining the fatty acid composition.13 – 19 Moreover, the low-
2536
in oils of all the varieties in 2010 might also be due to the rela-
tively high temperatures in the south of Lebanon with respect to
the other locations and in 2010 with respect to 2011 (Table 1).
High temperatures are known to reduce oleic acid and increase
linoleic and/or palmitic acids.6,17,20,21 It is known that the response
to temperature is not the same in the different varieties,17 and this
can explain the highest changes showed by Abou chawkeh and
Del with respect to the other varieties; in the case of Del, it is also

est oleic acid content found in the oil of Baladi in both years and important to note that the area in which it is cultivated showed

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Characteristics of the main Lebanese olive germplasm
the greatest differences in temperature between 2010 and 2011
(Table 1).
The sterol composition and content differed among the oils,
with interaction effects between the year and variety/locality
(Table 5). Also the erytrodiol and uvaol contents were differ-
ent in the various oils. It is known that sterols are greatly culti-
var dependent.19,22 – 26 Moreover, their contents are also affected
by the agro-environmental conditions.27 – 30 Therefore, the differ-
ences among the various oils can be due to the combined effects
of cultivar and agro-environmental conditions. The latter could
also include the changes in environmental conditions due to dif-
ferent seasonal patterns in diverse years. Soury and, especially,
Baladi, in 2011 had Δ-7-stigmastenol values higher than 0.5%,
which is the maximum value allowed by the IOC Trade Standard.
However, considering the Annex 1 of the IOC Trade Standard,9
the value of Soury was ≤0.80 and some of the other parameters
indicated in the Annex were respected (campesterol ≤ 3.3; appar-
ent 𝛽-sitosterol/(campesterol + Δ-7-stigmastenol) ≥ 25; stigmas-
terol ≤ 1.4%). This makes it likely that the oil could be considered
acceptable for the trade.9 The value of Δ-7-stigmastenol is used
as an indicator of oil purity, because higher amounts than those
established by the IOC as Trade Standard can indicate adulteration
(mixtures with other vegetable oils) or contamination of the oils,31
but some varieties can naturally have relatively high amounts.
Indeed, values higher than 0.5% of Δ-7-stigmastenol have been
reported for the cultivars Nebbio,32 Empeltre,33 Cornicabra,34,35
Nociara and Termite di Bitetto,36 Colombaia,37 Doebli, Khodeiri and
others,25 and Nabali.38 The higher amount of Δ-7-stigmastenol
found in the accessions Soury and Baladi might be due to both
genetic predisposition and the climatic conditions in 2011. Sea-
sonal effects on this compound have also been reported in other
studies.25,33
CONCLUSIONS
The findings of this study constitute an initial baseline on the
fruit characteristics and oil composition and quality of the main
Lebanese olive germplasm grown in the areas where they have
the largest distribution (in situ evaluation). Therefore, the results
provide a picture of the main characteristics of olives and oils cur-
rently produced in Lebanon. All of the genotypes considered had
medium–high oil content in the fruit, indicating their suitability
for oil production; Aayrouni had particularly high values. The vari-
ety Abou chawkeh also had a high pulp/pit ratio, which is a very
desirable trait in table olives. Basically, the values of all the param-
eters used to evaluate oil quality (free fatty acids, peroxide values,
absorbances in ultraviolet, fatty acid composition, sterol content
and composition and erythrodiol + uvaol content) were within the
limits established by the IOC Trade Standard for extra virgin olive
oils, except for Δ-7-stigmastenol in 2011 in Soury and, especially,
in Baladi, which were higher than 0.5%. Therefore, attention has to
be paid to oils produced with the Baladi accession and, to a lesser
extent, with Soury, because in some years they may have exces-
sively high levels of Δ-7-stigmastenol, which, in case of interna-
tional trading, could be reduced by blending these oils with other
oils having low Δ-7-stigmastenol. The finding that the value of this
factor varies between years contributes to the fact that the level of
Δ-7-stigmastenol is influenced by climatic conditions.
In agreement with the Ministry of Agriculture of Lebanon (MoA),
all the varieties have been propagated in order to establish a
national collection of olive germplasm in a specific field gene bank
at the Lebanese Agricultural Research Institute (LARI). In the future,
J Sci Food Agric 2016; 96: 2532–2538 © 2015 Society of Chemical Industry
www.soci.org
this will give the possibility of completing their characterisation, by
evaluating them also in homogenous agro-environmental condi-
tions, and of using them as mother trees for the propagation of
certified plants for the establishment of new orchards in Lebanon.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The present study is related to the activities of the Italian coop-
eration project ‘Social and economic support for the families of
producers in the olive-growing marginal regions of Lebanon
(L’Olio del Libano)’, funded by the Italian government and
implemented by the Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of
Bari (CIHEAM-MAI.B), with the Ministry of Agriculture of Lebanon
(MoA) and the Lebanese Agricultural Research Institute (LARI).
Some of the data were re-elaborated from an extensive study
aimed at characterising the morphological, phenological, agro-
nomical and oil traits of the main Lebanese olive germplasm.1
Such a study is the product of a cooperation project and so it is not
available in international data banks. Special thanks are given to I.
Cavoski, A. Aly, L. Piscitelli, G. Bruno, F. Caponio and G. Gambacorta
for the collaboration in olive oil analyses.
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