EC1020

Applied Electricity
Network Theorems and Techniques
• Superposition theorem
• Source Transformation
• Thevenin’s Theorem
• Norton’s Theorem
• Maximum power transfer theorem
• Star-Delta transform
Superposition theorem
“the voltage across (or current through) an element in a linear circuit
is the algebraic sum of the voltages across (or currents through) that
element due to EACH independent source acting alone (all other
independent sources replaced by their internal impedance)”

• Step 1: Take one independent source and replace all other independent
sources with their internal impedance.
• Other independent current sources are replaced by open circuit
• Other independent voltage sources are replaced by closed circuit
• Note: dependent sources are not replaced
• Step 2: Calculate the required response (current or voltage)
• Step 3: Repeat steps 1 and 2 for all independent sources
• Step 4: Algebraic sum of all the responses is the total response.
• Note 1: Dependent sources are not removed.
• Note 2: To calculate power superposition theorem cannot be used since
power is a non-linear response.
• Note 3: When replacing a non-ideal source its internal resistance need
to be considered.

Example: Determine the voltage VX using superposition theorem.

Vx
10 4
40 4
10 2
 A R3 V1

10 R1 4 R2 Using only the voltage source

40 4
10
.op
2𝑉1 2𝑉1 − 10 𝑉1
Applying KCL to node A: + + =0
40 10 4
𝑉1 = 2
R3 V2
Using only the current source
10 4 40x10
R1 R2 Resultant of 10 parallel to 40 is =8
40 + 10
40 4 From current division 𝑉2 = −4
2
.op

𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚 𝑉𝑥 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 = 2 − 4 = −2

Exercise:
Determine the voltage V1 and current I1 using superposition theorem.
5V
I1

12 Ω
+
10 V 0.5 I1
V1 12 Ω

4A

Note: The dependent source should not be removed

Exercise:
(i) Determine the voltage VL using
superposition theorem.
(ii) Determine the power dissipation of the
5 ohm resistor.

Ans (ii) 8.88W

 Practical Voltage and Current Sources

• Ideal voltage source has zero internal resistance and ideal current
source has infinity resistance
• Practical voltage and current sources have internal resistance.

Exercise: Draw the Current - Voltage characteristics of an ideal and

practical current sources

Ideal source Practical source

a IL a IL
+ Rs +
Is VL RL Is VL RL

- -

b b
 For practical source
IL IL Isc
For ideal source
IS IS
Voc

VL VL
Exercise: Draw the Current - Voltage characteristics of an ideal and
practical voltage sources

Ideal source Practical source

a IL
a IL
+ Rs +
Vs VL RL VL RL
Vs
- -
b b
 Source Transformation
• A voltage source can be transformed to an equivalent current source.
• Equivalent sources mean, when these sources are connected to an
independent load the voltage across the load and the current through
the load should be the same.
• Lets assume that the following two sources are connected to a load 𝑅𝐿
a IL’ a IL
Rs ’ + Rs +
Is VL’ RL Vs VL RL
- -
b b
′
𝑅𝑠′𝐼𝑠 𝑉𝑆
𝑉𝐿 = 𝑅𝐿 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝑠′ + 𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑆 + 𝑅𝐿
It is electrically equivalent if 𝑅𝑠′ = 𝑅𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑠 = 𝐼𝑠 𝑅𝑠 ′
• This source transformation is very useful in analyzing circuit
• It may be easy to transform all the sources either as current or voltage

Example: If the following two sources are equivalent then determine V2 and R2.
a a
10 R2

8 V2

b b

Example: Determine I1 utilizing the source transformation concept.

R5 I1 R3
A
10 5

V=-40

C
R2
20
5
.op
Example: Determine 𝑉𝑎 utilizing the source transformation concept.

R3 R4 R5 R6 R7
Va
10 R1 5 10 R2 5 5
5 10 B1
I1
V1
-2Va
-2
5
 Thevenin’s Theorem
“Any circuit of sources and resistances with an identified terminal pair
can be replaced by an equivalent circuit which consists of a voltage
source 𝑉𝑡ℎ in series with a resistance 𝑅𝑡ℎ.”
• It is to replace a part of a circuit with two terminals with a
voltage source and a series resistance.
• Vth is the open circuit voltage looking into the two terminals

a
Rth
Vth

b
 Calculating 𝑹𝒕𝒉
• Method I: 𝑅𝑡ℎ is the ratio between the open circuit voltage (𝑉𝑜𝑐 ) and
the short circuit current (𝐼𝑠𝑐 ).
Voc
Rth 
I sc
• Method II (only when there is no dependent sources): Rth can be found
as the equivalent resistance seen into the two terminals when all the
sources are removed (if non ideal sources then replaced by their
internal resistance ).

• Removing sources means current sources are open-circuited and

voltage sources are short-circuited.
 Example: Find 𝑉𝑡ℎ and 𝑅𝑡ℎ
5V

a a
12Ω Rth
10V Vth
12 Ω

b
b
𝑉𝑡ℎ = 2.5𝑉
𝐼𝑠𝑐 = 5/12𝐴

Thus 𝑅𝑡ℎ = 𝑉𝑡ℎ/𝐼𝑠𝑐 = 6Ω.

Since there is no dependent sources Rth can also be found using method II.
Example: Determine the Thevenin equivalent circuit looking into the
terminals a and b V
I1 y
a

10 Ω
100 V
3.5 I1
20 Ω

b
Note: It has a dependent source. So 𝑅𝑡ℎ cannot be found using Method II

𝑉𝑜𝑐 − 100 𝑉𝑜𝑐 3.5 100 − 𝑉𝑜𝑐

+ − =0
10 20 10
𝐼𝑠𝑐 = 45 𝐴
𝑉𝑇𝐻 = 𝑉𝑜𝑐 = 90 𝑉
90
𝐼𝑠𝑐 = 𝐼1 + 3.5𝐼1 𝑅𝑇𝐻 = = 2Ω
45
100
𝐼1 = = 10
10
Exercise: Use Thevenin’s theorem to find the voltage across 5Ω resistor. If this 5Ω
is replaced by 25Ω then what is the voltage across terminals A and B

Partial Answer
 Norton’s Theorem
“Any circuit of sources and resistances with an identified terminal pair
can be replaced by an equivalent circuit which consists of a current
source In in parallel with a resistance 𝑅n.”

• It is to replace a part of a circuit with two terminals with a current source

and a parallel resistance.
• In is the short circuit current through the two terminals
• This theorem is the dual to Thevanin’s theorem.

a
Rn
In

b
 Calculating Rn
• Method I: Rn is the ratio between the open circuit voltage (Voc) and the
short circuit current (Isc).
Voc
Rn 
I sc

• Method II (only when there is no dependent sources): Rn can be found

as the equivalent resistance seen into the two terminals when all the
sources are removed (if non ideal sources then replaced by their
internal resistance ).
• Removing sources means current sources are open-circuited and
voltage sources are short-circuited.
• This is exactly same as finding 𝑅𝑡ℎ for Thevanin’s circuit.
 Example:
5V

a a
12 Ω Rn
10V
In
12 Ω

b
b

Find 𝐼𝑛 and 𝑅𝑛

𝐼𝑛 = 5/12𝐴
𝑉𝑜𝑐 = 2.5𝑉

Thus 𝑅𝑛 = 𝑉𝑜𝑐 /𝐼𝑠𝑐 = 6Ω.

Since there is no dependent sources Rn can also be found using method II.
Exercise: Determine the Norton’s equivalent circuit looking into the
terminals a and b
a
6 10
2 I1
6
20
I1
b
Exercise: Determine the Norton’s equivalent circuit looking into the
terminals a and b
I1 Vy
a

10 Ω
100 V
3.5 I1
20 Ω

b
 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

• In a linear network, maximum power will be transferred across a load when

the value of load resistance is equal to the Thevenin’s equivalent resistance
across the two terminals where the load is connected
• the maximum power that can be supplied from a source with internal
resistance RS is when the load resistance R is equal to the internal resistance
of the source RS.
a i
Rs +
Vs v RL
-
b

This source delivers maximum power when RS=RL

 Proof: a i
Rs +
𝑃 = 𝑖2𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝑆 2 v RL
Vs
P= 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝐿 +𝑅𝑆
-
b
Since for a given source VS and RS are fixed then the maximum power is a
function of RL.
Thus:
𝑑𝑃
=0
𝑑𝑅𝐿
2
𝑉𝑆
𝑑 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑠
=0
𝑑𝑅𝐿
 2
𝑉𝑆
𝑑 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑠
=0
𝑑𝑅𝐿

𝑉𝑆 2 𝑉𝑆 2
−2𝑅𝐿 3
+ 2
=0 ⟹ 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝑠
𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑠 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑆

• So we know that 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝑆 is when the derivative is zero.

But how do we proof that it is at the maximum and not at the minimum.
1. Take the second derivative and show that it is negative.
2. Intuitive interpretation:
• When 𝑅𝐿 = 0 (short circuit) all the power is wasted on its internal
resistance and zero power is delivered to load.
• When 𝑅𝐿 = ∞ (open circuit) there is no power delivered to the
load.
• That means the point where derivate is zero is at the maximum
• The sign of the Second derivate at 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝑆 :

𝑑2𝑃 𝑉𝑆 2 𝑉𝑆 2 𝑉𝑆 2
2 = 6𝑅𝐿 𝑅 + 𝑅 4
−2
𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑠 3
−2
𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑠 3
𝑑𝑅𝐿 𝐿 𝑠

𝑑2𝑃 𝑉𝑆 2
2 |𝑅𝐿=𝑅𝑠 = − 3 <0
𝑑𝑅𝐿 8𝑅𝐿
Exercise 1: A voltage source of 10V with an internal resistance of 20Ω is
connected with a resistive load of R Ω.
1. If R=100 Ω what is the power delivered to the load.
2. At what value of R the voltage source would deliver maximum power and
what is that power. (ans. 0.7W, 20 Ω, 1.25W)

Exercise 2: A current source of 20A with an internal resistance of 20Ω is connected

with a resistive load of R Ω.

1. If 𝑅 = 100 Ω what is the power delivered to the load.

2. At what value of 𝑅 the voltage source would deliver maximum power and
what is that power. (ans. 3.3kW, 20 Ω, …..)
Exercise 3: What value of 𝑅𝐿 would dissipate
maximum power? a b
10
5
10 RL
10 1
 Review on Star – Delta Transformation
c a
c Rac
a
Rc Ra

Star Connection Rbc Rab

Rb Delta Connection
b
b
Rab ( Rac  Rbc )
 Ra  Rb
• Sometime when analyzing a circuit it may Rab  Rac  Rbc
be convenient to convert a star connected Rbc ( Rac  Rab )
 Rb  Rc
resistors to delta connected resistors or vise Rab  Rac  Rbc
versa. Rac ( Rab  Rbc )
 Ra  Rc
Rab  Rac  Rbc
 Rab Rac Ra Rb  Rb Rc  Ra Rc
Ra  Ra 
Ra1 Ra 2 Rab 
Rab  Rac  Rbc  Rai Rc
Rab Rbc Ra Rb  Rb Rc  Ra Rc
Rb  Rbc 
Rab  Rac  Rbc Ra

Rc 
Rbc Rac Ra Rb  Rb Rc  Ra Rc
Rca 
Rab  Rac  Rbc Rb

Eg. Determine the Thevanin circuit looking into the terminals A and B
R5

10 R1 R2
V1 8 2

A B
10 R4
R3
18 Ans. 𝑉𝑡ℎ = 1.5, 𝑅𝑡ℎ ≈ 7
12
 Summary
• Active and passive circuit elements
• Independent and dependent sources (current dependent voltage source,
etc….), V-I characteristics of ideal and practical sources.
• Ohm’s law
• Resistors (power rating, colour code, E12 range), Capacitors and inductors
• Circuit laws (Kirchoff’s current and voltage Laws)
• Circuit terminology (loop, mesh, ….)
• Circuit Theorem
• Super position theorem, Source transformation, Thevenin’s theorem,
Norton’s theorem, Maximum power transfer theorem
• Circuit analysis methods: Nodal analysis and mesh analysis (super node,
super mesh)
• Star-Delta transform
• Cramer’s rule (to solve simultaneous equations)
• This material is prepared and compiled based on several sources including the
following.
• “Fundamentals of Electric Circuits”, Alexander and Sadiku, McGraw-Hill.
• “Electrical Installation Work” by Brian Scaddan
• “Concepts in Electrical Circuit”, by Wasif Naeem
• “Electrical Engineering Fundamentals” by Wincent Del Toro, 2nd edition.
• Lecture notes of other universities such as UNSW, UWA, University of
Moratuwa, University of Peradeniya
• Google images
• http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws, www.allaboutcircuits.com,
Wikipedia.
• “Electromagnetic field theory” by Yaduvir Singh